Document: 112 S.Ct. 1846 504 U.S. 191 119 L.Ed.2d 5 Charles W. BURSON, Attorney General and Reporter for Tennessee, Petitionerv.Mary Rebecca FREEMAN. No. 90-1056. Argued Oct. 8, 1991. Decided May 26, 1992. Syllabus Respondent Freeman, while the treasurer a political campaign in filed an action Chancery Court, alleging, among other things, that § 2-7-111(b) of Tennessee Code—which prohibits solicitation votes display or distribution materials within 100 feet entrance to polling place—limited her ability communicate with voters violation of, inter alia, First Fourteenth Amendments. The court dismissed suit, but State Supreme Court reversed, ruling had compelling interest banning such activities place itself not on premises around place. Thus, it concluded, 100-foot limit was narrowly tailored protect, least restrictive means serve, State's interests. Held: judgment is case remanded. 802 S.W.2d 210 (Tenn.1990), reversed Justice BLACKMUN, joined by THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, KENNEDY, concluded does violate Pp. 196-211. (a) section facially content-based restriction speech public forum and, thus, must be subjected exacting scrutiny: show regulation necessary serve state drawn achieve end. This presents particularly difficult reconciliation, since involves conflict between exercise right engage discourse fundamental vote, which at heart this country's democracy. 196-198. (b) Section advances Tennessee's interests preventing voter intimidation election fraud. There substantial long-lived consensus 50 States some restricted zone places protecting vote freely effectively. real question then how large permissible sufficiently tailored. A required prove empirically perfectly secure interest. Rather, legislatures should permitted respond potential deficiencies electoral process foresight, provided response reasonable significantly impinge constitutionally protected rights. Munro v. Socialist Workers Party, 479 189, 195-196, 107 533, 537-38, 93 499. 2-7-111(b)'s minor geographical limitation constitute significant impingement. While possible measurable distance from polls governmental could effectively become impermissible burden Amendment, establishing its boundary, constitutional side line. 198-211. SCALIA 2-7-111 because reasonable, viewpoint-neutral nonpublic forum. environs place, including adjacent streets sidewalks, have traditionally been devoted assembly debate therefore do traditional Cf. Greer Spock, 424 828, 96 1211, 47 505. restrictions as those need "exacting scrutiny" analysis. 214-216. J., announced delivered opinion, which, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE JJ., joined. concurring opinion. SCALIA, opinion judgment. STEVENS, dissenting O'CONNOR SOUTER, THOMAS, took no part consideration decision case. Burson, Nashville, Tenn., petitioner. John E. Herbison, respondent. BLACKMUN KENNEDY join. 1 Twenty-six years ago, majority written Hugo L. Black, struck down law made crime newspaper editor publish editorial day urging readers particular way. Mills Alabama, 384 214, 86 1434, 16 484 (1966). did hesitate denounce statute "obvious flagrant abridgment" Amendment rights, id., 219, S.Ct., 1437, quick point out holding "in way involve[d] extent power regulate conduct order maintain peace, decorum there." Id., 218, 1437. 2 Today, we confront issue carefully left open Mills. presented whether provision Code, violates 3 * has carved election-day "campaign-free zone" through code. That reads pertinent part: 4 "Within appropriate boundary established subsection [100 entrances], building located, posters, signs materials, against any person party position are prohibited." Tenn.Code Ann. (Supp.1991).1 Violation Class C misdemeanor punishable term imprisonment greater than 30 days fine exceed $50, both. §§ 2-19-119 40-35-111(e)(3) (1990). II 6 Mary Freeman candidate office managed local campaigns, worked actively state-wide elections. In 1987, she city-council Metropolitan Nashville-Davidson County. 7 Asserting limited voters, respondent brought facial challenge these statutes Davidson County Court. She sought declaratory provisions were unconstitutional under both United Constitutions. also permanent injunction their enforcement. 8 Chancellor ruled Constitutions respondent's suit. App. 50. He determined content-neutral time, manner restriction; served interference, harassment, during voting process; there alternative channel free-speech rights outside boundary. Pet. Cert. 1a. 9 4-to-1 reversed. first held "because regulates specific subject matter, certain category speakers, workers." 213. upheld unless (i) placed justified (ii) chosen bear relation intrusive goals. found unquestionably shown itself, regulating Accordingly, protect demonstrated less current prohibiting interference use violence prevent voting. See 2-19-101 2-19-115 (Supp.1991). Finally, noted if able congestion disruption entrances places, shorter radius "might perhaps pass muster." S.W.2d, 214. 10 Because importance issue, granted certiorari. 498 ----, 111 1578, 113 644 (1991). We now reverse Court's Constitution. III 11 provides "Congress shall make . abridging freedom speech. ." Thornhill 310 88, 95, 60 736, 741, 84 L.Ed. 1093 (1940), said: "The [is] secured abridgment States, personal liberties all persons State." 12 implicates three central concerns our jurisprudence: speech, forum, based content obviously "Whatever differences may exist about interpretations practically universal agreement major purpose free discussion affairs." U.S., "For concerning affairs more self-expression; essence self-government." Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 74-75, 85 209, 216, 13 125 (1964). recognized "the 'has fullest most urgent application' uttered office." Eu San Francisco Democratic Comm., 489 223, 109 1013, 1020, 103 271 (1989) (quoting Monitor Patriot Co. Roy, 401 265, 272, 91 621, 625, 28 35 (1971)). second important feature bars quintessential forums. These forums include "which long tradition government fiat debate," parks, streets, sidewalks. Perry Education Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 45, 948, 955, 74 794 (1983).2 "Such has, ancient times, privileges, immunities, citizens." Hague CIO, 307 496, 515, 59 954, 964, 83 1423 (1939) (opinion Roberts, J.). At same however, expressive activity, even interfere property used. so content-neutral, interest, leave ample alternatives communication. Grace, 461 171, 177, 1702, 1707, 75 736 (1983). Ward Rock Against Racism, 491 781, 791, 2746, 2754, 105 661 (1989). 14 consideration, restriction. Whether individuals near depends entirely related campaign. reach categories commercial solicitation, distribution, display. Amendment's hostility extends only viewpoint, prohibition entire topic. See, e.g., Consolidated Edison Public Service Comm'n New York, 447 530, 537, 2326, 2333, 65 319 (1980). Accord, Simon & Schuster, Inc. York Crime Victims Bd., --- 501, 116 476 (1991) (statute restricting content-based).3 15 As "regulation end." 955. Board Airport Comm'rs Los Angeles Jews Jesus, Inc., 482 569, 573, 2568, 2571, 500 (1987); Cornelius NAACP Legal Defense Ed. Fund, 473 788, 800, 3439, 3448, 87 567 (1985); 1707. Despite ritualistic ease now-familiar standard, announcement allow us avoid truly issues involving Amendment. Perhaps foremost serious cases force reconcile commitment embodied proceedings. Sheppard Maxwell, 333, 361-363, 1507, 1521-1522, 600 (1966) (outlining trial participants courts impose accused's fair trial). reconciliation: accommodation vote—a IV 17 asserts campaign-free serves two First, argues citizens candidates choice.4 Second, protects conducted integrity reliability.5 18 advanced ones. "right one's choice democratic society." Reynolds Sims, 377 555, 1362, 1378, 506 Indeed, 19 "No precious country having who laws good citizens, they live. Other basic, illusory undermined." Wesberry Sanders, 376 1, 17, 526, 535, 481 20 confusion undue influence. Eu, 228-229, 1023. 21 "indisputably preserving process." 231, 1024. thus "upheld generally applicable evenhanded reliability itself." Anderson Celebrezze, 780, n. 9, 1564, 1570, 547 (1983) (collecting cases). words, ensuring individual's undermined fraud process. 22 To survive strict scrutiny, assert interest—it demonstrate asserted readily acknowledge rarely survives examination evolution reform, abroad, demonstrates necessity areas places. 23 During colonial period, many officials elected viva voce method showing hands, custom parts Europe. scheme private affair, open, decision, witnessed improperly influenced some. opportunities system gave bribery gradually led repeal. generally, Evans, History Australian Ballot System 1-6 (1917) (Evans); J. Harris, Election Administration 15-16 (1934) (Harris); Rusk, Effect Reform Split Ticket Voting, 1876-1888, 8-11 (1968) (Rusk). 24 Within formation Union, incorporated paper ballot into system. Initially, vast improvement. Individual own handwritten ballots, marked them privacy homes, counting. But effort making became increasingly complex cumbersome. S. Albright, American 14-19 (1942) (Albright); Evans 5; Rusk 9-14. 25 Wishing gain influence, parties began produce ballots voters. often printed flamboyant colors, distinctive designs, emblems distance. attempts standardize easily thwarted—the vote-buyer simply hands bribed watch until he box. evils associated earlier reinfected failure secrecy opened door bribery6 intimidation.7 Albright 19-20; 7, 11; Harris 151-152; V. Key, Politics, Parties, Pressure Groups 649 (1952); Reynolds, Testing Democracy: Electoral Behavior Progressive Jersey, 1880-1920, 36 (1988); 14-23. 26 Approaching akin entering auction elector started his journey polls, met various ticket peddlers "who too anxious supply him tickets." 9. Often competition heated when several uncommitted wavering voter. Fredman, Ballot: Story (Fredman); 17. Sham battles frequently engaged keep away elderly timid opposition. Fredman 24, 26-27; 115 North Review 628-629 (cited 16). short, early elections "were very pleasant spectacle believed government." 10. 27 problems experiencing unique. Several countries attempting work satisfactory solutions problems. Some provinces adopted series reforms intended elector's vote. famous official ballot, encompassing ticket. measure preserve ballot. erection booths (containing compartments) officials, "scrutinees" each candidate, electors Wigmore, Embodied Legislation Various Countries 69, 71, 78, 79 (1889) (Wigmore) (excerpting South Australia Queensland). 23; 17; 23-24. enacted England 1872 after study committee practices identified Australia's best remedy existing situation. Wigmore 14-16. Belgium followed England's example 1877. Like provinces, excluded general room. 94, 105. 23-24; 17-18; 24-25. 29 One earliest indications reform movement came 1882 Philadelphia Civil Association urged adoption pamphlet entitled "English Elections." Many articles praising usefulness bribery, intimidation, disorder, inefficiency polls. Commentators argued would diminish growing evil removing knowledge successful. Another argument strongly favor weak dependent coercion employers creditors. inability determine effectiveness accordingly create decency 24-26; 21-23; 25-29, 42-43. After failed adopt Michigan Wisconsin, Louisville, Kentucky, municipal government, Commonwealth Massachusetts 1888. Louisville prohibited agents, coming room inclosure. candidates' agents area allowed persuade, intimidate one attempt doing so. 120. differed somewhat previous acts encompassed guard rail constructed six compartments. 47, 128. modification considered improvement additional monitoring members independent candidates, represented separate inspectors. Otherwise, perpetrate almost every buy up officers party." 52. "electioneering polling-place, hundred place." 131. 18-21; 26. 31 success achieved immediately noticed widely praised. 21-24; 26-31, commentator remarked 1888: 32 "We secrecy; employers, bosses, police officers, saloonkeepers others come 33 "In times 34 frequently, quote litany, 'scenes battle, murder, sudden death.' end, nightfall, jubilation begins, peaceful Sabbaths. new legislation rendered impossible old methods frank, hardy, straightforward shameless polls." Ivins, Proceedings 29th Annual Meeting Bar 316 (1906).8 37 triumphs 1888 set off rapid widespread States. By 1896 90 percent accounted 92 national electorate. 30-31. 26-28; 27; Concurring Judgment, post, 215, (citations passed before 1900). 38 roots can traced back period reform. relevant 1890 switch "secur[e] purity elections," where entrance. act provide penalty applied highly populated counties cities. Tenn.Pub.Acts, ch. 13. 39 1901 amendment "Act elections, define punish offenses elective franchise." original act, 1897, commit offenses, induce refrain measure. 1897 14. person, except approach nearer 142. 40 remained relatively unchanged 1967, added yet another proscription secret law. literature "on floor building, (100) thereof, progress." 1967 85. 41 1972, comprehensive code included proscribed material 1972 direct precursor challenged present litigation. 42 access 26a-50a; Note, Defoliating Grassroots: Day Restrictions Political Speech, 77 Geo.L.J. 2137 (summarizing 1989). National Labor Relations limits union-representation elections.9 43 sum, history reveals persistent battle evils: unsuccessful experiment unofficial system, together numerous Western democracies, settled solution: find wide-spread time-tested States' 44 dissent advance principal challenges conclusion. zones overinclusive persuaded. Intimidation fall short serving "deal blatant attempts" impede Buckley Valeo, 28, 612, 639, 46 659 (1976) (existence preclude contributions campaigns). Moreover, enforcement barred vicinity appearance process, see 2-7-103 (1985), go undetected. undetected nonetheless drive remedial taken. 45 argue underinclusive restrict types charitable exit polling, zone. agree distinguishing requires scrutiny. not, renders fatally underinclusive. fact, pointed out, allowing makes machines monitors. regardless monitoring, is, summarized above, evidence used workers contrast, forms abuses. address them. require exist. confuse necessity. Yet concedes cure Contrary dissent's contention, link surrounding merely timing—it common sense. voter.10 hold disagree. 48 preliminary long, uninterrupted prevalent forward sort proof wishes require. originally 1890s, extensive legislative hearings regulations. prevalence laws, here encouraged reenactment without much comment. fact effect time put witnesses testify what happen isolate exact Successful successful precisely detect. 49 Furthermore, securing effectively, never "to demonstrating objective effects stability [are] produced" question. 195, 499 (1986).11 Elections vary year year, It findings regulation. tainted imperfect one. Rerunning negative impact turnout.12 requiring deal "would necessitate sustain level damage legislature take corrective action. Legislatures, think, foresight rather reactively, rights." 537-38 (emphasis added). 51 think geographic prescribed constitutes view line tighter "constitutional dimension." 197, 538. Reducing feet, suggested difference degree, kind. 30, 640. "takes approximately seconds walk feet." 215. decided last enter own, possible. choice.13 52 course, supra. Meyer Grant, 486 414, 108 1886, 425 (1988) (invalidating absolute bar paid circulators). reviewing employed " 'litmus-paper test' will valid invalid restrictions." 789, 1570 Storer Brown, 415 724, 730, 94 1274, 1279, 714 (1974)). sufficient say 53 conclusion, reaffirm rare This, Here, State, administrator conflicts right, cast taint history, consensus, simple sense right. Given solicitors stand compromise. 54 remanded further proceedings inconsistent 55 ordered. 56 THOMAS 57 concurring. 58 Earlier Term, I questioned validity recent precedents suggesting pursuit 502 ---- - (KENNEDY, judgment). Under deem proper approach, neither nor falls well-defined categories. ibid. Today's warrants elaboration meaning "content-based" jurisprudence. my concurrence seeming paradox notwithstanding "our repeated statement 'above else, expression message, ideas, content,' 514 Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 2286, 2290, 212 (1972)), fallen practice confined narrow continue believe test accomplished accident, matter produces misunderstanding encourage suppress legitimate expression. role, sorting supra, ("we cannot deciding content-neutral"). context regulations "[g]overnment activity neutral 'justified reference regulated speech.' Clark Community Creative Non-Violence, 468 288, 293, 104 3065, 3069, 82 221 (1984)) ). cases, permitting suppression apparent face. true inquiry necessary. read strike content. 61 Discerning justification expression, always was, been, Schuster. censorial face draws distinctions content, tender plausible unrelated ideas. analytical device detect, way, accurate description explanation analysis explicit decisions; appear regulation's inquiry. 2754; 3069; Heffron International Society Krishna Consciousness, 452 640, 648-649, 12, 101 2559, 2564, 69 298 (1981). And matters apply requirement tailoring contexts, 797, 2757, although like Ward, Clark, Heffron, neutrality evident once object examination. 62 today, justify condemn accuracy gives outcome permits yield ----. principle danger rule engulfed analysis; Voting cherished government. using With observations, concur 63 64 If "traditional forum" tool conclusory label, remain faithful name derive tradition. venerable (Supp.1991) purports apply, ante, 198, inappropriate. Instead, 2-7-111, though content-based, correctly notes, sometimes encompasses sidewalks Ante, 196, 2. determination scrutiny premised "quintessential forums," 'by debate.' 196 Insofar functioning concerned, Statutes impressively use. Ever late 19th century, specified place—or physical presence there—have commonplace, indeed prevalent. 1900, (including Tennessee) restrictions.1 noteworthy forth (100 feet),2 clear debate. 66 Nothing doctrine disregard longstanding "Streets sidewalks" 505 (streets military base forum), usage people portions either. unquestionable accommodated, suppose, covered "time, manner" upon speech—which reflection traditions, problem expansion (or unique exception to) doctrine, permit (§ electioneering speech). Ibid. doctrinally confusing day, forum"—which viewpoint-neutral. 46, 67 For reasons believes 198-211, reasonable; contend viewpoint-discriminatory. constitutional. 68 whom SOUTER join, dissenting. created classic recognized, "[d]iscussion qualifications integral operation affords broadest protection 'to assure [the] unfettered interchange ideas bringing social changes desired people.' 14, 632, (citation omitted). Therefore, fully plurality 'regulation end.' 198 agree, anything approaching showing. 70 statutory raises magnitude. directly core concern targets (campaign speech) defined class speakers workers) so, perversely disfavors normally accorded kinds regulate. reasons, bears heavy silencing 71 creating quite different functions—they orderly last-minute campaigning. former that, light (1966), latter not. fashioned ensure unnecessarily hinder 72 Campaign-free broad, antiseptic sweep. 30,000 square place; Kentucky feet—silencing over 750,000 feet. Even sanguine scenario participatory democracy, imagine turnout complete clearing hundreds thousands path polling-place remains curtain box closed. 73 cover unmistakably identifies censorship campaigning animating behind restrictions. maintaining suggests expansive prohibitions order. face, appears informed concerns. Although initially zone, later amended establish 300-foot 95 counties. observed, "there rational basis" special treatment, "discernable reason why extension in" Brief Opposition 4a, Tenn.Att'y Gen.Op. 87-185. might inhibit voting; "display signs, materials." 2-7-111(b). Bumper stickers parked cars lapel buttons pedestrians taboo. notion sweeping borders absurd. introduced exceptionally thin. sole witness explained inside offered ban place.1 On record far surprising Court—which surely familiar traditions are—concluded regulatory conclusion bolstered indicates normal completely adequate place.2 76 recognition poverty record, plurality—without briefing, judicial factfinding looks assess From review finds "all fraud." 206. 78 deeply flawed; confuses necessity, mistakes indispensable. plurality's reasoning combines logical errors: assumes practice's life establishes necessity; second, ended.3 regard first, were, indicates, broader package abuses affected cured institution heightened alone, place.4 mere timing infer 80 regarded proxy demonstrated. contrary, election-law jurisprudence rich examples longstanding, unnecessary. example, "[m]ost Colonies [poll taxes]; histories. Harper Virginia Bd. Elections, 383 663, 684, 1079, 1091, 169 (Harlan, dissenting). Similarly, barriers candidacy, stringent petition requirements, Williams Rhodes, 393 23, 89 5, (1968), property-ownership Turner Fouche, 396 346, 532, (1970), onerous filing fees, Lubin Panish, 709, 1315, 702 (1974), features labyrinth. 81 decisions involve, case, traditions. Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 995, 274 (1972), invalidated 1-year residency requirement, instructive. indisputably "traditional," 1870. O.T.1971, 13, p. 22. defended basis 'secur[ing] box.' 23. Again involved rights—the travel requirements "unconstitutional 'necessary promote interest.' 342, 1003 original) "[p]reservation 'purity box' formidable-sounding interest," 345, 1004, rejected mention, let alone determinative, old. Baker Carr, 369 186, 691, 663 (1962), addressed apportionment legislature. regime trial, "40% elect[ed] 99 [state] House" Representatives. 253, 729 (Clark, concurring). Although, Frankfurter observed dissent, 'very unequal' representation" Nation's landscape 307-318, 759-765, bound Our resemble way: Never indicated synonymous assume somehow "necessary," follow later, Much culture, institutions, changed turn century: corrupt, civil, today ago. salutary developments substantially eliminated blithely dispenses factual "traditional" have, exception, Florida Comm. Liability McMillan, 682 F.Supp. 1536, 1541-1542 (MD Fla.1988); Clean-Up '84 Heinrich, 582 Fla.1984), aff'd, 759 F.2d 1511 (CA11 1985). Likewise, similar so-called "exit polling" news media careful factfinding, declined "necessary." Firestone News-Press Publishing Co., 538 So.2d 457, 459 (Fla.1989) Florida's 50-foot reaches noting "[a]t evidentiary hearing, testified disturbances occurred fifty state's unsubstantiated disturbance overcome chilling rights."); Daily Herald Munro, 838 380, 385, (CA9 1988) (observing Washington's '[t]here isn't iota testimony single upset, intimidated, threatened' transcript)); Broadcasting Cleland, 697 1204, 1211-1212 (ND Ga.1988); CBS Smith, 681 794, 803 (SD Fla.1988). All courts, received better situated contemporary zones. unnecessary, something atavism. mind, developed adversarial search truth, whatever historical continued "necessity" established. Especially disappears, well. addition broadly reach, selectively Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 785, 98 1407, 1420, 707 (1978), subjects speak issue." silences campaign-related allows subject: religious, artistic, day's it, prohibit great leaflets, wearing buttons. discriminatory severely undercuts credibility purported law-and-order justification. discrimination problematic inevitably groups candidates. illustrates, rely heavily 22-23. Candidates fewer resources, lower visibility offices, "grassroots" benefit disproportionately 2137, 2158-2160 authorities). recognizes 197-198, inquire unsupported claim selective because, "[t]he exist." 207. "ha[d] nothing State's" activities. Members (1991); Arkansas Writers' Project, Ragland, 221, 1722, 1728, 209 (1987). Similarly Carey 455, 464-465, 2292, 263 (1980), acknowledged Illinois' "residential privacy" picketing distinction labor non-labor "justified domestic tranquility." true: differential treatment furthers Access just threatened congregation concerned environmental favored candidate. assuming disorder lead commission errors perpetration fraud, caused religious dispute sparked colporteur worker. 88 scrutiny," departures standard significance future precise declines hard look analysis, demands compel expression; tradition.5 citing (1986), lightens "narrowly tailored." Washington ballot-access "requir[e] particularized existence confusion, overcrowding, frivolous candidacies prior imposition access." 194-195, 537. stated "should 537-38. doubts fundamentally assumption "not Not us, sweep vital stake, know sound. Third, character suppressive regulation, upholds evidence" poses dangers contradicts premise namely, State. shifted proving plaintiff. calls end borrow mixed metaphor, "toothless." Mathews Lucas, 427 495, 510, 2755, 2764, 651 (1976). Ours Nation Those support, superseded by, rules. tradition, presidential campaigns eve; Congress certainly enforce enacting proscribing day. well, bans endorsements States,6 incompatible Mills, aside conviction violated ban. accept analogy could, insulate sentiments jury sequestered.7 squarely 'from confusive charges countercharges propaganda influence day.' 1437 278 Ala. 188, 176 884, 890 (1965)). advocacy "can effective." stands proposition notwithstanding, insulating tends undermine, statute. scrutinize is—a amount situations, nuisance. 'the society offensive suppressing it.' Hustler Magazine, Falwell, 485 55, 876, 882, pay homage sanctity silence. hubbub nuisance, sound vibrant sound, "trenches protections 'at zenith,' 425, 1894, reason, shoulder done respectfully dissent. 2-7-111(a) boundaries 300 population ranges. Petitioner's predecessor (an defendant) opined Art. XI, Tenn.Op.Atty.Gen. 87-185 raised pleadings, District standing resident issue. constitutionality us. Testimony locations 23-24, 42. Content-based raise equal-protection course differentiate Department (1972) (exemption schools equal protection). City Council Taxpayers Vincent, 466 816, 2118, 2134, 772 (1984) (suggesting ordinance posting entail forbidden discrimination). either theory, 461-462, 2290-91, Piper Swan, 908, 911 (ED Tenn.1970), writ mandamus denied sub nom. 971, 1194, 337 (1971) (purpose workers). Law Revision Commission, Special Report Commission Eighty-Seventh Assembly Concerning Bill Adopt Act Containing Unified Coherent Treatment (provision safeguards "purity elections"). writer described conditions follows: "This sounds exaggeration, truth; facts notorious acquainted denial—that raising colossal sums rewarded promotion highest offices government; systematic organization purchase votes, individually blocks, factor machinery parties; number demand money compensation grown recurring election." Gordon, Protection Suffrage (quoted 11). reports Indiana 1880 results "[m]any electors, aware corrupt element enough election, aloof altogether." 11. According report Forty-Sixth Congress, men marched carried employers' carriages. They furnished compelled watched dropped S.Rep. 497, 46th Cong., 2d Sess., 9-10 (1880). recounted "extensively practiced": "Many afraid Others voted lost jobs. employee lived factory town, probably tenement owned company, possibly wife children mill. mill-owners, family thrown mill, tenement, earning livelihood. Frequently owner manager mill stood closely employees voted. condition, said workingmen exercised choice." 12-13 (footnote Similar law: "Quiet, order, cleanliness reign polling-places. visited precincts where, coats torn backs kind snatched voters' threats substituted ballots; peaceable." Annals Academy Social Science 738 (1892). Season-All Industries, NLRB, 654 932 (CA3 1981); NLRB Carroll Contracting Ready Mix, 636 (CA5 Midwest Stock Exchange, 620 629 (CA7), cert. denied, 449 873, (1980); Michem, 170 N.L.R.B. 362 (1968); Claussen Baking 134 (1961). connection distinguishes cited long-standing 666, 1081, ("[v]oter wealth paying tax"). modified "burden proof" process—instead, applies threatens i.e., overcrowded one, physically interferes ballots. support directed intangible "influence," editorials unwillingness tension Trials judge him, easier findings. rerunning suffer imperfections rescheduled election. Nonetheless, fair-trial context, reaffirmed given countervailing 'our endeavored probability prejudice.' Sheppard, 352, 1517 re Murchison, 349 133, 136, 623, 942 (1955)) contends highway. inclusion result prosecution individual driving automobile bumper sticker. oral argument, petitioner latter, inadvertent conduct, "display" material. Tr. Oral Arg. 33-35. event, arguments "as applied" prosecuted conduct. successful, call limiting construction invalidation. absence contention circumstances, entertain Mar. 3, 1875, 18, 1874-1875 Ala.Acts 76, 99; 4, 1891, 39, 1891 Ark.Acts 32, 48; 20, 130, 1215, Cal.Stats. 165, 178; Colo.Sess.Laws 143, 164; June 22, 1889, 247, 1889 Conn.Pub.Acts 155, 158; 15, 33, Del.Laws 85, 100; 25, 1895, 4328, 1895 Fla.Laws 56, 76; Feb. Idaho Sess.Laws 50, 51; Ill.Laws 107, 119; 6, 87, Ind.Acts 157, 182; Apr. 161, 1886 Iowa Acts 187, 192; 11, 1893, 1893 Kan.Sess.Laws 106, 120; 1892, 65, 1891-1892 Ky.Acts 121; 2, 1896, 202, 103, Md.Laws 327, 384; 275, Mass.Acts 276; 21, 108, Minn.Laws 16, 1880, Miss.Laws 112; 35, Mo.Laws 105, 110; Mont.Code Ann., Title (1895); 29, Neb.Laws 238, 255; 40, Nev.Stats. 46; 1890, 63, N.J.Laws 361, 397; 262, N.Y.Laws 482, 494; 66, 34, N.D.Laws 1885, 1885 Ohio Laws 232, 235; 19, Ore.Laws 13; 57, S.D.Laws 152, Tenn.Pub.Acts 55; Utah 183, 208; 746, 10, 1893-1894 Va.Acts 862, 864; 1889-1890 Wash.Laws 400, 412; 89, 79, W.Va.Acts 226, 257; 248, 36, Wis.Laws 267; Jan. 100, Wyo. (State) 392. E.g., Nev.Stat. 267. 210, 213 (Tenn.1990) ("The error, etc. numbers polls"). entrance, nonvoters justified, protection. 2-7-103(c) provides: policeman law-enforcement officer ten (10') request county arrest vote." disruptive 10-foot insufficient guarantee access. historians substantive narrative, disturbing history. suggestion voter," 207-208, specious. obvious (e.g., opaque doors curtains booth) involve disagreement constitutional; "area emphasizes "force[s] (citing (1966)). characterization controversy indicate) deference Indeed defer practices, imposed "appellate tribunals duty evaluation circumstances" 362, 1522. 1913 Mont.Laws pp. 590, 607; 1911 N.D.Laws, 129, 214; 1909 Ore.Laws, 29. idea [the endorsements] being unfair pressure 'brainwashing' minds untrammeled influences, insulated partisan submitted." Appellee, O.T.1965, 597,

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