Document: 383 U.S. 663 86 S.Ct. 1079 16 L.Ed.2d 169 Annie E. HARPER et al., Appellants,v.VIRGINIA STATE BOARD OF ELECTIONS al. Evelyn BUTTS, Appellant, v. Albertis HARRISON, Governor, Nos. 48, 655. Argued Jan. 25 and 26, 1966. Decided March 24, Allison W. Brown, Jr., Washington, D.C., Robert L. Segar, Flint, Mich., J. A. Jordan, Norfolk, Va., for appellants. George D. Gibson, Richmond, appellees. Sol. Gen. Thurgood Marshall, the United States, as amicus curiae, by special leave of Court. Mr. Justice DOUGLAS delivered opinion 1 These are suits Virginia residents to have declared unconstitutional Virginia's poll tax.1 The three-judge District Court, feeling bound our decision in Breedlove Suttles, 302 277, 58 205, 82 L.Ed. 252, dismissed complaint. See 240 F.Supp. 270. cases came here on appeal we noted probable jurisdiction. 380 930, 85 942, 13 819, 382 806, 94, 15 57. 2 While right vote federal elections is conferred Art. I, § 2, Constitution (United States Classic, 313 299, 314—315, 61 1031, 1037, 1368), state nowhere expressly mentioned. It argued that implicit, particularly reason First Amendment it may not constitutionally be conditioned upon payment a tax or fee. Cf. Murdock Commonwealth Pennsylvania, 319 105, 113, 63 870, 875, 87 1292.2 We do stop canvass relation between voting political expression. For enough say once franchise granted electorate, lines drawn which inconsistent with Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. That say, suffrage 'is subject imposition standards discriminatory contravene any restriction Congress, acting pursuant its constitutional powers, has imposed.' Lassiter Northampton County Board Elections, 360 45, 51, 79 985, 990, 3 1072. were speaking there literacy test sustained, warning result would different if test, fair face, used discriminate against class.3 Id., at 53, 990. But case does govern here, because, unlike tax, 'ability read write * some designed promote intelligent use ballot.' conclude State violates whenever makes affluence voter fee an electoral standard. Voter qualifications no wealth nor paying this other tax.4 Our demonstrate restrains from fixing invidiously discriminate. Thus without questioning power impose reasonable residence restrictions availability ballot (see Pope Williams, 193 621, 24 573, 48 817), held Carrington Rash, 89, 775, 675, deny opportunity bona fide resident merely because he member armed services. 'By forbidding soldier ever controvert presumption non-residence, Texas imposes invidious discrimination violation Amendment.' 96, 780. And see Louisiana 145, 817. Previously had said neither homesite occupation 'affords permissible basis distinguishing qualified voters within State.' Gray Sanders, 372 368, 380, 83 801, 808, 9 821. think same must true requirements 4 Long ago Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 370, 6 1064, 1071, 30 220 Court referred 'the voting' 'fundamental right, preservative all rights.' Recently Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 561—562, 84 1362, 1381, 12 506, said, 'Undoubtedly, fundamental matter free democratic society. Especially since exercise unimpaired manner basic civil rights, alleged infringement citizens carefully meticulously scrutinized.' There considering charges one part greater representation per person Legislature than another State. concluded: 5 'A citizen, voter, more less so lives city farm. This clear strong command Constitution's Clause. essential concept government laws men. heart Lincoln's vision 'government people, (and) people.' demands substantially equal legislative citizens, places well races.' 568, 1385. whether otherwise vote, $1.50 his pocket nothing all, pays fails pay it. principle denies dilute citizen's account economic status such factors analogy bars system excludes those unable who fail pay. 7 exact fees many kinds licenses; can demand driver's license,5 voting. remember interest State, when comes voting, limited fix qualifications. Wealth, like race, creed, color, germane one's ability participate intelligently process. Lines property, race (Korematsu 323 214, 216, 65 193, 194, 89 194), traditionally disfavored. Edwards People California, 314 160, 184 185, 62 164, 171, 119 (Jackson, J., concurring); Griffin Illinois, 351 12, 76 585, 100 891; Douglas 353, 814, 811. To introduce measure voter's capricious irrelevant factor. degree irrelevant. In context—that is, condition obtaining ballot—the requirement causes 'invidious' (Skinner Oklahoma, 316 535, 514, 1110, 1113, 1655) runs afoul Levy 'by poll,' stated supra, 281, 207, old familiar form taxation; impair validity long made franchise. Suttles sanctioned 'a prerequisite voting.' 283, 207. extent overruled. 8 agree, course, Holmes Due Process 'dose enact Herbert Spencer's Social Statics' (Lochner New York, 198 75, 539, 546, 49 937). Likewise, shackled theory particular era. determining what unconstitutionally discriminatory, never been confined historic notions equality, restricted due process fixed catalogue was given time deemed limits rights. Malloy Hogan, 378 1, 5—6, 1489, 653. Notions constitutes treatment purposes change. 1896 providing separate public facilities white Negro did deprive latter protection commands. Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 1138, 41 256. Seven eight Justices then sitting subscribed Court's opinion, thus joining expressions constituted unequal sound strange contemporary ear.6 When, 1954—more half-century later—we repudiated 'separate-but-equal' doctrine respects education7 stated: 'In approaching problem, cannot turn clock back 1868 adopted, even Ferguson written.' Brown Education, 347 483, 492, 74 686, 691, 98 873. recent searching re-examination Clause, held, already noted, participation election legislators' required.8 566, 1383. decline qualify sustaining tax. conclusion, founded governmental policy should be, but requires. 10 mindful where rights liberties asserted under classifications might invade restrain them closely scrutinized confined. See, e.g., Skinner 541, 1113; 1381; supra; Baxstrom Herold, 107, 760, 620; Cox Louisiana, 379 536, 580—581, 453, 469, 471 (Black, concurring). 11 Those principles apply here. repeat, has, view, qualifications; too precious, burdened conditioned. Reversed. BLACK, dissenting. 14 decided December 6, 1937, few weeks after I took my seat unanimously upheld Georgia make elections. rejected contentions law violated put burden groups people according their age, sex, rejecting contention p. 207: 'While possible statutory declaration levy every inhabitant whatsoever age condition, collection impossible always poor pay.' Believing properly respected limitation argument, joined judgment opinion. Later, May 28, 1951, Butler Thompson, 341 937, 71 1002, 95 1365, upholding, over dissent Douglas, challenged challenges. Since Federal amended only way could been, provided Article V1 Constitution. adhere holding cases. however, overrules part, reveals using interpret original meaning giving clause new believes represents better policy. From action dissent. 17 pointed out based finding written applied being device mechanism color. Apparently agrees below Brothers HARLAN STEWART record support invalidates effect. If effect, course Fifteenth Amendments also 42 U.S.C. 1971(a). follows Schnell Davis, 336 933, 69 749, 93 1093, affirming 81 872 (D.C.S.D.Ala.); Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 125, 110; Mississippi, 128, 717; What hold necessarily making 18 (1) interpretation gave correct. mere fact results treating differently others not, automatically amount bar drawing distinctions application practically paralyze regulatory bodies. Consequently 'The afford 'equal laws' sets goal attainable invention precise formula.' Kotch River Port Pilot Comm'rs, 330 552, 556, 67 910, 912, 91 1093. Voting exception principle. All treat persons respects. Some 21 years age; 18. convicted felons insane, attached freehold property qualification imposed men equally women minors, today overrule approved provisions. Election Board, disqualified illiterate violate these interpreting violating 19 A study shows refused general language though handly instrument strike down feels bad analyzed boil discriminations 'irrational,' 'irrelevant,' 'unreasonable,' 'arbitrary,' 'invidious.'2 vague indefinite terms provide formula automatic deciding arising restrictive connotations terms, however (which contexts expand inordinately, see, cited Skrupa, 726, pp. 728—732, 1028, 1030, 1032, 93), plain recognition proper broadest kind leeway areas they competence act.3 view purpose courts wholesale invalidation difficult 'irrational' 'arbitrary' works 'invidious discriminations.' legislation 'reasonably,' 'rationally' evil injure anyone found rest number policies including State's desire collect revenue, (2) belief will interested furthering welfare vote. Certainly rational believe likely taxes history factor 'rationality' supra), whatever personal side Property existed Colonies continued adopted. Although join disliking justifiable unconstitutional. Such would, judgment, confer me.4 20 Another seems 'natural-law-due-process formula'5 justify striking violations heretofore occasions express blank check alter add substantive changes majority needed meet present-day problems.6 Nor today, into thinks good respective powers national governments needed, prefer let amendment V provides. undertake task, purporting amounts, makers foresight wisdom give Judicial Branch Government. departed expressed Adamson 332 46, 90, 1672, 1695, June 23, 1947, formula' mean 'has past, future, license legislation, roam large broad expanses morals trespass, freely, domain Government.' says requires.' find statement advances plausible argument why possibly effected relevance legitimate wishes adopt. gives discredit long-standing beliefs effective collecting revenue far government. failure reasons show pretty indication me none exist. primary, controlling, predominate, exclusive declaring deep-seated hostility antagonism, share, 22 justification consulting own rather following Constitution, apparently intolerable debilitating evil; 'shackled era,' save country constant renew keep abreast enlightening theories best society.7 attack great value itself constitution survive through originally unless changed Framers wisely provided. Moreover, 'political theory' embodied becomes outdated, nine members choose proceeding maner V. 23 amend conditions. product people's problems. Amendment, designated tribunal wanted additional rules enforce guarantees branch Government chose Legislative. doubt Congress pass abolish order protect laws. concurring dissenting South Carolina Katzenbach, 355, 803. Congress.8 occasion discuss very Ex parte Virginia, 345—346, 676. referring fifth section Amendment: 'All amendments derive much force provision. judicial shall extend enforcing prohibitions protecting immunities guaranteed. authorized declare void prohibitions. enlarged. appropriate legislation. contemplated fully effective. Whatever appropriate, adapted carry objects tends submission contain, secure enjoyment perfect equality denial invasion, prohibited, brought congressional power.' (Emphasis partially supplied.) accordance structure authorizes definitive done times, fits precisely division entrusted three branches Executive, Legislative, Judicial. us guise decide question denied specifically Congress. 26 HARLAN, whom joins, 27 final demise taxes, totally proscribed Twenty-Fourth respect abolished themselves four elections,1 perhaps moment. coup de grace administered instead left affected process2 continuing concern maintaining role scheme 28 propose retread ground covered dissents 589, 1395, 97, 780, proceed premise now reaches both apportionment (Reynolds) voter-qualification (Carrington) My disagreement present violative long-established governing clause. 29 prevents arbitrarily Whether differing arbitrary depends reflects differentiating classification among affected; thought require despite circumstances. evolved justifying exists Powell 127 678, 992, 32 253; Barrett Indiana, 229 33 692, 57 1050; Walters City St. Louis, 231, 505, 660; 760. standard reduces minimum likelihood judiciary judge individual predilections members, until recently followed protection' cases.3 breaks marked departure traditional wise principles. Unless 'one man, vote' thesis attributed unsupportable proposition 'Equal Protection' simply means indiscriminate inescapable really reflected views how modern American representative run. hardly method considered rational. Stewart, Lucas Forty-Fourth General Assembly Colorado, 713, 744, 1459, 1477, 632, 615—624, 1409. 31 Following statute disqualifying certain Armed Forces States.4 pro tanto overruling reverts highly subjective approach manifested Reynolds. substance analysis issue goes further 'precious' 'fundamental,' ante, 670, '(t)o factor,' 668. captivating phrases, wholly inadequate satisfy adjudication issue: Is qualification? answer undoubtedly 'yes.'5 structure. generally one.6 Over gradually lifted, primarily popular changed.7 Often lifted wide debate. woman suffrage, example, raised family relationships, affairs, nature type society Americans wished live; eventually consensus reached, culminated Nineteenth 45 ago. Similarly qualifications, fiat especially context history, debate advisability. Most early them; during histories;8 and, arguments still favor them. certainly minimal promotes civic responsibility, weeding care about affairs thereabouts year arguable, indeed probably accepted percentage most deeper stake community consequently responsible, educated, knowledgeable, worthy confidence, means, Nation managed citizens.9 Nondiscriminatory fairly tests, 1072, similar grounds. 34 viewpoints, sure, ring hollow ears. Their lack acceptance evidenced nearly devices, eliminated poll-tax cognate three-quarters quickly ratified Amendment; 'pauper exclusion' law, Va.Const. va.Code 24—18, enforced.10 35 simply, accord current egalitarian democracy organized. entirely fitting legislatures modify reflect attitudes. However, wrong, adopt doctrines popularly moment irrational invidious, barring range choice reasonably minded felt impelled remind laissez-faire society, Lochner 75—76, 937. times changed, observe rigidly America ideology unrestrained egalitarianism.11 36 affirm Section 173 directs annual exceeding (with exceptions relevant here). One dollar officials 'exclusively aid schools' remainder returned counties purposes. includes precondition provides 'personally' preceding applies registration. By paid least six months prior seeks varies (Va.Code §§ 24—136, 24—160, 168; id., 24—22), months' deadline vary, election. often assessed along responsibility take initiative request assessed. Va.Code 58—1163. Enforcement takes disenfranchisement pay, delinquent enforced legal proceedings become delinquent. Judge Thornberry, court unconstitutional, said: 'If placed speak rate seventy-five cents year, hesitate blatant freedom speech. Yet important vote.' Texas, 252 234, 254 (decided February 9, 1966). 817, 709, registrars virtually uncontrolled discretion not' (id., 150, 820) deter Negroes accordingly struck down. 'Virginia born disenfranchise Negro' (Harman Forssenius, 528, 543, 1177, 1186, 50), determine setting serves end. Only handful Alabama (Ala.Const., 178, 96 207; Ala.Code Tit. 17, 12) (Vernon's Ann.St.Tex.Const., 2; Vernon's Ann.Stat., Code, Arts. 5.02, 5.09) each $1.50. Mississippi (Miss.Const., 241, 243; Miss.Code 3130, 3160, 3235) $2. Vermont Act Feb. 1966, amending Vt.Stat.Ann. 701. As note 234 Alabama, 3, Maine (Maine Rev.Stat.Ann. 36, 1381) voting; instead, motor vehicle 29, 108) operator's license. 584. E.g., 'We consider underlying fallacy plaintiff's consist assumption separation two races stamps colored badge inferiority. so, anything act, solely chooses construction it.' U.S., 551, S.Ct., 1143. Segregated transportation, Gayle Browder, 352 903, 77 114 (per curiam). Harlan dissented, while Clark Stewart concurred provides: thirds Houses deem necessary, or, Application Legislatures several call convention proposing Amendments, which, either Case, valid Intents Purposes, Part fourths Conventions thereof, Mode Ratification proposed Congress; Provided Year thousand hundred Manner affect first fourth Clauses Ninth Article; Consent, deprived Suffrage Senate.' Allied Stores Ohio, Inc. Bowers, 358 522, 437, 480; Goesaert Cleary, 335 464, 198, 163; 1110; Minnesota ex rel. Pearson Probate 309 270, 60 523, 744; Smith Cahoon, 283 553, 51 582, 75 1264; Watson Maryland, 218 173, 644, 54 987. set aside facts conceived Metropolitan Casualty Ins. Co. York Brownell, 294 580, 584, 55 538, 540, 1070 (Stone, J.). footnote two, quotes district court's implies speech allowed likewise allowed. regulation burdens actually abridges flagrant Amendment's prohibition abridgments applicable 1292. comparable specific provision absolutely abridging beginning felony convictions, illiteracy, various reasons. Of forbid person's felony, illiterate. 1903. illustration Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 507, 1678, 1694, 510, therein. purports precedent up date. segregation schools theory. written, now, correct dissented prohibited segregate facilities, railroad cars. practiced 1954 similarly racial compelled Thirteenth, completely outlaw Slaughter-House Cases, Wall. 71—72, 394; Nixon Herndon, 273 47 446, 447, 759. stand amendatory exercises today. criminal procedure, Palko 319, 149, 288, Fifth unequivocal self-incrimination States. stated, 1695: selective applying Bill Rights Twining (Twining Jersey, 211 78, 14, 53 97) rule them, process.' outlaws discriminates race. 'States deal classifying rational, limits, extended color affecting (to vote) case.' 447 (Holmes, Virginia. Senate hearing leading passage 1965, validly Congress' Hearings S. 1564 before Committee Judiciary, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., 194—197 (1965). intimate question. somewhat finds insofar embody addition rationality, historical origins Civil War attribute status. 220; Shelley Kraemer, 334 68 836, 92 1161; Takahashi Fish & Game Comm'n, 410, 1478; 686; Evans Newton, 296, 486, 373; cf. Korematsu 64 194. Tussman Ten-Broek, Laws, 37 Calif.L.Rev. (1949); Wechsler, Toward Neutral Principles Constitutional Law, 73 Harv.L.Rev. (1959). characterization indigency 'neutral fact,' suspect classification, 184—185, 891, requiring trial transcripts indigent appellants, 811, appointment counsel interpreted although reference indiscriminately cast latter. More explicit attempts infuse values unavailing. Patsone 232 138, 539 (alienage); West Coast Hotel Parrish, 300 379, 578, 703 (sex); 564, 911, 1093 (Rutledge, dissenting) (consanguinity). So presently relevant, rested employed instance. 99—101, 781. presented Butts Harrison, No. 655, companion face allegation discriminatorily enforced. explicitly 'no 271. Appellant Butts, first, Convention 1902, framed provision, guided reduce second, lower contrasted whites operate significant obstacle Negroes. suffices alluded sufficient invalidate Ogden, Poll Tax (1958); Thorpe, History People, 1776 1850, 92—98 (1898); Williamson. Democracy, 1760—1860, cc. 1—4 (1960). Porter, 111 (1918); op. cit. 401; Williamson, 138—181. cit supra. At Convention, sentiment prescribe IV, 1. defeated, II Records 201 210 (Farrand ed. 1911). Madison's follows: 'Whether ought freehold, him depend reception change exercised description people. qualification. Viewing merits alone, freeholders Country safest depositories Republican liberty.' 203. Aristotle, Politics, Bks. III, IV; Tocqueville, Democracy America, c. xiii, 199—202 (Knopf 1948). Harper Holmes' admonition appropriate: 'Some convictions prejudices judges share. not. intended theory, paternalism organic citizen laissez faire. fundamentally views, accident opinions natural familiar, novel, shocking, statutes embodying conflict States.' 546—547.

Category: 1