Document: 444 U.S. 672 100 S.Ct. 856 63 L.Ed.2d 115 NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD, Petitioner,v.YESHIVA UNIVERSITY. YESHIVA UNIVERSITY FACULTY ASSOCIATION, Petitioner, v. Nos. 78-857, 78-997. Argued Oct. 10, 1979. Decided Feb. 20, 1980. Syllabus Yeshiva University Faculty Association (Union) filed a representation petition with the National Labor Relations Board (Board), seeking certification as bargaining agent for full-time faculty members of certain schools University, private university. The opposed on ground that all its are managerial or supervisory personnel and hence not employees within meaning Act (Act). evidence at hearings before Board's hearing officer showed, inter alia, central administrative hierarchy serves University's schools, University-wide policies being formulated by administration upon approval Trustees. However, individual substantially autonomous, each school effectively determine curriculum, grading system, admission matriculation standards, academic calendars, course schedules. Also, overwhelming majority recommendations to hiring, tenure, sabbaticals, termination, promotion implemented. granted Union's directed an election. Summarily rejecting contention employees, held professional entitled Act's protection. After Union won election was certified, refused bargain. In subsequent unfair labor practice proceedings, ordered bargain sought enforcement in Court Appeals, which denied petition. court agreed under § 2(12) Act, found had ignored "the extensive control Yeshiva's faculty" over decisions well "crucial role . determining other institution," accordingly endowed "managerial status" sufficient remove them from coverage. Held : excluded Pp. 679-691. (a) authority structure university does fit neatly into statutory scheme, because typical "mature" is divided between one more collegial bodies. absence explicit congressional direction preclude reaching any particular type employment, has approved formation units composed they "professional employees" Act. Nevertheless professionals may be exempted coverage judicially implied exclusion when involved developing implementing employer policy. 679-682. (b) Here, application precluded theory aligned management expected exercise "independent judgment" while participating governance pursue values rather than institutional interests. controlling consideration exercises context unquestionably would managerial, matters absolute. faculty's interests—as applied like depends judgment formulate apply policies—cannot separated those institution, thus it cannot said member exercising independent acts primarily his own interest represent employer. 682-690. (c) deference ordinarily due expertise require reversal Appeals' decision. This respects conclusions rationally based articulated facts consistent but here decision satisfies neither criterion. P. 691. 2nd Cir., 582 F.2d 686, affirmed. Norton J. Come, Washington, D. C., petitioner no. 78-857. Ronald H. Shechtman, New York City, Marvin E. Frankel, respondent both cases. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 Supervisors categories benefits collective Act.1 question presented whether fall exclusions. 2 * conducts broad range arts sciences programs five undergraduate eight graduate City. On October 30, 1974, (Board). 10 13 schools.2 A Board-appointed period months, generating voluminous record. 3 showed schools. Ultimate vested Trustees, whose (other President) hold no positions University. President sits Trustees chief executive officer, assisted four Vice Presidents who oversee, respectively, medical affairs science, student affairs, business affairs. An Executive Council Deans administrators makes wide variety matters. 4 include general guidelines dealing teaching loads, salary scales, retirement, fringe benefits. budget drafted Dean Director, subject after consultation committee administrators.3 participate through their representatives elected student-faculty advisory council. only body Review Committee, adjust grievances informal negotiation also make formal affected President. Such purely advisory. 5 autonomous. Each headed meet formally informally discuss decide concern. At meetings convened regularly pursuant written bylaws. remaining faculties Director. Most have committees concerned special areas educational welfare negotiate concerning conditions employment. Through these committees, schedules.4 6 power extends beyond strictly concerns. Director every case termination promotion. Although final reached advice implemented.5 Even financial problems early 1970's restricted budget, still largely controlled made constraints imposed administration. Indeed, recently drew up new binding expanding addition, some regarding admission, expulsion, graduation students. Others decided questions involving policies, tuition enrollment levels, location school.6 II 7 three-member panel December 1975, unit consisting 221 N.L.R.B. 1053 (1975). included Assistant Deans, senior professors, department chairmen, associate assistant instructors.7 Directors were excluded. summarily rejected entire viewing claim request reconsideration previous issue. Instead making findings fact Yeshiva, referred generally record "significan[t]" difference this others considered. concluded protection "faculty participation basis, exercised 'in employer,' rests board trustees." Id., 1054 (footnote omitted).8 8 certified Board. bargain, reasserting view managerial. proceeding, reconsider holding proceeding Union. 231 597 (1977). When sit down negotiating table, Appeals Second Circuit, 686 (1978). 9 Since fact, examined related circumstances considerable detail. It 29 U.S.C. 152(12). But institution." F.2d, 698. such expertise. Rather, are, "in effect, pervasively operating enterprise." Ibid. Accordingly, We certiorari, 440 906, 99 1212, 59 453 (1979), now affirm. III There Congress considered organize Wagner Taft-Hartley Acts approved, thought did extend employed nonprofit institutions "affect commerce." See NLRB Catholic Bishop Chicago, 490, 504-505, 1313, 1320-1321, 533 (1979).9 Moreover, scheme we asked interpret. itself noted concept collegiality "does square traditional structures th[e] designed cope organizations commercial world." Adelphi 195 639, 648 (1972). 11 intended accommodate management-employee relations prevail pyramidal hierarchies industry. contrast, Baldridge, Power Conflict 114 (1971). system "shared authority" evolved medieval model decisionmaking guilds scholars responsible themselves. N. Fehl, Idea East West 36-46 (1962); Knowles, Evolution Medieval Thought 164-168 (1962). universities, school. been external United States since colonial times, Brubacher & W. Rudy, Higher Education Transition: History American Colleges Universities, 1636-1976, pp. 25-30 (3d ed. 1976), traditions continue play significant many including Yeshiva.10 For reasons, recognized principles developed use industrial setting "imposed blindly Syracuse 204 641, 643 (1973). 12 direction, course, Hearst Publications, Inc., 322 111, 124-131, 64 851, 857-860, 88 L.Ed. 1170 (1944). Acting responsibility adapting provisions differing workplaces, asserted jurisdiction first time 1970. Cornell 183 329 (1970). Within year members. C. Post Center, 189 904 (1971).11 reasoned therefore bargaining. N.L.R.B., 905; 152(12).12 contend statute. professionals, "supervisors" overseeing employer,13 enforcing policy.14 Both exemptions grow out same concern: That undivided loyalty representatives. Beasley Food Fair North Carolina, 416 653, 661-662, 94 2023, 2027-2028, 40 443 (1974); see Bell Aerospace Co., 267, 281-282, 1757, 1765, 134 (1974). Because status. our agreement court's exclusion, need resolve issue interpretation. IV 14 Managerial defined " 'formulate effectuate expressing operative employer.' supra, 288, S.Ct., 1768 (quoting Palace Laundry Dry Cleaning Corp., 75 320, 323, n. (1947)). These "much higher structure" explicitly mentioned Congress, "regarded [them] so clearly outside specific exclusionary provision necessary." U.S., 283, 1766. must discretion within, even independently of, established policy management. id., 286-287, 1767-1768 (citing cases). firm criteria employee aligned, normally if he represents interests taking recommending discretionary actions implement policy.15 15 too insignificant deemed managerial.16 Nor suggest merely managerial.17 Instead, contends straightforward fashion often appear performing routine job duties. status view, determined reference "alignment management" argues governance, "expected conform [nor] judged according effectiveness carrying policies." independence, there danger exclusion. union pressure divert adhering university, expects concludes frustrate national favor 16 test uphold. relies exclusively legal factual analysis. 1054. dimly foreshadow reasoning proffered Without explanation, initially announced two different rationales cases,18 then quickly transformed litany repeated case: (i) collective, (ii) (iii) trustees. Northeastern 218 247, 250 (1975); Miami, 213 634, 634 Tusculum College, 199 28, 30 (1972).19 arguments case, lawyers abandoned third branches analysis,20 event flatly inconsistent precedents,21 second opinion.22 V 17 Their They what courses will offered, scheduled, whom taught. debate methods, standards. students admitted, retained, graduated. Occasion views size body, charged, considers function difficult imagine these. To extent analogy applies, determines product produced, terms customers served.23 18 nevertheless insists judgment. persuaded argument. tension inclusion most draw skills training. suggesting can resolved criterion proposed case.24 Outside context, routinely exclusions without inquiring expertise.25 twice implicitly managerial.26 limited faculty, approach overrule sub silentio precedent could result indiscriminate recharacterization covered working capacities. 19 undermine goal purports serve: ensure behalf divide union. arguing employer, assumes institution distinct, separable entities simultaneously aligned. justification distinction, perceive none. Yeshiva—cannot institution. 20 predominant operate quality learning accomplish broadly goals limits resources. "business" education, vitality ultimately depend implemented decisions. K. Mortimer T. McConnell, Sharing Authority Effectively 23-24 enhance standing fulfill mission ensuring university's objectives met. doubt quest excellence distinction "policy" adhere, goal. fruitless ask conform" another essentially same.27 Scott Paper 625, 630 (CA1 1971) (tractor owner-operators); Deaton Truck Line, Inc. NLRB, 337 697, 699 (CA5 1964) (same), cert. denied, 381 903, 85 1448, 285 (1965). 21 problem particularly acute crucial constrained necessarily goals. requires indispensable formulation implementation policy.28 appear, contends, professor functions less "accountable" departures middle-level manager confined. systems tenure insulate sanctions fails adhere company industry not, indeed cannot, complete. clear universities rely policies.29 large measure independence enjoyed increase lead harms traditionally prevent. 22 certainly sweep derogation Congress' expressed intent protect them. discharge duties projects assigned membership arguably involve loyalty.30 Only employee's activities scope performed similarly situated think accurately capture provide appropriate starting point analysis cases alleged managerial.31 VI 23 Finally, us reverse Appeals. today mixed law. searched vain relevant fact. apparently reflects basis conclusory examination case. took operat[e] find reason reject conclusion. As consistently show, accord great respect Beth Israel Hospital 437 483, 501, 98 2463, 2473, 57 370 24 Affirmed. 25 BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 26 instead supervisors disagrees determination I believe irrational nor respectfully dissent. 27 Ten years ago education. then, struggled Procrustean task attempting altogether environment community directives bureaucratic workplace. See, e. g., Resolution case—whether "employees" Act—is several challenges confronting "unchartered area." 904, 905 28 passage contemplate surprising answer us. statute evidences inclusion, hand, 2(12), 152(12), other, 2(11), 152(11). Similarly, transplanted arena, extension easily squared Board-created context. Primary conflicts adapt changing patterns entrusted Board, judiciary. Weingarten, 420 251, 266, 95 959, 969, 43 171 admonished "[t]he ultimate balancing conflicting legitimate striking balance delicate responsibility, committed judicial review." Drivers, 353 87, 96, 77 643, 648, L.Ed.2d676 (1957). Accord, (1978); Erie Resistor 373 221, 235-236, 83 1139, 1149, 308 (1963). cumulative experience labor-management nonindustrial settings, category further And continuous oversight conditions, best able realities life. limited; substitute reviewed rationality consistency once satisfied, order enforced. 2473. event, correct NLRA. dispute purposes finds employees."2 explains managerial." Ante, 686. simply "any context." recognize fundamental differences blind transplanting arena onto other; yet ignores very concluding 31 reflected legislative history Amendments 1947, concern behind 2(11) twofold. rank-and-file unduly influenced selection leaders presence "If active represented supervised possible obtain retain fellow job." Metropolitan Life Ins. 405 1169, 1178 (CA2 1968). wanted employers deprived foremen. allowed affiliate rank file, might become accountable workers, interfering supervisors' ability discipline employer.3 32 Identical considerations underlie employees. ante, 682. verbal formulations received years, Retail Clerks International Assn. 125 U.S.App.D.C. 63, 65-66, 366 642, 644-645 (1966), sanctioned definition employee" comprises 1768. touchstone alliance management, pivotal inquiry employer.4 If undertaken purpose employer's loyalties. acting interest, 33 examining case,5 employer." 1053, Court, "no distinction" "cannot 688.6 Court's vision clouded failure fully discern comprehend nature governance. 34 Unlike hierarchical prevails organization, foundation characterized dual systems. primary decisional network nature: lodged administration, chain command runs lay governing officers time, exists parallel network, mechanisms created bring process. (1971); Finkin, Education, U.Toledo L.Rev. 608, 614-618 35 What realized—and apprehend whatever influence wields attributable solely educators, prerogatives. look concern, offers serve creating effective learning, teaching, scholarship.7 attempt defer competence whenever possible, distinct perspective recommendations, fiscal part developing. always retains authority, 675-676, gives weight import chooses deems perception institution's needs objectives.8 36 premise finding answerable responsibilities. requirement—both non-professional employees—by conferring "whose closely true management." (Emphasis added.) Sutter Community Hospitals Sacramento, 227 181, 193 (1976); Aero- space, 219 384, 385 General Dynamics 857 (1974).9 executing loyalties exist. 37 however, function, personal sanction administration's assessment worth recommendations. schools' participates subjects policy, "representative management."10 managers, professors hired "make operative" retained condition correspond notion member's antithetical whole freedom. scholarship, compatibility Member Kennedy aptly concurring 257 (1975) omitted): 38 "[T]he insufficient 'managerial' 'for management' interest. functions. criticism example, viewed breach loyalty, So, too, intervention deliberations likely infringement freedoms. Conversely, administrations rarely consider themselves bound recommendations." 39 say, tend coincide. place, antagonism employee.11 mere coincidence issues never abrogate right topics absent. Ultimately, performance do totally diverge. desire maintain stable profitable operations, existing constraints. Differences emphasis develop, exactly how devote resources achieve disagreements surface, laws resolution peaceful process regard, stands footing congruence ought exaggerated. economic fiduciary responsibilities shared concerns relate reputation. evinces numerous instances account policies. Disputes arisen promotion, dismissal members, standards credits, departmental budgets, choice representative.12 voted representative future negotiations indicates precise specified mandatory bargaining—wages, hours, employment13—the teacher administrator diametrically opposed. 41 distorted rose-colored lens modern-day conclusion indistinguishable bottomed idealized vestige bears little resemblance "community scholars" yesteryear.14 "big business," enterprise transferred autonomous faces pressures cut costs efficiencies confront organization.15 past decade budgetary cutbacks, declining enrollments, reductions appointments, curtailment programs, increasing calls accountability alumni groups added erosion decisonmaking process.16 42 exigencies exacerbated tensions relations, frequently advocating compensation, security, formerly prerogative. response friction, avoid strikes work stoppages disrupted major recent entered collective-bargaining relationships boards.17 greater number schools—Yeshiva among them—have endeavored compromise informally, establishing avenues input Today's decision, threatens eliminate much incentive disputes open discussion mutual agreement. By overbroad unwarranted interpretation denies protections NLRA and, doing, removes deterrent value availability offer against unreasonable conduct.18 Rather promoting objective funneling dissension bargaining, undermines contributes possibility "recurring [will] fester until forms warfare occur." Ford Motor Co. 441 488, 499, 1842, 1850, 60 (1979). 44 sum, analyzed essential underlying Relying three factors encapsulate fine NLRA's exclusion,19 qualify former latter. determination. reservations about conclude proper mode arrive zone reasonableness. light complex area, 49 Stat. 449, amended, 61 136, 73 519, 151 et seq.; §§ 152(3), 152(11), 164(a); Stern College Women, Teacher's Institute Erna Michael Program, James Striar School Jewish Studies, Belfer Graduate Sciences, Ferkauf Humanities Social Wurzweiler Work, Bernard Revel School. seek school, sciences, High School, theological affiliated law opened hearings, figure requests prepared area receive "perfunctory" "99 percent" App. 298-299. council chairmen approves school's allocations funds available. 626-627. All regard binding. 248-249, 312-313. Administrators testified initiative either vetoed least 1968. 250, 313. disagreed Dean's delete education major, reinstituted. 191. Women school," 379, described position "executive arm faculty," overruled him occasion, 360-361. Program consensus. 574, 583-586. "internal operation [Wurzweiler] heavily governed decisions," Dean. 502. One estimated 98% hiring given effect. 624. recall instance recommendation overruled. 193-194. six overturned accepted promotions 268-270. Michael, consent professor, 333-335, stated baldly ever "there slightest objection, part." 388. overridden deans. No grant opposition. 620, 633. override nonrenewal. 419. recommended move Brooklyn attract proposal remained Manhattan. 379-380. "Full-time "appointed titles instructor, adjunct visiting thereof, division deans, excluding part-time faculty; lecturers; principal investigators; deans directors; [and action]." 1057. term "faculty" refers language infra, 684-685. supported single citation BRENNAN's dissent language, post, 696, adds "primary reputation," 701. "is interest" lack S.Rep.No.573, 74th Cong., 1st Sess., (1935) (dispute college covered); H.R.Conf.Rep. No. 510, 80th (1947) U.S.Code Cong.Serv.1947, p. 1135 (listing mentioning teachers); S.Rep.No.105, 11, (same). inaugural address Williams Paul Ansel Chadbourne, quoted Kahn, Education: Failure Policymaking Adjudication, UCLA 70, (1973) (" 'Professors sometimes spoken college. college' ") (emphasis original); Davis, Unions Another View, Ed. Record 139, 143 (1968) ("The president master. He [of trustees']"); 4, supra. suggested tacitly amended exemption accorded hospitals. appears commerce" modern H.R.Rep.No.93-1051, 120 Cong.Rec. 12938 (1974) (remarks Sen. Williams), nothing faculties. provides organizational rights. 157. Section 2(3) defines "employee" terms, 152(3); detail, 152(12); 9(b)(1) prohibits includes nonprofessional unless vote 159(b)(1). enumerated actions, firing. 164(a). repeatedly supervisors. Vermont, 223 423, 426 Presbyterian Medical 1266, 1267-1269 doubted 857-858 Westinghouse Electric 113 337, 339 (1955). 193; Aerospace, 385-386 (on remand); 857; 274, 286-289, 1761-1762, 1767-1769. far significance Swift 752, 753 (1956) (procurement drivers purchases employers); Firestone Tire Rubber 112 571, 573 (1955) (production schedulers); Peter Kiewit Sons' 106 194, 196 (1953) (lecturers indoctrinated employees); Western 420, 423 (1952) (personnel investigators recommendations); Locomotive 92 115, 116-117 (1950) (buyers substantial behalf). argue holds veto diminish policymaking implementation. nn. 5, "supervisor" expressly contemplates "effectively recommend" supervisory. Consistent authority. rationale applies equal force Two collectively. Fordham 134, 135 later acknowledged "a genuine confound us," departs "ultimate trustees attempts convert advises advocate Fairleigh Dickinson 239, 241 (1976). Citing factors, explained connecting conclusion, although argument similar opinion. (opinion Kennedy). preserved points footnotes brief, longer "collective "lack rationales. which, "fortif[y]" act contradict "self-governing communit[y] scholars." Reply Brief Petitioner 8. Cf. 8, branch committees. Florida Southern 888, 889 bar owned enough stock give them, group, voice Sida Hawaii, 191 Red White Airway Cab 123 83, (1959); Brookings Plywood 794, 798-799 (1952). branch, prerequisite corporation vests directors. counsel's post hoc supplied itself. SEC Chenery 332 196, 67 1575, 1577, 91 1995 (1947). insupportable, colorable "interest employer" branch. expanded considerably refined version notion. shows 677, 5. characteristics. reach status, features cited directly applying standard. cites Fullerton Publishing 283 545, 550 (CA9 1960), news editor "responsibly directed" supervisor, looked relayed assignments "responsible" directing required 14, strict "conformity policy" role, managers Eastern Camera Photo 140 569, 571 (1963)). Chicago Library, 205 220, 221-222, 229 (1973), enf'd, 506 1402 (CA7 1974) (reversing Administrative Law Judge's premised rationale); (excluding clinical specialist used interdisciplinary run hospital department). scarce led occasional vetoes action. infrequent reversals way detract faculty. suggestion depart meritorious. employee. industry, attracted B. Richman R. Farmer, Leadership, Goals, 258 Bornheimer, G. Burns, Dumke, 174-175 Participation Academic Governance 22-24 (1967); 149-150; Kadish, Theory Profession Its Predicament, 58 A.A.U.P.Bull. 120, 121 "mere coincidence," suggests. Post, inevitable characteristic adopted Yeshiva. concludes, citing secondary authorities, undergone changes shifted enterprise" 703. shift, exists, universal 27-28, 158-162, 164-165 weighing probable burdens 702-705. That, all, matter reason, architects engineers functioning project captains teams despite planning direct evaluate team 857-858; Wurster, Bernardi Emmons, 192 1049, 1051 Skidmore, Owings Merrill, 920, 921 Doctors' Modesto, 950, 951-952 (1970), 489 772 1973) (nurses); Broadcasting 160 1440, 1441 (1966) (broadcast newswriters). health-care asks "incidental to" addition treatment patients, 1974. S.Rep. 93-766, (1974), Cong. Admin.News, 3946. only, present enter contexts. plain, content courses, students, supervise research. unlike where entirely predominantly nonmanagerial. properly unit. rational line drawn tenured untenured depending structured operates. express questions, broad. "It necessary completely definitive limitation around 'employee.' agency administer Determination 'where relation protection' involves inquiries charged duty. Everyday familiarity backgrounds employment various industries, abilities workers self organization action, adaptability settlement employers. acquired brought bear Resolving 'belongs usual routine' Board." 130, 860, Seven-Up Bottling 344 344, 349, 287, 290, 97 377 (1953). unnecessary (11). My focuses fashion. H.R.Rep. 245, (1947): "The unionizing assure freedom domination organizing activities. rights employers; they, loyal plants, foremen unionize, claims 'independent' file union, bossing bosses them." 105, 3-5 requires, Master Stevedores Assn., 418 1969); Brewery Workers 111 383, 298 297 (1961). 5-month compiled containing 4,600 pages testimony 200 exhibits. though manage anomaly demonstrates error extending class motivated adoption exemption. recognized, unique work, importance exert stems factor—common professionals—should itself, 339-340 duties, maintaining Yet specifically 298, 1773, (WHITE, J., dissenting part). careful overvalue commentator noted, "it extraordinary embedded relationship share responsive strongly desires." 616 Who, better suited should taught, graded? Employers employees' suggestions, where—as here—those insofar say personnel, constitute adequate conferral uncommon exclusive recommend hiring-hall agreements upheld worker pass union-administered referral. Local (Catalytic Constr. Co.), 164 916 Teamsters 365 667, 81 835, bestow authority: "Work judgment, else professionalism involved. Nevertheless, plainly virtue bearing direction." 857-858. Where actually management's representatives, hesitated exclude personnel. Compare (1976) supervisors), 247 (department instruments faculty), (1971) (including administration). directors, research training grants, 678, 7. frequency acquiesces Stop Shop Cos., 548 17, 1977). pertinent suggestions offered. permit deny important wages, consulting host accepting objectives. 740-742 (faculty hiring); 232-233, 632, 667 (tenure); 742-743 (promotion); 713, 1463-1464 (retirement); (dismissal); 362 (academic credits); 723-724, 1469-1470 (cutback leading loss accreditation); 410, 726-727 (election chairman representative). 158(d). 1636-1976 1976). earliest mold peer group scholars. authority," seen joint exerting dominant respective sphere expertise, "an ideal widely practice." authors conclude: "Higher throes shift consensual judgments criteria. societal expectations regulation colleges technocratic codification internal procedures. raise statements governance." 269. 1976-1977, total expenditures exceeded $42 billion. Center Statistics, Digest Statistics 137 (Table 133) year, $34 million revenues Federal Government. 132 127). hard hit current squeeze. inflation, purchasing declined average 2.9% 1972. Real salaries 13.6% below 1972 levels. Hansen, Era Continuing Decline: Annual Report Economic Status Profession, 1978-1979, 65 Academe: Bulletin Professors 319, 323-324 fared worse most. Whereas full comparable $31,100, averages $27,100. 334, 348. severe crisis 1971-1972 forced freeze pay increases. 1459. January 1979, 80 302 public engaged faculties, 130,000 unionized. Study Collective Bargaining Directory Contracts Agents Institutions i-ii applicable 152(2), 1976, enacted legislation granting unionize requiring duly constituted agents. 53. Livingston Christensen, State Regulation Negotiations 1971 Wis.L.Rev. 91, 102. upsurge incidence attributed countervailing increased ideals practiced. Carnegie Commission found, "[u]nionization [faculty] protective aggressive act, effort preserve quo affluence. ." 56; Lindeman, Five Cited Reasons Unionization, 102 Intellect (1973); Nielsen Polishook, Beyond, Chronicle (May 21, 1979). Commission, collectively, desire," 43, observed: "We long-term social conflict society campus. so, institutionalize manifest restraint. agreed-upon rules behavior, contractual understandings, grievance handling help conflict." 51. Contrary assertion, 685, 11-12, "interest/alignment analysis" goes heart strongest support determination, highlight aspects decision: collectively—and collectively—indicates embody select persons formulating

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