Document: 127 S. Ct. 2162 (2007) Lilly M. LEDBETTER, Petitioner, v. The GOODYEAR TIRE & RUBBER CO., INC. No. 05-1074. Supreme Court of United States. Argued November 27, 2006. Decided May 29, 2007. *2165 Kevin K. Russell, Washington, DC, for the petitioner. Glen D. Nager, respondent. Irving L. Gornstein, States as amicus curiae, by special leave Court, supporting Pamela Karlan, Stanford Law School, Litigation Clinic, Stanford, CA, Robert Wiggins, Jr., Jon C. Goldfarb, Childs, Quinn Pantazis, Birmingham, AL, Counsel Record, Amy Howe, Howe P.C., Jay St. Clair, Bradley, Arant, Rose White LLP, Michael A. Carvin, Shay Dvoretzky, Jones Day, Respondent. Justice ALITO delivered opinion Court. This case calls upon us to apply established precedent in a slightly different context. We have previously held that time filing charge employment discrimination with Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) begins when discriminatory act occurs. explained this rule applies any "[d]iscrete ac[t]" discrimination, including "termination, failure promote, denial transfer, [and] refusal hire." National Railroad Passenger Corporation Morgan, 536 U.S. 101, 114, 122 2061, 153 Ed. 2d 106 (2002). Because pay-setting decision is "discrete act," it follows period an EEOC having abandoned her claim under Pay Act, asks deviate from our prior decisions order permit assert Title VII. Petitioner also contends pay other types and thus should be governed rule. But because discrete occurs at particular point time, these arguments must rejected. therefore affirm judgment Appeals. I Ledbetter (Ledbetter) worked respondent Goodyear Tire Rubber Company (Goodyear) its Gadsden, Alabama, plant 1979 until 1998. During much salaried employees were given or denied raises based on their supervisors' evaluation performance. In March 1998, submitted questionnaire alleging certain acts sex July year she filed formal charge. After taking early retirement commenced action, which asserted, among claims, VII Act 1963(EPA), 29 U.S.C. § 206(d). District granted summary favor several Ledbetter's claim, but allowed others, proceed trial. support latter introduced evidence during course *2166 supervisors had poor evaluations sex, result was not increased would been if evaluated fairly, past continued affect amount throughout employment. Toward end Goodyear, being paid significantly less than male colleagues. maintained nondiscriminatory, jury found awarded backpay damages. On appeal, contended barred respect all made September 26, 1997 is, 180 days before questionnaire.[1] And argued no relating occurred after date. Appeals Eleventh Circuit reversed, holding cannot last affected employee's charging period. 421 F.3d 1169, 1182-1183 (2005). then concluded there insufficient prove acted intent making only two within span, namely, 1997 deny raise similar Id., 1186-1187. petition writ certiorari did seek review Appeals' holdings regarding sufficiency relation 1998 decisions. Rather, sought following question: "Whether what circumstances plaintiff may bring action Civil Rights 1964 illegal disparate received statutory limitations period, intentionally outside period." Pet. Cert. i. light disagreement Courts proper application disparate-treatment cases, compare Forsyth Federation Guidance Serv., 409 565 (C.A.2 2005); Shea Rice, 448 (C.A.D.C.2005), we certiorari, 548 ___, 126 2965, 165 949 (2006). II makes "unlawful practice" discriminate "against individual his compensation ... such individual's sex." 42 2000e-2(a)(1). An wishing challenge practice provision first file EEOC. 2000e-5(e)(1). Such specified (either 300 days, depending State) "after alleged unlawful occurred," ibid., employee does submit timely charge, *2167 court, 2000e-5(f)(1). addressing issue whether stressed need identify care specific issue. U.S., 110-111, 2061. points practices possible candidates. Primarily, urges focus paychecks issued (the 180-day preceding questionnaire), each which, contends, separate discrimination. Alternatively, directs denying raise, argues carried forward disparities years." Reply Brief 20. Both fail they require effect jettison defining element legal recovery based. asserted treatment, central intent. See Chardon Fernandez, 454 6, 8, 102 28, 70 6 (1981) (per curiam); Teamsters States, 431 324, 335, n. 15, 97 1843, 52 396 (1977); Watson Fort Worth Bank Trust, 487 977, 1002, 108 2777, 101 827 (1988) (Blackmun, J., joined Brennan, Marshall, JJ., concurring part judgment) ("[A] focuses exclusively employer"). However, relevant decisionmakers actual either checks larger nondiscriminatory manner 22. Similarly, maintains "carried forward" effects prior, uncharged essence, suggests sufficient continuing 13 ("[E]ach paycheck offers woman similarly situated man violation own regardless simply implements period"); see argument squarely foreclosed precedents. Air Lines, Inc. Evans, 553, 1885, 571 (1977), rejected basically same Ledbetter's. Evans forced resign airline refused employ married flight attendants, termination. Some years later, rehired treated new seniority purposes. 554-555, 1885. sued, arguing that, while suit original barred, airline's give credit service gave "present [its] thereby perpetuate[d] consequences forbidden discrimination." 557, agreed "seniority system [did] indeed impact fringe benefits," id., 558, noted "the critical question [was] *2168 present exist[ed]." Ibid. (emphasis original). precharging make out violation. As STEVENS wrote Court: "United entitled treat [Evans' termination] lawful failed 90 706(d). A basis charge... merely unfortunate event history has consequences." It difficult speak more directly. Equally instructive Delaware State College Ricks, 449 250, 498, 66 (1980), concerned college librarian, who he discharged race. 1974, Ricks tenure, final, nonrenewable one-year contract expired June 30, 1975. 252-253, 498. delayed April 1975, 254, ran date termination rather tenure denied. rejecting argument, recognized "one tenure," ultimate termination, "did occur later." 258, 498 "that until, of, employment," 257, communicated Ricks," approach dictated outcome Lorance AT T Technologies, Inc., 490 900, 109 2261, 104 961 (1989), grew change way calculated collective-bargaining agreement. Before 1979, accrued plant. agreement workers highly (and traditionally male) position "tester" depend spent alone positions Several female testers laid off due low provision, scheme adopted intent, protect incumbent women substantial began move into tester positions. 902-903, 2261. plaintiffs' adoption plaintiffs men differently applied manner. complaint originally 905, intentional occurred, felt. 907-908, stated: "Because claimed invalidity facially neutrally wholly dependent illegality signing underlying agreement, *2169 governs 911[, 2261].[2] Our most recent area confirms understanding. term "employment generally refers "a single `occurrence'" takes place time. pointed hire" examples "discrete" acts, "can cover `occurred' appropriate instruction provided Lorance, Morgan clear. triggered place. occur, commence, occurrence subsequent entail adverse resulting course, employer engages series discriminatory, fresh committed. supra, 113, herethat violated periodcannot reconciled Morgan. Ledbetter, noted, conduct her. Instead, Goodyear's 13. current breathe life discrimination; themselves "no allegedly She do so, provide overcoming failure. effort circumvent relies associated persons times. ("Intentional differential treatment place, even *2170 engage purpose previously"). attempt take shift unsound. one consummates practice) later performed bias motive. impose liability absence requisite cases recognize point. example, 1968, attach applying rules. possessed terminating out. contrary, occurredand periods commencedat Ricks." Not effectively eliminate distort VII's "integrated, multistep enforcement procedure." Occidental Life Ins. Co. Cal. EEOC, 432 355, 359, 2447, 53 402 (1977). legislative compromises preceded enactment VII, Mohasco Corp. Silver, 447 807, 819-821, 100 2486, 65 532 (1980); Commercial Office Products Co., 486 107, 126, 1666, 96 (STEVENS, Rehnquist, SCALIA, dissenting). Respectful process crafted scheme, "give statute enacted," Mohasco, 819, repeatedly suggestions extend truncate Congress' deadlines. See, e.g., Electrical Workers Robbins Myers, 429 229, 236-240, 441, 50 427 (1976) (union grievance procedures toll deadline); Alexander Gardner-Denver 415 36, 47-49, 94 1011, 39 147 (1974) (arbitral foreclose access court complaint). Statutes serve policy repose. American Pipe Constr. Utah, 414 538, 756, 38 713 (1974). They "represent pervasive unjust put adversary notice defend `the right free stale claims comes prevail over prosecute them.'" Kubrick, 444 111, 117[, 352, 62 259] (1979) (quoting Telegraphers Railway Express Agency, 321 342, 349[, 64 582, 88 788] (1944)). deadline "protect[s] employers burden defending arising are long past." 256-257, Certainly, deadline, 2000e-5(e)(1), short measure, "[b]y choosing obviously quite deadlines, Congress clearly intended encourage prompt processing charges 825, 2486. reflects strong preference *2171 resolution allegations through voluntary conciliation cooperation. Ins., 367-368, 2447; Alexander, 44, 1011. comprises elements: practice, Nothing supports treating element.[3] If anything, concerns weigh heavily proof themselves. For plaintiff's raises, employer's challenged increase times question) will almost always documented typically dispute. By contrast, disputed, fade quickly circumstantial. Thus, involving long-past performance often so far mark inference can drawn. Watson, 1004, 2777 Brennan (noting McDonnell Douglas factors establish inference). also, Zhuang Datacard Corp., 849 (C.A.8 2005) (rejecting evaluations); Cooper Southern 390 695, 732-733 (C.A.11 2004) (same). subtle determination, passage seriously diminish ability parties factfinder reconstruct actually happened.[4] protected equitable doctrine laches, plainly think laches Indeed, took diametrically approach, allowing few months Ultimately, "experience teaches strict adherence procedural requirements legislature best guarantee evenhanded administration law." *2172 826, operation §§ 2000e-5(e)(1) 2000e-5(f)(1), "claim limits." 109, 2061; Workers, 236, 441. reject suggestion committed improper rendered nonetheless gives some reason, untimely. III advancing theories contest logic set above, Bazemore Friday, 478 385, 3000, 92 315 (1986) curiam), requires relates pay. specifically statement "[e]ach week's delivers black white wrong actionable VII." 395, 3000. "paycheck accrual rule" paycheck, accompanied triggers complainant properly impacted matter how ago occurred. reading, dispensed and, without giving hint doing repudiated very taken Ricks. interpretation brought against North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service (Service). 389-390, segregated branch" `Negro branch,'" receiving pay, 1965 branches merged. 390-391, extended public 1972, claiming attributable old dual scale persisted. 391, interpreted "`discriminatory difference salaries affirmatively eliminated.'" reversed per curiam opinion, 386-388, Members Brennan's 388, 3000 (opinion part). wrote: "The error salary created 1972 perpetuated thereafter too obvious warrant discussion: discriminated covered excuse perpetuating became To hold otherwise exempting those historically greatest offenders rights blacks. pattern constituted fact yet become effective, effective date, extent *2173 liable statute. While permitted pre-1972 imposed." Far adopting advances here, "too discussion," ibid.; adopts structure puts lower race, whenever issues check disfavored employees. retains surely regarded intending race used. entirely consistent precedents, Noting turned "`any exist[ed],'" stated defendants "ha[d] way," 396-397, original; internal quotation marks brackets omitted)which say engaged added Court's "holding sense g[ave] actions, but, Evans. . focuse[d] structure, mere continuation pre-1965 structure." 397, added). sentence chiefly directly quoted point: "Each begun 395[, 3000].[5] *2174 words, freestanding charged connection violations. repeated recently Morgan: existence knowledge occurrence. bar about related independently filed." 2061.[6] Neither opinions stands proposition comprising separately chargeable, just attempts inconsistencies between Evans/Ricks/Lorance/Morgan line ground none involved fully applicable cases. unlawfully terminated; caused lose seniority; loss wages, things. 555, 5, 1885 ("[S]eniority determine[s] attendant's wages; duration timing vacations; retention layoffs re-employment thereafter; preferential selection assignments"). relationship here. accept here necessarily commanded violates using structure. pursuant "facially applied." 911, adversely affects calculation neutral factor (like seniority) used determining future mean constitutes restarts adduced initially performance-based animus, help agents individually reduced paychecks. past, maintain *2175 B dissent different. Its principal like hostile work environment both "`based cumulative acts,'" post, 2180-2181, analogy overlooks conceptual distinction claims. although dissent's fundamentally inconsistent Morgan's reasoning. distinguished environment. itself "constitutes `unlawful practice'" temporally distinct. 117, identified environment, hand, succession harassing "may own." addition, "cannot said day." 115-116, together, create environment.[7] Contrary assertion, consisting acts. 13, 15 (arguing payment VII), identifiable actionable, perfectly clear alleges "serial violations," i.e., wrongs, fundamental misinterpretation show rejected, coy limit Ledbetter's, multiple alleged. subjected realize victimized. share characteristics. If, seems likely, then, 20 today, presumably could today. allow full 20-year-old made.[8]*2176 dissent, appears, proposes adopt characteristics certainly representative typical. refuse approach. IV addition discussed, largely analogies regimes extrastatutory rule." places significant weight EPA, enacted contemporaneously prohibits paying unequal wages equal sex. Stating courts routinely hear [EPA] challenging arose period," receives 34-35. simple answer EPA same. particular, 206(d)(1) (asking inequality resulted "any sex"). dismissed us. pursued face obstacles now confronts.[9] appeal Fair Labor Standards 1938 (FLSA) equally unavailing. "well violations minimum wage overtime provisions [FLSA] runs anew paycheck," 35, true case. Again, however, FLSA discriminate. 207 (establishing rules); cf. 255(a) 2-year except "willful violation," 3 years). *2177 firmer suggesting look Relations (NLRA) since NLRA model remedial administrative (with Board) maintained. 909, 2261; Ford Motor 458 219, 226, 3057, 73 721 (1982). Cf. 160(b) ("[N]o shall unfair labor occurring six Board"). NLRA's 6-month reflecting statute, precedents suggest otherwise. Machinists NLRB, 362 411, 416-417, 80 822, 4 832 (1960), "where reliance earlier practice[,] use [merely] serves cloak lawful." corresponds closely analysis finally, variety victims required Among things, harder detect forms discrimination.[10] evaluate arguments, prerogative balances interests aggrieved interest encouraging "prompt discrimination," find precedents.[11] written, means compensation, presented prescribed *2178 * reasons, affirmed. ordered. GINSBURG, whom STEVENS, SOUTER, BREYER join, dissenting. supervisor Rubber's years, manager, occupied men. Initially, performing substantially work. Over slipped comparison managers seniority. 1997, working manager discrepancy counterparts stark: $3,727 month; lowest $4,286 month, highest paid, $5,236. 1174 4. launched Her discriminatorily 2000e-2(a)(1) (rendering "to [her] individual's. That eventually tried jury, "more likely [Goodyear] [Ledbetter] a[n] App. 102. accord jury's entered damages, plus counsel fees costs. reversed. Relying annual merit-based part, barred. F.3d, 1171, 1182-1183. provides "shall [180] occurred." 2000e-5(e)(1).[1] charged, proved trial, Further, Gadsden plant, inadequacies accounted differential. 36-47, 51-68, 82-87, 90-98, 112-113. unavailing, held, today agrees, year-by-year, commensurate peers. Any contested immediately (within days), affirms, becomes grandfathered, fait accompli beyond province ever repair. insistence immediate common case, small increments; cause suspect develops *2179 Comparative information, moreover, hidden view. Employers keep wraps differentials supervisors, reasons differentials. Small initial discrepancies seen meet federal particularly employee, trying succeed nontraditional averse waves. actions "such hire," "easy identify" discriminatory. disparity apparent sizable, percentage salaries, situation comprehend plight therefore, complain. readiness benefit doubt preclude depressed account questions inquiries: "What practice' `occurred'?" 110, suggests, overwhelmingly infected gender-based (or race-based) discriminationa man. (Brennan, proscribes compensation. color, religion, national origin." seeking proscription ante, 2166; 2178, 1. presents important sound VII: What activity qualifies One identifies decision, alone, practice. Under view, salary-setting decisions, pain forfeiture. Another response counts practices. sex-based practice; charge-filing lawfulness 2165, 2166-2167, 2169-2170, second faithful precedent, tune realities workplace, respectful purpose. Bazemore, unanimously employer, Service, *2180 J.). 1965, divided branches: branch "Negro branch." 390, Employees counterparts. 1964, included merged organization, adjustments reduce disparity, factors. 394-395, Nonetheless, "some pre-existing linger on." 394, (internal omitted). conclusion lingering lawfully 395-396, reasoned, Paychecks recognized, "related" 2174, issue, 3000; 111-112, Subsequently, apart, purposes requirement, kinds: acts" recur impact. 113-115, "[A][d]iscrete ac[t] explained, "`occur[s]' day `happen[s].' party, recover it." 2061 ("[D]iscrete charges. Each starts clock act."). "[D]ifferent kind acts," clear, "claims acts." 115, placed category. "Their nature involves conduct." day. perhaps direct contrast harassment persistence indicates management known produces cognizable harm. conduct, "[i]t matter, component fall Provided contributing entire considered liability." 2061]. Consequently, *2181 still encompass whole." disparities, experienced, closer kinship episode resembling Morgan's, rested 15-17, 9 (analogizing recurring harm Morgan); (distinguishing omitted)). insidious building up slowly steadily. 5-8. Initially work, fell 40 percent behind successive percentage-based adjustments. 2178. proved, repetition undervaluing rise complained. Though contributed incrementally accumulating Hanover Shoe, Shoe Machinery 392 481, 502, 2224, 1231 (1968).[2] workplace reveal why suffered fit category singular identify." worker knows promotion fired promotions, transfers, hirings, firings events, co-workers. When open definitive character, explanation pretext. Compensation sight. unusual, illustrate, decline publish levels, private salaries. Goodwin General Motors 275 1005, 1008-1009 (C.A.10 2002) (plaintiff know colleagues earned printout listing appeared desk, seven starting co-workers' salaries); McMillan Massachusetts Soc. Prevention Cruelty Animals, 140 288, 296 (C.A.1 1998) learning published newspaper).[3] Tellingly, record *2182 bears out, kept confidential; limited information colleagues' earnings. 56-57, 89. problem concealed acute where arises flatly raises. Having increase, unlikely discern once experienced decision. little reason ultimately aware disparity. Even suspects comparatively another ground), seem small, ambiguous, actionableor winnable. Further separating gains promotion, hiring, transfer. selected higher level position, someone gets salary; enriched. man, reduces costs implemented. Furthermore, installing systems, implicate third-party not. 352-353, (1977) (recognizing systems involve "vested. employees" concluding "destroy water down" rights). Disparate remedied solely expense fashion. C differences type sway. 2167-2170 (discussing (1989)). single, discrimination: constructive discharge, 554, 1885; 252, well occurred: Airlines barring charge; four rehired, allege former no-marriage operate service. 554-557, object terminal came end, later. 253-254, 257-258, No repetitive, *2183 557-558, 498.[4] inapposite, for, one-time act: "had genesis 902, 2261 extensive 2168-2170, 2172, perplexing longer effective: 1991 superseded Lorance's holding. 112, 105 Stat. 1079 (codified amended 2000e-5(e)(2)). Repudiating immediately, provided: "For section, adopted, subject system, person injured system." dissenters harsh reality [that] decision," "glaringly odds 914, 3, 1071 (1991 designed respond expanding scope civil statutes adequate protection discrimination"). True, 112 addressed systems. 2169, 2. (1) view unduly contracted afforded statutes, (2) aim generalize ruling Bazemore. Senate Report accompanying proposed 1990, precursor explained: "Where, motive, law. ., th[e] racially motivated distinct Section 7(a)(2) generalizes correctly reached Bazemore." S.Rep. 101-315, p. 54 (1990).[5] 137 Cong. Rec. 29046, 29047 (1991) (Sponsors' Interpretative Memorandum) ("This legislation *2184 disapproving extension [Lorance] contexts systems."). 2174 (relying conclude "when applied" Until relied Lorance. mistaken now. Just "goals enacting never conferring absolute immunity survive days," (Marshall, dissenting), immunize forever unchallenged adoption. assessment comprehends relatively minor expand exponentially clue congressional provision. expressly filed. 2000e-5(g)(1) ("Back accrue Commission."). prescription contemplated challenges commencing before, into, 119, ("If party backpay."). recoverable damages elsewhere [i.e., years] [180-day] meant limitation. [on] considered." D judged payable adhered regime, 565, 573 ("Any [charge-filing] period."); 448, 452-453 (C.A.D.C.2005) ("[An] commit[s] pa[ys] reason" (citing 396, 3000)); 1009-1010 ("[Bazemore] taught crucial establishing discriminationinstead continually [E]ach race-based (footnote omitted)); Anderson Zubieta, 329, 335 (C.A.D.C.1999) ("The conclusion" "actionable receipt paycheck."); Hildebrandt Illinois *2185 Dept. Natural Resources, 347 1014, 1025-1029 (C.A.7 2003); Cardenas Massey, 269 251, 257 (C.A.3 2001); Ashley Boyle's Famous Corned Beef 164, 167-168 1995) (en banc); Brinkley-Obu Hughes Training, 36 336, 347-349 (C.A.4 1994); Gibbs Pierce County Enforcement Support 785 F.2d 1396, 1399-1400 (C.A.9 1986). Similarly real-world EEOCthe agency responsible enforcing see, 2000e-5(f), 2000e-12(a)has received. EEOC's Compliance Manual "repeated occurrences paychecks, 2 2-IV-C(1)(a), 605:0024, 183 (2006); 10-III, 633:0002 (Title discontinued). Albritton Potter, 01A44063, 2004 WL 2983682, *2 (EEOC Fed. Operations, Dec. 17, (although classes discrepancy." 3000)). Bynum-Doles Winter, 01A53973, 2006 2096290 18, 2006); Ward 01A60047, 721992 Mar. 10, 2006). urged "does deprive relief 1998." Petition Rehearing Suggestion En Banc, 03-15264-GG (CA11), 14 (hereinafter Brief) 2061).[6] asserts act, necessary "protec[t] Ante, 2170 498). complained past. alleged, found, *2186 mounting Allowing extend[s] time," defenseless" unreasonable prejudicial delay. 121, disadvantaged delay various defenses. 122, Doctrines "waiver, estoppel, tolling" "allow honor negating employer." Zipes Trans World Airlines, 455 398, 1127, 71 234 (1982)); (defense invoked block "if unreasonably delays [charges] harms defendant"); ("[I]f impaired defense laches. .").[7] last-ditch sue "even made." 2175. suffices defenses foolhardy. sensible judge tolerate inexcusable neglect. ("In discretionary power locate peculiar case." observes, 2176, 9, dropped alternative remedy pursued: Had persisted pressing 206(d), encountered bar.[8] 2176 confronts."); Corning Glass Works 417 188, 208-210, 2223, 41 1 Notably, origin, age, disability. truncating announced disarm achieving redress impede racial minorities gaining relief.[9] *2187 EPA's prohibition ban regard large might suggest. 2176. key showing practical effect, trier equipoise gender compels verdict plaintiff. Sullivan, Zimmer, R. White, Discrimination: Practice 7.08[F][3], (3d ed.2002). persuading 2178; infra, 2187. strayed fidelity Act's core purpose, return following: member class; dominant class (men); compensated work; Specifically, demonstrated general particular. supervisor, admitted below threshold position. 93-97. Although performance, acknowledged "Top Performance Award" 1996. 90-93. heard testimony supervisorwho whose led denialwas openly biased women. 46, 77-82. told supervised. 51-68. herself testified animus conveyed officials. career, instance, "plant women, [women] didn't it, problems." 36.[10] weighing evidence, Yet, redressable every wiped slate clean. Consideration manager. Knowingly carrying *2188 conduct. Nor, employed gain, injunctive requiring, prospectively, receive approbation totally robust secure. 348, 1843 primary assure equality opportunities devices ." Albemarle Paper Moody, 422 405, 418, 95 2362, 45 280 (1975) ("It whole injuries discrimination."). ordered cramped incompatible statute's broad 2183-2184. Wards Cove Packing Atonio, 642, 2115, 733 (1989) (superseded 1991); Price Waterhouse Hopkins, 228, 1775, 268 (plurality opinion) (same); B. Lindemann P. Grossman, Discrimination ed. 1996) ("A spate late 1980s drew fire demands change[,]" culminating Once again, ball court. 1991, Legislature correct parsimonious reading stated, reverse Circuit's judgment. NOTES [1] assume backwards questionnaire, though 1178 2005). likewise sake [2] 2000e-5(e)(2) (allowing application). attaches great significance amendment, shows wrongly reasoned matter. Post, 2182-2184 cited explains amendment amendments "`expand[ed] discrimination.'" 2183 purposes, relied, 906-908, identical reasoning, left [3] Of instances elements forming span days. Say, towards 181 begin run executed action. joined. Here, formed her, have, sued. [4] dismisses concern, 2185-2186, illustrates problems tardy lawsuits. principally misconduct who, testified, retaliated sexual 1980's, again mid-1990's falsified deficiency reports His misconduct, argues, 1997." 6; 5-6, 11 (stressing supervisor's misconduct). died testify. weighed contemporaneously. [5] violation, side Appeals: "[T]he majority holds, originated illegal, `lingering effects' (presumably indefinitely basis) assessing post-act pattern." "Hazelwood liable, sanctioned remedy, declared claimant lost lapse catch-phrase imposed `no obligation catch-up,' pre-Act composing force thought insulate presently comparable employer. thing finds unbalanced work-force balance; continue hiring composed. not, short, Hazelwood/Evans principle violative not." 751 662, 695-696 1984) (Phillips, dissenting part) footnotes [6] briefs further elucidate petitioners described Service's "[t]he explicit base wage." et al. O.T.1985, 85-93, 33. States' brief commission results system. Federal Petitioners O.T. 1984, Nos. 85-93 85-428, 17. former, latter. [7] Moreover, go limits. least discriminatorily-motivated predicate ("Provided court" added)). motive 2181, 2186. [8] admits much, responding resort doctrines first, already determined insufficient. Supra, 2184-2185. Second, theory, reflected [9] Magistrate Judge recommended dismissal consistently weak 71a-77a. dismissing disparate-pay basis. 65a-69a. objected Judge's disposition improperly resolved disputed factual Plaintiff's Objections Recommendation, Record 03-15246-G Doc. 32. sustained objection "disparate pay" mentioning 43a-44a. appears elected abandon proceeding trial dispute resolve. [10] declined address suits amenable discovery 7, argue occasion [11] endorsement adjudications merits deference. Chevron deference Manual, defer adjudicatory views misreading Amft Mineta, 07A40116, 985183, *5 Apr. Postmaster General, 2004). Agencies Reno Bossier Parish School Bd., 528 320, 120 866, 145 845 (2000). Nor reasonable ambiguity itself, sorts "because instituted proceedings state local agency, 30 agency. figure throughout. 2166, 2167. (2002), emphasizes, "an occu[r] [charge-]filing 2175, 7 deleted; compounded encountered, wrong," Bierman Gely, "Love, Sex Politics? Sure. Salary? Way": Workplace Social Norms Law, 25 Berkeley J. Emp. Lab. 167, 168, 171 (2004) (one-third sector rules prohibiting discussing co-workers; ten openness policy). execution collective bargaining containing union security clause. 412, 417, 822. Machinists, undisputed (NLRA), agree clause represent [bargaining] unit." 412-414, complainants, six-month period; instead, 10 12 objecting enforcement. 414, easily material respects 1990 Act. considerable informed judgment," Firefighters Cleveland, 501, 518, 3063, 405 omitted), unworthy 2177, 11. interpretations mirror merit attention. event, academic question, agency's "were interpreting [Title VII] scratch." Edelman Lynchburg College, 535 106, 1145, 152 188 (2002); 2166-2172. appropriately Circuit, "significantly limit[s] seek. waiting opportunity 14. prescriptions, accrues paycheck. 529 1996); (prescribing two-year generally, three-year limitation willful violations). today's colleagues, annually smaller window change, however be. plaintiffs, many soon prevail, cutting them enough enable mount winnable Given abundant tenably "turned supervisor." 2171,

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