Document: 492 U.S. 33 109 S.Ct. 2782 106 L.Ed.2d 26 GRANFINANCIERA, S.A., et al., Petitionersv.Paul C. NORDBERG, Creditor Trustee for the Estate of Chase & Sanborn Corporation, etc. No. 87-1716. Argued Jan. 9, 1989. Decided June 23, Syllabus Respondent, bankruptcy trustee a corporation undergoing Chapter 11 reorganization, filed suit in District Court against petitioners, seeking to avoid allegedly fraudulent monetary transfers them by bankrupt corporation's predecessor and recover damages, costs, expenses, interest. The court referred proceedings Bankruptcy Court. Shortly after Colombian Government nationalized petitioner Granfinanciera, petitioners requested jury trial. Judge denied request, deeming transfer "core action" which, under his understanding English common law, "was non-jury issue." affirmed Court's judgment respondent, without discussing petitioners' trial request. Appeals also affirmed, ruling, inter alia, that Seventh Amendment supplied no right trial, because conveyance actions are equitable nature, even when plaintiff seeks only relief; themselves inherently nature; Congress has displaced any designating, 28 U.S.C. § 157(b)(2)(H), as proceedings" triable judges sitting juries. Held: 1. This will not address respondent's contention below should be Granfinanciera it was commercial instrumentality made its request therefore entitled such or applicable statutory provisions. difficult question neither raised nor adequately briefed argued here, this is an "exceptional case" which consider arguments below. Moreover, claim uncontradicted affirmance on ground respondent now urges would enlarge rights decrease those Granfinanciera. Pp. 38-40. 2. Provided permissibly assigned resolution non-Article III adjudicative body does use factfinder, entitles person who submitted estate sued transfer. 40-49. (a) Since decisions, early cases, scholarly authority all demonstrate have had bring action at law 18th-century England, equity adjudicated it, must concluded preliminarily "Sui[t] law" required Amendment. 43-47. (b) More importantly, nature relief seeks—the recovery money payments ascertained definite amounts—conclusively demonstrates cause characterized legal rather than equitable, petit oners prima facie Schoenthal v. Irving Trust Co., 287 92, 53 50, 77 L.Ed. 185. 47-49. 3. their notwithstanding 157(b)(2)(H)'s designation may adjudicate. 49-65. Although prohibit from assigning tribunal factfinder so long asserts "public right," lacks power strip parties contesting matters private constitutional See, e.g., Atlas Roofing Co. Occupational Safety Health Review Comm'n, 430 442, 97 1261, 51 464; Northern Pipeline Construction Marathon Pipe Line 458 102 2858, 73 598. For these purposes, right" limited matter arising between others, but extends seemingly "private" closely intertwined with federal regulatory program enact. Thomas Union Carbide Agricultural Products 473 568, 586, 593-594, 105 3325, 3335, 3339-3340, 87 409. 51-55. A trustee's more accurately public right. plurality supra, U.S., 71, S.Ct., 2871, noted restructuring debtor-creditor relations well emphasized state-law causes breach contract paradigmatic rights, asserted insolvent midst reorganization proceedings. Trustees' quintessentially common-law suits nearly resemble claims augment they do creditors' pro rata share res. analysis confirmed Katchen Landy, 382 323, 327-328, 86 467, 471-472, 15 391, read hold creditor's preference depends upon whether creditor estate. here claims, part adjudication process integral relations. cannot divest merely relabeling pre-existing, attaches specialized equity, particularly where there evidence considered implications core 55-61. (c) Permitting trials significantly impair functioning legislative scheme. It seriously allowing entered "go far dismantle scheme," phrase used Roofing, 454, n. 11, 1268, since plainly assumed carried In addition, easily said incompatible proceedings, expressly provided certain other out litigation. juries serve usefully checks life-tenured judges' decisions overlooks potential exercise beneficial restraint fixed-term judges, beholden Executive. although providing some might impede swift increase expense reorganizations, considerations insufficient overcome Amendment's clear command. 61-63. 835 F.2d 1341 (CA11 1988), reversed remanded. BRENNAN, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., MARSHALL, STEVENS, KENNEDY, JJ., joined, Parts I, II, III, V, SCALIA, joined. concurring judgment, post, p. 65, WHITE, dissenting opinion, 71. BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, 91. Adam Lawrence, Miami, Fla., petitioners. Laurence Tribe, Cambridge, Mass., respondent. Justice BRENNAN 1 presented We jury, Congress' 157(b)(2)(H) (1982 ed., Supp. V). 2 * Corporation petition Code 1983. plan approved United States Southern Florida vested Nordberg, bankruptcy, conveyances. App. Pet. Cert. 37. 1985, Medex, Ltda., Florida. complaint alleged received $1.7 million Sanborn's corporate within one year date filed, receiving consideration reasonably equivalent value return. Id., 39-40. Respondent sought what he were constructively actually interest §§ 548(a)(1) (a)(2), 550(a)(1) ed. 41. 3 Over five months later, shortly before served summons Bogota, Colombia. answer following Granfinanciera's nationalization, both "trial issues triable." 7. "a originally, I understand 34. Following bench dismissed prejudice actual fraud constructive amount $1,500,000 $180,000 Medex. 24-30. 18-23. 4 Eleventh Circuit affirmed. (1988). found lacked provision brought—11 548(a)(2) V)—contains mention 1411 V) "affords personal injury wrongful death sui s." F.2d, 1348. further ruled conveyances relief, id., 1348-1349, "bankruptcy itself thus equitable." 1349. our 391 (1966), say "Congress convert into displace seventh amendment jury," held done designating 5 granted certiorari decide 486 1054, 108 2818, 100 920 (1988), reverse. II 6 Before considering we confront preliminary argument. contends respect Granfinanciera—though Medex—because argues preserves recognized England late 18th century, foreign sovereigns instrumentalities immune law. Suits possible, asserts, accordance Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 (FSIA), 1330, 1602-1611, reads 1330(a)1 case state. concludes regardless merits Medex's claim. 7 decline argument failed raise poses been argued. Without cross-petitioning certiorari, prevailing party may, course, "defend properly relied upon, rejected, Appeals," Washington Yakima Indian Nation, 439 463, 476, 20, 99 740, 749, 58 740 (1979), alternative expand either established Blum Bacon, 457 132, 137, 5, 2355, 2359, 72 728 (1982); New York Telephone 434 159, 166, 8, 98 364, 369, 54 376 (1977). Respondent's present defense however, advanced below.2 "we could grounds supporting [the] different rested decision," "where 'only exceptional cases.' " Heckler Campbell, 461 458, 468-469, 12, 103 1952, 1958, 76 66 (1983), quoting McGoldrick Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, 309 430, 434, 60 670, 672, 84 849 (1940). 8 case. Not lack guidance issue, questions remain available state 1330 and, if not, circumstances business enterprise become arm Compare Gould, Inc. Pechiney Ugine Kuhlmann, 853 445, 450 (CA6 1988) (jurisdiction determined party's status act complained occurred); Morgan Guaranty N.Y. Republic Palau, 639 F.Supp. 706, 712-716 (S.D.N.Y.1986) (status time decisive jurisdiction), Callejo Bancomer, 764 1101, 1106-1107 (CA5 1985) (FSIA applies though bank filed); Wolf Banco National de Mexico, 739 1458, 1460 (CA9 1984) (same), cert. denied, 469 1108, 784, 83 778 (1985). reply brief, contradiction oral argument, "unquestionably circuit court's decision concomitantly petitioner" "open[ing] up new areas discovery aid execution" first time, wins Colombia's central banking institutions possibly governmental instrumentalities. Reply Brief Petitioners 19. Whatever plausibility, coupled failure offer rebuttal, furnishes additional reason novel support stage leave another day raises FSIA. 9 rest alone.3 provides: "In controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, preserved. . ." consistently interpreted "Suits refer "suits determined, contradistinction alone recognized, remedies administered." Parsons Bedford, 433, 447, 732 (1830). "the thrust preserve existed 1791," brought enforce analogous ordinarily decided courts opposed hose customarily heard admiralty. Curtis Loether, 415 189, 193, 94 1005, 1007, 39 260 (1974). 10 form familiar. "First, compare prior merger equity. Second, examine remedy determine nature." Tull States, 481 412, 417-418, 107 1831, 1835, 95 365 (1987) (citations omitted). second important first. 421, 1837. If, balance, two factors indicate Amendment, assign relevant factfinder.4 There dispute preferential often England. As 94, 51, 185 (1932) (footnote omitted): enactment Judiciary Act, trover resorted bankrupts." Smith Payne, T.R. 152, 101 Eng.Rep. 484 (K.B.1795) (trover); Barnes Freeland, 80, 447 (K.B.1794) Hodson, 211, 979 (K.B.1791) (assumpsit; goods sold delivered); Vernon Hanson, 287, 156 (K.B.1788) received); Thompson Freeman, 155, 1026 (K.B.1786) Rust Cooper, Cowp. 629, 1277 (K.B.1777) Harman Fishar, 117, 998 (K.B.1774) Martin Pewtress, Burr. 2477, 299 (K.B.1769) Alderson Temple, 2235, 165 (K.B.1768) (trover). These actions, like conducted 12 challenge proposition contend occasionally tried He concurrent jurisdiction over actions. 37-38. While assertion sometimes true, hardly suffices undermine submission sounded 200 years ago Pet., (emphasis added), contrasted "those recognized" holding latter adduces buttress money, sort brought, typically indeed ever entertained adopted. fact, see, Buzard Houston, 119 347, 352-353, 249, 252-253, 30 451 (1886), compel contrary conclusion: 13 "[W]hether judged same standards applied owner property wrongfully withheld. If subject chatte , still grantee's possession, replevin remedy; cash, received. Such to-day ago. hand, land intangible, needs accounting like, invoke process, beyond dispute." G. Glenn, Fraudulent Conveyances Preferences 98, pp. 183-184 (rev. 1940) (footnotes 14 cases discusses confirm account practice. Ex parte Scudamore, Ves.jun. 85, 907 (Ch. 1796), involved debtor's assignment partnership's receivables repay debt debtor declared bankrupt. Other creditors petitioned chancery order directing partner hand general distribution among current future shares receivables, trust assignee. Chancellor refused so, finding proposal inequitable. Instead, directed assignee thought relief. show sum did seek distinctively remedies. Scudamore asked provide injunctive ordering former convey came possession future, along then debtor. To extent relinquishment specific ongoing proper means transferee. own precisely sort. Hobbs Hull, Cox 29 1242 1788), fails advance assignees set aside real husband wife, return her divorce discovering adultery. suit, fraudulent, allowed ejectment courts. salient point traditional setting trust, goods, once lie. sweeping statement "Courts Equity most certainly habit exercising Courts Law statutes Elizabeth respecting conveyances," 445-446, Eng.Rep., 1242, supported reference fixed need Nor repaired deficit.5 conclude determinate it.6 B 16 strongly supports invokes denominated equitable. Our establish peradventure "[i]n mistake, head jurisdiction, sustain bill obtain decree payment way can recovered sounding tort received." 352, 252, citing Parkersburg Brown, 487, 500, 452, 27 238 (1883); Ambler Choteau, 556, 322 Litchfield Ballou, 114 190, 820, 132 (1885). See 464 (1977) ("the otherwise voidable preferences"); Pernell Southall Realty, 416 363, 370, 1723, 1727, 40 198 (1974) (" '[W]here simply law' "), Whitehead Shattuck, 138 146, 151, 276, 277, 34 873 (1891); Dairy Queen, Wood, 369 469, 82 894, 899, 44 (1962) ("Petitioner's insofar requests presents unquestionably legal. agree contention"); Gaines Miller, 111 395, 397-398, 426, 427, 466 (1884) ("Whenever hands equitably belonging another, assumpsit adequate complete") 17 Indeed, view (1932), removes doubt Schoenthal, payments, claiming case, recipients apparently file proceed instead, long-settled rule sustained complete exists codified 384, "serves guard preserved end liberally construed." 51. indistinguishable respects go forward There, "[t]he preferences amounts," discloses facts call relief." 95, traditionally side having dockets.7 Unless withdrawn juri diction exclusively tribunals juries, guarantees IV 18 Prior passage Reform 1978, Pub.L. 95-598, 92 Stat. 2549 (1978 Act), "[s]uits constitute[d] bankruptcy." 94-95, related deemed separate, plenary applied. 1978 courts, parties' effective Act. 1480(a) (repealed). 1984 Amendments, designated proceedings," V), adjudicate issue final judgments, 157(b)(1), district them, 157(a). obliged today conduct estate, rare procedural posture see 41, 3, scheme, whether, authorized authorization comports Article preside review in, withdrawal by, satisfy command "no fact re-examined according rules law," given presently clearly erroneous factual findings Bkrtcy. Rule 8013. sole us Ame dment confers face allow them. 19 "when creates 'public rights,' administrative agency incompatible, violating injunction 'preserved' 'suits law.' 455, 1269 emphasized, block application limits. deny said, rights" litigated: "Our factfinding situations involving sovereign capacity valid statute creating enforceable rights. Wholly tort, contract, vast range implicated." 1270.8 20 adhere teaching. Roofing: 'On appropriate Constitution itself.' 450, 7, 1266, Crowell Benson, 285 22, 52 285, 292, 598 (1932). devise free strictures assigns employ factfinders.9 But jury. permit eviscerate guarantee agencies grounded originate newly fashioned scheme possess line forebears. 457-458, 1270-1271. nowhere grants puissant authority. "[L]egal magically converted presentation equity," Ross Bernhard, 396 531, 538, 90 733, 738, 24 729 (1970), conjure away mandating taken tribunal. 21 situations, fashion place ambit forum unavailable. 450-461, 1266-1272 (workplace safety regulations); Block Hirsh, 256 135, 158, 41 460, 65 865 (1921) (temporary emergency regulation rental estate). 382-383, 1733 (discussing cases); Murray's Lessee Hoboken Land Improvement How. 272, 284, 372 (1856) (Congress "may cognizance deem proper," rights). limited, just circumscribed. 589, 3337, 409 (1985); 598-600, 3342-3343 (BRENNAN, judgment); 73-76, 2872-2874, (1982) (opinion J.); 91, 2881 (REHNQUIST, judgment). involves rights," deprive litigating 22 1270, effectively supplant carrying shorn inheres lies against, Federal capacity. makes plain, class whose expansive 's discussion suggests. conclusion that, permits factfinders requires allows action, 548(a)(2), lacking essential attributes judicial power." 292. And auspices court, affords whenever nature. Conversely, tribunal, independent bar nonjury factfinder. 453-455, 1268-1269, 1271; 383, 1733; 460. addition precedents, rely exploring restrictions places choice bodies resolve disputes 23 recent doctrine bears commit rejected minimum arise 'between government others.' 69, 2870 J.), Bakelite Corp., 279 438, 451, 49 411, 413, 789 (1929). held, revolve around rights." 3335; 596-599, 3341-3343 crucial question, Government, "Congress, acting purpose pursuant powers [has] create[d] 'private' integrated involvement judiciary." 3339-3340. 600, 3343 judgment) (challenged arises context virtually occupies field"). enact, belongs court.10 carries admits debate, seems terms decisions. right.' "11 warranty "matters 'a admiralty' lie "protected core" power, 25, 25; 90, judgment)—a reaffirmed Thomas, 587, 3336. little trustees—suits (citation omitted), "constitute concern controversies it"—are hierarchically ordered Gibson 1022-1025. They appear right.12 25 confirms analysis. Petitioner, officer corporation, funds four notes accommodation maker. When later counterclaimed, arguing constituted reduced liability notes. surrender depend, "[bankruptcy] essentially equity" "they characteristically summary deal assets administering." 327, 471. Notwithstanding "characteristically" supervised statutorily invested well, oversee (Katchen "on jurisdi tion, equity") added); Pepper Litton, 308 295, 304, 238, 244, 281 (1939) ("[F]or many purposes 'courts equity' ") added). turned, rather, "actual possession" 471, obligation objections deciding 329-331, 472-474. Citing approvingly, stated court. 471-472. plainer retained vitality: "[A]lthough proceeding awaited trustee, allowance disallowance equity." 336, 476.13 Unlike 72-75, 78, resting accident history. precise definition estate" chanced preference. Because "as claims." result reach today; opposite.14 abolished distinction Katchen. took effect, (repealed), Amendments drew "core" "non-core" classified judges. Whether purports abolish formerly unclear, rate here. 40-41, "creat[e] therefor, unknown inadequate cope manifest problem. 461, 1272. Rather, reclassified integrally reformation relations15 suffer grave deficiencies. purely taxonomic change alter eliminate placing exclusive justified placed "an incompatible." 1266. sure, owe deference careful constitutionality provision. 61, 2866 J.). adduced permitting trial.16 incompatible" express V); 1024-1025; Warner, Up Bankruptcy: Jury Trial Right, 63 Am.Bankr.L.J. 1, 48 (1989) (hereinafter Warner). WHITE's enjoy life tenure, 82-83, appointed Executive officials, ignores actions—if particular commenced reorganization—would reorganizations.17 "these Amendment." 198, 1010. Bowsher Synar, 478 714, 736, 3181, 3193, 583 (1986) '[T]he procedure efficient, convenient, useful facilitating functions government, standing alone, save Constitution' INS Chadha, 462 919, 944, 2764, 2780, 317 (1983); 383-384, 1733-1734 (discounting unduly burdensome rejecting notion necessary inconsistency desire speedy justice trial").18 V provision—28 V)—permits initiated. oversight Amendments. decisions.19 hold, whatever answers questions, requested. Accordingly, reversed, remanded consistent opinion. 31 ordered. 32 judgment. join Part make exception premise discussion: rights.' Ante, 54, my characteristics "must 2870, (plurality opinion), Until quite recently vi w ("[T]he presence sufficient distinguishing 'private rights' "); (public "cases sues created statutes"); 457, 1270 (noting "distinction persons authority"); (situations rights"); 50-51, connection performance executive departments"); 413 "arising require determination yet susceptible it"); 283, (plaintiff's "judicial controversy" "leaves party"). federal, entirely inconsistent origins doctrine. language itself, exceptions; directs unambiguously Power supreme inferior ordain establish." Lessee, category adjudication, act, That May 15, 1820, 592, obtaining collectors revenue owed Treasury. Under procedure, auditor due, "distress warrant" issued Solicitor Treasury, authorizing marshal seize sell collector, property, satisfaction debt. States' lien marshal's filing distress warrant located. could, "every legality extra-judicial drawn in[to] question," How., 284. title lands owned collector customs whom Treasury adjudged deficient remittances. defendant purchased sale duly (which contested proceeding). plaintiff, acquired execution occurred sale, lien, try tit e. argued, obtained violated collector's indebtedness lawfully performed auditor, observing auditing accounts receiver moneys be, enlarged sense, act," 280, American traditions consent Congress, give rise "controversy" meaning III. 35 course answering plaintiff's rejoinder uttered words giving birth correct "not controversy, congress such, courts" bills permitted challenging warrants enabled pass conclusive controversy." 282. party." 283. acts extrajudicially recapture executes "cannot responsible obeying lawful government; gave command, consent," controversy. Ibid. waive immunity, challenges bases officers' courts; waiver unconditionally ab initio, "United sued, yield think just." Thus, summed up, oft-quoted establishing here: 36 [T]here matters, capable determination, proper." 284 37 meant public, public—that is, pertaining States. reasoning device converting stuff Waiver immunity implicated, party. understood born, 1856, until Terms ago, saying 1982 others,' 413. also, cited 65-66, Williams 289 553, 581, 751, 760, 1372 (1933) courts); Bakelite, 453-454, 414 (same). Cf. McElrath 440, 189 (1880). 38 Agricultura (1985), interpret developed discussed bear described. pronounced, tell sheer force office, "so 3339 reflects, announced, "simply pragmatic selects quasi-judicial method resolving 'could conclusively Legislative Branches,' danger encroaching reduced," Pipeline, 68, 2869—without pointing out, adjudications "could Branches" select vis-a-vis itself. federally basis decision. purport faithful Lessee; replace identifies discrete acts" adopted, implicate lines matter. "Pragmatic understanding" counted—in case-by-case evaluation "encroaching" powers" (a drained constant content) too much. Term Commodity Futures Trading Comm'n Schor, 833, 3245, 675 (1986), reconfirmed error, embracing describing greater length standard established, me all: "[I]n reviewing challenges, weighed number factors, none determinative, eye practical effect congressional constitutionally role judiciary. Among focused 'essential power' reserved conversely, exercises normally importance adjudicated, concerns drove depart requirements III." 851, 3264 589-593, 3336, 3337-39. system separation intuitive judgments regarding "practical effects," regard Mistretta 488 361, 426-427, 647, 682-683, 714 (SCALIA, dissenting), Executive, Morrison Olson, 487 654, 708-712, 2597, 2629, 569 (1988) dissenting). feature anchored rules, adrift multifactored "balancing test"—and especially test contains last revealing factor 3257. 42 longstanding principle requires, minimum, adjudication. On basis, concur concomitant eliminated remainder well. 43 dissenting. calls several previous decisions,1 strikes down least statute,2 potentially Amendment3 litigants accept departures respectfully dissent. 45 explore approach analyzing take precedent directly disregards today, (1966). Though professes overrule decision, curiously, reliance ante, 57-59, reconcile holds today. 46 Katchen, due him estate; resisted paying based 57(g) old forbade "void voidable" preferences. Petitioner claimed, much do, benefit claim, "there trial" Katchen's. 337, 476. denying 57(g), pre erence trial: "[I]t difference, petitioner's concerned, objection affirmative 337-338, 477. dispositively settles today: 47 escape holding, exploits made. Most notably, decided, (the 1898 Act) include covered clause puts weight—"petitioner trustee," 58—simply truism perform entitlement, heavily relies, solely product existence time. next appearing sense: "[W]hen [i.e., validity preference] proceeding, inapplicable. Only limits prevented being instances, thereby, left possibility Today's markedly different. Specifically, Judgeship (1984 Amendments), fraudulently transferred proceeding. Katchen's day, special adjudicating committed portion relies—" 'petitioner trustee,' 58—is relic true Schoen- thal constitute bankruptcy," reflected then-existing 50 recognizes earlier Code, "purely taxonomic" analysis." 61. disagree reasons. First, significant illustrates explains why did. hypocritical entitlement there, dismiss "taxonomic" wiped entitlement—or, very least, profoun ly shifted it. fundamentally, inclusion conveyed taxonomic. explain detail below, II-A, infra, plays substantial determining exists. put Katchen: '[I]n incidental administering pure but, control. Thus damages investigated methods.' 477 (quoting Barton Barbour, 104 126, 133-134, 672 (1881)). counsels essence, rejection Katchen—and classification effected "taxonomic"—comes 'part claims.' 476). misses point, however: determinative bare "happened" claims. element unmistakably intended usual procedures. Perhaps something akin restatement position; namely, "reclassified relations." 60. indicates pay heed avoidance "because [Congress that] problem."4 misguided crux problem approach. 55 How "integrally related" essence proceedings? Certainly proceedings—enacted Const., Art. cl. 4, laws. preceding paragraph, vision creditor-debtor conflicts includes find submission, concedes "recover monies ratably distributed creditors," risk basic policy non-discriminatory underlies law." 12. This, too, belie reforming 56 about supportable adoption pre-1791 practice draws conclusions 1800 Acts (or, generally, predating Code), treated disposable battery, good period only—once consumed use, discarded value. Clause limited: p enary courts—where attached—does impugn every possible arrangement. II-B, infra. instead rests correct, restricted. ibid. 57 One observation attempts distinguish needed estate." 57. [in ] turned 'actual possession' estate," writes. 471). obviously similarly estate"; defines comprised "all wherever located whomever held," including "[a]ny recovers under" property. 541(a)(3), 550 Consequently, accurate pinpointing dispositive equally points towards ruling sum, underlying logic, dictate affirmance. amounts nothing less sub silentio overruling precedent. 59 Even impression, guide us, dissent turn questions: first, heard; second, weighing toward attach.5 concerned laim legal, announces, 42, 4. wrong. "[H]istory turns resolved resolved," 460-461, 1272, longer today's examination reveals, though, rulings, error. 61 obvious apply "suit Minneapolis St. L.R. Bombolis, 241 217, 595, 596, 961 (1916); Woods Holy Cross Hospital, 591 1164, 1171, 1979). focus "common view. 62 forums. "[T]he example. 418, (1987). forums 'where whole concept adjudication,' application. 1268 deleted) 1733, (1974)). looked character heard, asking forum, there. specifically indicated occasions courts—by equity—are place. "[A] [is] place," 1268; consequently, viewed 'dismember' Act." 195, 1009, Curtis, countless "entrust enforcement [a] 1009. emphatically 476; Local Loan Hunt, 292 234, 240, 695, 697, 78 1230 (1934). 64 never Of preferring obtuse going deems entitled. 64. blithely ignoring relevance hear action—focusing "legal" back rested, varying degrees, point. "even [some types of] agency," 1269. observed "English systems [that] considerable degree litigant himself." 1270. substantially cuts selected (such courts), hearing today—a requirement subverts large create Past accorded discretion making assignments. (1921), "objection amount[ed] little" was, reiterated vitality Hirsh 10, Pernell, referring effort entrust landlord-tenant disputes, agency." 1733. Yet involve nature—as do—the could.6 Finally, reasons "specialized principal rationales guarantee—the notions "jury serving popular judges—are inapt scholar noted: 67 "We kept civil check judge tenure [him] suspect [under] 68 Populist country. function diffuse autocratic judge. 69 "This non-traditional occur bankruptcy. condition autocracy values [into force] present; application." Hearings S. 558 Subcommittee Senate Committee Judiciary, 100th Cong., 1st Sess., 2-573 (statement Paul Carrington). 70 Others observation. 684-685 Prof. Rowe). Cf., re Japanese Electronic Antitrust Litigation, 631 1069, 1085 (CA3 1980). it: "A sense redundant." 22. 71 Beyond redundancy, disruptive unravel created. dismisses prospect, scoffs "can[not] trials" "seriously" made, accepted (similar today), "recogni[tion] 1009; 11. fear desultory feared decided. above vitiate wishes employed. 16, 16. inquiry—the focuses concerning assigned. query, begins look century. After conducting review, states confidence "in adjudicated" suit. 47. law—and perhaps litigated case—my leaves unconvinced action—the 74 confesses "courts actions." 43. Chancery stronger, though: conveyances." (1788). Rarely plain ratification discovered one; enough accepting pronouncement assumes High Historical Review, questioning soundness Hobbs' citations. 45-46. similar criticism levied period, concedes, "demonstrates Ante 45. 75 nitpicking oblivion, sources: passing citation wholly inapposite t. (1886); lengthy quotation Professor Glenn's treatise 44. work historical adopts eminence, dispositive. scholars history come conclusion.7 Still others questioned Glenn drew—between land—as unwise unsupported. Wencl, B.R. 879, 883, (Bkrtcy. Ct., DC Minn.1987). few pages writing, aspect conclusions. 46, 5. embraces agrees authoritative, while portions finds troublesome. Trying ambiguous equity—a task simple today—has perplexed jurists each era, conflicting relevance. regime sources 96, 52, 3; Note, Yale L.J. 450-452 (1933). times, impressive collection conclusion, historically nature.8 fair reading history—our inevitably obscured irretrievable loss subtleties interpretation proves disproves 1791.9 With equipoise—and either, supra—we hesitate defer grant "[t]o uniform Laws Bankruptcies." exercised defining 79 (if all) suspect. acknowledging to" enactment, declines "respondent proceedings." 61-62, remarkable, enacting ignored implications.10 indication dimensions acting, prerequisite enactments.11 80 cramped scope changing times changes stands sharp contrast generous expressed ago: 81 "The fundamental radically progressive [congressional] extensions laws] becomes apparent mere statement. Taken altogether, striking meet conditions disclosed tremendous growth development human activities day. acts, far-reaching gone limit power; field boundaries fully revealed." Continental Illinois Bank Chicago, R.I. P.R. 294 648, 671, 604, 1110 (1935). 328-329, 472. period's leading historians view, Framers "clearly building straight-jacket restrain shackle spirits descendants come," attempting "which, firm, nevertheless flexible social generations." Warren, History Today, lessons straitjacket Clause: designed reader Dickens aware, known enlightened thinking assumption 2882 (Burger, dissenting); 108-118, 2890-95 (WHITE, list lower opinions reasoned text; sampling fills margin.12 subjected "substantial criticism." 56, 11.13 implies saved analogue Because, almost historian observed, marked restrictive bankruptcies, 3-5, threaten efficacy constituted. tool achieve dubious result. 85 odds precedent, peculiarly eager embark unclear jurisprudence, dissent.14 O'CONNOR joins, generally WHITE write separately clarify, mind, inquiry. 88 Once inquiry forth "equitable" sought. further: jury-trial 89 Rules Civil Procedure unified tools interim remedies: discovery, accounting, itle, like. light frequency likely kind, surprise cognizable docket. O. Bump, Made Debtors Defraud Creditors 532 (4th 1896); F. Wait, Creditors' Bills 59-60 (1884); W. Roberts, Voluntary 525-526 (3d Am. 1845). dimension lends tentative quality draw uncertainty record lead inquiry, doubt. sought, "plenary 91 "With equipoise," scale, inquiry: ask assuming "with 1266; Here, tribunals, scheme." Having identified remains make. right." faced divining import fragmented (1982), gambled predicted pervasive qualify H.R.Rep. 98-9, pt. 6, (1983) (House Report), S.Rep. 98-55, 32-40 (Senate Report); 594, 3339, 599, 3342 ("[A] technically parties, rights"). Doing best observe constraints preserving goals major reform dismantled, House Report, 6-7, struck compromise. (doing exclude "Marathon-type State cases"), 93 88-89, mproper employ, analysis, century-old conception rejected. would, vices, trivialize efforts engaged decade modern era. are, nonetheless, designate proceeding," impact example, debtors third parties. Otherwise, rendered nullity. exceeded exist outside laws, problems significance process. reason, included substantive legislation 550(a). jurisdictional artifice. eve methods through process: creditors. expert handle higher priority receive crowded docket (see 7-8), respect. 96 representatives render relationship "adventitious." 60, (majority opinion). approve forced undertake burden collecting assured expedited treatment. acknowledged legislated treacherously close Nonetheless, interests involved, rudiments crossed By otherwise, throws round reform, compelling reason. rock boat Section 1330(a) original defined section 1603(a) personam sections 1605-1607 international agreement." (Emphasis added.) strenuously Appeals' echoed "FSIA inapplicable bar," 1341, 1347 rationale nationalized," ibid., proved really nationalized. Appellee 86-5738 (CA11), 21-30; 86-1292 (SD Fla.), 32-36. Admittedly, position FSIA confer wrongs necessarily attempted, views brief proceedings—28 enacted 98-353, 333—is notoriously ambiguous. 1411(a) "[T]his chapter affect individual nonbankruptcy claim." suggest debatable. 1411(b) provides involuntary petitions] suggesting voluntary petitions. confused provisions puzzled commentators. Gibson, Trials Obeying Commands Minn.L.Rev. 967, 989-996 Gibson); 1984: Impact Right Tex.Tech.L.Rev. 535, 543-546 construction 1411, concede entitle 122(b) 346, bars pending cases," date. 1411's predecessor—28 1480(a), "this September 30, 1979"—seem afford recognize, 1480 repealed 989, 96; King, Jurisdiction 1984, Vand.L.Rev. 675, 703, concluding "absent July afterwards, [their] predicated 33, 15. distinct entrusted appears contemplated abilities limitations juries" consulted 4; 454-455, IV, Contrary WHITE'S contention, 79-80, declare define term 51-53. protects litigant's "private Rather cites three Appea s. weaken bolster Graham, 747 1383 1984), respondent's, trustee-in-bankruptcy 1387 Damsky Zavatt, (CA2 1961), 54. Both holdings questionable, moreover, tension (1891). 1940), stated: "[W]here An withholding always class. assert property; enjoyment; contest jury." 277. 370-374, 1727-1729, misreads Harbour, 840 1165, 1172-1173 Fourth authorities referred, accords own, belief possesses authorities, "[o]ther conclusion." Post, assertion, Gray's Drake Rice, 130 Mass. 410, 412 (1881), Roberts' treatise, mentions Collier offers ¶ 548.10, 548-125 (15th 1989), refers defending disagreed. Bump Wait citations state-court refusing analyze cases. 56-60 (1884). Gray says "[b]y Revolution, choses specified [of Elizabeth], void, attached upon. 531 ("[T]here attachment"). extend transfers, obscure, speak squarely sufficient. 526-527 "avoidance" restitution transferred, maintains impossible distinguished dollars accounts. 39-44. classical remedies, says, strained attempt circumvent unpersuasive. fungible, countenance 51-52. violation 548 refuse enter award transfer, "damages" label semantic, Albemarle Paper Moody, 422 405, 442-443, 2362, 2384-2385, 280 (1975) concurring). lay untouched offices, sufficed. Adams Champion, 231, 399, 400, 880 (1935); undefined approvingly. Crowell, defined," "arise departments." firmly choke already litigation committing competence field. agency, intervention adjunct analogizing master admiralty master." statement, context. explicitly admiralty, attaches. Waring Clarke, 441, 226 (1847). mean initial adjuncts 51-65, 292-298, encompassing capacity—may dispense forum. Those ones parts terminological distinctions suggested, "public" "private." thesis met criticism, 1041, 347; Currie, Judges Independent Creighton L.Rev. 452 Baird, State-Created Rights: Lessons Gibbons Marathon, Sup.Ct.Rev. 44, defend accepts thesis, J.): relations, state-created right,' not." approving references 880, Buffum Barceloux 227, 235-236, 539, 542-543, 1140 (1933), intend cast open character. 335, 475, adopted articulated Alexander Hillman, 296 222, 241-242, 204, 210-211, 192 (1935) 'By presenting respondents consequences attach appearance. 'Respondents' invoking participate distribution, pow r misappropriated. behalf stockholders, receivers insist taking aught, receivership restitution. harmony followed relief.' emphasis differs (1986). Schor—where presented—that Commodities Commission counterclaims investors broker reached disputed res, laid avail remedial presided. pursued albeit expeditiously, electing speedier, procedures created, waived 847-850, 3255-3257. Parallel unavailable pursue clear, submitting disallow opposing tendered 71-72, controlled "it 57g relief," 476-477, unfounded. Read context, full creditor-claimant, exceeds adventitious relation treating 1984—is evidenced events tangible liquidated. 9. altered formed backdrop Roofing. depriving reclassification scheme" partly rende empty tautology. say, 75, amendments "act whimsy." instituted Report indicates. radical reforms slightest alteration 1984. enhanced efficiency aim again, BLACKMUN confirming supposition particular. important, propriety 93, advocated conferring Its favored entitling (1983). Senate. ultimately prevailed, neglects discuss difficulties rise. Apparently, overlooked entirely. Amendments' denial represent change. argues, prompt trustees if, demanding delay negotiating framework unfairly extract favorable 35. notice, attended statutes; pointed serious Amendments; defendants trials; plan's approval, case; wrongful-death sums money. commentator 'delay expense' negated delay, prejudice, override amendment. must, therefore, sufficiently shifting At demand stay institution separate qualitatively type action. Beacon [Theatres, Westover, 359 948, 988 (1959),] Queen [, ]." Warner omitted); 48. accuses "rather coy" invalidating, 2, "preferring obtuse" 81. however helpful adjudge pertinent us. called unequivocally does. severely limiting cases: (1977); (1966); (1921); plus others. Like else coy disclosing invalidating proceedings; (given proceedings); bankruptcy; Title itself—or combination above. courts—or matter—to know how expected respond wish diligent conforming behavior mandate. denies "coy" "obtuse," steadfastly refuses disclose unconstitutional 64, preserved." portrayal expansion whimsy. (in 1978) swept legislating "traditional problem": impetus delays, duplications associated dichotomy jurisdiction. [T]he imposed embroiled voluminous 95-989, (1978), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 5787, 5803. grossly inadequate, perceived "manifest public" 95-595, 445 response history, points. observes Reports latter, notes, stripped undertook—to description—a "radical refor[m]" absorption groundwork post-Northern acknowledges motivated "efficiency" legislation. modified "inadequate problem"; (1977)—even description ante 60—this suffice Instead concluding, retreats enactments control because, adopting "considered [these] change[s]." 62, 87-88, elevating bellwether unprecedented cases—and unwise. offering comprehensive balanced. ambiguity, creation, comes claim; anything apply. (BLACKMUN, altogether relative import. shortcomings failing balancing superior "balancing" concerns, all—and (i.e., right, 4) applies. 476—which described "convert[ing] claim"—is principle; i.e., upholding court." J. Friedenthal, M. Kane, A. 498 1989); (1881) (Gray, C.J.); 1383, (CA7 1984); 1961) (Friendly, J.) (an "set equity"); Johnson Gardner, 179 114, 116-117 1949). 1172-1178 (CA4 1988); I.A. Durbin, Inc., 139, 145 Fla.1986); Hendon Pools Michigan, 801, 802-803 (ED Mich.1986); Industrial Banking 372-375 (Bkrtcy ED Tenn.1986). to, terms, "any 'legal' 196, previously disgorge improperly gained profits, 424, 1839, (1987), rightfully 197, 1010, submit withheld, Bowen Massachusetts, 893-896, 2722, 2731-2733, 749 monetary—because restitutionary class, remedy. Here "ask[ing] restoring quo belongs" "[s]uch highest tradition Porter 328 402, 1086, 1091, 1332 (1946). returned cashier's Medex yielded cashing checks. entities incentive consummate quickly possible: desirable one. host 883-884, (DC Minn.1987); Reda, 178, 181 (ND Ill.1986). irony rebuke inspiration "Emergency Rule" drafted Administrative Office December 1982, govern Pipeline. Emergency d(3)(A) ("Related conveyances"); Addison O'Leary, 491 Va.1986) parallel Reference Rule"); Treister, Trost, L. Forman, K. Klee, R. Levin, Fundamentals 2.01(a), (2d (describing "forerunner" Amendments). learn retrospect, Rule, duty "consider[ation] [to] its" unfortunate Congressional Provision Nonjury Trials, 401, 414-415 (1973) nature"); cf. supra ("re-interpreting" "concerns"). past, deferential designations regard. Mitchell Robert DeMario Jewelry, 361 288, 290-295, 332, 334-337, 323 (1960); 397-402, 1088-91. 1177-1178; 825 95-98 1987); Mankin, 823 1296, 1307-1308 1987), nom. Munn Duck, 485 1006, 1468, 698 (1988); Arnold Print Works, 815 165, 168-170 (CA1 Briden Foley, 776 379, 381 1985); Kaiser, 722 1574, 1580, 1983). Many reports Courts. indicative throughout opinion: key announced authority, 44; "more res," 56; 61—in short, critical learned commentators enhance disposing us—particularly counsel viable strains Bankruptcy, 1040-1041, 347 (cited 11). believe deprived instrument sovereign. "leave day" question. 40.

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