Document: 424 U.S. 747 96 S.Ct. 1251 47 L.Ed.2d 444 Harold FRANKS and Johnnie Lee, Petitioners,v.BOWMAN TRANSPORTATION COMPANY, INC., et al. No. 74-728. Argued Nov. 3, 1975. Decided March 24, 1976. Syllabus In a class action against respondent employer certain labor unions (of which union is the successor) petitioners alleged various racially discriminatory employment practices in violation of Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964 (Act), especially with respect to over-the-road (OTR) truck drivers. After certifying as and, Inter alia, designating one classes represented by petitioner Lee consisting black nonemployee applicants who applied for were denied OTR positions prior January 1, 1972, District Court permanently enjoined respondents from perpetuating found exist, regard positions, ordered notify members designated their right priority consideration such jobs. But court declined grant unnamed any specific relief sought, included an award backpay seniority status retroactive date individual application position. While vacating Court's judgment insofar it failed reversing on other grounds, Appeals affirmed denial form relief, holding that was barred, matter law, § 703(h) VII, provides shall not be unlawful practice employer, apply different conditions pursuant bona fide system. Held: 1. That named plaintiff representing question, no longer has personal stake outcome because he had been hired later properly discharged cause, does moot case. An adverse relationship sufficient meet requirement "live controversy" remain before this only obtained underlying cause but also continues assertion they have received entitlement hiring inadequate without further benefits. Pp. 752-757. 2. Section bar are seeking modification or elimination existing system would individually enjoyed under present illegal refusal hire. The thrust directed toward defining what instances post-Act operation challenged effects discrimination occurring Act's effective date, there indication legislative materials concerning intended modify restrict otherwise appropriate once after proved, hire 757-762. 3. job 706(g) which, effectuate VII's objective making persons whole injuries suffered account discrimination, vests broad equitable discretion federal courts "order affirmative may appropriate, include, limited to, reinstatement employees, back pay . deems appropriate." Merely require victim falls far short "make whole" remedy, concomitant credit presumptively earned wrongful treatment seem necessary absent justification denying relief. Without dating time when discriminatorily refused employment, applies obtains driver order will never obtain his rightful place hierarchy according benefits distributed. 762-770. 4. cannot justified within grounds given individuals filed administrative charges Equal Employment Opportunity Commission evidence "vacancy, qualification, performance" every member class. Nor can ground discriminatees conflict economic interests employees employer. made mention considerations deny would, if generally, frustrate VII. 770-779. 495 F.2d 398, reversed remanded. Morris J. Baller, New York City, petitioners. Michael H. Gottesman, Washington, D. C., United Steelworkers America. William M. Pate, Atlanta, Ga., Bowman Transportation Co., Inc. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 This case presents question whether identifiable race 1964, 78 Stat. 253, amended, 42 U.S.C. 2000e Et seq. (1970 ed. Supp. IV), awarded dates applications.1 2 Petitioner Franks brought States Northern Georgia former unions, International Union 50, Allied Technical Workers Canada, its local, 13600,2 alleging intervened behalf himself others similarly situated discharge policies Bowman's Following trial, engaged pattern racial company policies, including hiring, transfer, perpetrated collective-bargaining agreement unions. certified proper Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 23(b)(2), import issues Court, all sought transfer driving 1972. final decree, subdivided into 1972 (class 3), same 4). 3 entered July 14, both subclasses 30 days declined, however, 4 On petitioners' appeal Fifth Circuit, raising most part claimed inadequacy respecting involved, part, vacated part. 398 (1974). held exercised erroneous view law 4, respect. remedy positions.3 As respects Only last aspect Appeals' us review our petition certiorari. 420 989, 95 1421, 43 669 (1975). 5 * Respondent raises threshold issue mootness. sole-named representative subsequently him cause,4 affirmed. argues since event eligible favor discriminatees, therefore entitled compliance moot. relies Sosna v. Iowa, 419 393, 553, 532 (1975), Board School Comm'rs Jacobs, 128, 848, 74 reliance misplaced. 6 involved challenge one-year residency state divorce statute. action. However, reached satisfied (and fact another State). U.S., at n. 7, 557, L.Ed.2d, 540. Although outcome, we "(w)hen propriety action, described certification acquired legal separate interest asserted (the representative)," Id., 399, S.Ct., 540, accordingly "cases controversies" Art. III Constitution satisfied. 402, 559, 542.5 7 It true emphasizes instance "capable repetition, yet evading review" 399-401, L.Ed.2d., And remarked supra, moot.6 nothing opinions holds even intimates renders unless remains review."7 Insofar concept mootness defines constitutionally minimal invocation judicial power, meaning scope, concepts justiciability, must derived fundamental informing limitation imposed III. 8 "As so often situation constitutional adjudication, those two words iceberg quality, containing beneath surface simplicity submerged complexities go very heart government. Embodied 'cases' 'controversies' complementary somewhat limitations. limit business questions presented adversary context historically viewed capable resolution through process. define role assigned judiciary tripartite allocation power assure intrude areas committed branches government." Flast Cohen, 392 83, 94-95, 88 1942, 1949-1950, 20 947, 958-959 (1968). 9 There "clearly presented" "with controversy sense contemplated Constitution." Sosna, Those "in process." Flast, 95, 1950, 958. whether, presented, "a live (remains) reviews case." 542. 10 already afforded backpay, thus extent "such (whether relief) concrete adverseness sharpens presentation upon largely depends illumination difficult questions." Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 82 691, 703, 663, 678 (1962). Given contemplates turns circumstances fulfill function exists.8 case, obviously becomes crystal clear examination record 11 individuals, record. Some availed themselves presently employed drivers Bowman. Tr. Oral Arg. 23. now foreseen continue partially rights orders currently subject litigation court. 15. No raised continuing desire these issue. tenacity competence counsel pursuing mode follows meaningful reflecting could absent.9 Accordingly, argument merit. II 12 affirming group barred 2000e-2(h). We disagree. pertinent part: 13 "Notwithstanding provision title, standards compensation, terms, conditions, privileges merit provided differences result intention discriminate race, color, religion, sex, national origin ." 14 reasoned "does affect fides Thus, accords older newer protected (by 703(h)) 'not practice'. F.2d, 417. Significantly, neither nor undertake defend ground. clearly erroneous. 15 composing whose applications put trial.10 wrong affecting them Petitioners do ask system, shape determination effect 703(h). 16 face, appears definitional provision; provisions subsection (h) delineates thereby prohibited not.11 certainly expressly purport qualify proscribe remedial 706(g), 2000e-5(g), where act found. Further, history plainly negates reading limiting qualifying authorized 706(g). initial bill reported House Judiciary Committee H.R. 715212 passed full February 10, 1964,13 did contain Neither majority Report14 mentioned problem seniority. thereafter surfaced during debate Senate. prompted Senators Clark Case respond criticism destroy systems placing interpretive memorandum Congressional Record. stated: "Title established rights. Its prospective retrospective." 110 Cong.Rec. 7213 (1964).15 Senator placed Record Department statement "(I)t undermine vested correct. takes effect." 7207.16 Several weeks thereafter, following several informal conferences among Senate leadership leadership, Attorney General others, see Vaas, VII: Legislative History, B.C.Ind. & Com.L.Rev. 431, 445 (1966), compromise substitute prepared Mansfield Dirksen, minority leaders respectively, introduced floor.17 Mansfield-Dirksen bill, hence 703(h), committee report, generally Supra, Humphrey, conferees, stated designed alter rather "merely clarifies intent 12723 (1964). whatever exact scope light unusual absence usual materials, 457-458, apparent section Act. proved instant apparently unanimous commentators, Cooper Sobol, Seniority Testing Under Fair Laws: A Approach Objective Criteria Hiring Promotion, Harv.L.Rev. 1598, 1632 (1969); Stacy, Remedies Time Economic Downturn, 28 Vand.L.Rev. 487, 506 (1975).18 hold erred concluding that, members. 17 specifically, 706(g).19 18 begin repeating observation earlier decisions enacting Congress prohibit create inequality opportunity due basis origin, Alexander Gardner-Denver 415 36, 44, 94 1011, 1017, 39 147, 155 (1974); McDonnell Douglas Corp. Green, 411 792, 800, 93 1817, 1823, 36 668, 676 (1973); Griggs Duke Power 401 424, 429-430, 91 849, 852-853, 158, 163-164 (1971), ordained policy outlawing should "highest priority," Alexander, 47, 1019, 158; Newman Piggie Park Enterprises, Inc., 390 400, 964, 966, 19 1263, 1265 Last Term's Albemarle Paper Co. Moody, 422 405, 2362, 45 280 consistently congressional plan, central purposes "to make discrimination." 418, 2372, 297. To objective, , supporting amendments VII20 affirms breadth discretion. "The (§ 706(g)) give wide exercising powers fashion complete possible. (T)he victims whole, attainment .requires aggrieved consequences be, possible, restored position Section-by-Section Analysis 1746, accompanying Conference Report, 118 7166, 7168 (1972). emphatic confirmation empowered particular restitution, possible hiring.21 Adequate well slotting application. hardly questioned ordinarily achieve "make-whole" entitlements conferred credits thereunder vast increasing importance Nation. S. Slichter, Healy, E. Livernash, Impact Collective Bargaining Management 104-115 (1960). principles increasingly used allocate scarce competing ("competitive status" seniority) compute noncompetitive contract ("benefit" seniority). Ibid. said about "competitive "has become overriding importance, major functions determine gets keeps available job." Humphrey Moore, 375 335, 346-347, 84 363, 370, 380 "More than collective(-bargaining) affects security employee covered terms." Aaron, Reflections Legal Nature Enforceability Rights, 75 1532, 1535 "Competitive plays broader modern systems, particularly operated agreements: "Included benefits, options, safeguards affected competitive seniority, promotion layoff, demotion, rest days, shift assignments, prerogative scheduling vacation, possibilities lateral avoid 'bumping' face recall, training opportunities, working length layoff endured reducing recall withstand, overtime parking privileges, plant, preferred punch-out line." Vand.L.Rev., 490 (footnotes omitted). 21 standing Bowman, computed departmental hire, determines employees.22 assignments posted bidding highest bidder.23 paid per-mile basis,24 earnings some Additionally, employee's vacation25 pension benefits.26 Obviously merely remedy.27 He perpetually subordinate who, inferiors.28 22 followed reasoning granting positions. Yet comparable subordinated discriminatees. distinction finds support anywhere history. Settled dealing related "twin" discharges violative National Labor Relations Act, 49 449, 29 151 seq., persuasive analogy. indeed surprising gave other." Phelps Dodge NLRB, 313 177, 187, 61 845, 85 L.Ed. 1271, 1279 (1941). For differentiate between "would differentiation substance defiance prohibition directed." 188, 850, L.Ed., 1280. 23 Similarly, construing 10(c), 160(c) model Paper, 419, 29729 remedies constituting "affirmative action" include status, redressing incurred unfair "the restor(e) quo company's (act)." NLRB Rutter-Rex Mfg. 396 258, 263, 90 417, 420, 24 (1969). task applying 10(c) take measures recreate relationships practice." Carpenters 365 651, 657, 81 875, 879, (1961) (Harlan, J., concurring). required accompanied equivalent conduct. See, e. g., re Corp., N.L.R.B. 547, 600, 39, 603-604 (1940), modified 1271 (1941) (ordering "without prejudice privileges"); Nevada Consolidated Copper 26 1182, 1235 enforced, 316 105, 62 960, 86 1305 (1942) "any acquired, unlawfully discriminated them"). Plainly injunction lesser reach district courts. "Where concerned, 'the (district) duty render decree eliminate past like future.' " IV understood requisite circumstances. fashioning invokes sound attempts justify exercise discretion, own refutation argument. 25 416, 2371, 296, imports court's 'inclination, judgment; guided principles.' Discretion "limit(ing) appellate trial courts, invit(ing) inconsistency caprice," allow achievement objectives attainable facts 421, Ct., 2373, 298. reviewed terms less permissible "only reasons statutory eradicating throughout economy members.30 first sort appropriate. rejected class-based awards reject here. suits unanimously appeals, ratified construction amendments. 414 8, 2370, 294. 27 second reason claims "presuppose vacancy, performance member. base multiple conclusions." Pet. forert. A54. improper read reference lack regarding expression concern (unhired summarized record) actual discrimination. factor material however reapply Generalizations applicable serve entire Rather, seek drivers, order,31 material. here carried burden demonstrating existence therefore, prove previous Cf. 802, 1824, 677 Baxter Savannah Sugar Rfg. 437, 443-444 (C.A. 5), cert. denied, 1033, 515, 308 (1974).32 met determined alternative theory justification. employees. argued, acted attempt accommodate groups employees.33 reasons. First, noted 421 299, declines, peculiar "(i)t carefully articulate reasons" doing. Second, more fundamentally, sole diminishes expectations other, arguably innocent, These conflicting will, course, always benefit distributed hierarchy. But, said, language history, show experience points contrary.34 find untenable conclusion affected. "If unhappy it, little hope correcting wrongs Bethlehem Steel 446 652, 663 1971).35 With problems fairness equity application, relief.36 claim nondiscriminatee deprived earned. awarded, actually jobs truly existed still inferior greater total number Therefore, seek, while accorded, constitutes "complete relief."37 divided discriminatee sought. dissent criticizes sufficiently cognizant "directly implicate perfectly innocent employees." Post, 788. view, today alone,38 establishes sharing entirely consistent fair characterization jurisdiction,39 considered traditional "(a)ttainment great confined narrow canons deemed suitable chancellors ordinary private controversies." 31 Certainly way deprives indefeasibly contract. long arising statutes furthering strong public interest.40 Tilton Missouri Pacific R. 376 169, 595, 590 (1964) (construing §§ 9(c)(1) 9(c)(2) Universal Military Training Service 1948, 50 App. 459(c)(1) (2), re-employed returning veteran enjoy military service); Fishgold Sullivan Drydock Repair 328 275, 66 1105, 1230 (1946) Selective 1940). further, enhancing beyond statute, though detrimental agreement. Ford Motor Huffman, 345 330, 73 681, 97 1048 (1953). ability voluntarily end ameliorating interests. Pellicer Brotherhood Ry. S.S. Clerks, 217 205 (C.A.5 1954), 349 912, 601, 99 1246 (1955). See 1605. V 32 previously expressed scheme "implicitly recognizes cases calling another, owing structure choices are, left courts." 295. Circumstances may, withholding VII.41 new hirees establish completion 45-day probationary period, although ultimately fact. Amici point out deferred until apprenticeship program, preliminaries hirees.42 delineate Any enumeration await courts' "keener appreciation" 421-422, 299. 33 reversed, remanded proceedings opinion. 34 ordered. 35 Reversed STEVENS took decision 37 Chief BURGER, concurring dissenting 38 I agree POWELL, stress benefit-type sometimes equitable, competitive-type expense wholly rarely, ever, term retains meaning. More monetary person suffering "front pay" replace need Ante, 777, 38. Such dual purpose deterring wrongdoing protecting "holder-in-due-course" negotiable paper purchaser property notice defect seller's title. setting join approval "robbing Peter Paul." foreclose might injured securing behalf. 40 whom REHNQUIST joins, 41 moot, duly criterion discussed Term discretionary merits issue, "case requirement. concur Part "thrust" insulation amounts perpetuates pre-Act 761. precise II, interpreting bar, instance, 762. am accord much discussion Parts IV, accept correct basic interpretation virtually requiring court, determining kind, ignore equities exist distinction, granted, "benefit"-type "competitive"-type seniority.1 reaches taking absolutist rendering meaningless authority weigh situation. IV. 44 My starting point, One follow backpay. began nature "It automatic mandatory remedy; 'may' invoke. implicitly 415-416, 2370-2371, 295-296. 46 Backpay specifically Moreover, below, achieving Albemarle, recognizing "unfettered shielded thorough review," "principled (in awards) (congressional) purposes," 296. identified distinct implicit "primary objective" "prophylactic": 'to equality opportunities remove barriers white over employees.' Ibid., quoting (1971). Because served objectives,2 concluded "given finding 298-299. today, relying Albemarle's adequate "slotting application." 765-766. concludes treated "frustrate" intent. 771. important includes available.3 follow, think reconciled fairness. 48 When exercises Congress. operative states enjoin (payable agency, organization, responsible practice), 2000e-5(g) ed., IV). phrase speaking "other relief" added amendment, Pub.L. 92-261, 103. 420-421, 2372-2373, 298-299, again 764, Report amendment Congress' possible." 51 expansive general directive liberally refuse arbitrarily. either sources, suggest rectifying losses requires disregard normal considerations. Indeed, belied statute itself, speaks appropriate" "equitable recognized possible" powers." interim, significant strips A. 52 creating presumption Rather equity, insures normally accomplished. forces employer4 wrongfully converge, payment withheld wages deters restitution helps whole. 53 Benefit-type equitable. notes, 773 33, type rights, vacations, size insurance coverage unemployment like, analogous serves mutually reinforcing VII," 767 27. work penalizing wrongdoer economically tends wronged. 54 fails recognize Competitive-type preferential advantages trip promotion. 55 true, step "making victim, furthers apart extending make-whole outer limits, similarity drastic usually directly all. causes rearrangement along ladder resulting increase cost.5 all,6 deterred practice. 56 second, my controlling, types impact workers. above, prophylactic implies, employees.7 Putting differently, disadvantaged losing wrongdoers Chancellor's conscience, third parties. 57 above referred "appropriate" touchstone equity. explicit leaving relevant underscore "backpay" ordering hiring. deliberately accordance principles. 58 essence jurisdiction Chancellor mould each necessities Flexibility rigidity distinguished it. qualities mercy practicality instrument nice adjustment reconciliation needs claims." Hecht Bowles, 321 321, 329-330, 64 587, 592, 754 (1944). 59 "Moreover, special blend necessary, fair, workable. Lemon Kurtzman, 192, 200, 1463, 1469, 151, 161 (1973) (opinion Burger, C. J.). 60 "In nowhere else, eschew rigid absolutes look practical realities inescapably reconciling 201, 161. consider equities. balancing process, incumbent retroactively lose satisfactory service.8 If, holds, rendered meaningless. assume ignored wiped created Court.9 B conception tempered recognition touches concerns Two sections indicate unlike bankpay granted automatically. 63 section, noted, validation plans debates leading introduction construed immediate regardless cost workers' legitimate expectations. found, therein irrelevant too reflect "bona system." Also 703(j), prohibits "preferential treatment" underrepresented employer's force comparison community force.10 kind forbidden 703(j) but, admitted oral argument, treatment."11 preference henceforth outrank, incumbents based fiction, ahead spent "as if" worked employment. assumption interrupted progression up ladder.12 incumbents, interim performing satisfactorily, seriously disadvantaged. least pause imposes creates preference. 65 expressing foregoing views, cases,13 indulge relief.14 instead mandate remedies. Traditionally process left, At imposing, level arbitrary limitations explicated where, circumstances, penalties outweigh others. balance struck way. ignores point. Sixth recently faced showed fine appreciation above. Meadows 510 939 pending, 74-1349.15 "greater problems" 949.16 contains Then, noting lies Judge," (emphasis added), Circuit 67 "For guidance observe depend solely (I. e., competitive-type) workers displaced impossible, obvious, foresee genuine difficulties. 68 suggested enlightenment situation, intervention representatives stood disadvantaged.17 69 attempted almost exclusively 160(c).18 cited few briefs parties,19 privileges." precedents doubly unconvincing. none enforcing incumbents. Meadows, impetus suggestion entertained 70 suggest, respect, misconceives lesson drawn seminal Board's refusals Frankfurter careful emphasize rested 71 "But things catalogue devices stratagems circumventing gamut infinite variety situations. difficulties adaptation means empiric administration. Board, review. 72 ". All factors outside domain come play. Their relevance us. informed effectuation reinstatement. warrant speculating matters entrusted Board. speak itself." 194-196, 1283-1284 added). fallacy apparent: stand NLRA. violations just denies years ago quite leave weighing equities, cases. taken summary, remand instructions investigate deciding appropriateness claimants.20 1981. occasion address claim. merged America, AFL-CIO, latter successor bargaining Brief American Federation Industrial Organizations Amicus Curiae 5. conjunction directions confronting transferred allowed carry accumulated department. 13, 1970, time. September 18, complaint Commission. $6,124.58 intervening period "There filed, Rule 23, defendant plaintiff, moot." 542 plaintiffs possessed 129, 78. contrary, 558, 542, Courts involving "evading held, compelling automatically mooted ineligible Roberts 487 387 (C.A.6 1973); Moss Lane 471 853 (C.A.4 1973). Fourth Brown Gaston County Dyeing Machine 457 1377, 409 982, 319, 246 similar 1981 was, himself, represented. dimension rules invoked passing prematurely questions. (such) operate 'cases confessedly Court's) jurisdiction' source policy, purely constitutional, considerations." 97, 1951, 960 also, 120 1963, 973 (Harlan dissenting); Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 345-348, 466, 482-484, 80 688, 709-712 (1936) (Brandeis, nonconstitutional considerations, mitigating "split up" anew destructive ends postpone indefinitely overdue. By runs qualified became 2, 1965, year enactment. 88-352, 716(a)-(b), 266. "whose trial." 20a. 206 unhired written relates 1970. 52a, Table VA. Hired, First Fired Seniority, Layoffs, Questions Liability Remedy, Col.J.L. Soc.Prob. 343, 376, 378 H.R.Rep.No.914, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News p. 2355 (1963). 2804 Supra. text pertaining states: retrospective. example, discriminating all-white force, title comes obligation simply fill future vacancies nondiscriminatory basis. obliged indeed, permitted fire whites Negroes, prefer Negroes vacancies, or, hired, earlier. (However, waiting lists maintained basis, use subterfuge accomplish discrimination.)" reads: "First, effect. collective layoffs, laid off first, Negroes. origin. worker chance 'low man totem pole' being race. Of rule itself discriminatory, If man, subsequent know how anyone quarrel result. assuming built set aside Employers organizations title." 7207 answers series propounded Dirksen. seniority: "Question. Would prevail promotions, management governed promotions seniority? What dismissals? Normally, contracts call 'last fired.' fired remaining white? "Answer. bill. fired' Negro happens hired,' 'first done hired' abolish list retroactive, change lists." 7217. 11926, 11931. Gould, Security, Race: Role How.L.J. 8-9, (1967); Jurinko Edwin L. Wiegand 477 1038 (C.A.3), 970, 293, 214 (1973), wherein remedy. provides: intentionally engaging charged complaint, practice, Back liability accrue filing charge Interim earnable reasonable diligence reduce allowable. admission union, reinstatement, employee, pay, admission, suspended, expelled, advancement suspended 2000e-3(a) 103, amending draw 789-793, prohibited, available, warranted. contention necessarily disregards extensive manifested "earnings gap" society. S.Rep.No. 92-415, Reports Houses indicated "rightful place" accorded thereunder. Ibid.; H.R.Rep.No. 92-238, 2137. indicated, Infra, 767-768, 28, rightful-place implicating Future earnings, security, prospects, absolutely essential obtaining congressionally mandated goal. completely somehow pursuit explaining amendments, "Employment complex pervasive phenomenon. Experts familiar describe 'systems' 'effects' intentional wrongs, literature replete discussions of, mechanics lines progression, perpetuation pre-act institutional devices, testing requirements." 8. express cite lower forms 1; (The dissent, 796-797, distinguish Hiring. Obviously, predicated.) Thereafter, explicit, analysis area contrary assumed developed govern applicability VII." Section-By-Section H.R.1746, 7166 (1972) 46a-50a. 47a, 51a. 169. vacation VII; reduces called actions law. 417-418, 2371-2372, 280, 296-297 errs treating stating 'primary objective' Nothing reality cuts primary do. "(S)eniority, all, movement future, simple one-time past." Poplin, Depressed Economy: Layoff Problem, U.C.L.A.L.Rev. 225 difference wording respective provisions, grants, anything, NLRA authorizes subchapter," 160(c), whereas amended Or IV) Since reject, refusing stated, "abuse discretion" 418 (1974), appropriately validity silent order. Appeals, plain be. agree. Thus defeat individual's generally. Evidence indicating qualification Actually course relevant. category concerned discriminatee's difficulty. appears, why perpetrator bear proof Even "benefit" analogous, identical, adequately treat distinguish, 796-799, standard 196, 853, 1284 (1941), "restricted arose determinations independent traditionally wide-ranging accepted "Because relation peculiarly competence, enter allowable discretion." 194, 852, 1283. utilizing evolved administrating "We aware inception, course." 419-420, "(T)he inception pursued 'a practically uniform action.' 2373 12. research discloses none, status. privileges" "language Board." Draper 159 294, 296-297, (1947). "routinely cases." 223. Edwards Zaretsky, Preferential Discrimination, Mich.L.Rev. 224 (1975) (a "common remedy"); Layoffs 11, 377 ("traditionally uniformly required"). "presumption" differently protection NLRA, disparate appear. exists doubtless explains participate arguing reached. Vogler McCarty, 451 1236, 1238-1239 1971): "Adequate necessitate, free deal equitably effectively protect redress Another countervailing assessing expected occasioned probable prerequisite appear 166 qualifications. small ("five, six, seven, something order"), ongoing characterized "total restitution," post, 791, 9, deriving "absolutist 'make whole' 791. necessity addresses Further having shifting competitive-status possibility injunctive "hold harmless" Local 862, Automobile Workers, Curiae; damages (sometimes pay") bearing ibid.; adjudged participant Curiae. us, intimate them. 'The claims.' 'Moreover, workable 'In .' 789-790. "(C)laims involve vindication "significant extent" "(strip) (their) 786. powers, proceed point; abstract shield "inconsisten(t) capri(cious)" "thorough review." 26; 32. terminology conforms 766. "Benefit"-type refers worker's computing "fringe benefits." Examples pensions, time, insurance. "Competitive"-type right, relative workers, job-related "rights" supplied equally range keep someone else off, line workday. purpose, reasonably prospect 'provide(s) spur catalyst employers self-examine self-evaluate endeavor eliminate, vestiges unfortunate ignominious page country's history.' (citations replacing loss wrongdoing. 418-420, 297-298. "Discretion record." 770-771. conceded exchange place: "QUESTION: How action? "MR. PATE (Counsel Bowman): remedy? Either PATE: company, tangible not. correct." 42. supplemental referring aspects get best seniority-related increases spoke, interest, granted. 158 296; 783. Griggs, "plain statute." 429, 163. exalts face. commentators illegitimate 1605-1606 badly flawed. Absent showing collusion, party Acceptance offered makes accessory failure else. incumbent's expectancy efforts performance. "divides burden" victims. 776-777. Aside opacity, flawed seems misperception Specific focuses "class" exactly applied. despite unsuccessful additional newly enfranchised alike Earlier distinctly vis-a-vis victim. produced resulted addition feasible originally enacted, contained authorization restricting EEOC. restrictive limitation, 298, adoption suggests awareness yield 257, 2000e-2(j), reads follows: "(j) subchapter interpreted joint labor-management imbalance percentage classified agency membership in, community, State, area, area." 33. grants likewise fiction assumption. remedies, harmed uncertainty retained borne wrongdoer. "indefeasibly rights" invariably proposition hold, analogy imply, operating (1964), (1946), confirmed determination, presumably veterans receive service. 174-175, 599-600, 593-594. (1953), agent, 337-339, 685-687, 1057-1058, advantage contend Fishgold, agent 764 21, "less available" "available" Again, compels "appropriateness" permit inflexible approach From parties three practices. 1038, Third 949. quoted endorsed evenhanded adopted Circuit: consciously assess costs then tailor minimize affording doubt vary depending facts: plaintiffs, (incumbents) alternatives them, industry." 202 original); 224. commentator judges fail "Alice Wonderland" Rains, Based Layoffs: Question Who Goes Hofstra L.Rev. 49, gathering bits pieces patch together 764-765, 21. responses. emphasized elsewhere, 794 contends Available, Equitable intends irrefutably blocked Appropriate citations "present law," precedence told fact, comment minorities "far reaching society." 92-416, seven America Curiae, 31. standardless, unreviewable twin provide standards. They should, rely area. high turnover rate hired. Other factors, fully record, imply views herein expressed.

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