Document: 517 U.S. 952116 S.Ct. 1941135 L.Ed.2d 248 George W. BUSH, Governor of Texas, et al., Appellants,v.AL VERA al. William LAWSON, Appellants, v. AL UNITED STATES, Appellant, Nos. 94-805, 94-806 and 94-988. Supreme Court the United States Argued Dec. 5, 1995. Decided June 13, 1996.* FDS* Together with No. 94-806, Lawson Vera 94-988, also on appeal from same court. Syllabus ** Because 1990 census revealed a population increase entitling Texas to three additional congressional seats, in an attempt comply Voting Rights Act 1965 (VRA), Legislature promulgated redistricting plan that, among other things, created District 30 as new majority-African-American district Dallas County 29 majority-Hispanic Harris County, reconfigured 18, which is adjacent 29, district. After Department Justice precleared under VRA§5, plaintiffs, six voters, filed this challenge alleging that 24 State's districts constitute racial gerrymanders violation Fourteenth Amendment. The three-judge held Districts unconstitutional. private intervenors, (as intervenor) appeal. Held: judgment affirmed. 861 F.Supp. 1304 (S.D.Tex.1994), O'CONNOR, joined by THE CHIEF JUSTICE KENNEDY, concluded: 1 1. Plaintiff Chen, who resides 25 has not alleged any specific facts showing he personally been subjected classification, lacks standing Hays, 515 ----, 115 2431, 2436, 132 635. But plaintiffs Blum Powers, reside Thomas Vera, plaintiff Orcutt, 30, have 30. See, e.g., id., at S.Ct., 2436. P. 1953. 2 2. are subject strict scrutiny Court's precedents. Pp. ___-___. 3 (a) Strict applies where race was ''the predominant factor'' motivating drawing lines, see, Miller Johnson, 2475, 2488, 762 (1995) (emphasis added), traditional, race-neutral districting principles were subordinated race, see 2488-2489. This mixed motive case, careful review therefore necessary determine whether issue such scrutiny. Findings substantially neglected traditional criteria compactness, it committed outset creating majority-minority districts, manipulated lines exploit unprecedentedly detailed data, taken together, weigh favor application However, because factors than particularly incumbency protection, clearly influenced legislature, each challenged must be scrutinized conclusion predominated can sustained. 4 (b) Appellants do deny shows substantial disregard for compactness regularity, or redistricters pursued unwaveringly objective Their argument district's bizarre shape explained efforts unite communities interest, manifested consistently urban character its shared media sources major transportation Dallas, rejected. record contains no basis displacing over latter factors, light court's findings supporting data largely unavailable legislature before differentiate surrounding areas degree correlation exhibit. Appellants' more claim protection rivaled determining unavailing. evidence amply supports conclusions racially motivated gerrymandering had qualitatively greater influence politically gerrymandering, scrutiny, Davis Bandemer, 478 109, 132, 106 2797, 2810, 92 85 (White, J., plurality opinion); political accomplished large part use proxy characteristics, cf. Powers Ohio, 499 400, 410, 111 1364, 1370, 113 411. 5 (c) Interlocking 18 Those districts' shapes bizarre, their utter city limits, local election precincts, voter tabulation caused severe disruption forms activity administrative headaches officials. Although appellants adduced incumbenc y played role unexplainable grounds and, such, product presumptively unconstitutional inescapably corroborated evidence. 6 3. narrowly tailored serve compelling state interest. 7 Creation justified interest complying ''results'' test VRA § 2(b). It may assumed without deciding compliance Shaw Hunt, --- 116 1894, ---- (1996) (Shaw II). attempting retain discretion apply entitled limited leeway. drawn order satisfy subordinate reasonably necessary. fail test, since all bizarrely shaped far compact, those characteristics predominantly attributable and/or achieved proxy. misinterpret Miller, U.S., when they argue shaping noncompactness go only irrelevant narrow tailoring inquiry. Also unavailing States' contention insofar bizarreness achieve while simultaneously achieving legitimate goals, requirement satisfied. question racial, political, manipulation, Government's addresses case otherwise compact misshapen nonracial, manipulation. 8 ameliorating effects polarized voting Texas' long history discrimination against minorities electoral processes. Among conditions satisfied render remedying ''identified.'' II, ----. Here, current problem cite need remediation vote dilution consequence bloc voting, concern underlies defense. Once correct standard applied, fact these forecloses line 9 (only) seeks prevent voting-procedure changes leading retrogression position respect effective exercise franchise. supra, 2483-2484. appellants' ''nonretrogression'' principle previously contained African-American voters always succeeded selecting representatives justify maintenance, but augmentation, percentage, grown 40.8% previous 50.9% 18. Nonretrogression license State whatever deems insure continued success; merely mandates minority's opportunity elect choice diminished, directly indir ectly, actions. avoidance liability. See Reno, 509 630, 655, 2816, 2831, 125 511. 1963. 10 4. Various dissents' arguments, none address specifics rebutted decisions, 11 THOMAS, SCALIA, concluded never close question, decisions effectively resolved intentional creation itself, sufficient invoke Adarand Constructors, Inc. Pena, 2097, 2113, 158 (strict government classifications based race); 2489, (Georgia's concession intentionally show predominant, factor redistricting). DeWitt Wilson, 2637, 876, distinguished. Application required here readily admitted would existed affirmative demographics. Assuming asserted attempts 12 announced delivered opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., joined. separate concurring opinion. opinion judgment, STEVENS, dissenting GINSBURG BREYER, JJ., SOUTER, 13 Javier Aguilar, Austin, TX, Appellants. 14 Paul Bender, Washington, DC, Federal Appellant. 15 Penda D. Hair, Private 16 Daniel E. Troy, Appellees. 17 O'CONNOR KENNEDY join. latest series appeals involving challenges wake census. II); 635 (1995); 511 (1993) I). That increase, minority populations, seats. In response, view 79 Stat. 437, amended, 42 U.S.C. 1973 seq., things: County; around Houston make 1991, used 1992 elections. 19 plan, Southern Ver Richards, (1994). now Finding I we affirm. 20 * As preliminary matter, contest plaintiffs' districts. Chen 25, classification. Under our decision standing. 2435-2436. residents Orcutt resident We stated Hays ''[w]here gerrymandered district, . denied equal treatment legislature's reliance criteria, action.'' 2436; accord, 2485. rule, II 21 Our precedents variety formulations describe threshold ''redistricting legislation so extremely irregular face rationally viewed effort segregate races purposes regard principles,'' I, 642, 2824, ''race own sake, principles, dominant controlling rationale lines,'' 2486, considerations,'' 2488. 2497 (O'CONNOR, concurring) relied customary practices''). 22 does performed consciousness race. 646, 2826. Nor cases 856 1409 (E.D.Cal.1994) did district), summarily aff'd, 876 649, 2828 (reserving question). Electoral ''facially neutral,'' searching inquiry found applicable ''classifications explicitly race.'' 2124, 158; compare post, __, __ (THOMAS, judgment) (assimilating ). For apply, prove other, ''subordinated'' By mean [redistricting] decision.'' Ibid. added). thus differ apparently hold suffices considerations motivation __-__. 23 present case. concede one goals produce (including ''functional incumbents,'' i.e., sitting members declared intention run open seats), lines. reflect ''purely race-based'' revisions. Cf. 2489 A is, therefore, primary convinces us determination ''predominant begin general regarding plan's legislators' expressed motivations, methods process. began analysis rejecting factual ''districts cannot unconstitutionally natural geographical boundaries, contiguity, conformity subdivisions.'' F.Supp., 1333. court instead ''generally, disregarded criteria,'' pre-1991 comparable irregularity Id., 1334. noted ''compactness measured 'eyeball' approach much less important,'' 1313, n. 9, 1991 App. 144, predecessor, 1980 138, especially located, 9. These comport instructive study attempted relative nationwide objective, numerical terms. gave roughly average score regularity shapes, ranked worst Nation. Pildes & Niemi, Expressive Harms, ''Bizarre Districts,'' Rights: Evaluating Election-District Appearances Mich. L.Rev. 483, 571-573, table (1993). 28 least regular nationwide. 565, gives reason disagree ''have integrity terms neutral 1339. 26 direct motivations. submission preclearance reports consensus within 27 '' 'should configured way allow ethnic, language Congressional representatives. Accordingly, include black area [district 30] Hispanic 29] South region. addition proposed increases strength (Harris County) increasing assure community continue candidate choice.' 1315 (quoting Narrative Considerations Affected Districts, reprinted 104-105). conceded litigation ''were purpose enhancing Congress.'' 1337. And testimony individual officials confirmed create made process seriously questioned. means provides further importance tool computer program called ''REDAPPL.'' REDAPPL permitted manipulate maps, socioeconomic superimposed. At change configuration being drafted, displayed updated composition statistics drawn. block-by-block level, whereas party registration past statistics, available level (which approximate precincts). availability unprecedented; census, broken down beyond tract level. 123. providing uniquely enabled districters intricate refinements demographic information. availed themselves fully opportunity: ''In numerous instances, between boundaries nearly perfect. borders block block, side street traverse streets, bodies water, commercially developed seemingly arbitrary fashion until realizes corridors connect populations.'' 1336. 31 findings--that data--together independently require Constitution mandate shape, 647, 2826-2827, neglect necessary, sufficient. Nor, emphasized, objectionable itself. not, STEVENS suggests, real key'' decision; several essential ingredients. ''condemn accurate information.'' Post, 28. sophisticated technology information majority-majority But, explained, considerations, coupled significantly led here. consider what predominated. 32 Several work Traditional entirely neglected: maintain county lines; takes principal area; widely dispersed North Carolina (These are, however, unremarkable context large, densely populated counties.) More significantly, unprecedented extent: 33 ''[A]s enacted many incumbent sabotaged routinely divided counties, cities, neighborhoods, regions. sake maintaining winning seats House Representatives, Congressmen would-be shed hostile groups potential opponents fencing them out obligingly carved apparent supporters incumbents, suggested then added appendages residences final result seems people select representatives, selected people.'' 1334 (citations footnotes omitted). 34 1317-1318 (describing statewide). finding receives inferential support incumbents won 1318. point cases, correlates strongly manifestations (for example, broadcast print media, public transport infrastructure, institutions schools churches) vital efforts, raising possibility correlations demographics explicable nonracial (other data) might weaken plaintiff's (SOUTER, dissenting) (recognizing system representative democracy). 35 appropriate if race-neutral, ones. (1986) opinion) (''[U]nconstitutional occurs arranged manner will degrade voter's group voters' whole''); 147, 2818 (''[P]urely claims'' justiciable). recognized form ''avoiding contests incumbent[s],'' goal. Karcher Daggett, 462 725, 740, 103 2653, 2663, 77 133 (1983); White Weiser, 412 783, 797, 93 2348, 2355-2356, 37 335 (1973); Burns Richardson, 384 73, 89, 16, 86 1286, 1294, 376 (1966); Gaffney Cummings, 735, 751-754, 752, 2321, 2330-2332, 2331, 298 (1973) (State draw allocate proportionately parties). clear scrutinize including incumbency, 36 50% 17.1% Hispanic. Fifty percent located albeit irregularly shaped, core south 69% African-American. remainder consists tentacles--the identifies seven ''segments''--extending primarily north west. 335; M. Barone G. Ujifusa, Almanac American Politics 1996, p. 1277 district). Over 98% 118, crosses two western northern extremities. Its excursion into Tarrant grabs small 61.9% African-American, 331; Collin occupies hook-like mapping exactly onto southern half combined percentage excess 50%, 153. description whole bears repeating: ''The sprawls throughout deliberately excludes wealthy white neighborhoods Highland Park University extends fingers outermost suburbs Dallas. picks up neighborhood. pick border high concentration. reaches Hamilton Park, affluent neighborhood surrounded whites. Part runs along Trinity River bottom, using population. Numerous [voter districts] split mix miles wide long.'' 1337-1338; Appendix (outline 30). 38 single especially, protect incumbents. 39 highlight common throughout, tentacles implicate correlate some extent layout. them, ''available organized created,'' 1338, ''differentiate areas,'' ibid., exhibit, 150. reaching conclusion, fears, engaged compile ''a comprehensive record,'' (STEVENS, dissenting), dismiss mentioned legislative ''irrelevant,'' 1985. If, commonly happen, followed conscious thought, said ''subordinated considering legislatur[e],'' evidentially significant time redistricting, compiled compile, refer specifically to, equivalent 40 shape. Representative Johnson architect designed safe Democratic seat her. early stage process, submitted relatively 44% violate 139; 1338. ''[w]hile object'' it, 1330, ''[t]hat drew opposition quickly abandoned.'' 1321, 22. ''[F]ive congressmen thrown ones currently represent.'' 1330-1331. others effect exerted strong partly successful (There 97% Democrat.) generally 1321-1322. 41 circumstances, explain well as, better than, depart ''[a]s happens, fought [by neighboring incumbents] African-American,'' convert gerrymander gerrymander, matter how affiliation. If affiliation, there classification justify, just disproportions prosecutions particular crime unobjectionable commission crime, (discussing Armstrong, 1480, 1488-1489, 134 687 (1996)). goal constitutional free kind focuses--precinct patterns, precinct experience, __-__-__to regardless awareness implications To contrary, erred. stereotype requiring operation. 411 (1991) (''Race juror bias competence''). agree dissenters, dissenting); 4, stereotyping ly jury service pass justification voting. promise Reconstruction Amendments, Nation state-sponsored discrimination, upheld, choose basic participation eliminate unjustified actors. 43 ample bases conclude both explains rejection Johnson's exclusively terms: 44 ''Throughout course constantly maximize While agreement should area, dispute involved composition, quality insisted [a] 'safe' total 45 ''Although [alternative] proposals showed configuration, reached felt ability having coalitions groups. 46 47 1992, included growth economic opportunities next decades.'' 106-107. 48 noted, earlier (in gerrymander) contradicted here, affirmed consideration construction 30.'' 1338; 1319-1321. letter written end proxy: 49 'Throughout continuously assist protecting Dallas/Fort Worth metroplex spreading Black index areas.' 1322 Exh. 6E6). 50 say districters' intent sole considered. notes, __-__, nn. 23-24, officials' claims changed interests changed. prior suit Justice, suit, inconsistent statements adversarial context. questions credibility matters Court, simply dissenters reading find insupportable indicating 1989, dissenting). 51 Finally, most provided plans maps suggests predominance Given software unlike original proposal, splits even streets places, 150; 1339, boundaries. And, despite reveal extreme northernmost hook ventures perfectly population, 153 (all parts 30's 19.8%, 331, 25%), 196 (showing Republican majority, patterns eight wholly County).* B 52 centered Houston, interlock ''like jigsaw puzzle impossible get pieces apart.'' 1307-1308; Appendices C (outlines 29). ''these finely 'crafted' visualize exact looking map feet square.'' 1323. According statistical country. L.Rev., 565. 53 18's 51% 15% 110. ''has country[,] squiggle toward Intercontinental Airport northwest radial highways, spurt port Astrodome.'' 1307. ''many corridors, wings, reach enclose excluding nearby residents.'' 556. 54 61% 10% resembles 55 sacred Mayan bird, body running eastward Ship Channel downtown tail terminates Baytown. Spindly legs Hobby Airport, plumed head rises northward almost Intercontinental. extremity beak appears worms Spring Branch. Here there, ruffled feathers jut odd angles.'' 1335. 56 Not bizarre; exhibit 1340 (60% live activity. Campaigners seeking visit constituents ''had carry identify often move block''; ''did know candidates office'' lived in. precinct, representing shares local, state, federal officials: 57 splitting dozens nightmare. estimated number precincts 672 1,225 accommodate Polling ballot forms, employees correspondingly multiplied. Voters thrust unfamiliar alignments, few populations low voters.'' 1325. 58 119-127 (letter official setting forth problems conflict traditions); 147 (map limits); 128, Plaintiffs' 6E1, Attachment illustrating 59 constraint rival ambitions distorted larger existing constituencies. 1340. demonstrate influences overwhelmed divisions. ''result[s] maximization strength'' 110, corroborating ''[i]n earliest stages leaders rallied behind idea preserving 18.'' 1324. testified ''it capture pockets residents'' district--not mere majority--was upon. 1340-1341. belies suggestion politics could dividing districts: 151-152, similarly solidly Democratic, 194. intricacy drawn, separating basis, betrays critical impact program. inescapable: ''Because formed ultimately quotas established [presumptively] gerrymandering.'' 1341.CCSIII 60 Having applies, embodied tai lored interests: avoiding liability 2(b), only). turn. 61 Section 2(a) prohibits imposition practice procedure ''results denial abridgement right citizen account color.'' 1982, Congress amended changing adding 2(a). exists if, 62 ''based totality shown processes nomination subdivision equally class citizens protected subsection section electorate participate choice.'' 1973(b). 63 contend results test. 64 done raised defense charges assume interpreted precedents, Growe Emison, 507 37-42, 1075, 1082-1085, 122 388 (1993), ----; 2491. reaffirm ''narrow tailoring'' allows leeway furthering interests. ''strong evidence,'' 656, 2832 (internal quotation marks omitted), concluding 2, ''substantially violation,'' satisfies reject, impossibly stringent, requirement, possible amount making allowances criteria.'' 1343. Wygant Jackson Bd. Ed., 476 267, 291, 1842, 1856, 90 260 (state actors ''trapped competing hazards liability'' unattainable requirements rubric scrutiny). 65 regular, taking defeat experts endless ''beauty contests.'' misread leap disagreement about ''stalemate'' ''get things right,'' precise impose challenge,'' Rather, adhere longstanding recognition sovereign implementing plan. Voinovich Quilter, 146, 156, 1149, 1156, 500 (''[I]t domain States, courts, conduct apportionment first place''); 2488 (''It settled reapportionment duty responsibility State'') flexibility courts enforcing lack, avoid altogether respecting deference due reasonable fears of, avoid, nothing today read limiting majority-minority, arises subordination 66 remains, nonetheless, strict. evidence'' present: 67 ''first, 'that [the group] sufficiently geographically majority member district'; second, cohesive'; third, votes enable usually preferred candidate.' Growe, 40, 1084 added) Thornburg Gingles, 50-51, 2752, 2766-2767, (1986)). 68 above, ''reasonably necessary'' meet requirements. 69 assume, deciding, second third present. have, already supra. grab isolated which, presented, possibly closer suspect incumbents' 70 create, compact.'' De Grandy, 512 114 2647, 2655, 129 775 dispersion created, district; requires race-based compact. 71 raise concerns. ''[s]hape relevant improper motive.'' Brief 56. They rely statement Miller: 72 ''Shape element wrong proof, persuasive circumstantial controlli ng lines.'' 2486. 73 moderate position, accepting tailoring, ''consideration given practices,'' 36, asserting ''while goals,'' 37, Similarly, STEVENS' dissent argues ''noncompact permissible method violations [B 2].'' __. 74 arguments save us. discussion served emphasize ultimate values stake involve harms classifications, trigger Significant deviations demonstrated cause harm convey message identity be, racial. cutting across pre-existing divisions, significant; disrupts intensifies emphasis 75 availing agreed argument, dissent, __-__ (raising coincide Gingles overused''). premise ''racial designed'' violation, manipulation exceeds justify. 76 ''ameliorating discrimination.'' 32; Bush 24-25. contention, processes, stretching modern times, VRA. Williams 734 1317 (N.D.Tex.1990); Regester, 755, 2332, 314 Terry Adams, 345 461, 809, 97 L.Ed. 1152 (1953); Smith Allwright, 321 757, 88 987 (1944); Nixon Condon, 286 484, 984 (1932); Herndon, 273 536, 446, 759 (1927); (because became covered juri sdiction 1975, ''frequently interposed objections subdivisions''). link recent elections ''Anglos voted against'' candidates. First, remedy specific, ''identified discrimination''; ''must 'strong evidence' remedial action 'before embarks program.' - defense, valid indicated unless employ[s] sound affected group's residential afford majority.'' 657, 78 offered 5. substantive goal: 'to lead franchise.' 2493 Beer 425 130, 141, 96 1357, 1363-1364, 629 (1976)). implicated had, decades, choice, whom African-Americans. 1980, 13B, 55. emigration 35.1% 42.2% nonretrogression. indirectly, anticipated 2831: ''A went retrogression.'' Applying principle, IV 80 dissents today's decision, responded points previously. reiterates his satisfying subjugation,'' sense 'benign[ly]' motivated, 685, 2848 them. rejected reject now. then, 653, 2830, precisely benign--as hypothetical targeted outreach victims sickle cell anemia, would, doubt, be--or misuse foster harmful divisive stereotypes justification. revisit debates. 81 Both threatens for, independence judiciary inserting deep believe exaggerate dangers involved, recognize retreat I. 82 judicial entanglement, makes stemming originally arisen uncertainty law during gradual clarification cases. aware difficulties faced confronting nature expressive dealing, complexity bright-line rules available. illustrate defects offend reemphasize clarify responsibilities. traditionally guarded prerogatives jealously, confident fulfill leaving backstop role. 83 rendered after plenary five applying doctrine case). abandon suggesting fundamental concerns relating stake. 1993 2001, 2007, 2011, 2012 ante, 3, (noting task distinguishing non-race-based unique). way. legitimacy requires, above all, stare decisis, sensitive contexts present, partisan controversy abounds. Legislators modified practices--or, rather, reembraced practices universally census--in response acknowledge play important defining voter. Amendment jurisprudence evinces commitment unnecessary excessive governmental reinforcement stereotypes. Georg ia McCollum, 505 42, 59, 112 2359, 120 (1992) (''the peremptory either party''); Edmonson Leesville Concrete Co., 614, 630-631, 2077, 2088, 660 (''If society progress multiracial democracy, automatic invocation retards causes hurt injury''); 1370 (''We accept very condemns''); Holland Illinois, 493 474, 110 803, 107 905 (1990) (''[A] prosecutor's 'assumption presumed partial black' violates Equal Protection Clause''); Batson Kentucky, 79, 104, 1712, 1727, Clause crude, inaccurate stereotypes''). decline today. 84 Affirmed. APPENDIX TO OPINION OF J. [NOTE: MATERIAL SET AT THIS POINT IS NOT DISPLAYABLE (GRAPHIC OR TABULAR MATERIAL)] J 87 89 djq concurring. 91 write separately express my points. (VRA) Second, co-exist progeny, elaborated opinions. J.), 2(b) 2489-2492, (1995). assumption determinative today, lower definite guidance toil twin demands Act. violated 94 [e.g., 95 years enactment enforced obligations places succession assuming addressing constitutionality. (1994); Holder Hall, 2581, (1993); Chisom Roemer, 501 380, 2354, 348 (1991); (1986); Chisom, 418, 2376 (KENNEDY, statute Court). Meanwhile, unanimously Marengo Comm'n, 731 F.2d 1546, 1556-1563 (C.A.11), cert. denied, 469 976, 105 375, 311 (1984); Jones Lubbock, 727 364, 372-375 (C.A.5 1984); 408, 438 (E.D.N.C.1994), Prosser Elections Bd., 793 859, 869 (W.D.Wis.1992); Wesley Collins, 605 802, 808 (M.D.Tenn.1985), 791 1255 (C.A.6 1986); Jordan Winter, 604 807, 811 (N.D.Miss.), aff'd. sub nom. Allain Brooks, 1002, 416, 343 Sierra El Paso Independent School Dist., 591 806 (W.D.Tex.1984); Major Treen, 574 325, 342-349 (E.D.La.1983); Hartman, Racial Vote Dilution Separation Powers: An Exploration Conflict Between Judicial ''Intent'' Legislative ''Results'' Standards, Geo. Wash. 689, 739-752 (1982). Katzenbach, 383 301, 769 (1966) (upholding Congress' power Fifteenth Amendment); Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 477, 100 2758, 2774, 902 (1980) (Katzenbach successors interpreting ''confirm authority prohibition purposeful encompass discriminatory perpetuating discrimination''); Alabama, 867 1519, 1549 (M.D.Ala.1994) (the remains interest''), vacated remanded grounds, F.3d 1058, 1069 (C.A.11 1996) ''Section enforce Amendment's denying 'on race' ''). Against background, irresponsible Supremacy obliges exercises power. Const., Art. VI, cl. Statutes constitutional, Fairbank 181 283, 285, 648, 862 (1901), presumption weight affirming test's addition, federalism liability.'' concurring). constitutionality Act, 1982 amendments. bolstered Amendments. Rome 446 179, 1548, 1562-1563, 119 (1980). apparatus chosen effectuate Nation's ''to confront conscience guarantee Constitution'' equality S.Rep. 97-417, (1982), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News pp. 177, 181. considered ''necessary ensure full Amendments rights.'' 27, 204. believed ''overwhelming unequal access system,'' 26, 204, ''voting procedures [that] perpetuate discrimination,'' 218. fou nded beliefs sad reality ''there still dominate process.'' 33, 211. Respect accepted applied precedent reversed 98 view, it. 99 2's national equality, belief reconciled complementary combat symptoms polarization politics, strive endorse disease. Today's conjunction perceived workable framework achievement goals. summarize framework, governing follows. 101 proxy, take consideration, coming (plurality 8, Only apply. Ante, opinion). 102 polarized, adopting schemes present--viz., (i) ''is single-member district,'' (ii) cohesive,'' (iii) candidate,'' 2766-2767. Third, compelling. __-__; dis senting). awaiting findings. form, although generalized assumptions prevalence 104 Fourth, pursues addresses'' liability, deviate court-drawn reasons, (explaining fails criteria), deemed tailored. (acknowledging possibility); (same); (contending here). non-compact, illustrates principles. 765-767, 2339-2340, Lipscomb Wise, 399 782, 785-786 (N.D.Tex.1975), rev'd, 551 1043 1977), 437 535, 2493, (1978). One year invalidated City Council scheme, defeated. 1317, 1387-1394 (N.D.Tex.1990). Expert existence County. Tr. 187; 227. With quite different designs Plan, 139, Owens-Pate include, respectively, 45.6% populations. appropriate. allowed exclusion non-racial produced came failed Members shows, outlined sometimes difficult judgment. difficulty inevitable. inequality system, necessitating action, look suspicion government. playing role, secondary capable uses uses. 108 109 join comment. dicta commit me whenever State, foreordains certain State. doubt decreed white, favors races. answer demonstrates (E.D.Cal.1994), dism'd part, (1995 (I note summary affirmance stands proposition reviewed constitutional. reasoning Mandel Bradley, 432 173, 176, 2238, 2240-2241, 199 (1977) (per curiam); Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 671, 1347, 1359-1360, 662 (1974).) On narrow-tailoring issue, 1965, 1973. indicates, believing met: ''[F]irst, 1084, quoting (1986). condition refers contested observes, ''[i]f, expressly, conditions, concentrated enough thereby meeting condition. tailor ''[T]he [must] 'substantially addres[s] violation.' II) engage except cure nor example former ''District district.'' (referring coil outlying Counties, __). holds portion predominant-factor central inquiry, illicit legislators shifted blocs Democrats promote Narrow absent well. difficulty, there. Of alternative below, maj ority-Hispanic 142, noncompact independently. (''§ 'reasonably compact' ''); (1994) (affirming, upon dilution, give remedies African-Americans Hispanics overlap mutually exclusive). indeed assumed. itself (In respect, O'CONNOR's concurrence tailored, There proposition. simple interest.) neither forbid proper instance. impermissible reasons according one. prevented (e.g., gratuitous interests), ''cause racial,'' ''may 'beauty contests,' declare egregious, occurred 117 SCALIA joins, 118 question. assertion invoked Though 2828, I), expressly reserved subsequent last Term, 2112-2113, (1995), vigorously strictly scrutinized.1 Georgia's redistricting. exception 2486-2487; 643-647, 2824-2827. evidentiary proving fact, 2488; 646-647, anything 2826 (''The course, once established, receive classifying race''). ''sometimes all,'' highly suffice clarified considerations.'' Eleventh ''quite compelling'' ''predominant, overriding desire'' majority-black record, ''reached District.'' 2489. 121 follow inevitably 2487-2488; certainly group. Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 442 256, 279, 2282, 2296, 870 (1979) (distinguishing ''intent volition'' consequences''). affirmatively undertakes classifications--in words, ''because of,'' ''in spite ibid. When occurs, necessarily (and predominates), classified persons resulting gerrymander. exempting well-established standard. ''When affirm, affirm reached. unexplicated settles issues parties, renunciation doctrines opinions argument.'' Fusari Steinberg, 419 379, 391-392, 533, 541, 521 (1975) (Burger, (footnote eviscerate explicit holding undermine force concessions Miller. 123 admits concedes brief: 124 ''Texas maintained [District] [Districts] voluntarily belief, evidence, desired historically excluded 25. (reciting similar Texas). case.2 am content exceptions. 126 willing assumption, concur 127 BREYER join, dissenting. 128 grown, decade, twice fast country whole. result, Representatives Congress, enlarging delegation cities areas. consequences battle oddly States. Today, strikes majorityminority concluding, inter alia, impermissibly did. errs striking 130 misapplied tests asking improperly ignores ''complex interplay'' consid erations focuses adjust quick comparison majority-Anglo A-C, infra, contorting fair findings,1 entire gerrymander.2 IV, infra. 131 Even considers responsibilities plurality's contrary unnecessarily restricts conform behavior V, still-developing appropriately facts, uphold decision. issued reinforce conviction has, ''analytically distinct'' Reno 652, 2829-2830, struck jurisprudential wilderness definable suffered challenging Parts VI-VII, infra; Hunt II), travel ever farther passing return well-traveled path left immediately Party control Legislature. two-thirds Districts--including ones--elected Democrats, though arguably likely Democrat.3 Incumbents parties successful: reelected, elected legislator essentially acted process,4 giving ''incumbents'' success rate. easy guaranteeing enclosed residence incumbent, people, complied Much represented ensuring gerrymandering. aided technological informational advances scale blocks, twists turns redistricting.5 Legislature's efforts,'' concluded, crazy-quilt districts'' bore little resemblance public-spirited representatives.'' 1304, 1309 (S.D.Tex.1994); A-D. 135 decisions. Census, 16,986,510 residents, 22.5% origin, 11.6% non-Hispanic 1311. pre-1990 27-member four w ell middle aware, disproportionately responsible gained omnipresence (1994), communities, pressure unreasonable--and invidious sort--for accede calls cities.6 136 multitude legal requirements, emphasized (District Houston) Houston. correctly affirms begin, plurality, ''strict scrutiny'' 137 discriminates Prior harmed set individuals contrast, identified progeny diffuse. sort addressed ''discrimination'' imposed 138 Aware distinction, endorsed crucial evaluation provision offended districts.7 ''does [not] districts,'' caps discussions, implicitly conclusion.8 139 race-conscious recognizes mislead rigid characterization classes levels described rational scrutiny; ''st rict likelihood applied. Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 473 432, 452-453, 3249, 3260-3261, 313 (1985) rarely typically irrational ground ''virtually invalidation classifications'' jurisprudence. 453, 3261. harming group, prejudices break down, ''relevant'' benign 454, 3262, fatal skepticism strike pernicious behavior. 316-317, 1869-1870, Regents Univ. Cal. Bakke, 265, 320, 2733, 2763-2764, 750 injure (though group) myriad ways, 647-648, 2827, complies outline despicable exclude 682-685, 2846-2848 cf., Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 125, (1960); (1953). risk stereotyping, true tenuous intended resistance voice balancing subtle remedies--a best well-developed jurisprudence--the concludes skeptical eye. III 140 can, point, govern nonetheless ''too much,'' illegitimate threaten overrun contaminate rationale'' [and] subdivisions ''substantial disregard'' principles); (opinion J.). 141 ''predominant'' Legislature, (citing 2488), matter.9 unrelenting pressures negotiated deviation district.10 enacted, secure election. desires contiguous Every place another, implicated, additional, compensating shifts accomplished. constrained environment, ''dominant controlling'' influence. Nowhere illustrated Dallas' where, least, factor. 142 lists combination, cause, influencing configuration. dismisses (communities protection) petitioners advanced affiliation factors--either singly combination--suggests discuss Bizarre Shape 143 6, add incorporate rapidly growing so, fit Before Dallas) 24, Bryant Frost, respectively. Republicans. 144 Then-State Senator proposing encompassing Frost objected, residence, homes, opposite sides city. Furthermore, transferred Bryant's reliable Rather acquiesce homes loyal was, ''quickly 145 desires, adjustments telling notches carefully side. D, infra.11 retained communities--many majority-black--along eastern 1321-1322.12 146 Had Bryant, forced seek elsewhere. blocked east; (and, lesser extent, west) go.13 helped prospects plowed Immediately ''Park Cities,'' Exhs. 9A 9B (depicting elections). dilute incumbents) manner, skirted west, curved east, picking region's interstate freeways.14 148 extracting progressed, distinction moved smallest programs) smaller available).15 blocks candidacy, dat a, experience experiences staffers supporters. 177-179, 181-182 methods, driving through staff office develop block-specific voters).16 149 program, able preferences Party, participated. 179-180. examining information, fine-tune probably opponents. 753, (''[W]hen [political profiles are] overlaid map, special genius rather another'').17 150 conducted watchful eye her district-wide (Johnson 70% 1994), heavily hope support, (maps Counties Democrat-leaning Dallas), resulted indications, gathered concentrations R epublican 26. sections 151 Presumably relying I's face, understood 'segregat[e] race,'' 2826, offers mathematical proof Nation, relates now-obligatory florid appended demonstrate, monopoly characteristics. Three majority-white oddest 565 Perhaps clearest outside Republican.18 152 every geographic atrocity commits more. precincts; same. (Tarrant cuts). travels river bed; follows lake. combines various unrelated commu nities suburbs; rural, urban, suburban communities. sends core; tentacle, hundreds walks), core. irrelevant. anything, similarities suggest mutation twist turn Dallas.19 154 starkly highlighted comparing instance, Carolina's 12. proportion populations: found, 'exceedingly obvious' District, together demographics, land bridges containing 80% deliberate bring added, citation 155 converse Compare Unlike 11, west progressively p opulation, actually reduce proportional share 33. 156 example: offender, trained arm winds Cities arm, black, --a identical whole.20 157 pointing minorities.21 implausible suggest, ''segregate'' drove collect 1339 Forced territory votes, picked communities). sacrificed ''predominance'' discredits). 12, population--preferably Democrats. fanciful assert ''several appendages'' ''drawn obvious,'' let alone ''purpose putting 2485.22 sum, like notion determined considerations. Intent 159 rule key submissions person then-State ''minimum favored minority.'' 1309. rest dominance examination subjective legislators,23 proceeding conflicting conclusion,24 confirm understanding responsibilities, undermined admits, admissions that. Nonracial Factors: Community 160 provide definitive explanation factors: presence tying protection. dismissed 161 presented align use, family corridors. 1322-1323. amounted descriptions 1323, 'communities interest' mind displace conclusion. 162 understand why exist. identifiable ''evidence'' demographers scientists. Most years. Unless intends interfere do, presume intend prepared reports. obvious guided amounts non-r acial consideration.25 Incumbency 163 ''present rivalled shape.'' participated knew producing out, exclusive focus ''safe'' intimately related 164 ''[I]n 165 1335, 43. Despite overwhelming stunning ''different degree'' ''generalized, legitimate, seniority protection'' recognized, 1334-1335. dismissing ''[i]ncumbent pretext 166 attack misperceptions reflected conclusions,26 failure taints initial problem, ''unconstitutional gerrymander.'' [the] 2480-2481, must, controlled (''Where [compactness, contiguity,] legislation, 'defeat lines' explanation, excuse ignoring 167 independent bar criterion, object J.); 791, 2352-2353, (1973), assured borders, 2826-2827. egregious praiseworthy, shapes.27 168 error dispositive assessment all. aspects ''largely factual,'' *, arise assessments, erroneous state's shifting District's standards Court's. following misdirected path, goes astray. Race Proxy 169 Faced contradict assertions placement Instead, adopts fall-back removed 2829-2830. features voters. 170 likelihood, unimportant overall depiction reveals Democratic-leaning cover blocks. 45. expect single-minded involves calculus complex stereotyping. 171 ''fine tuning'' locations reasons. fine tuning legitimately edges district.28 perceive process--choosing inclusion district--should become away core.. 172 irrational. qualified she brown hair skin. irrational, invidious, Democrat discloses blacks 44. reason, architects appear judgments ''unjustified,'' significance, suburbanites, Republicans communists.29 Requiring ignore association logical, potentially harmful, prohibit Public Health Service targeting sickle-cell anemia.30 173 interpretation were. accord interference V 174 zigzags (or recreation) contrast interlocking specifically, exclusively, integrated arguendo examined scrutiny.31 175 begins districts.32 conclude, coextensive ''narrowly tailored'' respectfully disagree. 176 Neither r insinuation accomplishing accounts, achieved, Act.33 escape me, insists lack prevents solutions 177 premises requirement: created; quarrel proposition, falls short mandating draws liable violation. retains leeway'' alleviate place, none, law. unacceptable speak acceptable adopted legislature. satisfaction, VI 178 profess developing alter landscape Nation--although landscape. developed, creates perverse incentives presume) unanticipated unknown strides. social risks Constitution, preceding altogether, leave branches Government. 179 unintended outcome avoid: importance. unwillingness drawin g, ''without thought,'' ''limited granted 1960, challenge. accidentally placed desires. 180 great irony, stand stark, placid island sea neighbors. Karlan, Still Hazy All Years: Post-Shaw Era, Cumberland 287, 309 (1995-1996). inviolable sanctity 2-eligible signal blatant sits here: Interfere not.'' Court-imposed barriers Unaffected jurisprudence, requesting representation, grouped distant match door. maneuvering segregating balkanizing easily concrete sensibilities Bush. extolling sovereignty Seminole Tribe Fla. Florida, 1114, 252 (1996), expected steer deferential charts ''[e]lectoral legislatures, balance interests.'' evidences interplay forces enter calculus,'' 182 inconsequential. flowing decennial hand, violating progeny. 2507 (GINSBURG, abandoning voluntary altogether. 672, 2842 (WHITE, dissenting).34 peace f immune Shaw; Florida schizophrenic second-guessing occurred. King Elections, 95-C-827, 1996 WL 130439 (N.D.Ill., Mar. 15, 1996); Mortham, 926 1460 (N.D.Fla.1996). reconciling realities cost ongoing litigation, step business citing frustration hopes getting resolve definitively proceeding. 922 1556, 1559 (S.D.Ga.1995) (after remand Georgia abdicated court); ''vacuum level''). 183 Regardless route guaranteed hand--and perhaps hand--in ''abrasive Wells Rockefeller, 394 542, 553, 1241, 519 (1969) fear public's perception impartiality judiciary. reiterate cautionary admonition, decades ago, fashioning choosing plans, pre-empt 'intrude policy necessary.' 795, 2355 Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 160, 1858, 1878, 363 (1971)). 184 wish impression focusing nonexistent problems. misapprehended flows attach blameworthiness practices, flow ''serve segment--whether religious, economic, political--that occupy time, disadvantage weak segment community.'' 748, 2668-2669, (1983) good illustration self-serving any--but Texas. Many 12). 185 minimizing motives inadvertently encourage process.35 Legislatures behave incorporates ''elements neutrality characterize performance sovereign's impartially.'' Cleburne, 452, discharged legislatures permit positions servants constituents. 754, 2668, 2672 worth straightening, twisted exclude, altered include.36 VII 186 relations overt lasting 1970's. Brischetto, Davidson, Grofman, Quiet Revolution South: Impact 1965-1990, 233-248 (C. Davidson B. Grofman eds.1994). years, Texans statewide office; Senate Congress. Petitioners 53. remain suspiciously unlikely Effect Municipal Election Structure Representation Eight South, 344. nationwide, fewer passed 1950 districts.37 1994, districts.38 187 optimistic facts. successful. candidates, overcome heretofore vast candidacies. not. anyone assess overcome, intrusion negotiate differences long-excluded democratic 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 D 195 197 devises provision, ought injury distinguishable concededly conduct, elements claim. Nothing notice whose rise charged Constitution. justification, notice, guidance, instance Terms ago ), decided 198 Far differential treatment, standar d presupposition putative complaint objecting untoward repeatedly disclaimed outlaw districting, rounds appellate define contours helpful eludes Court. conceptual bone. practical lawful unlawful inevitable confusion houses courthouses, consequent shift invested front-line Article truly superintend land. 200 solve Shaw's puzzles denigrate interest; alleviating apprehension odds true, minority, dealing appreciably clearer manageable clarity knowledge specter ostensible come heavy price. price indeed, elimination 201 flaws persist, burdens loom round misconception relation mistake case-by-case tinkering eliminate. confidence eventually yet, dissent. 202 text indicates recognized,1 shall composed Year People Electors Qualifications requisite Branch Legislature''); Times, Places Manner Senators prescribed thereof; Law Regulations''). limits autonomy discern doing announcing person, vote, Reynolds Sims, 377 1362, 506 (1964).2 ignored Constitution's th e accordingly informal baseline practices. accorded those, meant preserve contiguity); seen objectives consistent Amendments' demands. 578, 1390 (''A desire subdivisions, possible, designing scheme''); 2355, (''[T]the constituencies undesirable''); 1157, (''Because derive provisions law, bound choices contravene requirements'') omitted; 203 tenet underlying constitutionally (respect say) atomistic exercise.3 represent interests, Reynolds, 562, 1381, democracy federalist presumes ready Aleinikoff Issacharoff, Redistricting: Drawing Constitutional Lines 588, 601 collective partisans preference--whether preference defined measure--that meaningful process''). Hence, implementation own, basically associational rights democracy. 204 displacement Such (1964), disparate weighting unconstitutional, again (1971); (1973). mathematically identifiable; arithmetic powerful impossibility pervasive complainants voters; vote-dilution claims, conceptually examples Indeed, acknowledged winner, Whitcomb, 153-155, 1873-1875, happenstance voting-age 10.5% assembled 1981 435 senator. Statistical Abstract 1982-83, 490 (103d ed. 1982) (Table 802); Americans: Sourcebook (L. Hornor 1995) 4.02); Parker, Damaging Consequences Rehnquist Commitment Color-Blindness Versus Am. U.L.Rev. 763, 770-771 (observing ''[p]rior Census [b]lacks, 11.1% nation's age 4.9% Congress''). inescapable accounted astonishing fact,4 hedges reappearance) 104th total. Minorities Q., Supplement 44, (Nov. 1994); 771 fifty Congress'').5 205 demonstrable confined follow. Within Baker Carr, 369 186, 691, 663 (1962), malapportionment justiciable insufficient increasingly rigid, voting-specific equipopulousity.'' 299 (Karlan, Era). Likewise, definition (''less ,'' 1973(b)), model description, categories comprehensible bearing injury, size quantifiable indications cohesiveness historical on. 766-770, 2339-2341. particularity ''inequality'' happened losing candidates.CCSB 206 broke abruptly standards, singled treatment. Whereas measurably reduces populous predestines perpetual losers, spoke disadvantage. ---U.S., absence disadvantaged describing claim). sense, seem favorites, fall alike. conception saying forbidden ''reinforces think alike, prefer polls,'' leads obligation constituency whole.'' 2827. ''expressive harm,'' attitudes tangible material brings about.'' 506-507 theory [that ] endorses centers structures distribution actual groups''). notions, shadows majorities minorities, whites blacks, impotent. Thus, supposed barred Clause, virtually types actionable (1986), disfavored participation. (1986).6 207 Just logic concept rhetoric inapposite thinks unreasonable. metaphor ''political apartheid'' segregation opposed integration, talk separation de jure term emphatically implies inferiority Brown Board Education, 347 494, 686, 873 (1954) (''[t]o [minority children] qualifications solely generates feeling status community''). vindicated objected proportions Separatism? Nationalities Policy, 1995 U. Chi. Legal Forum 83, (hereinafter Separatism) irony ''apartheid'' ''among country''). Whatever symbolized, ''apartheid.'' mixture subjugation, measure general, ethnic particular, enjoyed course. submerged active plausibly affect inflicted segregation. obviously conveys outsider function numbers, capacity value chance success. 208 Added anomalies descriptions, inadequacy defines polls, immediate effective. virtue tend stick (perhaps, necessarily, well). preference, would; mainstream winners choices. already. long-recognized casting classic remedy; ''reinforces'' court-ordered depends. So broad 209 temper overreach usual discussed __-__) dilution; direction, one, continuing (despite harm) __; concurring); qualification eliminating definition, hedge future covered, threatened, overbreadth injury. definitional discerns. 210 devise distinguishes injured remedy, matched inability distinguish produce. failure, regrettable, occurred, ''bizarre'' unequivocal indication unreasonable degree, criterion translatable standards. Leaving theoretical inadequacies aside, rested harbor objectively quantified dispersion, perimeter, 553-575. grotesque provoke sharpest reaction eliminated known thus, intrusion. doctrinal incongruity, unmanageable 211 Term declined contain guide inform limit courts. Contours Politics, Rev. 45, (''Miller categorical refusal clause alone'') (Issacharoff, Contours). recharacterized devised problems, proscribing 212 untidy world inspires hope.7 rests feasibility untangling motives, juries manage untangling. Mt. Healthy Ed. Doyle, 429 274, 568, 576, 471 (employee's burden rehire him; employer's ''even conduct''); Hunter Underwood, 222, 228, 1916, 1920, 222 (''Once 'substantial' 'motivating' law's defenders factor''); Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 252, 555, 563, 450 (''Rarely operating concern, 'dominant' 'primary' one''). glance, strands cool comfort misplaced. 213 able, dissatisfaction employee's job perfor mance displeasure worker's union membership, NLRB Transportation Management 393, 403-405, 2469, 2475-2476, 667 (1983), unwarranted otherwise, motive,'' true: 214 ''Districting bundles compromises, deals ask design pattern trade-offs Searching 'the reason' year's budget another. Moreover, coherent legalistic decisionmaking model.'' 585-586 215 reviewing that: environment results, inseparable supposedly 578 (''[R]ace frequently factors. evaluating untangle now-illegitimate 'highly irregular' poor contexts, mixed-motive standard?''); (''Given palpability arena, [Miller causation could] doom distribute multi-ethnic redistricting''). 216 community, intact representative, community's characterized, self-defined, old truth, Irish Italian Polish ward. 217 ''[E]thnicity tie volumes science literature documented--even divergent ethnicity life 218 219 ''. reflecting ordinarily offensive demeaning delineation.'' 2504-2505 220 Or parties. reasons? What, voting? sheer fantasy circumstances somehow separable pr otection, incoherence becomes aimed 221 plagued racial-bloc voting8 unrealized turning incapable actions brought. deficiencies: first, separably condemn preserve; exists. shortcomings arbitrariness; decide pluralist enjoys.'' Separatism 103. needed arbitrariness, STEVENS's unfairly [ante ], 1978-1988, factual''); faithfully spirit plurality. yet different. 223 Along endemic unpredictability destruction incentive dilution. Shaw, politicians occur preventing urge colleagues thing Amendment, counsel terrorem fees 1988(b) 1973l (e). (''Minority leverage enforcement threat adverse decisions''); Hastert Illinois Commr's, 1430, 1444 (C.A.7 1993) (awarding prevailing Elections's objection ''no eventual outcome'' implement) original). blunted now, practice, Sha action. faith civil laws ''now walking tightrope: lawsuits clause; 2.'' Era 289. (''On progeny.''). short, told right, tendency stalemate, moral mercenary operate obscurity. 224 consequence, confronted governors vacuum suits come. longer assurance individual, hardly blamed failing explained. suffer arbiter decides put bad luck obliged revealed. arbiter, particular. issuing depend idiosyncratically unique legislatures.'' 288. tragedy lies occurrence justifications causing occur. 225 uncertainties stem incoherence, aim mitigate inscrutability rules. 226 assumes qualifies (''As [of Act] interest''); arguendo, resolving interest''). holding, encouraging confirms ''apply districts''), cruelly ironic t amended) guarantee. 498 ''[i]f serious structure permitting power,'' seeing reservation 157, ''evidence ban Constitution''). emphatically, (not ) insulate jeopardy such. 227 reference map-drawing too adjusting useful inherent weakness __-__: ''traditional principles'' sure, overuse significance; ways another does, ''party affiliation'' tell loss data. exceedingly yesterday's declare) be. 228 possibility; discussions compels, alone. (rejecting district); 'limited leeway' challenge''). respond way, (suggesting Act); broader lines), presumably survive hypothesized stating claim, positioned 229 back important, establishing haven, haven. territory, subdivisions'') 230 ''possibility'' deliberately. intimation effect, raises far. STEVENS); 'a principles' (''if addresses' omitted); 'narrow tailoring' criteria' (citation omitted)). leaves overused, premised 231 Suffice try imposing limitations placement, elusive exorbitant principle: inextricably intertwined society. price, Gingles. vary predominate consideration. reducing scope devising could, step. employs 1156 (''Federal intervening o apportionment''), tried limitations. 232 steps prompt own. Recognition encounter identifying distinguished lesser, limitation difference jeopardize them) furnish 233 developments curing unworkability, options few. overruled flawed experiment, alternatives, depending weightier purpose'' criterion. 234 guise revolutionary primacy tolerance unorthodox measurable (adjusted past, 573-574, 246 19th century)) calculated initially appearance expression undue consideration; Miller's so-called ''race-neutral'' (such incongruities analysis, measures manifestation emphasis, missing 235 retaining societies generate presently understood, objectives, predominating. facing forbidden. eliminated. affecting Valley Forge Christian College Americans Church 454 464, 489, 767-768, 700 (1982) (fact relaxation requirements). colorblindness entirely, replacing randomness 236 direction insurmountable. name submerging protect, necessitated place. Eliminating submersion; random submersion packing) computerized colorblind randomness. norm. randomly districted nicety overshadowed ''representative'' something members. event, submergence non-intentional prospect harmony readiness litigating 237 clear. failings, plain revolution colorblindness. 2824 (''Despite ideal 'color-blind' Plessy Ferguson, 537, 559 [16 1138, 1146, 256] (1896) (Harlan, wise: circumstances''); Richmond J.A. Croson 488 469, 520-521, 706, 735-736, 854 (1989) (SCALIA, (criticizing colorblindness). toll evolved 644-649, 2825-2828. moreover, 2823 (''race-conscious unconstitutional''); concurring), (districts process''); exceptional (''Application throw districts''). Justices THOMAS judgment). 238 Since radical transformation selection unworkability truth these: confine entirely. truncated untenable foundation described, supposed, invite, withdrawal complete. commands decisis seriously, serious. unable chronic begotten discernible reliance, costs persisting high. 239 admit pledged preserve, deal thinking condemns (but avoid) entered moment immigration regional homogeneity. ethnically (slip op., 14-15) Judd, Cities: Power Policy (3d ed.1988); S. Erie, Rainbow's End: Irish-Americans Dilemmas Urban Machine 1840-1985 (1988), attain regime apartheid, moderation ethnicity's practice. disappeared electorate, talismanic cooled time.9 took Boston Menino mayor 1993.10 240 attacked received time. signs vindicated, tentative yet. Comm'n Civil Rights, Act: Ten Years After, (Jan.1975) (''In passage brought responsive needs''); Carsey, Contextual Effects Voter Behavior: 1989 New York Mayoral Election, 221, (reporting, contextual partisanship, ethnicity, believed''); Sigelman, Walkosz, Nitz, Candidates, Voters: Understanding Bias Political Perceptions, Scienc 243, 244 (''Over willingness candidates''); Peirce, Fresh Air Baltimore Sun, Nov. 1993, 7A contest, victory gone mayoral eschew race''); 56, 2769 crossover reelection); Collins Norfolk, 883 1232, 1243 (C.A.4 1989) (same). too, grow wiser rescued supplant counsels profession standard, case's 241 debate nuance diverges Court's, our, view. merit response. asserts ''[a] blocks.'' dissent's popularity campaign predispositions residents. (The infects hook, (relying results).) totals, inside misleading: notwithstanding overwhelmingly 242 higher wayward tentacles. necessity redistricters' with. pop ulations enhance chances below 21% average. answering bear witness, far-reaching intricately remaining factual. heard days familiar details witnesses' testimony, ''fine-tuning,'' pervasive, (S.D.Tex.1994). syllabus constitutes Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 321, 337, 282, 499. combination compels evince consistent, ''apartheid,'' multiple intensive fortunes maximizing dictated exceptional; discusses detail, characteristic. Adarand, Metro Broadcasting, FCC, 497 547, 2997, 445 (1990), Government scrutinized. e. g., 493-494, 721-722, 520, 735-736 judgment); 273, 1846-1847, 1852-1853 parse detail erroneously ignored, demonstrating dominated 1331, 1334-1336 gerrymanders'' 161-162, 166, 2825-2826, (Powell, part), unsympathetic holding. believe, evils directly, race-specific gubernatorial races, Senate. America Votes 21: Handbook Contemporary Statistics 417 (R. Scammon A. McGillivray. 550,000 outpolled 147,000 districts). 20: 474 McGillivray eds.1993). Eddie Bernice chair Subcommittee maneuvered construct 1313; 1994: 103rd 1536 (''This drew''). Vice-Chair committee, Frank Tejeda, ''attempted [District 28] facilitate candidacy.'' 1326. Gene Green Roman Martinez, Houston-area competed 1324, 27. (Martinez later dropped Senate.) references kept track post-1990 loaded scales ranging block. 457 (E.D.N.C.1994) programs); 1318-1319. dramatic traced, computers possible. Note, Illegitimacy Incumbent Gerrymander, 913, 924 (1996). (a Texas), Houston), Dallas). Houston's 1970s remained 1990, population.FC21STo somewhat been: Anglo, Green, reelected him 1994. 21, 437. crafting needs, Green's Nonetheless, giv en pursued, reserving wisely ''race-conscious circumstances.'' accepts 2481, added); (test ''throw scrutiny: ''deliberately drew'' citizens, 473; reviews (where ''close question'').FC21SJustice arguing rare stumble segregated ''mere awareness'' Nation; ''just so'' appears, (consider, Harlem), invidiousness (1960). 2504 ''ethnicity together'' interest). nor, occasions, ''difficult 'sole' legislators.'' Palmer Thompson, 217, 225, 1940, 1945, (1971). body, agenda interests--particularly ''complicated process'' ''inevitably sharp impact.'' 795-796, ''[r]arely properly concerned refrain merits arbitrariness irrationality.'' (1977); Edwards Aguillard, 482 636-639, 2573, 2605-2606, 510 (1987) dissenting).FC21SNot ''broad mandate,'' inherently other. ''motive'' per se impermissible. (For Price Waterhouse Hopkins, 1775, 268 (1989), (1977), defendant's Where ''proof decision,'' ''judicial deference'' justified. 265-266, 563.) allegedly process: refused care questioning appropriately. ''as possible,'' minimis exceptions ''unavoidable'' instances. 790, 2352; Karcher, 734-735, 2660-2661. Population variances 'if fragmenting boundaries.' White, 2352 Kirkpatrick Preisler, 526, 533-534, 1225, 1230-1231, (1969)). understandably compelled surprisingly, so: 566,217 persons. precision breaking apart precincts. phenomenon County: Throughout ''incumbent 1318 (giving examples); 10A 10B residences). rural southeast wrapping Fort Worth. pivoted home Joe Barton, southeastern 100-mile-long loop ''suspect 1957, *. ''resemblance majority-White or, relevance validity excluded. (testimony Christopher Sharman: ''[A]ny you end, squeeze push end; pushed north''). author herself realities. (Jones, noting didn't want ''[d]idn't competition Ross Perot''). recognition, contributing borders. 1337; closely packed areas, tighter Significantly, densities 2,000 square mile. Dept. Commerce, Bureau Characteristics 103d Congress: 40-44 (Feb.1993). empty sparse 28, upheld Court), sharp, space, implications, smooth deepest notches. identified, connected statutory contiguous, candidate, ways. detoured portions hoped challengers. 192-193; 46. sought knew) supporters; ''active'' trumped makeup. 190; 40-41; 1320. (Districts 25) blame all) contortions contiguity excuse. distance, stretch straightest Dallas-Fort International Airport. FC21SAs obligatory description: ''begins'' anywhere, near Rep. Barton Ennis, southwest Downtown From Ellis finally crossing skips arms Pool Lake, noses Nearing city, dart curl city's edge, airport town. Worn northwestern corner (almost miles, crow flies, Ennis), plunge Eagle Mountain traveling waterline occasional detours built shores. Refreshed, rediscovers roots Parker bite heart narrows football field width. heads regions fifth county--Johnson--where exhausts ''miles distance worlds culture.'' 2484 rural/urban Seeking examples, hay There, ''exactly th[e] [minority] 50%.'' refers, surprise ''exactly'' precinct. (One black,'' district.) 25% minority. Exhibits (exhibit reproduced, infra included, single-mindedly focused assume.FC21SEven leaned election, Republican. (Collin County). dropped, help votes. 1312 (Black 362,130); Unit Counts (Oct.1993) (total 1,852,810). responses making, however. relies ''combined Hispanic'' appendage 50%. 19.8 appendage, consist two-tenths 45.FC21SThe County--contains majority. 17, supra; includes blocks; people. 331. tentacle (at tip community) 29% 33--less ''appendages'' counties cut off, increase. constituted, eople, 283,225 50.02%) removed, 557,218 280,620 50.36%) ''zero deviation'' Sims 10, acquired further. comprehend ''predominated'' Testimony relevant, Chairman Districting Committee, testified, 454-456 (certain assigned Anglo power), 459 (''just friendly color, color''). proceedings account, telling. floor gerrymanders: ''This congressman congressman, respected, respected.'' 374-375 (statement Ogden).FC21S''With adoption That's facto regression representation D.C. ''Communities surgically illogical, erratic pattern[s]. you'll logical rational. dissecting creatively pack representation.'' Gusendorf). 377-380 Gusendorf district).FC21SThese ''d[o] happen. fairness. really Democrats.'' Hill). slightly unfair Congresswoman 1319-1321, 1338-1339; Attorney General court, adequately surprising declarant comments notwithstanding, 1339). 2504; Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 3272, 3293, 1012 (''Whenever disadvantaged, 'bloc' prerequisite 51, 2766, formation community. bond, ties shapes. ibid.; 1334, ''traditional'' 2824; policies negotiating expresses programs, ''compile[ data,'' computer-dominated noting, ''effort'' gather data; sex, age, income levels, imported wholesale computers. 457. tune (rather individualized requests block-level __), technique efficient means, analysis. prediction legislator's predic tion character, line-drawing species gerrymanders.'' Mobile Bolden, 55, 88, 1490, 1510, omitted).FC21STo incorrect, irrationality future: party. learn swift lesson presumptions incorrect. verboten context, recently, ''[m]ore 90% sentenced 1994 crack cocaine trafficking out-of-hand Ninth Circuit's ''people crimes.'' 1488, review. stronger plausible coincides believes exacerbated litigants courts) proffered (to inconsistent), unwilling certainty fodder burgeoning isolation motivate bend prevalent same: hierarchy upside-down. My act minimize Powell 165, ''gerrymandering 'loose' sense'' (i.e., advance goals), discrimination'' 'occupy[ing] community,' 164, 2827 2668 concurring)). 2807, nonpartisan .merely infringing representation''). allegations impact, proved, diffuse directed rigorous Limiting Quarterly (list 1992) 1994) (listing Congress), biyearly publications (published 1975-present). Bositis, Joint Center Economic Studies, Midterms, (rev. May 1995). Fifteen ran 34, 1081, districts'') 2); 586, 1394, (1964). controversial one-person, one-vote adequacy dispute, minds principled hesitation thicket, 615, elaboration 'constitutional' far--and unwisely--it strayed bounds authority. handful blanket supervise Legislatures. imagine intolerable inappropriate States''); 737-738, (1962) (Frankfurter, authority--possessed purse sword--ultimately sustained sanction. nourished complete detachment, appearance, entanglements abstention injecting clash settlements''). Professor Issacharoff cast implied effective, aggregation like-minded results. genuinely evaluated .'' Groups Right Vote, Emory L.J. 869, Recent Affecting Language Minorities, eds. (''Ethnic elections, systematically electing deprive symbolic advocate councils benefits bestows .''). Pildes, Race, Harv. 1359, 1369 (reviewing 1965-1990 eds.1994)) studies probability 1% median income, school graduates; elderly, foreign-born, years; region located''); 1375 (finding nationwide). improving. outcome). improvements attributed situations. recognize, elsewhere prohibitions ''equal opportunity.'' Consider preemptory challenges. shake sets values, box. Jury impartial discovered redefining jury's Without imperfect so), selections. great. groups, decisionmaking. acknowledgement concepts geography, personal allegiances room allowing conceived disagreed position. unconstitutional); 2497, (consideration Constitution); ''not aside catholic degree. 767, much, repudiation I-C, Cannon 917 387, 391 (E.D.N.C.1996) law'' predicting ''gain imminent [in ]''); Briffault, 23, unclear adjectives 'predominant' 'overriding' test''); 287 (Miller ''further unsettled roadmap'' ); facile vaguely reminiscent tort defer hard conduct''). Karst, Paths Belonging : Cultural Identity, N.C. 303, 347, 350 (''[T]he surest assimilation society's activities institutions. preferences; belonging casting. Yet mobilization members' perceptions belong community''); Walzer, Pluralism Perspective, Ethnicity 1, (S. Thernstrom, Orlov, O. Handlin eds.1982) (''political open, openness competition''); Kantowicz, Parties, Ethnicity, successes ''feel belonged wider [and brought] system''); Mintz, Leadership: Afterword, Ethnic Leadership (J. Higham ed.1978) (concluding ''we peril shortchanged motto standard''); (''two generations communist suppression religious tension Yugoslavia stability, tolerance, integration''). Nolan, Could Break Dominance Globe, Apr. (''When finishes mayor, discover centuries immigration, politics''); Black, Once-Solid Blocks Splitting Boston, (commenting Menino's descent ''little footnote'' observing ''ethnic faded [a]s gain semblance [political] power''); D'Innocenzo, Gulotta Can't Count Newsday, Oct. 19, ''[t]he vowel Tom Gulotta's executive did'' ''Italian-Americans Nassau polls favoritism mind''; attributing ethnicity-based ''Nassau Italian-Americans feel marginali[zed] group'').

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