Document: 465 U.S. 37 104 S.Ct. 871 79 L.Ed.2d 29 R. PULLEY, Warden, Petitionerv.Robert Alton HARRIS. No. 82-1095. Argued Nov. 7, 1983. Decided Jan. 23, 1984. Syllabus Respondent was convicted of a capital crime in California court and sentenced to death, the Supreme Court affirmed, rejecting claim that California's punishment statute invalid under Federal Constitution because it failed require compare respondent's sentence with sentences imposed similar cases thereby determine whether they were proportionate. After habeas corpus relief denied by state courts, respondent sought District Court, again contending he had been comparative proportionality review assertedly required Constitution. The writ, but Appeals held constitutionally required. Held: 1. There is no merit contention Appeals' judgment should be affirmed solely on ground decisional law entitles him review. Under 28 U.S.C. § 2241, federal may not issue writ basis perceived error law. In demand for review, did suggest any way departing from case-law precedent. Moreover, if an evolution would now enjoy kind has so far him, consider matter, are inclined, free constraints corpus. Pp. 41-42. 2. Eighth Amendment does require, as invariable rule every case, appellate court, before affirms death sentence, case penalties requested do prisoner. 44-54. (a) This Court's case. outcome Gregg v. Georgia, 428 153, 96 2909, 49 859 (upholding Georgia's statutory scheme which review), Proffitt Florida, 242, 2960, 913 Florida's performed despite absence requirement), hinge That some schemes providing constitutional mean such indispensable. Jurek Texas, 262, 2950, 929, upheld Texas' even though neither nor provided 44-51. (b) Assuming there could sentencing system lacking other checks arbitrariness pass muster without involved here sort. 51-54. 692 F.2d 1189 (9th Cir.1982), reversed remanded. Michael D. Wellington, San Diego, Cal., petitioner. Anthony G. Amsterdam, New York City, respondent. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 Harris death.1 Along many challenges conviction claimed appeal United States Harris's proportionate.2 Rejecting claims citation earlier cases, affirmed. People Harris, Cal.3d 935, 171 Cal.Rptr. 679, 623 P.2d 240 (1981).3 We certiorari. 454 882, 102 365, 70 192 (1981). 2 then courts. He complained failure provide opinion, we 457 1111, 2915, 73 1322 (1982). next Southern California, pressing claim, among others, refused stay execution, issued certificate probable cause. Appeals, after holding demanded required, vacated ordered relieving unless within 120 days undertook penalty proportionate crimes.4 Cir.1982). granted State's petition certiorari presenting question mandated --- ----, 103 1425, 75 787 (1983). 3 * concedes rested ground. nonetheless contends affirm judgment, effect returning entitle unsuccessfully demanded. unimpressed submission. disturbing state-court only found prisoner custody "in violation or laws treaties States." 2241(c)(3) (1976). A 4 Even sufficiently egregious amount denial equal protection due process guaranteed Fourteenth Amendment, submission persuasive. relies Frierson, 25 142, 158 281, 599 587 (1979), Jackson, 264, 168 603, 618 149 (1981), proposition have extended matter But since deciding those twice rejected suggesting Indeed, direct indicated adversely decided very cases. 5 Finally, accurate,5 warrant issuing Rather appear courts consider, writ. Accordingly, deem necessary reach granted. II 6 At outset, more clearly identify us. Traditionally, "proportionality" used reference abstract evaluation appropriateness particular crime. Looking gravity offense severity penalty, crimes, practices jurisdictions, this occasionally struck down punishments inherently disproportionate, therefore cruel unusual, when category See, e.g., Solem Helm, 3001, 77 637 (1983); Enmund 458 782, 3368, 1140 (1982); Coker 433 584, 97 2861, 53 982 (1977). all disproportionate sense. 187, 2931, (1976) (opinion Justices Stewart, POWELL, STEVENS); id., at 226, S.Ct., 2949 (WHITE, J., concurring). 7 Appeals,6 numerous statutes7 different sort presumes traditional It purports inquire instead unacceptable others same therefore, applicable through requires insists Apparently, view. agree. III 8 rooted Furman 408 238, 92 2726, 33 346 (1972). Furman, concluded punishment, administered statutes vesting unguided discretion juries trial judges, become unconstitutionally unusual punishment. being discriminatorily, U.S., 240, 2727 (Douglas, concurring), wantonly freakishly, 306, 2760 (Stewart, infrequently, 310, 2762 given unusual. response decision, roughly two-thirds promptly redrafted their effort limit jury avoid arbitrary inconsistent results. All new automatic sentences. Most, Georgia's, reviewing extent least, whether, considering both defendant, Not State adopted procedure. States, performs requirement; not. 9 Four years examined several statutes. one each three sorts mentioned above. See supra; (1976); 929 Needless say, take find them. To endorse whole say anything unacceptable. As said Gregg, "[w]e intend above-described procedures permissible constructed along these general lines inevitably satisfy concerns distinct must individual basis." 195, 2935 (footnote omitted). Examination our 1976 makes clear establish requirement. 10 six Georgia adequately directed limited jury's discretion. bifurcated proceedings, number requirement least aggravating circumstance present, consideration mitigating circumstances minimized risk wholly arbitrary, capricious, freakish announcing controlled objective standards. 197-198, 2936-2937. separate concurrence, sufficient reason expect wantonly, infrequently Furman. Id., 222, 2947. 11 Both opinions made much statutorily-required 198, 204-206, 222-223, 2936, 2939-2940, 2947-2948. considered additional safeguard against capricious sentencing. While POWELL STEVENS suggested form meaningful declare critical passed muster. summarizing components adequate scheme, mention review: 12 "[T]he expressed . can met carefully drafted ensures authority information guidance. proposition, best provides proceeding apprised relevant imposition standards guide its use information." 2935. 13 short, erred concluding 14 less reliance supra. Florida procedure forecloses finds eight present outweighed circumstances. joint observed like counterpart, sentencer focus homicide defendant. 251, 2966. Also, ultimate judge rather than jury, expected yield consistent level. 252, Only judges specific detailed guidance assist them impose observe reviewed ensure 250-251, 2965-2966.8 concurring filed approved mentioning 260-261, 2970. 15 clearer (1976), day. statute, case-law, STEVENS, emphasizing limits discretion,9 that: 16 "Texas' procedures, violate Amendments. By narrowing definition murder, Texas essentially first-degree murder considered. authorizing defense bring hearing whatever relating defendant adduced, ensured will enable perform function. prompt judicial decision statewide jurisdiction, means promote evenhanded, rational, Because serves assure 'wantonly' 'freakishly' imposed, Constitution." 276, 2958. 17 "a sentences," ibid., revealing. First, plain that, light safeguards superfluous. Second, suggests similarly-worded references focused such, provision expressing views sustained focusing limitations discretion, review.10 view Jurek, quite sure juncture whenever imposed.11 18 also Zant Stephens, 2733, 235 (1983), announced depart Jurek. cited support decision. n. 13, 2742, 13. importance mandatory hold unconstitutional. contrary, relied finding circumstances, proportionality, rationalizing sentence.12 Thus, emphasis function Proportionality arbitrarily sentences, certainly 19 thus requests it. effectively overrule substantially sense Proffitt. persuaded us course. IV 20 1977 person first degree life imprisonment "special circumstances" found, either parole. Cal.Penal Code Ann. §§ 190, 190.2 (West 1977).13 Special alleged charging paper tried guilt initial phase trial. close evidence, decides innocence determines special present. Each proved beyond reasonable doubt. 190.4(a). If guilty circumstance, proceeds second appropriate penalty. Additional evidence offered list factors. 190.3.14 "After having heard trier fact shall into account guided referred section, possibility parole." Ibid. returns verdict deemed move modify verdict. 190.4(e). reviews and, factors, "independent determination weight supports findings verdicts." record reasons his findings. denies motion modification, appeal. 190.4(e), 1239(b). otherwise describe nature appeal.15 judge's refusal "shall reviewed." seem include judge. said, "the requirements specify permit denying modification serve thoughtful effective upon case." 179, 302, 587, 609 (1979). reduced Thompson, 27 303, 165 289, 611 883 (1980). 21 requiring doubt, small sub-class capital-eligible applied defendants sub-class, "provide[s] lessen[s] chance application penalty," Pulley, F.2d, 1194, "guarantee[ing] deliberate," 1195. "discretion suitably minimize action." 189, 2932. Its On face, system, practice cannot successfully challenged subsequent 22 Any produce aberrational outcomes. Such inconsistencies cry major systemic defects identified acknowledged past, "there 'no perfect governmental death.' " 2747, quoting Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 605, 98 2954, 2965, 57 973 (1977) (plurality opinion). presently informed, inadequate evil ordering issue. remanded further proceedings opinion. 23 ordered. 24 part judgment. I agree basic conclusion opinion—our conducted imposed—my understanding decisions (1983) reflected prevent me joining portion 26 element believe plays essential role eliminating capriciousness infected invalidated (1972), hence resulted two schemes. systems permitting broad classes offenses always constitute types homicides vested unfettered sentence. Given defects, inevitable, extreme intolerable. Proffitt, designed eliminate defects. mechanism categorically class procedural including authority's STEWART, see 2939-2940 well WHITE'S 224, 2948, component prominent, innovative, noteworthy feature specifically combat problems prior scheme. observations innovation method ensuring capriciously acceptable explicitly recognized "law differs conduct review." 2965-2966. observed, however, "meaningful review" possible justify written findings, described routinely independent analysis 253, 2967. Later Proffitt's argument "subjective unpredictable", 258, 2969, noted supreme "several times" compared previous "following type statute." 259, 2969. not, indicate followed routine Florida,1 indispensable 30 nevertheless "that capital-sentencing Florida," assured imposed." assurance guarantee stated: 31 "By law." 32 day, differentiate appraising quality mandated. Last Term 'to disproportionate' primary features plurality's approval rested. 2742. reaffirming constitutionality upholding constitutionality. "to excessive, disproportionate" reject weighing significance 2744 describing omitted), invalidation setting aside 2749. Once again, viewed effective, what Jurek: judges. 34 summarize, today, valid. Like am prescribed review—is danger extraordinary Amendment. 35 join concur 36 BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL joins, dissenting. Almost ago, various statutes, constituted prohibited time, convinced manner justified.1 later, faced enacted majority mechanisms included application. Thus began series which, exceptions, assumed rational nondiscriminatory way. Upon available simply deluding itself, American public, who already executed today condemned selected terms. 38 concludes unnecessary. Presumably so, similarly situated might some, part, irrationality currently surrounds Because, my view, purpose, undertake examining 39 A. 40 supra, orders, see, 933-940, existing States. Although five judgments authored accepted minimum, "be creat[e] substantial [will] inflicted manner." 188, 2932 JJ.). 41 touchstone Stewart's Furman: 42 "These lightning For, people rapes murders ., just reprehensible these, petitioners random handful imposed. My Brothers demonstrated discerned selection few die, impermissible race. conclude Amendments tolerate infliction legal unique freakishly 309-310, 2762-2763 (footnotes citations 43 Likewise, exacted great infrequency most atrocious crimes distinguishing not." 313, 2764. And, although Douglas agreed, noting "[t]he high service rendered 'cruel unusual' clause legislatures write penal nonselective, nonarbitrary, sparsely, selectively, spottily unpopular groups." 256, 2735. 248 11, 249, 2731 n.11, 2732 concurring) (" 'A "unusually" discriminatorily.' ") (quoting Goldberg & Dershowitz, Declaring Death Penalty Unconstitutional, 83 Harv.L.Rev. 1773, 1790 (1970)); 274-277, 291-295, 2744-2746, 2753-2755 (BRENNAN, concurring).2 44 These about irrational based speculation. Rather, premised actual experience administration attempt time summarize 1972 decided. 249-253 21, 2731-2733 concurring); 364-369, 2790-2792 (MARSHALL, Suffice persuaded, personal cases3 research analyzing manner. 45 stated concern cease Court; indeed, ever since. Barclay 463 3418, 3428, 1134 (STEVENS, judgment); 462 (characterizing 'where afforded body grave human taken spared, action' 188-189, JJ.)); Eddings Oklahoma, 455 104, 111, 869, 874, 71 (1982) (noting "has attempted goals measured, fairness accused"); 112, 875 "insiste[d] fairly, consistency, all"). Hence, principle during past years, evidenced examination actually defended. 46 while repeating principle, companion allowed executions place, rows expand, fully results obtained seems content long certain protections exist, permissible. sentencer's ante, 51-53, combined 54-55, 59(STEVENS, part), itself general, exercise state's power. emotions generated juries, invariably affected considerations. contexts, premise decisionmaking [as] spared." 2741. occur frequency, fast approaching re-examine existence protections, importantly re-evaluate B 47 current discriminatory yet completely systematically marshalled. What compiled, moreover, properly presented Nevertheless, recent decisions, evaluates issue—in review—without regard satisfies 48 compelling continues relates racial discrimination apparently, perhaps invariably, exists correctly avoids "remanded evidentiary discriminatorily California").4 avoided longer, lower beginning recognize. Spencer Zant, 715 1562, 1578-1583 (11th Cir.1983), rehearing en banc pending, 82-8408 (CA11); Ross Hopper, 716 1528, 1539 (CA11 1983). Stephens Kemp, 464 562, 78 ---- (stay execution pending ). Furthermore, scholarly pursued, compiled rapidly expanding literature. Baldus, Woodworth Pulaski, Differential Treatment White Black Victim Homicide Cases Capital Charging Sentencing Process: Preliminary Findings (June 1982) (unpublished), reprinted App. Pet. Cert. Smith Balkcom, O.T.1981, 6978, app. G (discrimination race victim); Bowers Pierce, Arbitrariness Discrimination Post-Furman Statutes, Crime Delinq. 563 (1980) Foley, Decision: Processing Offense Application Stay Sullivan Wainwright, O.T.1983, A-409, exh. Foley Powell, Discretion Prosecutors, Judges, Juries Cases, Crim.Just.J. (Fall Gross Mauro, Patterns Death: An Analysis Racial Disparities Victimization (October 1983) Jacoby Paternoster, Disparity Jury Packing: Further Challenges Penalty, J.Crim.L. Criminology 379 Kleck, Criminal Sentencing: Critical Evaluation Evidence Am.Soc.Rev. 783 (1981); Radelet, Characteristics Imposition 918 (1981) Radelet Race Prosecutorial (presented Meetings Sociological Association, Detroit, Michigan, Sept. 4, 1983), Riedel, Penalty: Comparison Offenders Sentenced Pre-Furman Post-Furman, Temp.L.Q. 261 Zeisel, Bias Administration Experience, 95 456 victim). C. Black, Punishment: Inevitability Caprice Mistake (2d ed. 1981). methods techniques often differ, conclusions reached relatively clear: factors crucial, doubt impermissibly applied, victim. 50 Nor infects applied. Several studies above gender, socioeconomic status, geographical location state, common. expand dictate. going fulfill responsibilities, sanction continued unexamined assumption noncapricious Simply assume underlying ignore difficulties inherent system. 51 directly jurisdiction carried out. states pursuant convince throughout extent, 52 Some forms infect penalty—unlike race, geographic State—cannot measured comprehensive mean, acceptable. filled unpredictability "it smacks little lottery system," 293, 2754 chosen remains "being lightning,"id., 309, Chief defendants, charged State, receive vastly Professor John Kaplan Stanford Law School summarized dilemma: 54 "The problem [of imposing punishment] serious chances someone innocent—the horror Though examples victims mistaken identity sometimes row, common fall types. one, recipient crime, lesser offense, theory available. 55 occurs execute whose aggravated escaped case—which extremely common—that worry first, between second, procedures." Kaplan, Problem Punishment, 1983 U.Ill.L.F. 555, 576. 56 Comparative aimed error.5 Disproportionality eliminated disparities identified. And logical comparisons State. labels 42-44. panacea, disproportionality defendants. Constitution's prohibition provided. 58 insistence compelled Constitution, over thirty out.6 weigh heavily side Cf. 788-796, S.Ct 3372-3376, 593-596, 2866-2868, addition, dispute difficulty 59 Perhaps value gathered For example, 1973, controlling "[w]hether excessive defendant." Ga.Code 17-10-35(c)(3) 7; 166-168, 2922, Pursuant mandate, seven comparatively disproportionate. High 247 Ga. 297, 276 S.E.2d 5, (death armed robbery kidnapping); Hall 241 258-260, 244 833, 838-839 (1978) felony co-defendant received trial); Ward 239 205, 208-209, 236 368 Jarrell 234 410, 424-425, 216 270 (1975) robbery); Floyd 233 280, 285, 210 810, 814 (1974) (same); 117, 127, 659, 667 (same), aff'd grounds, Coley 231 829, 835-836, 204 612, 616-617 rape). Hill 237 794, 802-803, 229 737 unclear committed murder; later commuted Board Pardons Paroles). 60 Similarly, history Henry 278 Ark. 478, 488-489, 647 S.W.2d 419, 425 Sumlin 273 185, 617 372, 375 Blair 406 So.2d 1103, 1109 (Fla.1981); McCaskill 344 1276, 1278-1280 (Fla.1977); Gleckler, 82 Ill.2d 145, 161-171, Ill.Dec. 483, 490-495, 411 N.E.2d 849, 856-861 (1980); Commonwealth, 634 411, 413-414 (Ky.1982); Sonnier, 380 1, 5-9 (La.1979); Coleman 378 640, 649-650 (Miss.1979); McIlvoy, 629 333, 341-342 (Mo.1982); Munn 658 482, 487-488 (Okl.Cr.App.1983).7 61 demonstrate, Before out, continuing part); 3437, dissenting), less. 62 mandate takes place. Then, "factors" upholds point order irrational, still exist. adhere unstudied decisionmaking. 63 dissent. established July 1978, brother steal get-away car bank Mira Mesa, California. approached teenaged boys eating hamburgers car, forced gunpoint drive nearby wooded area. His followed. They parked cars, walked partway up trail. told rob bank. walk top hill, wait while, report stolen, giving misleading descriptions thieves. plan, moved off bushes, shot other. pursued killed fleeing boy, returned fired shots finished boys' hamburgers, went ahead robbery. apprehended soon thereafter confessed killings kidnapping, robbery, boys. accordance effect, prosecution doubt: Cal.Pen.Code 190.2(c)(5) 1977), willful, deliberate, premeditated, commission kidnapping 190.2(c)(3)(i), (ii). proper parole, determined hearing. hearing, introduced manslaughter 1975; possession makeshift knife garrote prison; sodomized another inmate; threatened inmate's life. took stand testified dismal childhood, minimal education, father sexually molesting sisters. sorry murders. help decide chose death. Cal.Stats.1977, ch. 316, 1255-1266, codified 190-190.6. replaced late 1978 provisions effect. 190-190.7 Supp.1983). Unless noted, statute. applies equally confusion contains copy brief. brief largely identical petition, record, infer, brief, argued defective mechanism. petitions affidavit detailing identifying Three joined court. Tobriner concurred note unconstitutional felt bound ruling dissented. Bird, Mosk, dissented pretrial publicity fair nonstatutory Third, where, statement. remanded, closer look unfairly prejudicial supported. None reversals crimes. aware beside No oral argument, counsel pointed Dillon, 441, 194 390, 668 697 example evolving carrying conviction. disparity Dillon's participants Dillon involve cross-case comparison, hardly signifies distinction defendant's "This latter here." 1196. much-copied consideration. 17-10-35(e). maintain records 1970. 17-10-37(a). implies really understand Post, 56. reading does, course, interpretation share "Georgia counterpart," 'in too great.' 2966, Dixon, 283 (Fla.1973). "decisions circumstances." notes, out times assessed [Citations omitted.] following natural language authors believed how interpreted E.g., Williams, 1280 (Fla.1977). acknowledging undertakes Brown 392 1327 (Fla.), cert. denied, 1000, 542, 407 says practice, citing performed. 56-58, undeniably enthusiastic, explicit, years. Williams 437 133 (Fla.1983); Adams 412 850 (Fla.1982). However, enactment post-Furman endorsed (Fla.1973), frequently thereafter, Alvord 322 533, 540-541 (1975); Alford 307 433, 445 Lamadline 303 17, (Fla.1974). recently "Since inception 'new' 1972, engaged rationality consistency penalty." 441 609, 613 (Fla.1983) (citing supra points express reviewed. worth bearing mind cites case; explicit none undertaken. Messer 439 875, 879 (acknowledging requirement, assertion cases"). event, thought was. regard, speaks itself. "Thus, asked appears guides focuses particularized offender death." 273-274, 2957, "Under revised law, substantive defined; set Petitioner questions depends vague essence possesses standardless power; issues posed common-sense core meaning criminal capable extend discretionary power dispense mercy, disobey nullify instructions. February year, persons, petitioner, seldom useful penological Members Georgia. [T]he narrowly defined group brutal aims limiting occurring 278-279, 2959-2960 THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST, concurring.) Woodson North Carolina, 319, 2978, 2998, 944 (REHNQUIST, dissenting) ("If wish [i.e., review], undoubtedly surely Constitution"). invalidated, vague, jury. remaining "adequately differentiated objective, substantively 2744. Briefly, are: 1) profit; 2) perpetrated explosive; 3) victim police officer line duty; 4) witness testifying proceeding; 5) rape, performance lewd lascivious act 14, burglary; 6) torture; 7) previously proceeding. 1977). greatly expanded 190.3 provides: "In determining relevant: true 190.1. presence activity force violence implied threat violence. (c) Whether influence mental emotional disturbance. (d) participant homicidal consented act. (e) reasonably moral justification extenuation conduct. (f) acted duress domination person. (g) capacity appreciate criminality conform impaired result disease effects intoxication. (h) age (i) accomplice participation minor. (j) extenuates excuse crime." silent exact 269, 2955. regular pre-Proffitt decisions: Jones 332 615, 619 (Fla.1976) (per curiam) (reversing unwarranted case); 328 430, 432 (Fla.) (affirming it), 429 951, 370, 319 18, 21-22 871, 151 Thompson (quotes Dixon concerning reverses facts it); 5-6 (Adkins, specially) (maintaining affirmance merited agreement judge); Dobbert remark knowledge), aff'd, 282, 2290, (1977); Halliwell 323 557, 561 (Fla.1975) Tedder 908, 910 (establishing standard recommendation reversing Swan 485, 489 Gardner 313 675, 677 430 349, 1197, 393 Spinkellink 666, 671 911, 3227, 1221 Sawyer 680, 682 3226, 1220 Hallman 305 180, 182 (Fla.1974) 632, 637-38 (specially justices responsibility independently warranted assessment Taylor 294 648, 652 case). shortly reveal 341 765, 769 (Fla.1976), 434 977, 541, 471 warranted); Funchess 762, 763 878, 231, Chambers 339 Meeks 186, compares only, case), 991, 99 592, 666 (1978); Knight 338 201, 205 336 1142, 1145 Cooper 1133, 1142 431 925, 2200, 1327, 1331 "function maximum consistency." 258-259, especially good 257, (1972) (concurring 227, dissenting). Nothing occurred change views; anything, unconstitutionality before. vacate respondent, Robert Harris. dissenters decision: decisive grievance evenhanded justice; pattern." 398-399, 2808-2809 (BURGER, C.J., experience: "I need restate figures Brethren. 'prove' data. But, Brethren, arrive judgment; almost daily exposure hundreds involving authorized held, district should, becomes necessary, opportunity develop factual arguments [Harris'] race-discrimination gender-discrimination claims." 1189, 1197-1199 (CA9 1982). entitled remand claims. showing wealth claims; bases discrimination. 1199. easiest assemble highlight examine men 1976. Of individuals, four appeals own behalf, preferring prison. Among individuals heinous men, unexplained differences unaccounted comments Spenkellink: "As read probably voluntary manslaughter, second-degree murder. drifter assaulted him. attorneys happy accept plea 578 582, 586 (CA5 1978); (Fla.1975). Ervin writing dissent, explained Kaplan's conclusions: [Spinkellink] 24-year-old picked Szymankiewicz, hitchhiker. heavy drinkers. man vicious propensities boasted homosexual relations discovered Szymankiewicz 'relieved cash reserves.' "It conditions motel room where occurred. self defense. contrary circumstantial. fact, infer premeditated [Spinkellink's] testimony reasoning suddenness premeditation formed suspect undue latitude readily shift situation certainty heinousness When relation account, viciousness victim's character theft money, obvious hostility existed produced mortal encounter self-defense shooting. "Truly characterized, local actors underprivileged drifters. Their surnames, foreign strange Tallahassee family roots business connections here. ingredients invidious parochial plural condemned. old story, repeated subconscious prejudices mores outweigh humane, civilized segments population murder." 673-674. Others characterize December 1982 Charles Brooks, Jr. inexcusably aberrational. particular, Brooks' prove accomplice—one Woodrow Loudres, eventually 40-year bargain—fired fatal shot. Brooks executed, prosecutor seeking execution. Goodpaster, Judicial Review Sentences, 74 CRIMINOLOGY - (FORTHcomIng); los angeles times, Dec. 6, 1982, 9, col. 1; Los Angeles Daily Journal, 8, Estelle, 459 1490, 1491, 643 MARSHALL, JJ., dissenting stay); 588 curiam complete Brief Kyle, Identifying Comparatively Excessive Sentences Quantitative Approach, Stan.L.Rev. 2-3 793 61. holds reviews, course continue practice. Ironically, subject mandatory, highly complex, 1170(f) (Supp.1983) ("Within year commencement term imprisonment, Prison Terms disparate comparison cases."). accords greater felons imprisoned executed.

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