Document: 498 U.S. 439 111 S.Ct. 865 112 L.Ed.2d 969 Mark E. DENNIS, Petitioner,v.Margaret L. HIGGINS, Director, Nebraska Department of Motor Vehicles, et al. No. 89-1555. Argued Oct. 31, 1990. Decided Feb. 20, 1991. Syllabus Petitioner motor carrier filed suit in a trial court, claiming, inter alia, that certain "retaliatory" taxes and fees the State imposed on carriers vehicles such as his, which are registered other States but operate Nebraska, constituted an unlawful burden interstate commerce respondents were liable under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. Among things, court concluded violated Commerce Clause permanently enjoined from assessing, levying, or collecting them; it dismissed petitioner's 1983 claim. The Supreme Court affirmed dismissal, holding there is no cause action for violations because allocates power between Federal Governments does not establish individual rights against government. Held: Suits may be brought Pp. 443-451. (a) A broad construction compelled by statutory language, speaks deprivations "any rights, privileges, immunities secured Constitution laws." It also supported 1983's legislative history this Court's decisions, have rejected attempts to limit types constitutional encompassed within phrase "rights, immunities," see, e.g., Lynch v. Household Finance Corp., 405 538, 92 1113, 31 424. 443-446. (b) confers immunities" meaning In addition conferring Government, substantive restriction permissible state regulation commerce. And individuals injured violating aspect sue obtain injunctive declaratory relief. three considerations determining whether federal statute "right" 1983—that provision creates obligations binding governmental unit, plaintiff's interest too vague amorphous beyond judiciary's competence enforce, was intended benefit plaintiff—also weigh favor recognition right Clause. Respondents' argument designed has been implicitly rejected, Boston Stock Exchange Tax Comm'n, 429 318, 321, n. 3, 97 599, 602, 50 514, repeated references "rights" constitute those who engaged commerce, Crutcher Kentucky, 141 47, 57, 11 851, 853, 35 L.Ed. 649. attempt analogize Supremacy Clause, confer 1983, rejected. Unlike source merely secures according them priority when they come into conflict with law. fact protection interference trade conferred qualified eliminated Congress mean cannot "right," for, until so, operates guarantee freedom private conduct abridge. 446-451. 234 Neb. 427, 451 N.W.2d 676 (1990), reversed remanded. WHITE, J., delivered opinion Court, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, SOUTER, JJ., joined. KENNEDY, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., joined, post, p. ----. Richard A. Allen, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Jay Bartel, Lincoln, Neb., respondents. Justice WHITE Court. 1 This case presents question suits 93 Stat. 1284, amended, We hold may. I 2 business unincorporated his principal place Ohio. He owns tractors trailers Ohio operated several including Nebraska. On December 17, 1984, he class-action challenging constitutionality Nebraska.1 complaint, petitioner claimed, sought relief, refunds all retaliatory paid, attorney's costs. 3 After bench based stipulated facts, at issue "because only whose outside while comparable tax fee Nebraska." App. Pet. Cert. 29a. therefore "assessing, collecting" fees. Id., 30a. held entitled expenses equitable "common fund" doctrine. however, entered judgment remaining claims, appealed dismissal claim, cross-appealed court's allowance common fund Respondents did not, appeal determination 4 See Dennis State, (1990). With respect "[d]espite language . clause." 430, N.W.2d, 678. relied largely reasoning Consolidated Freightways Corp. Delaware Kassel, 730 F.2d 1139 (CA8), cert. denied, 469 834, 105 126, 83 68 (1984), claims cognizable because, among "the government, instead governments." F.2d, 1144. 5 As recognized, see 678, division authority 1983.2 granted certiorari resolve issue, 495 956, 110 2559, 109 741 we now reverse. II 6 19833 (Emphasis added.) Accordingly, "repeatedly coverage [§ 1983] must broadly construed." Golden Transit Los Angeles, 493 103, 105, 444, 448, 107 420 (1989). section stresses remedial statute, should " 'liberally beneficently construed.' Monell New York City Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 684, 98 2018, 2032, 56 611 (1978) (quoting Rep. Shellabarger, Cong.Globe, 42d Cong., 1st Sess., (1871)).4 argue, "prime focus" related provisions ensure "a enforce protections Fourteenth Amendment laws enacted pursuant thereto," Chapman Houston Welfare Rights Organization, 441 600, 611, 99 1905, 1913, 60 508 (1979), never restricted section's scope effectuation goal. Rather, given full effect its recognizing "provide[s] remedy, construed, forms official violation federally protected rights." Monell, supra, U.S., 700-701, S.Ct., 2041. Thus, example, refused "and laws" civil equal laws. Maine Thiboutot, 448 1, 4, 6-8, 100 2502, 2504, 2505-2506, 65 555 (1980). 7 Even more relevant case, immunities." For 424 (1972), "personal" opposed "property" rights.5 first noted neither words nor distinguished personal property rights. 543, 1117. distinction "virtual impossibility" applying it, particularly "mixed" cases involving both 550-551, 1121. further dichotomy liberties false one. enjoy without deprivation, less than speak travel, truth 'personal' right, 'property' welfare check, home, savings account." 552, 1122. United Price, 383 787, 800-806, 86 1152, 1160-1163, 16 267 (1966). 8 contends agree. provides "Congress shall Power [t]o regulate foreign Nations, States, Indian Tribes." Const., Art. I, 8, cl. 3. Although Congress' over long recognized limits erect barriers trade." Lewis BT Investment Managers, Inc., 447 27, 35, 2009, 2015, 64 702 (1980).6 9 below held, "rights." Brief 14-17. There doubt power-allocating provision, giving pre-emptive clear, Government; "restriction regulation" Hughes Oklahoma, 322, 326, 1727, 1731, 250 (1979). "has self-executing limitation enact imposing substantial burdens commerce." South-Central Timber Development, Inc. Wunnicke, 467 82, 87, 104 2237, 2240, 81 71 (1984). addition, violates See, McKesson Division Alcoholic Beverages Tobacco, Business Regulation Florida, 496 18, 2238, 2247, 17 Indeed, before us awarded do contest decision. recently taxpayers required pay subsequently determined violate retrospective relief "that will cure any unconstitutional discrimination during contested period." 51, 2258. combined entitlement amounts "right, privilege, immunity" ordinary terms.7 10 often described engage free restrictive regulation. 649 (1891), struck down license requirement out-of-state companies, stated: "To carry franchise privilege State; every citizen exercise States." 853. Similarly, Western Union Telegraph Co. Kansas ex rel. Coleman, 216 26, 30 190, 197, 54 355 (1910), referred Garrity Jersey, 385 493, 500, 87 616, 620, 562 (1967), declared engaging "righ[t] stature." More recently, 514 (1977), regional stock exchanges had standing challenge securities transactions "asserting their discriminatory allege transfer indirectly infringes right." 320, Last Term, (1989), set forth 1983: 12 "In deciding violated, considered [1] unit rather 'does express congressional preference kinds treatment.' Pennhurst School Hospital Halderman, 19 [101 1531, 1541, 67 694] (1981). [2] plaintiff asserts 'too amorphous' 'beyond judiciary enforce.' Wright Roanoke Redevelopment Housing Authority, 479 418, 431-432 [107 766, 774, 775, 781] (1987). [3] asked 'intend[ed] benefit' putative plaintiff. 430 773]; id., 433 775] (O'CONNOR, dissenting) (citing Cort Ash, 422 66, 78 [95 2080, 2087, 45 26] (1975)." 106, 448. 13 Wilder Virginia Assn., 498, 509, 2510, ----, 455 dispute two here, seize upon third consideration—intent plaintiff—arguing individuals, promote national economic political union. 19-24. 14 argument, Exchange, 603, where found plaintiffs arguably "zone interests" Moreover, who, like petitioner, "[c]onstitutional [their] benefit. ." Morgan Virginia, 328 373, 376-377, 66 1050, 1053, 90 1317 (1946). Jackson, writing eloquently explained: 15 "Our system, fostered farmer craftsman encouraged produce certainty access market Nation, home embargoes withhold exports, customs duties regulations exclude them. Likewise, consumer look competition producing area Nation protect him exploitation any. Such vision Founders; doctrine reality." H.P. Hood & Sons, Du Mond, 336 525, 539, 69 657, 665, (1949). 17-18, itself ----; Chapman, 613, 1913. "not rights"; rather, 'secure[s]' whenever law." Ibid. By contrast, own force imposes limitations exceed limitations.8 argue subject qualification elimination Congress. 21. That proves much, altered Until abridge." 112, 452. same true Clause.9 III 18 conclude erred claim could reversed, remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion. so ordered. 20 whom Chief joins, dissenting. 21 114, dissented damages wrong committed local entity misapprehension boundary power. Today's decision compounds error State. majority drifts far purposes again holds applicable State's quite innocent mistaken respecting shifting sovereign powers. removes one statute's few increases government face defending taxation. respect, dissent. 22 * acknowledge, even law give rise action. assert appears base grounds. First, "ordinary meaning" term confirmed Black's Law Dictionary indicates right. Ante, 447, 7. Second, our contain scattered third, purportedly meets test determine gives action, errs, submit, ignores what sponsors told about privileges Constitution," errs applies context. apply majority's various tests, moreover, would reach opposite conclusion. 23 test, necessary assessing hundreds secure appropriate Constitution. Constitutional numerous, frequency, ahistorical test. ready alternative. can distinguish persons vis-a-vis allocate Governments. former latter not. 24 Constitution, grant states simply "[t]he To terms well design, interpreted structural allocating sovereignties. purport leading drafting ratification confirms these premises. 25 lack Articles Confederation led ongoing disputes prospect descent toward intense commercial animosity arguments Federalist 7, pp. 62-63 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961) (A. Hamilton); 11, 89-90 22, 143-145 42, 267-269 (J. Madison); 53, 333 Madison). 26 "The sole purpose initiated movement ultimately produced 'to take consideration States; examine relative situations said consider how uniform system permanent harmony.' 533, 663, (1949) (citation omitted). 27 Framers way preserve union suppress rivalry. assigned prerogatives general 533-535, 662-664; Baldwin G.A.F. Seelig, 294 511, 523, 55 497, 79 1032 (1935); Collins, Economic Value, 63 N.Y.U.L.Rev. 43, 51-56 (1988). necessity centralized obvious fully little illuminated debate." 534, 663. An exhaustive examination debates reports nine records Convention, directed dangers rivalry retaliation. Abel, Convention Contemporary Comment, Minn.L.Rev. 432, 470-471, nn. 169-175 (1941). serious goal, deliberations devoid evidence intent 28 Section origins Civil Act 1866, 1871, 13. 1118, (1972). recent cases, placed great reliance 1871 interpreting 690, 2035, ("[A]nalysis compels conclusion intend municipalities included applies" (emphasis original)); Lynch, 545-546, 1118-1119 (sponsors rights); Monroe Pape, 365 167, 172-185, 473, 476-483, 492 (1961) (legislative supports need exhaust remedies). 29 Those understood announced rights-securing discussing original House version Act, Representative Chairman Select Committee drafted floor manager bill, "Most restrain directly relate tenth article, 'no make treaty,' 'grant letters marque,' 'coin money,' 'emit bills credit,' c., divisions powers General They therein. These prohibitions nature be, been, occasion arose, enforced courts declaring void acts encroachment thus sufficiently, 'enforced' But some class. liabilities States. "These are: first, fugitives Justice; second, service, (or slaves;) 'citizens each citizens States.' 69-70 (1871) (hereinafter Cong.Globe) (referring IV, 2, securing persons). passage Shellabarger's view "as States," "enforced" legislation, asserted grounds invalidating Ibid.1 added guarantees contained War Amendments, Bill incorporated Amendment. Every specific mention refers provisions. Cong.Globe 475-476 (Rep. Dawes; immunities, Rights); 84-85 Bingham; protection, eight Amendments); 153 Garfield; vote, protection). 32 Statements supporters provide Hoar objectives Constitution: "provide intercourse, domestic foreign"; "promote prohibiting doing liberty, compelling essential maintenance." 333. providing liberty rights," Trumbull made categories 575. gave straightforward answer 33 Not understand difference decisions years support distinction. All previous assumed) alleged 171, 475 ("Allegation facts constituting deprivation color guaranteed satisfies extent R.S. 1979 1983]"); Lane Wilson, 307 268, 59 872, 1281 (1939) (Fifteenth action). 34 supposed Article Contracts Carter Greenhow, 114 317, 928, 202 (1885). "only incidentally." 930. explained "right judicial determination, nullity impair [a State's] obligation." 10, "[n]o pass impairing Obligation Contracts." At least prohibits "doing liberty." Hoar). If States' ability contractual citizens, assuredly demands leap persons. is, if anything, text implies 36 best, grants commerce; power, implied turn, person taxation exceeds to" levy tax. Carter, find ironic draws nearly character incident" purpose. 109, 450. Yet, finds "intended plaintiff," 108, 449, incidental benefits. 37 Due Process distinction, impossibility application. Today, hand, rejects strong bring difficulties good reason rejection suggest mischief. B 38 weight historical statements refer None Instead, interpret sovereigns. (1891) (regulation province legislation"); Kansas, 21, 194, (1910) (same). chooses rely statements, removed remind much closer context, established relies dormant "may arising term, used statutes, account immunity Constitution." Bowman Chicago Northwestern R. Co., 115 615-616, 192, 502 (1885).2 weak 39 similar fashion, Fla., traditional due process analysis context exaction insists review tax's validity later refund then requires meaningful postpayment paid scheme. 2247. violation, acknowledges accorded flexibility structuring remedy Rather refunding tax, "to consistent restrictions, assess collect back competitors benefited [discriminatory] rate reductions 40, 2252. taxpayer law, Amendment, existence violations. 40 Finally, following asks 449. fails locate intent, nevertheless concludes contrary "implicitly [v. U.S.,] [97 3], 'zone interests' Clause." fail particular finding plaintiff, contrary, zone "congressional would-be plaintiff." Clarke Securities Industry 388, 399-400, 750, 757, 757 demonstrate "plausible relationship" policies advanced provision. 403, 759.3 41 treatment confuses concept distinct categories, continue so. Davis Passman, 442 228, 239-240, 2264, 2274, 846 interests sufficient INS Chadha, 462 919, 935-936, 103 2764, 2776, 77 317 (1983), raise separation alleging Presentment Clauses, cls. very fundamental sense, liberty. say Clauses Chadha able branches Government met standing. statement, ante, 449-450 665), benefits entities Nor importance jurisprudence guaranteeing single, market. Benefits Clause; sound traders consumers satisfy plaintiff; prove activity, receive direct benefit, avoid detriment. "benefits parties incident of" allocation 43 draw my dissent, 113, 452, legal unconstitutionality collection pursuing remedies. invoke equivalent search supporting rest all-inclusive consequence reasoning. 44 demonstrates poverty benefit" shows incidentally purview. logic extends whole new class derived I. rationale intergovernmental immunity, Michigan Treasury, 489 803, 813, 1500, 1507, 891 (1989) (violation "coextensive prohibition embodied modern immunity"), interferes relations, Zschernig Miller, 389 429, 88 664, 683 (1968), duty imports Hooven Allison Evatt, 324 652, 870, 89 1252 (1945), invades entrance residence aliens Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 66-67, 61 399, 403-404, 85 581 (1941), income obligation derogation "borrow Money credit Missouri Ins. Gehner, 281 313, 74 870 (1930). textual far-reaching here complain failed adequate forum Nebraska's done acknowledged invalidity collection, file significance decision, future litigation, permit recover 1988. 46 Attorney's Fees Awards 1976, Pub.L. 94-559, 2641, codified 1988, authorized award prevailing in, litigation. encourages vindication which, might otherwise go unenforced plaintiffs' resources small size expected monetary recovery. S.Rep. 94-1011, (1976), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 5908. reassured 1988 "limited laws, category attorneys traditionally regarded appropriate." 5912. 47 significant stake available typical concerns realities pages Reports testify major corporations industry associations commence maintain litigation receiving awards making available, vindicate shifts balance away businesses. 48 raises questions proper challenges answers. Injunction 1341, prevents "enjoin, suspend restrain" assessment plain, speedy efficient State." principle comity likewise entertaining redress allegedly Fair Assessment Real Estate McNary, 454 100, 102 177, 70 271 Relying "overriding efficient, expeditious nondisruptive resolution disputes," Backus Chilivis, 236 Ga. 505, 224 S.E.2d 370, 374 proceed exists complete Ibid.; Spencer South Carolina S.C. 492, 316 386, 388-389 aff'd equally divided 471 1859, 62 (1985) (per curiam). become paramount importance, risk destruction fiscal integrity manner require correction. 49 hint extraordinary passed Reconstruction basic oppressive becomes weapon litigant's arsenal, defendant actor use advantageous dissent Neb.Rev.Stat. 60-305.02 since amended. (Arizona, Arkansas, Idaho, Nevada, York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Wyoming) amount "third structure taxes" Nebraska-registered vehicles. "Third registration fuel (so-called "first structure" "second taxes). Compare Kraft Jacka, 872 862, 869 (CA9 1989); J Anderson, Erie, 767 1469, 1476-1477 (CA10 1985); Continental Illinois Lewis, 838 457, 458 (CA11 1988), vacated grounds, 494 472, 1249, 108 400 (1990); Martin-Marietta Bendix 690 558, (CA6 1982); Kennecott Smith, 637 181, 186, (CA3 1980). Private Truck Council America, Quinn, 476 1129, 106 1997, 677 (1986) (WHITE, joined Brennan denial certiorari) (noting authority). provides: "Every ordinance, regulation, custom, usage, Territory District Columbia, subjects, causes subjected, jurisdiction thereof party equity, proceeding redress." proposition 454-457. untenable. chiefly partial quotation statement statute. reads: "My next historical, aid [i.e., bound execute, specially named enforced"]. always assumed persons, Most justice; "And, sir, these—the deemed legislation provisions—the provided affirmatively interfered persons." reflect omissions dissent). Shellabarger above addressing part became i.e., 1. crime conspiracy act another exclusive 68. objection lacked infringed reserved overriding define punish crimes. 69. answering contended "every observed most "which States" limiting authority—the Extradition Privileges Immunities Fugitive Slave legislation. clear quoted properly read, remarks dissent's characterize expansive crimi- nal narrow strained, least. address issues falls category, likely points argued then-recent affirmative Credit immunity." Banks Mayor, Wall. 16, 57 (1869). snippets 456-457, similarly inapposite inconclusive. event, cut-and-paste read formalistic rights-conferring plainly clearly expressed plain 1983]." American Tobacco Patterson, 456 63, 75, 1534, 748 (1982). "broad unqualified" "it unreasonable assume explicit." St. Paul Fire Marine Barry, 438 531, 550, 2923, 2934, 932 (1978). jurisdictional counterpart 1343(3), contains phrase. agreed "without reservation" limited disagreed different issue. 556, 1124. CTS Dynamics 481 69, 1637, 1648, 95 (1987); (1979); Great Atlantic Pacific Tea Cottrell, 366, 370-371, 96 923, 927-928, (1976); Cooley Board Wardens Port Philadelphia, How. 299, 996 (1852). distinguishable assertions example Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. (1824), excluded licensed boats operating waters. 1324 (6th 1990) (defining "[a] legally enforceable another, act, act") Restatement Property (1936)). diminish status already implicit 'direct violation' statute." 451, additional why unlike included, superfluous. 107, 4. arguing 457-458. reading, stating "held matter pleading up contract 'right clause Constitution' [the clause], 'chosen resort.' 29, 1914, Hague Industrial 496, 527, 954, 969, 1423 (opinion Stone, J.). know Reliance appropriate. proposed person," understanding differ Act. matters repeats speech many pages, portion thereof, views legislate, articulated provisions, "do therein," "secure" added). borne out remainder history. ship product, relying Iowa prohibited shipment intoxicating liquors. apparently Iowa's excuse defendant's failure perform. construing analogue permitted regard controversy "in Rev.Stat. 699 (1874). "Economic Rights," Implied Actions, Scope Geo.L.J. 1493, 1519-1520, 1549-1551 quotes (1946), '[c]onstitutional .' snippet sentence entirety, state, seem, entire follows: "We think, Appeals did, appellant invalid burden, conviction fail. affects transportation company. her criminal challenged Hatch Reardon, 204 152, 160 [27 188, 51 415 (1970)]; Federation Labor McAdory, 325 450, 463 [65 1384, 1393, 1725 (1945)]." Morgan, 1053 added; footnote defense prosecution segregation race passengers buses, rejecting Virginia's company 1053.

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