Document: 453 U.S. 57 101 S.Ct. 2646 69 L.Ed.2d 478 Bernard ROSTKER, Director of Selective Service, Appellant,v.Robert L. GOLDBERG et al. No. 80-251. Argued March 24, 1981. Decided June 25, Syllabus The Military Service Act (Act) authorizes the President to require registration for possible military service males but not females, purpose being facilitate any eventual conscription under Act. Registration draft was discontinued by Presidential Proclamation in 1975 (the amended 1973 preclude conscription), as result a crisis Southwestern Asia, Carter decided 1980 that it necessary reactivate process, and sought Congress' allocation funds purpose. He also recommended Congress amend permit women well men. Although agreeing allocated only those register declined women. Thereafter, ordered specified groups young In lawsuit brought several men challenging Act's constitutionality, three-judge District Court ultimately held gender-based discrimination violated Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment enjoined Held : provisions do violate Amendment. acted within its constitutional authority raise regulate armies navies when authorized Pp. 64-83. (a) customary deference accorded judgments is particularly appropriate when, here, specifically considered question perhaps no area has greater than national defense affairs. While free disregard Constitution acts affairs, this must be careful substitute judgment what desirable Congress, or own evaluation evidence reasonable Legislative Branch. carefully whether potential both sexes, broad authoritycannot ignored considering constitutionality studied choice one alternative preference other. 64-72. (b) registering extensively hearings response President's request authorization women, decision exempt accidental byproduct traditional way thinking about Since thoroughly reconsidered exempting from 1980, need solely on basis views expressed 1948, first enacted modern form. determination future would characterized combat troops sufficiently supported testimony adduced at so courts are make their question. And since excluded statute policy, simply similarly situated purposes draft, authorize men, therefore, does Clause. executive officials before showed argument based considerations equity, entitled, exercise powers, focus rather "equity." Court, undertaking an independent evidence, exceeded ignoring conclusions whatever noncombat roles during mobilization, could met volunteers, staffing positions with mobilization positively detrimental important goal flexibility. 72-83. D.C., 509 F.Supp. 586, reversed. Sol. Gen., Wade H. McCree, Jr., Washington, D. C., appellant. Donald Weinberg, Philadelphia, Pa., appellees. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 presented Act, 50 U.S.C.App. § 451 seq. (1976 ed. Supp. III), violates United States authorizing females. 2 * given power "To support Armies," provide maintain Navy," Rules Government Regulation land naval Forces." Art. I, 8, cls. 12-14. Pursuant grant III) MSSA Act). Section 3 62 Stat. 605, amended, 453, empowers President, proclamation, "every male citizen" resident aliens between ages 18 26. conscription: pursuant 4(a) 454(a), persons required liable training Armed Forces. provision serves other beyond providing pool subsequent induction. 1975. 4360, CFR 462 (1971-1975 Comp.), note following 453. early determined process.1 immediate impetus Soviet armed invasion Afghanistan. 16 Weekly Comp. Pres.Doc. 198 (1980) (State Union Address). According administration's witnesses Senate Services Committee, resulting Asia convinced "time come" "to use his present . step preserving enhancing our security interests." Department Defense Authorization Appropriations Fiscal Year 1981: Hearings S. 2294 Committee Services, 96th Cong., 2d Sess., 1805 (hereafter 2294) (joint statement Dr. John P. White, Deputy Director, Office Management Budget, Rostker, System, Richard Danzig, Principal Assistant Secretary Defense). System had been inactive, however, were needed reactivating registration. therefore transferred separate System. H.R.Doc.No.96-267, p. (1980). take action See House Recommendations Reform—A Report Prepared Pub.L. 96-107, 20-23 (Comm. Print 19, 1980) (hereinafter Recommendations), App. 57-61. 4 agreed Joint Resolution which passed April 22 12. H.J.Res. 521, 96-282, 94 552. did allocate all originally requested males. S.Rep.No.96-789, 1, n. (1980); 126 Cong.Rec. 13895 (Sen. Nunn). great length, see infra, 72-74, 5 On July 2, Proclamation, conferred commence 21, 1980. 4771, 827 6 These events last year breathed new life into essentially dormant lower nearly decade. It began 1971 subject induction filed complaint Eastern Pennsylvania grounds.2 A convened 1974 consider claim unlawful now us.3 1974, court dismiss case moot, reasoning although induct registrants lapsed, supra, plaintiffs still certain affirmative obligations connection Rowland v. Tarr, 378 766. Nothing more happened five years. Then, 6, 1979, Clerk, acting local rule governing inactive cases, proposed dismissed. Additional discovery thereupon ensued, defendants moved various justiciability grounds. denied motion dismiss, ruling have adequate record operation it. Goldberg 510 292 certified plaintiff class "all who registered forces §§ 454, 456(h) 467(c)." 589.4 7 Friday, 18, three days commence, issued finding permanently requiring initially standing ripe, determinations challenged here Government. Turning merits, rejected plaintiffs' suggestions equal protection should tested "strict scrutiny," defendants' due affairs application "minimum scrutiny" test. Applying "important government interest" test articulated Craig Boren, 429 190, 97 451, 397 (1976), struck down MSSA. stressed deciding extent serve combat, issue registration, felt "should dispel concern we injecting ourselves inappropriate manner affairs." F.Supp., 597. id., 599, nn. 17 18. then proceeded examine hearing representatives Executive Branch, concluded "military opinion, backed extensive study, availability materially increase flexibility, hamper it." Id., 603. contrary part because viewed "inconsistent positions" declining yet spending recruit them expand opportunities military. Ibid. immediately notice appeal next day, Saturday, BRENNAN, capacity Circuit Third Circuit, stayed Court's order enjoining commencement 448 1306, 65 1098. Monday. December noted probable jurisdiction. 449 1009, 563, 66 467. II 8 Whenever called upon judge Congress—"the gravest most delicate duty perform," Blodgett Holden, 275 142, 148, 48 105, 107, 72 L.Ed. 206 (1927) (Holmes, J.)—the accords "great weight decisions Congress." Columbia Broadcasting Inc. Democratic National 412 94, 102, 93 2080, 2086, 36 772 (1973). coequal branch whose Members same oath uphold States. As Frankfurter Anti-Fascist Refugee McGrath, 341 123, 164, 71 624, 644, 95 817 (1951) (concurring opinion), "due regard fact exercising primary sitting taken observe responsibility carrying government." certainly constitutionality. See, e. g., S.Rep.No.96-826, pp. 159-161 13880-13882 Warner); 13896 Hatfield). 9 This not, merely involving congressional decisions. arises context over deference. rejecting explicitly relied powers "specific findings" section later adopted Houses stating: 10 "Article commits exclusively armies, Navy, rules regulation forces, these lies discretion determine occasions expansion Forces, means best suited such prove necessary." 160, U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 2650. 11 S.Rep.No.96-226, (1979). consistently recognized "broad power" navies, Schlesinger Ballard, 419 498, 510, 572, 578, 42 610 (1975). challenge selective laws: "The laws proper end sweeping." O'Brien, 391 367, 377, 88 1673, 1679, 20 672 (1968). Lichter States, 334 742, 755, 68 1294, 1301, 92 1694 (1948). 12 Not scope broad, lack competence marked. Gilligan Morgan, 413 10, 2440, 2446, 37 407 (1973), noted: 13 "[I]t difficult conceive governmental activity less competence. complex, subtle, professional composition, training, equipping, control force judgments, always civilian Branches." 14 Orloff Willoughby, 345 83, 93-94, 73 534, 540, 842 (1953).5 15 healthy legislative evident recent Parker Levy, 417 733, 756, 758, 2547, 2561, 2563, 41 439 (1974), vagueness overbreadth challenges Uniform Code Justice, noting "Congress permitted legislate breadth flexibility" governs society, "[w]hile members granted First Amendment, different character community mission requires protections." Middendorf Henry, 425 96 1281, 47 556 process claims summary court-martial "must give particular made U.S.Const., 8," concerning rights available. 43, S.Ct., 1291. 49-50, 1294-1295 (POWELL, J., concurring). Deference branches played major role Greer Spock, 424 828, 837-838, 1211, 1217, 505 where upheld ban political speeches civilians base, Brown Glines, 444 348, 100 594, 540 (1980), regulations imposing prior restraint right petition personnel. Burns Wilson, 346 137, 1045, 1508 (1953); MacIntosh, 283 622, 51 570, 574, 75 1302 (1931). challenge, males, Navy policy according females longer period attain promotions continued service. distinguished previous discriminations Reed Reed, 404 71, 251, 30 225 (1971), Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 1764, 583 classifications "overbroad generalizations." U.S., 506-507, 576-577. it, "[T]he treatment officers reflects, archaic overbroad generalizations, but, instead, demonstrable female line respect Appellee current restrictions officers' participation sea duty." 508, 577. light restrictions, promotion unconstitutional distinguish them. 19 None say area, other, remains limitations Clause, Ex parte Milligan, Wall. 281 (1866); Hamilton Kentucky Distilleries Warehouse Co., 251 146, 156, 40 106, 108, 64 194 (1919), tests applied may differ context. We course abdicate ultimate decide question, recognize itself choice. 103, 2087. us purported appropriateness body constitutionally delegated 596, "[w]e concerned operations day-to-day conduct desire intrude." Appellees stress involves civilians, military, "the impact indirect attenuated." Brief (emphasis omitted). find efforts divorce context, singularly unpersuasive. (1968), case. world one, linked consideration induction, see, 160 Congressional needs, 157, 2647 ("the starting point discussion combat"), unquestionably latter necessarily assessing former well. intruding questions, assessments flexibility time mobilization. 600-605. blinking reality precedents implicated case.6 21 Solicitor General argues, largely foregoing cases emphasizing security, scrutinize if distinction drawn bears rational relation some legitimate purpose, Railroad Retirement Bd. Fritz, 166, 368 heightened scrutiny approached discrimination, Michael M. Superior Sonoma County, 450 464, 1200, 67 437 (1981); (1976); supra.7 think substantive guarantee certainty law will advanced further "refinement" applicable suggested Announced degrees "deference" just levels "scrutiny" announces applies body, too readily become facile abstractions used justify result. explicit authority, transgressed individual limits conferred. Simply labeling "military" hand "gender-based" automatically guide correct No deny Government's interest raising supporting interest." Committees debated two furthering interest: conscription, sexes. chose alternative. When grounds, chosen, decisionmaker, chosen denies laws. 23 Nor can number previously cited suggest judicial apogee governance challenged. noted, 67, mean abdication. reconciliation instanced stated: 24 "This 'it business fight ready wars occasion arise.' [U. ex rel.] Toth Quarles, 350 11, [76 5, 8]. [73 842]. determining how Forces shall attend rests U.S.Const. 12-14, President. II, cl. 1. cannot that, Amendment." 25 Or, put generation ago discrimination: 26 "[J]udges task running Army. setting up channels through grievances fairly settled subordinates. constitutes specialized governed discipline civilian. Orderly judiciary scrupulous interfere Army matters intervene matters." 540. 27 Ballard purport apply choices among alternatives governance. floor debate hereinafter discussed, apparent fully aware many facts figures testified Committees, place Services. case, ignore urged declare another goal. III 28 quite despite appellees' assertions, act "unthinkingly" "reflexively reason." 35. received considerable attention wide-ranging public debate, hearings, committee. issue. 2294; H.R. 6569, Women, Subcommittee Personnel Sess. Hearings). built addressed question.8 29 allocating 8601-8602, 8620 Resolution, defeated, after amendment effect 13876-13898.9 earlier, 521 sufficient cover amount below Committee's $8,500,000 women," "[t]he allow only." proposals transferring conducted tabled bill Calendar, 58 (1979-1980). proposal before, 8-9 (1979), specific findings action. 156-161 13893-13894 Nunn); 13880-13881 Warner). They endorsed conferees 1981 Bill. S.Conf.Rep.No.96-895, 2612.10 Later passing Report. 23126, 23261 Report, considerably significant typical report single House, entire Congress. 31 clearly establishes " 'accidental by-product females.' Califano Webster, 430 313, 320, 1192, 1196, 360 (1977) (quoting Goldfarb, 199, 223, 1021, 1035, 270 (STEVENS, concurring judgment)). M., 471, n.6, 1205, n.6 (plurality similar California Legislature grounds gender-neutral. cause stronger here. intent. Contrast Westcott, 443 76, 87, 99 2655, 2662, 61 382 (1979) ("The gender qualification escaped virtually unnoticed debates").11 32 For reasons reject Contrary appellees amici, reliance history sound principles appropriations legislation modifying legislation. change reconsider provisions, doing so. is, highly relevant validity exemption. 33 established plan maintaining "adequate strength insure [the] Nation." 451(b). "in united continuous designed army speedily efficiently," Falbo 320 549, 553, 346, 305 (1944), Nugent, 9, 991, 996, 1417 (1953), provided reactivation "provid[e] delivery inductees emergency." 2646. often tried sever particulars 604-605, renewed draft. found "[a]n ability mobilize rapidly essential preservation security. functioning system vital plan." Senator Warner "I equate draft." 2294, 1197. 1195 Jepsen), 1671 Exon). Such approach logical, interlocked registration: drafted, Any assessment scheme prelude emergency. testing achieve. 34 facilitated scheme, troops. explained, Houses, "[i]f wartime scenario, manpower replacements." 2650; 158. conclusion echoed 2-3, Jepsen shortage arms. That why you drafts." 1688. Jepsen); 8623 (Rep. Nelson). took 1528-1529 (Marine Corps Lt. Gen. Bronars); 1395 (Principal Clark); 1391 (Lt. Yerks); 748 (Gen. Meyer); (Assistant Manpower Pirie). 109 226, 54 Rogers). prepare 35 Women group, unlike eligible combat. Air Force statutory. Under U.S.C. 6015 ed., "women assigned vessels aircraft engaged missions," 8549 "may missions." Marine matter policy. 86, 34, 58. exclusion words Report: principle intentionally routinely engage fundamental, enjoys wide people. universally leaders Committee. Current exclude reaffirms policy." 2647. "[w]omen placed services." 9.12 intent continue precluding 3, against background combat.13 Consistent (1975), firmly mind. 38 existence indicates they event Again turning 39 "In view, reason, including system." 2647.14 irrelevant it: black citizens white citizens, out religious group contain fill needs System." 596. beside point. reason drafting arbitrarily choosing burden groups, all-black all-white, all-Catholic all-Lutheran, all-Republican all-Democratic Men exemption closely related 472-473, 1206 opinion); (1971). congress justifies develop classification invidious, realistically reflects sexes situated" 469, 1204 opinion). treat similarly, gestures superficial equality. holding invalid heavily seek Branch decision. 603-604, 30. stated "decision ask equity." (statement Pirie Rostker); 22, 35, 59, 60; 1657 (statements Associate Budget Wellford, Danzig). officials. 710 Meyer), 1002 Allen). evaluating necessity, 158 2648. "equity."15 Nunn 43 "Our committee went very detail. there necessity 44 main favored favor equality issue, course, view. But far primarily, I hope, overall bill, this." 13893 45 Holt) ("You talking equity. am military").16 46 experts uniformly opposed actual Hearing Rogers), 650,000 absorb 80,000 inductees. 1661, 1828. positions, freeing go front. relying striking MSSA, palpably reasoning. place, assuming small drafted roles, worth added burdens plans. "It registered, handful actually inducted finds confused unsatisfactory solution." 158, "training needlessly burdened recruits combat." 159, 2649. ("Other administrative problems housing dependency, hardship physical standards exist"). insignificant preparedness exigencies less, volunteers. 160; ("Because primarily volunteers requirements women"); Holt). 49 Most significantly, ". [T]here large numbers serving. commander able move units ships quickly. Units located front scheduled nevertheless necessary. peace war, rotation personnel divide groups—one permanent support. Large non-combat available return redeployed." Admin.News, repeated findings, 9. sum, evaluated conscripts usefully employed permissible responsibility. Rogers);17 1682. wrong adopting appropriately deferential examination evidence. 52 foregoing, conclude otherwise accordingly 53 Reversed. WHITE, whom BRENNAN joins, dissenting. 55 assume case—that excluding offend Constitution. Granting self-evident filled combat-qualified whatsoever Army, appears say, ante, 76-77, much accept even though serious view responsible services, contrary. position perceive little, any, indication every removed filled, combat-ready Common sense experience wars, substantial numbers, belie reality. ascribed face authorities, hereafter referred to, services peacetime ineligible 56 little difficulty reversal without adversely affecting readiness predictably obtained event, component through, segment population with, expensive useless procedure again agree 81, each rely might contrary, understand supports conscript least required. consistent estimate draftees productively approximately six months. 1681, 1688 6569 account estimated Deposition Rostker 8; 276. Except single, unsupported, ambiguous Department's set figures. Of division things people, content vacate remand crucial Absent submits supply majority combat-trained rotated absolute de minimis moment purposes, especially involved suitable age. There this; us, sacrificing insubstantial, convenience justification kind outright conscripting all. 59 record, then, secure jobs performed diminishing effectiveness. category discern Accordingly, respect, dissent. 60 MARSHALL, today places imprimatur potent remaining expressions "ancient canards Phillips Martin Marietta Corp., 400 542, 545, 91 496, 613 (1971) (MARSHALL, upholds thereby categorically excludes fundamental civic obligation. Because believe inconsistent Constitution's laws, A. 63 litigation 59-64, repeat emphasis, (MSSA), contravenes assist preparations asked conscription.1 With advent All-Volunteer 1973, 92-129, 101(a)(35), 85 353, 467(c), amendment. S.Rep.No. 96-826, 155 Consequently, either all, or, once inducted, trained respective functions. addition, involve statutes policies prohibit serving combat.2 understanding turn hand. B By clear like discriminate gender, examined "heightened" mandated (1976).3 test, withstand unless substantially achievement objective. Kirchberg Feenstra, 455, 459, 459-460, 1195, 1198, 1198-1199, 428 Wengler Druggist Mutual Ins. 446 150, 1540, 1545, 107 84, 2660-2661, (1979); Orr Orr, 440 268, 278, 1102, 1111, 306 197, 456. discriminates Caban Mohammed, 441 380, 391, 1760, 1767-1768, 297 278-279, 1111; 204, 460.4 party defending carries demonstrating importance objective relationship discriminatory asserted end. 151, 1546; 393, 1769; 460. sustain demonstrate employs "a close [the of] objectives,"Personnel Administrator Massachusetts Feeney, 442 256, 273, 2282, 2293, 870 C states "an achieved maintained majority, 70, "[n]o 'important interest.' Boren satisfied. statutory concluding does, correctly notes (and reactivated) armies.5 notes, 64, 'great Congress,' quoting arising quarrel sentiments opinion. add allowed shade abdication questions. pointed out: phrase 'war power' invoked talismanic incantation ambit. '[E]ven war remove safeguarding liberties.' Robel, 389 258, 263-264, 419, 423, 508 (1967), Home Bldg. Loan Assn. Blaisdell, 290 398, 426, 231, 235, 78 (1934). Cohen Grocery 255 88-89, 298, 299-300, 516 (1921); (1919); 121-127, (1866). One "safeguar[d] [of] liberties" Amendment's laws.6 When, federal classifies violating guarantee, exists "close relationship" Powell McCormack, 395 486, 89 1944, 1978, 491 (1969); Baker Carr, 369 186, 211, 82 691, 706, 663 (1962). my judgment, concededly effective defense. reaches using "[a]nnounced degre[e] 'deference' judgmen[t]" "facile abstractio [n] result." Ante, 69, 70. defend ground preventing effectiveness Indeed, successful claim. Some 150,000 presently active military,7 expected 250,000 1985. 1657, 1683 (1980 Hearings); Military: 1st 13-23 (1979 (Women At contributed Hearings, 1389 Yerks), 1682 Danzig); never disagreed contributions repeatedly praised performance approved role. Just year, declared: 70 "Women volunteer specialties. contribution increased significantly past few years increase." 157 Accord, 96-226, (1979).8 statements thus registration—and drawing registrants—cannot rest supposed prevent MSSA's peculiar objectives authoritative contained prepared 156-161. Report's House-Senate Conferees Both subsequently Conference 74, "findings sets accomplish 157-161, look discrimination. 2647; reaffirming "Registering assignment assigning leave sexually mixed experiment unknown risk—a risk militarily unwarranted dangerous. Moreover, feels attempt assign affect resolve strain aspects Nation's resources." 74 Had raised prohibition persuasive upholding restrictions. case.9 already accomplished remain plans roles. Thus, right, suggestion offers explanation 75. troops." 76. inasmuch "[m]en 78. logic reasoning, fundamentally flawed. 76 purports "similarly analysis approach. Compare 1198-1199 (employing test), 463, 1200 (STEWART, result) analysis). nondiscrimination achieve words, concludes draft.10 77 analysis, focuses inquiry gender-neutral advance interests. Rather, interest. furthers preparing Or way, show impede precedents, meet showing attaining 1546. explained 283, 1113 added): "Legislative distribute benefits carry inherent reinforcing sexual stereotypes 'proper place' special protection. Where, [Government's] served baggage stereotypes, [Government] classify sex." 79 makes effectively needed.11 argue entails additional cost inconvenience employing 198, 457; 690-691, 1772-1773, 80 obstructs points second flaw analysis. reduces male-only hypothetical program posits posts closed positions. doing, "gestur[e] equality," 79, If indeed guaranteed reimposed circumstances where, form which, excluded, argued pointless. 81 possible. Certainly, nothing reinstituting circumstances. example, inadequate times reinstitute conscription. presumably relevance, forced unconstitutional. comes Congress12 lost sight provides inventory qualified country." Reinstitution Procedures Act: (Selective Hearings) Conscription supplies respond exigency. expressly discriminating justified valid would, retrospect, appear functionally emerged. addressing terms, flawed premise demonstrably false. assumes prepares draftee majority's scenario importantly, exist imagination, represents two-thirds demand skills." Appellant added). part, join imagining drafts, prefer 83 intimation eligibility prerequisite 2650 keeping hearings. indicated reinstitution requirement deployed Clark), 1390 Yerks). staff variety having eligibility, (Manpower, Reserve Affairs, Logistics) explained: 84 "Not arms, said, pressing need, establishment arms function successfully. uses effectively, true." Women: testifying included plans, 86 emergency youth, people tasks strongly 18-26 age women." 7. 87 171 (Secretary Alexander), 182 Claytor).13 described terms: good [women]. Our refusing them." 1667-1668 Danzig) All four Chiefs advocated military's summarized Chief Staff Rogers: "[W]omen [Marine Commandant] Wilson mentioned, 10; 10-11 (Adm. Hayward, Naval Operations; Allen, Staff; Commandant, Corps). 90 Against background, focused projections and, particular, To concrete, dealing months Europe. constraints maximum mobilization: "(1) prohibitions (2) reserve assignments, only, (3) replacements positions." After allowing constraints, reached absorbed: "If projection inducting for. jobs, related. "We well." 1665, 1828; 16-17 Pirie).14 Finally, acknowledged amending existing fillers enough call issued." 6. 1661 98 review demonstrates representation Testimony inducted. barring distinguishing conscripts; are, parlance, situated." such, themselves classification. precludes useful, "consistent original). "[b]oth leadership accepting contention, asserts "equity," 'equity.' 80. concepts "equity" need" recommendation limited contribute 97-102. "Since proven successfully equity suggests reinstated." 102 "considerations equity," perform totally blithely dismisses "requires similarly," 79. subsume need," depends precisely meant need." 103 An "civilian leadership" insight term. Several necessity. 104 doubtful projected requirements." 105 1665 Similarly, Meyer testified: 106 peacetime. wartime, available, million population, except, possibly, doctors, health professionals insufficient 749. sure, waged participation.15 resolving issue.16 94-95, MSSA.17 incumbent 108 be, allusion convey expectation unnecessary apparently accepts meaning states: volunteers." 81. protect unanticipated shortages conjectures volunteers.18 fail conscripted reference eligible. told Congress: for." added).19 110 however understood, total IV 111 Recognizing argument, flexibility." 81-82. ground, believed 112 serving." 2648 explain: 113 "Military 114 confirms "very women" hinder address compatible employ European possibility sent 115 Military- months." 116 278 (deposition Danzig).20 117 "permanent combat" support" 150,000-250,000 presence increasing controlled unacceptably "divide[d] groups," circumstances, "interpret" impair proof entirely V 118 speaks numbers" drafted. state: 119 120 "confused" "unsatisfactory" reasons. 121 "First, [to women] include 5(a)(1) [MSSA], impartially Administration admitted language probably random basis, produce roughly Second, conceivable courts, faced equally considerations, token 158-159, 122 assumed simultaneous conscripts. unacceptable: 123 create monumental strains system, clog administration systems needlessly, need. 124 "Other exist." 159,21 125 Relying statements, "assuming plans." fact, seeks attribute severely impaired facilities systems." was, desirable. timing requirements. 100-101.22 endorsing plan, gave facilities. Selec tive problems. 1679 (Bernard 247-248 Rostker). 127 failed speculation reaction 5(a)(1), undertake there. Furthermore, differential vulnerable unfounded. unchallenged preserve factors discussed ample objectives. requirements, "added burdens" 128 neither Report—that VI 129 reviewing frustrate relate Nation," enable completely 130 carried adopts evidence," proceeds supplement believes should) made. Beyond substitutes hollow shibboleths "deference decisions" "it interpreter Constitution." 1978. 706. enactments must, judged supreme land, conform lays down. out, gressional ambit." 423. 131 "[w]hen conflicts [a constitutional] provisio[n], enforce paramount commands sworn less. push back accommodate legislation." Trop Dulles, 356 104, 590, 600, 596 (1958) instances bounds true statute. avoid obligation, "pushes Constitution" 132 affirm 2612. Plaintiffs contended amounted taking property imposed involuntary servitude, expression assembly, unlawfully implemented impermissibly discriminated convene dismissed suit, 339 (1972). appeal, Appeals affirmed dismissal except claim, remanded warrant convening then-applicable 2282 (1970 ed.) assert 480 F.2d 545 remand, answered questions affirmative, below. hear repealed 1976, 94-381, 1119, suits repeal, 7, 1120. 500, n.3, (1975): "Although contains Equal Protection Fourteenth prohibits Federal engaging 'so unjustifiable violative process.' Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 499 [74 693, 694, 884]." entering redefined "[a]ll 467(c); 4771 (July 605. Simmons 406 456, 459 (CA5), cert. denied, 982, 2144, 770 (1969) ("That competent empowered sit super-executive method selection, composition obvious discussion"). operations, entitled deference: Supreme teachings field read isolation opinions giving commanders [with] management discipline. unmistakably modified deference." 159-160 dominant theme Clinton, 310 333, 335 (ED La.1970); Offord, 373 1117, 1118 Wis.1974). "[g]ender impermissible instances." Kahn Shevin, 416 351, 356, 1734, 1737-1738, 189 (1974). making observation 454." 226 (Hearing 226). Seven idea, "shall implementing 13876 Bill transfer stopgap measure fail. 100. characterization Organization Amicus Curiae "coerce[s] preclude[s] performing capable," military." 19-20. restricts country army. 143. 1-2, (denying concession submitting case). 256. MARSHALL'S "be unconstitutional," post, 96, misreads perceived combat-eligible (considering associated "[r]egistering peacetime") supplied); (need "[i]n war"). termed encouraging expanding service, hand, 603-604. fails appreciate occupy concerns treating behind Rogers' merits quotation: "General ROGERS. thing of, Senator, reach elements operating pull forward soldiers ranks emergency; rifle tanker suit ranks. "Senator WARNER. Patton time, Battle Bulge. Absolutely. "Now, base rear consists don't opportunity forward, fighting tank, So too, enters equation considers utility contingency conditions." Given lengthy discourse litigation, interesting chooses bury sole footnote. 60, statute, missions. 8549. Corps, assignment. concede General's scrutinized "rational types social economic Schweiker 221, 1074, 186 pressed grants Provide 499, 884 (1954). repeal 1967 limiting 2% enlisted strength, risen steadily terms percentage 0.78% 1966, 5% rise 12% Dept. Defense, Use 5-6 (2d 1978), reprinted 98, 111-113; Binkin Bach, 13-21 (1977). summarizing "[B]asically come worked well, officer committee, same, superior skill." 1678. elected thought logical wonder compelled pledge fealty Alternatively, eligibility. subgroups handicaps conscientious objector status nonetheless register. quotes Warner's comment: 'I draft,' whole quotation explains refused acknowledge "Frankly, establish around nonequal basis. knock away." "Large work occupations electronics, communications, navigation, radar repair, jet engine mechanics, drafting, surveying, ordnance, transportation meteorology shown numerous DOD studies tests. capability forces. true, inevitably 250,000. traditionally vast fields administrative/clerical care/medical. advantage gain skills employment release currently noncombatant reassignment jobs." arrived "surveyed [in 650,000, answers suggesting 80,000." colloquy Danzig reveals understood sense. "Mr. DANZIG. surveyed 80,000. "Let me indicate use[,] imply useful scenario. republic crumble. instead. JEPSEN. involved? My problem, semantic 'explicit requirement.' said me, brown eyes serve, tell no, blue eyes, cetera, job. "On wouldn't job useful." 1665; 1853-1856. Attorney Simms 1667. burden, "mid-level" announcing elimination "Perhaps not. Having numbers," quoted 13885-13886 1828 Past recruitment bear sanguine Korean War, unsuccessful effort 100,000 Military, 111. Representative Hillis addition PIRIE. Mr. Hillis, individuals "Rep. HILLIS. How women? 80,000, Hillis. [women 1985], projects 330,000. Yes, sir." 22. questioned "impact your consequence female." Two Their merit quotation. ALLEN [Air Force]. unfavorable Force. objection WILSON Corps]. [W]e perfectly happy percent handle Corps." mandate situation days—say men—would accompanied Faced hypothetical, intolerable." "Selective Plans provide[d] days, 180 days."

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