Document: 531 U.S. 32121 S.Ct. 447148 L.Ed.2d 333 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.CITY OF INDIANAPOLIS, et al., PETITIONERSv.JAMES EDMOND al. No. 99-1030 SUPREME COURT THE UNITED STATES Argued October 3, 2000 Decided November 28, ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR SEVENTH CIRCUIT Syllabus Petitioner city operates vehicle checkpoints on its roads an effort interdict unlawful drugs. Respondents, who were each stopped at such a checkpoint, filed suit, claiming roadblocks violated Fourth Amendment. The District denied respondents injunction, but Seventh Circuit reversed, holding contravened Held: Because checkpoint program's primary purpose indistinguishable from general interest crime control, violate Pp. 3 15. (a) rule search seizure unreasonable under Amendment absent individualized suspicion wrongdoing has limited exceptions. For example, this upheld brief, suspicionless seizures fixed designed intercept illegal aliens, v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, and sobriety aimed removing drunk drivers road, Michigan Dept. State Police Sitz, 496 444. also suggested similar roadblock verify drivers' licenses registrations would permissible serve highway safety interest. Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 663. However, never approved program whose was detect evidence ordinary criminal wrongdoing. 7. (b) latter what principally distinguishes issue those previously approved, which purposes closely related problems policing border necessity ensuring roadway safety. Petitioners state Sitz Martinez-Fuerte had same ultimate arresting suspected committing crimes. Securing apprehending drunken law enforcement activities, authorities employ arrests prosecutions pursue these goals. But if case rest high level generality, there little check authorities' ability construct for almost conceivable purpose. not justified by severe intractable nature drug problem. gravity threat alone cannot dispositive questions concerning means given Rather, determining whether required, must consider interests threatened their connection particular practices issue. Nor can checkpoints' rationalized terms concern merely likened antismuggling Martinez-Fuerte. Neither Whren 517 806, nor Bond 529 334, precludes inquiry into purposes. And could lawful secondary keeping impaired motorists off road verifying registrations, able establish virtually so long as they included license check. That why determine program. does alter constitutional status type Prouse. It affect validity searches airports government buildings, where need measures ensure public particularly acute. it impair police officers' act appropriately upon information properly learn during stop Finally, conducted only programmatic invitation probe minds individual officers acting scene. 7 15.183 F.3d 659, affirmed. O'Connor, J., delivered Court, Stevens, Kennedy, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Rehnquist, dissenting opinion, Thomas, joined, Scalia, joined Part I. opinion. Opinion Justice O'Connor Court. 1 In 444 (1990), Martinez&nbhyph;Fuerte, 543 (1976), we held combating driving intercepting immigrants constitutional. We now constitutionality discovery interdiction narcotics. 2 * August 1998, Indianapolis began operate six between year, stopping 1,161 vehicles 104 motorists. Fifty-five drug-related crimes, while 49 offenses unrelated Edmond Goldsmith, 183 661 (CA7 1999). overall "hit rate" thus approximately nine percent. parties stipulated facts operation Department (IPD) injunction proceedings instituted below. At location, predetermined number vehicles. Approximately 30 stationed checkpoint. Pursuant written directives issued chief police, least one officer approaches vehicle, advises driver he she being briefly asks produce registration. looks signs impairment conducts open-view examination outside. A narcotics-detection dog walks around outside vehicle. 4 instruct conduct consent based appropriate quantum particularized suspicion. manner until develops, have no discretion out sequence. agreed stipulation way total duration stop, reasonable probable cause, five minutes less. 5 affidavit Sergeant Marshall DePew, although technically parties' stipulation, provides further insight checkpoints. According locations selected weeks advance considerations area statistics traffic flow. generally operated daylight hours identified with lighted reading, "NARCOTICS CHECKPOINT ___ MILE AHEAD, NARCOTICS K 9 IN USE, BE PREPARED STOP." App. Pet. Cert. 57a. Once group cars been stopped, proceeds without interruption all processed diverted processing. DePew stated average processing lasts two three 6 Respondents James Joell Palmer narcotics late September 1998. then lawsuit behalf themselves class future claimed Constitution provision Indiana Constitution. declaratory injunctive relief class, well damages attorney's fees themselves. moved injunction. Although alleged them did follow directives, proceedings. certification plaintiff class. Southern motion 38 F. Supp. 2d 1016 (1998). divided panel Appeals 659 (1999). rehearing. granted certiorari, 528 1153 (2000), affirm. II 8 requires reasonable. ordinarily absence Chandler Miller, 520 305, 308 (1997). While "irreducible" component reasonableness, U.S., 561, recognized circumstances usual apply. certain regimes "special needs, beyond normal enforcement." See, e.g., Vernonia School Dist. 47J Acton, 515 646 (1995) (random testing student-athletes); Treasury Employees Von Raab, 489 656 (1989) (drug tests Customs Service employees seeking transfer promotion positions); Skinner Railway Labor Executives' Assn., 602 alcohol railway involved train accidents found violation regulations). allowed administrative misconduct, provided limited. New York Burger, 482 691, 702 704 (1987) (warrantless inspection premises "closely regulated" business); Tyler, 436 499, 507 509, 511 512 (1978) (administrative fire-damaged cause blaze); Camara Municipal City County San Francisco, 387 523, 534 539 (1967) compliance housing code). Border Patrol supra, (1990). addition, 663 (1979), permissible. none cases, however, indicate approval 10 entertained challenges stops permanent immigration located major highways less than 100 miles Mexican border. noted outset context question arose, describing some detail "formidable problems" posed northbound tide entrants States. 551 554. These focus several earlier cases addressing traffic-checking operations. See Ortiz, 422 891 (1975); Brignoni-Ponce, 873 Almeida-Sanchez 413 266 (1973). balance tipped favor Government's Nation's borders. 561 564. finding, emphasized difficulty effectively containing itself. Id., 556. stressed impracticality study car discern transporting relatively modest degree intrusion entailed stops. 556 11 Our subsequent confirmed specifically significant factor our decision. Montoya de Hernandez, 473 531, 538 (1985), counted "reflect longstanding protection integrity border." occur itself, near served control function necessary guarding border's entire length. 12 evaluated brief intoxication remove road. 447 448. Motorists exhibited registration and, warranted, tests. 447. clearly reducing immediate hazard presence highways, obvious imperative practice problem magnitude State's getting weighed heavily determination id., 451. 13 invalidated discretionary, spot motorist's driver's officer's unconstitutional primarily account his exercise "standardless unconstrained discretion." 661. nonetheless acknowledged States' "vital qualified do permitted motor vehicles, fit safe operation, hence licensing, registration, requirements observed." 658. Accordingly, "[q]uestioning oncoming roadblock-type stops" serving 14 indicated Prouse considered hypothetical distinct investigating crime. proffered additional "the apprehension stolen influence narcotics" justify discretionary n. 18. attributed entirety Ibid. partly subsumed observed, "[t]he remaining governmental controlling automobile thefts distinguishable control." Not common thread run through itself reveals difference significance control. III 15 established effectuates within meaning 450. fact walk exterior transform search. Place, 462 696, 707 (1983). Just sniff require entry disclose ibid. Like simply "much intrusive typical search." Cf. Turpin, 920 F.2d 1377, 1385 (CA8 1990). 16 As petitioners concede, unquestionably interdicting facts, repeatedly refer "drug checkpoints" describe "being drugs Indianapolis." 51a 52a. first document attached entitled "DRUG CONTACT OFFICER DIRECTIVES BY ORDER CHIEF POLICE." 53a. "[a]dvise citizen checkpoint." second "1998 Drug Road Blocks" contains statistical breakdown relating conducted. 55a. Further, according both 2d, 1026 (noting "stress IPD clear traffic"); F.3d, 665 (observing concedes proximate goal catch offenders"). 17 exceptions accompanied measure credit "general control" justification regime Consistent suggestion, programs uncover wrongdoing, contravenes 18 propose ways instant instead resemble Brief 22. are, course, pursuit 447, 450; 545 550. If Without drawing line prevent intrusions becoming routine part American life. 19 emphasize 17, 31. There doubt creates social harms magnitude. 668. trade likewise remain daunting complex, light myriad forms spin-off spawns. 538. said various lesser degree. reluctant recognize ends. 20 narcotics-interdiction present Sitz. detection punishment offense serves broadly community, streets safer scourge Only respect smaller offenses, society confronted immediate, vehicle-bound life limb eliminate. 21 liken anticontraband agenda 16. cite Court's conclusion flow too heavy permit "particularized enable possible carrier aliens," 557, claim logic even more force here. argument prevails time employed conceal contraband very different close far removed crucial examining passing important validating technique seizures. look serve. 22 end control," decline suspend requirement seek enterprise sanction generalized ever-present possibility interrogation reveal motorist committed 23 Of otherwise, emergency, relate noted, certainly tailored set up thwart imminent terrorist attack dangerous likely flee route. 662 exigencies created scenarios might matter course see just happens felon leaving jurisdiction. limit rigid categories, approve ultimately control.1 24 argue prior preclude 806 (1996), 334 support proposition "where articulates pursues legitimate courts should behind government's 'primary purpose' valid." 34; 9. situation. 25 Whren, subjective intentions irrelevant objectively believe occurred. 810 813. observed "foreclose reasonableness depends actual motivations involved." holding, expressly distinguished addressed cause. 811 812 (distinguishing Florida Wells, 495 1, (1990) (stating "an inventory ruse rummaging discover incriminating evidence"), Colorado Bertine, 479 367, 372 (suggesting bad faith lack purely investigative relevant search), 716 717, 27 valid neither warrant appear pretext gathering violations penal laws)). 26 therefore reinforces principle that, "[s]ubjective play role ordinary, probable-cause analysis," 813, undertaken pursuant scheme contexts. 305 (1997); (1989); supra; 499 (1978); 523 (1967). Last Term Bond, expectation privacy conducting tactile carry-on luggage overhead compartment bus. doing so, rendered intent analysis. 338, 2. While, correctly observe, analytical rubric "ordinary, nothing suggests extend situations lacking. because precedents required focused objective effects actions officer. By contrast, dealing often level. 28 registrations. 31 34. case, reason, examine available inherent inquiry, routinely engage many areas jurisprudence sifting abusive lawful. 665. result, driven impermissible proscribed impelled licit permitted, though challenged outwardly similar. predominantly special needs demonstrate when issue.2 29 saying today still balancing competing stake effectiveness 450 455; When here, places like speak purpose, action result arrest caution supra. judgment accordingly 32 ordered. NOTES: Chief Justice's dissent erroneously characterizes resting application "non-law-enforcement test." Post, 6. nowhere describes "not 3. turns "use drug-sniffing . annuls otherwise plainly jurisprudence." 1. Again, defect concede detection, decide checking Specifically, express view expand scope car. Jersey T. L. O., 469 325, 341 (1985) (search "'reasonably circumstance interference place'" (quoting Terry Ohio, 392 (1968))); Clifford, 464 287, 294 295 (1984) (plurality opinion). 33 whom Thomas joins, Scalia joins I, dissenting. 34 use dog, jurisprudence: standardized, discretionless, automobiles, weighty minimal occupants. accepted preventing record addition lengthens seizures, I dissent. 35 begin blackletter law. "The principal rights lies limitations stop." 566 567 (1976). Roadblock consistent "carried plan embodying explicit, neutral officers." Brown Texas, 443 47, 51 (1979). "a weighing concerns seizure, advances interest, severity liberty." 50 51. 36 applied principles detecting aliens. balanced formidable against "objective" "subjective" itself,1 questioning occupants, visual "limited" "[n]either occupants [were] searched." 558. Likewise, intrusion, fear surprise engendered law-abiding "regularized [the] [was] visible evidence, reassuring motorists, duly authorized believed interest." 559. Indeed, standardized viewed markedly roving patrols, unbridled field unlimited motorists' highways. (1975). decision turn effectiveness, consolidated demonstrated aliens 0.12 percent 37 after applying framework There, curbing 25-second "slight." Turning guidelines uniformed officers. 453. concluded furthered resulted drivers, 1.6 126 stopped. 455 456. follows naturally acknowledge "primary purpose" drugs, controlling. Even accepting enforcement,2 presented case. another "purpose registrations," 44a, "[l]ook impairment." validated (1979).3 seriously disputed, people arrested attest. speculative conclude findings, 39 reasons constitutionally hoped invalidate justifiable automobile. automobile, checkpoints, witnessed violations; here substantial 40 satisfied, expectations responsible it, members council, irrelevant. Scott 128, 136 ("Subjective make unconstitutional"). effect animates (2000) (applying amounted "search" mind, actions"). anyone's thoughts, analysis.4 41 With interests, prongs Texas test easily met. lasts, average, involve marked directed every manner. dog. already held, "sniff test" trained physical object sniffed expose anything items. 706 stop. success rate confirms proper licensing 661.5 42 interests; executed regularized manner; minimally intrude They 43 unwilling adopt straightforward analysis dictate, adds new non-law-enforcement lifted homes businesses. discussed above, answers fundamentally, whatever sense setting, ill suited consistently looked stop" assessing constitutionality. 567. 44 rejected apply finds indispensable. argued "proper method analysis" regards seizures: 45 "Respondents showing 'beyond need' appropriate, [the State] ha[s] need. 46 "But perfectly plain reading [Treasury v.] Raab[, (1989)], cited repudiate utilized approving here." 449, 47 Considerations stare decisis aside, "perfectly plain" reason incorporating needs" automobiles "deal sanctity private dwellings, afforded most stringent protection." 561. 48 doctrine, used uphold performed enforcement, exception search); (home search). doctrine permits person's body home, greatest protection. "[O]ne's freedom significantly traditional one's residence." "[a]utomobiles, unlike homes, subjected pervasive continuing regulation controls." South Dakota Opperman, 364, 368 (1976); Class, 475 106, 113 (1986) ("[A]utomobiles justifiably State"); Cardwell Lewis, 417 583, 590 (1974) ("One transportation seldom residence repository personal effects"). lowered coupled intrusion: nonintrusive seizure.6 hardly compared home. Thus, define searches, extrinsic newfound unnecessary secure bound wide-ranging litigation over "purpose" seizure. designing sure validity, since jury later forbidden exists. identical years ago, ago grounds concealed Efforts enforce millions obviously society. casts shadow assumed, basis decisis, activity. Conversely, assigned activity changed done ground valid. ante, 14, proxy is, be, concerned about context. 52 Petitioners' complies decisions regarding add length Amendment, reverse Appeals. lasted minutes. 546 547 gloss, 7, 10, obvious. criminally prosecuted illegally "[i]nterdicting Mexico poses problems." 552. "officer's observations suggest intoxicated, made." 444, however persuasive distinction, impugn Several Courts Galindo-Gonzales, 142 1217 (CA10 1998); McFayden, 865 1306 (CADC 1989). analyzing searches. II, infra, automobiles. Put terms, 4.2 367 (automobile 53 54 Taken together, stand limits am convinced decided. rather Framers "reasonable" indiscriminate individuals 55 not, advocate overruling step benefit briefing argument. Justice, compel upholding therefore, join

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