Document: 466 U.S. 485 104 S.Ct. 1949 80 L.Ed.2d 502 BOSE CORPORATION, Petitionerv.CONSUMERS UNION OF UNITED STATES, INC. No. 82-1246. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Nov. 8, 1983. Decided April 30, 1984. Syllabus Respondent published an article in its magazine evaluating quality numerous brands loudspeaker systems, including one marketed by petitioner. Petitioner objected to statements about system, effect that sound individual musical instruments tended wander "about room." When respondent refused publish a retraction, petitioner filed product disparagement action Federal District Court. The court ruled was "public figure" and therefore, pursuant First Amendment as interpreted New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 254, 84 710, 11 686, recover must prove clear convincing evidence made false disparaging statement with "actual malice." Entering judgment for petitioner, found, based primarily on testimony article's author (respondent's employee), contained "fact," because heard through speakers "along wall" between speakers, rather than room" reported respondent; author's challenged intended mean not credible; disparaging. On basis what it considered be proof, concluded had sustained burden proving knowledge or reckless disregard truth falsity. Appeals reversed, holding review malice" determination limited "clearly erroneous" standard Rule Civil Procedure 52(a)—which provides "[f]indings fact shall set aside unless clearly erroneous, due regard given opportunity trial judge credibility witnesses"—and perform de novo review, independently examining record ensure applied properly governing constitutional rule. Based record, proof. Held: 1. clearly-erroneous 52(a) does prescribe reviewing actual malice case governed Sullivan. Appellate judges such exercise independent determine whether establishes clarity. Pp. 498-511. (a) In cases raising issues, appellate has obligation make examination whole constitute forbidden intrusion field free expression. However, faithful both rule conflict two rules being some respects more apparent real. For instance, forbid entire constitutionally permits giving "due regard" judge's witnesses' credibility, provided 52(a). 498-501. (b) applies findings fact, but inhibit court's power correct errors law, those may infect so-called mixed finding law fact. consideration possible application 52(a)'s distinction questions issue malice," three characteristics are relevant: (1) common-law heritage rule, (2) content is meaning case-by-case adjudication, (3) values protected imperative sure correctly applied. 501-503. (c) requirement enunciated reflects deeply held conviction judges—particularly Members this Court—must order preserve precious liberties. Under Times, question defamation clarity required strip utterance protection ultimately federal law. 503-511. 2. there significant difference proof mere falsity, requisite additional lacking case. did malice. he attempted rationalize mistake use phrase establish realized inaccuracy at time publication. choice language used, though reflecting misconception, place speech beyond outer limits Amendment's broad protective umbrella. Even accepting all Court's purely factual findings, nevertheless, matter contain employee prepared statement, truth. 511-513. 692 F.2d 189 (1st Cir.1982), affirmed. Charles Hieken, Boston, Mass., Michael N. Pollet, City, respondent. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion 1 An unusual metaphor critical system gave rise litigation presents us procedural first impression: Does Rules kind described 279-280, 725-726, 686 (1964)? 2 May 1970 magazine, Consumer Reports, seven-page medium-priced loudspeakers. boxed-off section occupying most pages, commented "some loudspeakers special interest," which Bose 901—an admittedly "unique unconventional" recently been placed market petitioner.1 After describing virtues, after noting listener "could pinpoint location various much easily speaker system," respondent's following statements: 3 "Worse, seemed grow gigantic proportions room. violin appeared 10 feet wide piano stretched from wall wall. With orchestral music, effects inconsequential. But we think they might become annoying when listening soloists." Plaintiff's Exhibit 2, p. 274. 4 stating opinions concerning overall quality, concluded: "We so prospective buyer listen himself. We would suggest delaying big investment until you were please novelty value worn off." Id., 275. 5 took exception article, commenced Massachusetts.2 protracted period pretrial discovery, denied motion summary judgment, F.R.D. 682 (1980), conducted 19-day bench liability. lengthy, detailed merits case, 508 F.Supp. 1249 (1981), favor issues.3 Most significantly, term defined Gertz Robert Welch, Inc., 418 323, 342, 345, 351-352, 94 2997, 3008, 3009, 3012-3013, 41 789 (1974), purposes therefore Amendment, U.S., S.Ct., precludes recovery proved 6 points, however, agreed First, found sentence "false" "fact" tendency wander.4 wall," respondent.5 Second, Third, "on considers convincing, plaintiff defendant material falsity." F.Supp., 1277.6 Judgment entered claim.7 7 Circuit reversed. (1982). accepted comment wandering It assumed, without deciding, opinion, false, observing "stemming least part uncertain nature difficult confidence true false." 194. contest conclusion public figure, applicability standard, "limited" 52(a); instead, stated "must district indeed satisfied proof." 195. added, "[was] no position consider witnesses leave demeanor trier fact." Ibid. own 8 "[W]e unable find CU room not. presented merely shows words have precisely panelists during test. guilty using imprecise article—perhaps resulting attempt produce readable mass audience. Certainly support inference 197.8 9 granted certiorari erred apply "finding" 461 ----, 103 S.Ct.1872, 76 805 (1983). * To focus, necessary state somewhat greater detail issue; determination. Evidence Actual Malice. 12 At endeavored key embodied distinct falsehoods system: their size grossly enlarged; move; movement 13 Although great deal concerned neither false. average reader understand reference enlarged describe area emanate any perception played, rejecting "absurd" notion readers interpret figurative literally. 1266.9 referring explaining "a certain degree source expected stereo systems," recognized accurate insofar "instruments . wander. ." 1267. Thus, instruments, nor move, false.10 14 listeners test actually perceived back forth along front them speakers. Because room"—rather different learned expect, "the just occurred." 15 falsity focused Arnold Seligson, engineer employed Seligson supervised 901 written report upon based. His initial in-house sentence: " 'Instruments only could precision suffer giganticism around room; ft. wide, wall, etc.' 1264, n. 28. Since editorial revision "around change since editors aware original report, actual-malice rests entirely evaluation Seligson's mind wrote his checked against report. 16 deposed before testified almost six days itself. point direct examination, responded length technical Dr. Bose, scientific explanation across App. 117-122. then questioned questioning revealed tests confined wall.11 During cross-examination, counsel's request drew rough sketch "tended room"; He asked: 17 "Q. Mr. why 'tended room' drawn board? 18 "A. Well, I don't know me pick particular words. Would if said 'across,'—I not—instead before. feeling either event. word 'about' meant board. Now, my deposition." 169.12 19 Actual-Malice Determination. 20 reasons description background ruling "no reasonable reader" lateral "average "about" according "plain ordinary meaning," unequivocally rejected testimony—and argument—that sentence, read context, understood refer movement.13 21 similar reasoning above-quoted incredible. reasoned: 22 "Thus, used Article 'About room'—mean something him do populace general. If believed, publication interpreted, still interprets today, 'about 'along wall.' careful trial, finds credible. intelligent person whose English cannot questioned. simply impossible believe commonplace anything other plain meaning. 23 "Based above contrary credible, further Article's knew 'individual accurately Lefkow 'special test.' Consequently, concludes, 1276-1277. 24 Notably, ultimate framed disjunctive. Seligson—at trial—was truthfully maintaining fairly read, irregular throughout room, identify entertained serious doubts truthfulness, publication.14 II 25 This well-settled respected opposite directions. 26 reminds provides: 27 "Findings witnesses." 28 repeatedly means says. Inwood Laboratories, Inc. Ives 456 844, 855-856, 102 2182, 2188-2189, 72 606 (1982); Pullman-Standard Swint, 273, 287, 1781, 1789, 66 Gypsum Co., 333 364, 394-396, 68 525, 541-542, 92 L.Ed. 746 (1948). surely stretch characterize inquiry into "fact."15 expressly argues plainly uphold under 29 hand, issues "make record" expression." 284-286, 728-729. See also NAACP Claiborne Hardware, 458 886, 933-934, 3409, 3436-3437, 73 1215 Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Assn. Bresler, 398 6, 11, 90 1537, 1540, (1970); St. Amant Thompson, 390 727, 732-733, 88 1323, 1326-1327, 262 (1968). frequently arose courts, principle equally applicable litigation. quite agree; pervert concept federalism lay claim broader over state-court judgments exercises intermediate courts. 30 Our emphasizes need record; never forbids our seminal decision contemplated "finding 'clearly erroneous' although it, left definite firm committed." supra, 395, 542 (emphasis supplied). Moreover, commands observe witnesses; constitutionally-based due. Indeed, previously observed, declined second-guess Judge witnesses. 31 deference determinations itself recognition proposition presumption correctness attaches stronger others. same documentary oral testimony, see 394, 541, lesser force former situation latter. Similarly, becomes longer complex, likelihood will rely tends increase lived controversy weeks months instead few hours.16 One assume courts duty particularly weak. rules, degree. assigns responsibility delegated factfinding function performed jury judge. 32 "ultimate facts" outcome 1789. predicated misunderstanding ibid.; 855, 15, 2189, 15. Nor "furnish guidance respect distinguishing 288, What characterized vexing nature" distinction, ibid., not, diminish importance, importance principles require cases.17 33 relevant. especially role applying specific situations. literal text, evolutionary process adjudication; Constitution, nevertheless largely judge-made Finally, judges—and Court—make A each these aspects appropriate. 34 prohibits official recovering damages defamatory falsehood proves "statement 'actual malice'—that is, not," 726, counterpart adopted number extensively reviewed scholars generations.18 earlier cases, turn, kinship considering motivation deceit.19 long formulation "allows maximum passing case."20 evolves integrity maintained.21 As explained, concepts adequately expressed simple statement: 35 "These considerations fall short Amant's accuracy Thompson. 'Reckless disregard,' true, fully encompassed infallible definition. Inevitably marked out many legal standards judging concrete statutes, furnished meaningful definition publication." 730-731, 1325, 262. 36 marking adjudication importance. vitally important involving restrictions freedom contended communication within classes "unprotected" speech. 37 presupposes speak one's aspect liberty—and thus good unto itself—but essential common quest vitality society whole. Constitution "there thing idea. However pernicious seem, depend correction conscience juries competition ideas." 339-340, 3007 (footnote omitted). Nevertheless, categories utterances majestic extend "are exposition ideas, slight social step benefit derived outweighed interest morality." Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 572, 62 766, 86 1031 (1942). 38 Libelous category, Beauharnais Illinois, 343 250, 725, 96 919 (1952); others outside scope fighting words, incitement riot, Brandenburg Ohio, 395 444, 89 1827, 430 (1969), obscenity, Roth States, 354 476, 77 1304, 1498 (1957), child pornography, Ferber, 747, 3348, 1113 (1982).22 areas, unprotected well character communications, determined judicial facts deemed significance. regularly falls category confine perimeters acceptably narrow effort expression inhibited. Providing triers general type unworthy itself, served sufficiently eliminate danger decisions ideas.23 viewpoint neutrality underlies Police Department Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 95-96, 2286, 2289-2290, 212 (1972), imposes whenever claimed unprotected. generally Terminiello Chicago, 337 1, 4, 69 894, 895, 93 1131 (1949). 39 exercised remarks "were inherently inflammatory come small class 'fighting words' 'likely provoke retaliation, thereby cause breach peace,' Street York, 394 576, 592, 1354, 1365, 572 analogous advocacy directed inciting producing imminent lawless action, Hess Indiana, 414 105, 108-109, 326, 328-329, 303 (1973) (per curiam); compare id., 111, 330 (REHNQUIST, J., dissenting) ("The result majority differently below"); Edwards South Carolina, 372 229, 235, 83 680, 683, 697 (1963) (recognizing "to record"); Pennekamp Florida, 328 331, 335, 1029, 1031, 1295 (1946) ("[W]e compelled examine ourselves carry threat present protect").24 40 Miller California, 413 2607, 419 (1973), appeals "prurient interest" "patently offensive" community obscenity "essentially fact," 2618, conduct claims necessary," 25, 2615.25 contention vel non insulated instructed substantive limitations govern. Jenkins Georgia, 153, 159-161, 2750, 2754-2755, 642 evidence—the exhibition picture—the film depict sexual patently offensive way. 161, 2755.26 And recent identifying new expression—child pornography—the anticipated "independent examination" allegedly assure 'does expression.' 774, 28, 3364, (quoting 285, 728). Hence, announcing types actions, natural should dispositive issue. explained follows: 42 "This elaboration principles; proper alleged trespass 'the line unconditionally guaranteed legitimately regulated.' Speiser Randall, 357 513, 525 [78 1332, 1341, 1460]. where drawn, 'examine circumstances Due Process Clause Fourteenth protect.' 335 [66 1295]; One, Olesen, 355 371 352]; Sunshine Book Summerfield, 365, 352]. 'make record,' 235 [83 697], 728-729 omitted).27 43 Time, Pape, 401 279, 91 633, 45 (1971), verdict, again malice, labeling "constitutional rule" 284, 636. Again inquiries "of familiar settled '[i]n denial rights bound conclusions lower reexamine evidentiary founded,' "in tension Amendments hand laws other, occasion judgment' plaintiff." (citations omitted).28 44 Monitor Patriot Roy, 265, 277, 621, 628, (1971) "as law" allowed relevance plaintiff's status figure. jury's "is unlikely neutral holds real becoming instrument suppression 'vehement, caustic, sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks,' 270, 624, guarantees prevail." Ibid.29 reiterated Sullivan emerged exigency deciding cases; purest form heritage. liberties established ordained Constitution. Judges, expositors decide sufficient cross threshold bars entry supported III 46 malice30 47 portion findings: tested even disputed context reader," person, "across"; intelligent, well-educated person; (4) general; (5) otherwise credible witness, "know words" board, 48 witness it. Normally discredited drawing conclusion. Moore Chesapeake & Ohio R. 340 573, 575, 71 428, 429, 95 547 (1951). continued maintain "across." rebut supports, displayed capacity rationalization. confronted admit steadfastly made—that inaccurate accurate. That failed, 49 Aside vain defend precise movement, relied perceived. course insisted "I heard." word, reasoned heard, reflect "Analysis adequate libel purports eyewitness account events themselves." 637. Santissima Trinidad, Wheat. 283, 338-339, 454 (1822). Here, adoption chosen "one rational interpretations" event "that bristled ambiguities" descriptive challenges writer. 290, 639. language, analysis, malapropism liable, realize folly time. 50 represents sort forum robust debate applies. 292, 640. "Realistically, error inevitable; difficulties separating fiction convinced Butts, Gertz, limit liability instances culpability risk undue self-censorship truthful material." Herbert Lando, 441 171-172, 99 1635, 1646-1647, 60 115 (1979). "[E]rroneous inevitable debate, freedoms 'breathing space' 'need survive.' 271-272, 721-722 (citation 51 doubt system. express view ruling, having agree hearing sounds move fits breathing space gives life Amendment. accept hold employer loud-speaker share concern tread opinion. analysis central seem dispute loudspeaker. reaches peculiar wavelength, reaffirm uncounted times Sullivan.31 52 53 ordered. 54 THE CHIEF JUSTICE concurs judgment. 55 WHITE, dissenting. 56 "reckless disregard" component historical REHNQUIST actual-knowledge is. basing disagreement record. today error. remand task standard. 57 REHNQUIST, whom O'CONNOR joins, 58 There irony "Case Wandering Instruments," subject makes like candidate inclusion "Adventures Sherlock Holmes" casebook ironic originated (1964), criticize officials here magazine's commercial 59 that, protecting rejects mandated "de novo" surrounding subjective involve mens rea author, ill-prepared context. Unless now years ago can bring play Bose's reached relying testimony. 1249, 1276-1277 (1981). appeal legally quantum allocation propriety Yet rebutted printed Instead "imprecise" such, "support 189, 197 61 unclear here. approving Appeals' question, rehearsal majority's adorned, comes grips focus on. told "[t]he applies," ante, suggesting perhaps rate enough. paragraph later, truth." Ante, 513. "reaches wavelength," 514, scarcely reason transmitting answer wavelength. problem results treat here, contexts always been, pure fact—a points underlying sanctioned previous right intermingled necessary, pass analyze facts." Fiske Kansas, 274 380, 385-386, 655, 656-657, 1108 (1927). felt perfectly ease leaving state-of-mind determinations, recklessness involved deferential review—for example, criminal "clear convincing" Times.1 63 Presumably doctrine review" exists, inexorably thumb scales party claiming right, shortcomings way bias factor compensated for.2 me, shortcoming inability mandates today—the objectively reviewable seems often made, statement. am loss how begin determinations. event, best 64 recognizes "where close lawful unlawful, possibility mistaken factfinding—inherent litigation—will create legitimate penalized." 526, 78 1342, 1460 (1958). addresses shield erroneous placing seeking penalize Harlan who, commenting inappropriateness determination, 65 "discern led restrict States' powers regulate substantially promoted utilizing [an court] arbiter disputes factors, allegations harassment existence verdict resting instructions present." 294, 641, (dissenting opinion). "falsity" questions, Court, principal testify finder bare records them, likely reliable judges, join sanctioning second-guessing primary values, lessened fact-bound appeals. 67 continue adhere (1982), "does exceptions purport exclude erroneous." depart reverse introducing marketplace, emphasized unconventional actively solicited reviews publications inviting unique qualities 1273 (Mass.1981). jurisdiction diversity citizenship, U.S.C. § 1332(a)(1). Massachusetts, viewed parties accord area, claim. 1259, 17. proving, preponderance evidence, disparaging, establishing recover. 1259-1260. addition claim, unfair violation Lanham Act, 1121. proved. 1277. Petitioner's attack included contentions misleading persons "panel" creating impression evaluations objective judgments. While entitle relief. 1260-1262. argued rated higher reviewers. speaker's "sound quality" "accuracy" "subjective matter," hence final "nothing and, 1262. failed recommending amplifier watts per channel achieve "deepest" bass response conceded requirements readily ascertainable. 1263-1264. responsible biased financial eventually marketing obtained patent. argument motive distort facts; identified disparagement, first, "scant proof" "built bias" "higher priced products" second, suggestion resorted "sarcasm" boost circulation. 1275-1276. motivations affirmative "actually 682, 684 (1980). submitted affidavit panelists, heard," while who designed 901, substance phenomenon widened impossibility." i.e., sound, all, another "each prescribed space—and stays there," 1268 supplied Court) omitted), "movement" systems discussion indicates "seemed" regarding Rather, discussed infra, 493-497, conducting subjectively perceive room," "across Just "wander," reality, appear decision, conflicting "scientifically impossible" "seem" 1267-1269, alone required, question. F.R.D., 684-685. (a label advisedly) recounted petitioner's known ibid. ("[A]ccording plaintiff, panel phenomena hear contends member ."). noted Seligison's patent indulging inferences favorable genuine existed 686. separate resulted sales 824 units, produced net profit $129, causing $106,296. awarded $9,000 expenses incurred mitigate damages. total amount, plus interest, 529 Campbell concurred specially emphasize passed We, course, Reports qualify "media" conceivable term. Dun Bradstreet, Greenmoss Builders, cert. granted, 464 959, 389, 334 (1983), affect naturally "Therefore, contradict defendant's show very large. concludes 'instruments proportions'—was prevailed stage proceedings. supra. asked answered: "[Q.] explain, your instrument? "[A.] Yes. says moved came forward, well— example refers imply widening rear ..... 'It room.' didn't say side walls alone, says— next explain that. says, 'For instance,' effect. around, doesn't it? was, Honor, isn't though. understand." 122-124. These speakers? No, so, taken it's described. Remember, carefully sentences later. It's hard mistake. Is conveys idea stayed down end about, wandered orange line? that? get reading ten hint depth whatever, entering 169-170. buttressed pointing received complaints purchasers referred instruments. contrary, quoted there." 5, probative ascribing movement. pointed out, occurred. exhaustive continuing deliberately distorted review. 1275. 170, 1645, (1979), "The conclusiveness 'finding fact' depends materials 'subsidiary less varying simplicity subtlety 'fact' controversy. Finding 'facts' implies go Though labeled fact,' fallible made. appropriately ascertainment See, e.g., Beyer LeFevre, 186 114, 765, 1080. Particularly escape broadly lying Government duties immunities citizenship." Baumgartner 322 665, 670-671, 1240, 1243-1244, 1525 (1944). 286-287, 16, 1788-1789, inseparable deduced. point, "found" crosses logic experience ordinarily entrusted realm Where varies Regarding areas stakes—in terms impact future conduct—are too entrust finally representative list comments footnote 280, 726. "honest liar" formula, fraud "when shewn representation knowingly, belief truth, recklessly, careless Derry Peek, App.Cas. 337, 374 (1889). "Probably formula seems. Its color. formulas, allows restricts neatly done evidence. turned equal facility case." L. Green, Jury 286 (1930) (Chapter work Professor cited herein, Va.L.Rev. 749 (1930)). "And kept dealing elements, called play, utmost involves elements. marginal cases. requires condemned formulas themselves evolved, maintained availability determined." 304. Commercial once regarded Valentine Chrestensen, 316 52, 920, 1262 (1942), Virginia Pharmacy Board Citizens Council, 425 748, 1817, 346 (1976), represent speech, rationale doing essentially viz, 340, 3007, (1974). advertiser usually "seeks disseminate information service himself presumably knows anyone else," 772, 24, 1831, minimal "danger governmental regulation price advertising chill nondeceptive 777, 1833 (Stewart, concurring). Statements employees employment touching matters sense employment-related sanctions imposed statements. Connick Myers, 138, 1684, 75 708 (1983); Givhan Western Line Consolidated School District, 439 410, 693, 619 (1979); Pickering Education, 391 563, 1731, 811 broadening Member preferred candid statement—"I it"—of premature fashion encompassing "shorthand description" obscenity. Jacobellis 378 184, 197, 1676, 1683, 793 (1964) 385-387, (1927) (explaining facts); Gitlow 268 652, 665-666, 625, 629-630, 1138 (1925); Schaefer 251 466, 483, 259, 360 (1920) (Brandeis, dissenting); Broadrick Oklahoma, 601, 613-614, 2908, 2916-2917, 830 (1963); Cox Louisiana, 379 536, 85 453, 471 (1965) Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 311, 900, 906, 1213 (1940)). Harlan's 497-498, 1315-1316, observed: 'obscenity' genus 'speech press,' distinct, recognizable, classifiable poison ivy among plants. becomes, 'obscenity,' abstraction, Amendments, book suppressed classification, 'fact,' factfinder solved generalized fashion. Every individuality 'value' own. writing tangible matter, things every raises problem, attacked suppress[i]ble standards. lend definitions, last particularized themselves. saying facts, judge, 'obscene,' for, suppressed, really sensitive delicate kind." Cf. Hamling 87, 100, 124, 2887, 2899, 2911, 590 (1974) (holding consistent sufficiency arguments Glasser 60, 457, 680 (1942)). 187-190, 1677-1679, (opinion BRENNAN, J.) (de cases); 202-203, 1685-1686 (Warren, C.J., (intermediate review). "has 'obligation Amendments,' 'this avoid making case.' 190, 1679, [opinion J.]. 'constitutional compel 697] Blackburn Alabama, 361 199, 205 [80 274, 279 242] (1960)." Rosenbloom Metromedia, 403 29, 54, 1811, 1825, 296 joined BURGER, BLACKMUN, J.). Adams Tanner, 244 590, 600, 662, 666, 1336 (1917) ("Ex facto jus oritur. ancient prevail living law"). verdict. Seventh precluded Recognizing ban reexamination tried coming B. Q.R. 166 226, 243-246, 581, 587-588, 979 (1897); Justices Murray, Wall. 658 (1870); Parsons Bedford, Pet. 433, 732 (1830), merit, 656-657 appropriate intermingling trials trials. 499-500, 512-513. And, limitation stringent jury, re-examined law." Harlan, lone dissenter observed refound bases below rested. "unusual factors" exist, "allegations harassment." 641. "preserve tyrannous, well-meaning majorities abuse irresponsible, fanatical minorities," 482, 264 opinion), Brandeis allowing jurors evaluate danger" arguably seditious demonstrate 726; 3008; 731, (1968); W. Prosser, Law Torts 771-772, 821 (4th ed. 1971). are, irrelevant applicable. "entire" fulfill question; rather, portions relate assessed. equivalent appraisal believes plaintiff. determines clarity, reversed ground overturn applicable, engaged assessment germane attempting justify draws analogy define pornography (1973); anger violence, (1969); mind, call competent interests," depicts way, lacks artistic value, 2614. words-inciting-violence capable retaliation,' 1365 added) 574, 770), "rational import language" "likely disorder." 109, 329. None require: notable, strongest fact-finding rendering evident naked eye suspect Justifying easier absence "yes" "no" extremely latitude Thus surprising early espousing facts," (1927), arisen verdicts reflexively analysis. (involving verdict).

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