Document: 472 U.S. 797 105 S.Ct. 2965 86 L.Ed.2d 628 PHILLIPS PETROLEUM COMPANY, Petitionerv.Irl SHUTTS, et al. No. 84-233. Argued Feb. 25, 1985. Decided June 26, Syllabus During the 1970's, petitioner produced or purchased natural gas from leased land located in 11 States. Respondents, royalty owners possessing rights to leases which gas, brought a class action against Kansas state court, seeking recover interest on payments that had been delayed by petitioner. The trial court certified consisting of 33,000 owners. Respondents provided each member with notice first-class mail describing and informing he could appear person counsel, otherwise would be represented respondents, members included bound judgment unless they "opted out" returning "request for exclusion." final consisted some 28,000 members, who reside all 50 States, District Columbia, several foreign countries. Notwithstanding over 99% question 97% plaintiff no apparent connection except lawsuit, applied contract equity law every claim found liable suspended royalties members. Supreme Court affirmed petitioner's contentions Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment prevented adjudicating claims Full Faith Credit prohibited application transactions between Held: 1. Petitioner has standing assert did not have jurisdiction were residents Kansas. Whether it wins loses merits, distinct personal seeing entire res judicata just as is bound. only way can assure itself this binding effect ascertain forum whose seeks adjudicate, sufficient support defense later suit alleged injury incur if class-action became without give its own right raise Court. Pp. 803-806. 2. properly asserted absent their requires notice, an opportunity "opt out," adequate representation. It does require affirmatively in" class, rather than deemed out." procedure followed Kansas, where fully descriptive sent member, explanation satisfies due process. interests are sufficiently protected State when those plaintiffs request exclusion returned within reasonable time court. 806-814. 3. erred deciding constitutional. must "significant contact aggregation contacts" order ensure choice was arbitrary unfair. Given Kansas' lack "interest" unrelated State, substantive conflict other such Texas, located, case unfair exceed constitutional limits. 814-823. 235 Kan. 195, 679 P.2d 1159 (1984) part, reversed remanded. Arthur R. Miller, Joel I. Klein, Washington, D.C., respondents. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion 1 Delaware corporation principal place business Oklahoma. 1970's different sold most interstate commerce. gas; They recovered Article IV Constitution (1984). We granted certiorari consider these claims. 469 879, 242, 83 181 reject jurisdictional claim, but sustain regarding law. 2 Because customers commerce, required secure approval price increases what then Federal Power Commission, now Energy Regulatory Commission. Under regulations Commission permitted propose collect tentative higher prices, subject If eventually denied proposed increase reduced increase, refund difference approved charged, plus at rate set statute. See 18 CFR § 154.102 3 Although received prices pending review any paid because recoupment customers. agreed pay provide bond indemnity interest, ultimately agreements same A small percentage immediately interim increases; unimportant case. 4 remaining unapproved portion until final. Royalties three times petitioner, corresponding mid-1970's. In written opinions increases, so $3.7 million 1976, $4.7 1977, $2.9 1978. although use money number years. 5 Irl Shutts, Robert Anderson, Betty Anderson filed possessed Commission's increases. Shutts resident Andersons live Oklahoma Texas. Over objection respondents' motion certify under Kan.Stat.Ann. 60-223 seq. (1983). comprised average owner $100. 6 After respondents through mail. described informed counsel; Andersons, named plaintiffs. notices also stated lawsuit executing exclusion" notice. contained 28,100 members; 3,400 exclusion, another 1,500 excluded. Less 1,000 resided Only minuscule amount, approximately one quarter percent, involved land. 7 mandamus petition decertify denied, Phillips Petroleum v. Duckworth, 82-54608 (Kan., 28, 1982), cert. 459 1103, 103 725, 74 951 (1983), tried relied heavily earlier, involving nominal defendant, Executor Co., 222 527, 567 1292 (1977), 434 1068, 98 1246, 55 769 (1978). held company owed increase. No federal statutes touched liability royalties, matter applicable rates computation reimburse rejected viewed fairest meet avoid royalties. 8 present rule Executor, prejudgment postjudgment computed governing were: 7% retained October 1974; 9% 1974 September 1979; thereafter prime rate. determine whether existed laws State's should non-Kansas States Kan., 221, P.2d, 1180. 9 raised two appeal first possess International Shoe Co. 326 310, 66 154, 90 L.Ed. 95 (1945), similar cases. Related contention "opt-out" forced them return suit, insufficient bind "minimum Second, claimed courts apply dispute. looked determine, basis principles, recoverable, 10 cause maintainable statute, both First, plaintiffs, defendants, thus traditional minimum contacts test apply. nonresident entitled heard, opt out case, representation procedural process minima met, according his claim. surveyed course litigation concluded met. arrangements having generally controlled "compelling reasons" compelling reasons, noted "[t]he indicated desire determined Kansas." 222, 1181. award imposed statutory 15%. Id., 224, 1183. 12 * As threshold we proper many party may rights, adversary, defeat favor class. 13 Standing sue III is, course, depend party's prior Doremus Board Education, 342 429, 434, 72 394, 397, 96 475 (1952); Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 82 691, 703, 663 (1962). Generally stated, allegation immediate fact, requesting "alleged stake outcome controversy concrete adverseness sharpens presentation issues." Ibid. There causal challenged action, type "likely redressed favorable decision." Valley Forge Christian College Americans United Separation Church Inc., 454 464, 472, 102 752, 758, 70 700 (1982). Simon Eastern Kentucky Welfare Rights Org., 426 41-42, 1917, 1925-1926, 48 450 (1976); Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 261, 97 555, 561, (1977). 14 Additional prudential limitations exist even though requirements met "the judiciary questions broad social import individual vindicated limit access litigants best suited particular claim." Gladstone, Realtors Village Bellwood, 441 91, 99-100, 99 1601, 1607-1608, 60 (1979). One limits litigant normally legal third parties. Singleton Wulff, 428 106, 2868, 49 826 Craig Boren, 190, 451, 397 (1976). 15 barred requiring rights; point adversaries do allied good proponent members' interests. further urge interference unneeded complain about assertion none done so. Singleton, supra, U.S., 113-114, S.Ct., 2873-2874. 16 correct jus tertii, issue. vindicate defendant unique predicament. will holders scattered across globe, decree. numerous suits issued full faith credit elsewhere party. like damages 17 While true dispute able predetermine judgment, obviously injured think Petitioner's posture somewhat trust settlor Hanson Denckla, 357 235, 78 1228, 1283 (1958), challenge forum's out-of-state indispensable proceed company, observed "any affected court's ha[d] 'direct substantial outcome' necessary fact acquired." 245, 1235, quoting Chicago Atchison, T. & S.F.R. 77, 1063, 1174 (1958). II 19 Reduced essentials, argument consent, exert failure execute cannot constitute consent plaintiffs; exercise term used cases defendants. E.g., (1945); Shaffer Heitner, 433 2569, 53 683 (1977); World-Wide Volkswagen Corp. Woodson, 444 286, 100 559, 62 490 (1980). Since prelitigation involved, exceeded reach thereby violated 20 faced sought Washington extent defendant's protection "upon quality nature activity relation fair orderly administration laws. . ." 319, 159. permit make whom contacts, ties, relations. certain "reasonable just, our conception play justice" jurisdiction, force defend himself forum, upon pain default, him judgment. 320, 160. 21 purpose test, protect travail defending distant there. explained "he reasonably anticipate being haled" into forum. 297, 567. Insurance Ireland Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinee, 456 694, 702-703, n. 10, 2099, 2104-2105, 492 (1982), requirement comes Clause's liberty said "represents restriction judicial power sovereignty, liberty." (Footnote omitted.) 22 Woodson relies dealt defendants parties cf. New York Life Ins. Dunlevy, 241 518, 36 613, 1140 (1916); Estin Estin, 334 541, 68 1213, 92 1561 (1948), analysis regard correctly points chose constitutionally recognized property Mullane Central Hanover Bank Trust 339 306, 652, 94 865 (1950). An adverse extinguish forever judicata. Such claims, bit onerous merits defendant. Thus, protections plaintiffs: plaintiff's 23 premise error. burdens placed magnitude places summoned powers render it. hire counsel travel suffer default participate extended often costly discovery, respond comply form remedy lose suit. face costs attorney's fees. These substantial, prevents unfairly imposing 24 plaintiff, however, quite posture. Hansberry Lee, 311 32, 40-41, 61 115, 117-118, 85 (1940), "class" "representative" exception personam made sense. Ibid., citing Pennoyer Neff, (5 Otto) 714, 565 (1878). pointed Hansberry, invention enable decree interested too great joinder. long adequately prosecution common interest.1 41, 117. 25 Modern actions follow goals, permitting there Class pool uneconomical litigate individually. For example, involves averaging $100 per plaintiff; realistic day available. 26 sharp contrast predicament haled anywhere themselves commentators noted, plaintiffs' view resembles "quasi-administrative proceeding, conducted judge." 3B J. Moore Kennedy, Moore's Practice ¶ 23.45[4.-5] (1984); Kaplan, Continuing Work Civil Committee: 1966 Amendments Rules Procedure (I), 81 Harv.L.Rev. 356, 398 (1967). 27 jurisdictions judge, aid conducts inquiry adequacy representation, matters bear interest. See, e.g., (1983); Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 23. Unlike civil fend himself. 60-223(d) Indeed, ensuring before certification alleging amenable jurisdiction. 1982). 28 concern typical rules manifested ways. Most jurisdictions, including once certified, dismissed compromised amend pleadings sections adequately. see also, 23(d). 29 Besides continuing solicitude need appear. almost never counterclaims cross-claims, fees costs.2 Absent coercive punitive remedies. Nor typically damages, valid litigated. 30 normal anything. He sit back allow run content knowing safeguards protection. least takes advantage removed entirely. This proceedings mailing previously indicated, attorneys. 31 contends, enough, satisfy Amendment. Insofar concerned, provision inclusion 32 fewer nonclass suits, afford former much state-court latter. "persons," "defendants," well adjudicate hold wishes concerning relief law,3 minimal receive heard litigation, counsel. practicable, "reasonably calculated, circumstances, apprise pendency objections." Mullane, 314-315, 657; Eisen Carlisle Jacquelin, 417 156, 174-175, 2140, 2151, 40 732 (1974). describe Additionally, remove Finally, represent 42-43, 45, 118-119, 120. 33 supported little, precedent, ignores differences hand, other. Any Keeton Hustler Magazine, 465 770, 104 1473, 79 790 essential question, then, how stringent showing be. 34 Requiring probably impede large economical bring Eisen, 161, 2144. small, unfamiliar law, file individually, nor Constitution.4 If, important own, likely attorney thought filing capable exercising 35 potential belies procedures result guaranteed inertia. Another excluded undeliverable. results show means pro forma, more rare species unwilling form, nonetheless presumed invalidation scores Procedure,S5 reasons sacrifice obvious advantages efficiency resulting approach rara avis portrayed therefore afforded statute Clause. Ireland, 10. Both disputes conclusion here. conclude 37 notwithstanding lawsuit.6 protested Texas came disregarded principles. 38 contends total mandated IV, conflicts material applying connected 39 especially putative range direct tangential, addressed remand standard. recorded decision dealing royalties: impose survey oil Even liability, shows 6% litigation. Okla. Const., Art. XIV, 2; Okla.Stat., Tit. 15, 266 (Supp.1984-1985); Rendezvous Trails America, Inc. Ayers, 612 1384, 1385 (Okla.App.1980); Smith Robinson, 594 364 (Okla.1979); West Edmond Hunton Lime Unit Young, 325 1047 (Okla.1958). excuses creditor accepts payment 23, (1951). Cf. Webster Drilling Sterling Oil Oklahoma, 376 236 (Okla.1962). ignoring created 41 recognizes awarded greater 6%, corresponds rate.7 Tex. 16, 11; Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., 5069-1.03 (Vernon 1971). Stahl 569 S.W.2d 480 (Tex.1978); Adams, 513 F.2d 355 (CA5), 423 930, 281, 46 259 (1975); Maxey Commerce Bank, 580 340, 341 (Tex.1979). Moreover, interpreting appears offers take while still tentative. Riverside Gas Compression 409 F.Supp. 486, 495-496 (ND Tex.1976). contrary below, vastly reduce liability. 42 rates, alone—which labeled "false conflicts" thoroughgoing treatment accorded Kansas—certainly amounted millions dollars 43 Four Terms ago situation Allstate Hague, 449 302, 101 633, 521 (1981). confronted conflicting insurance Minnesota "stacking" separate uninsured motorist policies Wisconsin not. decedent lived Wisconsin, took killed there, employed Minnesota, after death widow moved appointed representative estate. She courts, stacking rule. 44 plurality facts giving rise justify, constitutionally, jurisdiction's recognized, modest restrictions "that selected permissible manner, significant creating interests, neither fundamentally unfair." 312-313, 639-640. dissenting Justices agreement principle. 332, 650 (opinion POWELL, J., joined BURGER, C.J., REHNQUIST, J.). dissent stressed casually slightly related respect judgments furthering public policy. 335-336, 651-652. 45 id., 313-329, 640-648. Court, gleaned below. owns certainly regulating conduct 210, 1174. extraction few issue hundreds suspension royalties; real protecting [Kansas] plaintiffs." 211-212, familiar 211, 1174, buttressed stating analogous "common fund" 201, 1168, 47 lightly discount description Hartford Ibs, 237 662, 692, 59 1165 (1915). commingled general corporate accounts. 1168. specific identifiable limited amount depleted compensated. somehow aggregating sense created, becomes meaningless expansive little credence idea failing out, evinced say "consented" opting rarely, ever controlling. wish "If choose invitation shopping irresistible." Allstate, 337, 652 evidences moving move significance. John Hancock Mut. Yates, 299 178, 182, 57 129, 131, 106 (1936); Home Dick, 281 408, 338, 341, 926 (1930). relevant 318-319, 643. Thus participation bears relevance. expressed reason nationwide latitude might case: "The applies expressly shown governs, doubt, preferred. Where determines guarantees present, believe Compelling look lawsuit." 221-222, something "bootstrap" argument. issues fact." But may, assume assumption added weight scale considering transaction relationship law." entirely law; latter calculus altered difficult burdensome proposes 51 "creating interests," limits.8 52 When fairness context, element expectation 333, indication outside executed, control. Neither "to substitute [laws], persons events it, state," Pacific Employees Industrial Accident Comm'n, 306 493, 502, 629, 940 (1939), "may abrogate beyond borders anything them." 410, 342. Here Whatever practical commended already consistent decisions effort ourselves various reaffirm observation situations free choices laid down respected action. 54 affirm insofar upheld reverse adjudicate. inconsistent opinion. ordered. 56 POWELL part STEVENS, concurring part. 58 Parts I Court's opinion, agree exercised recognize word "compelling" read create inaccurate impression choice-of-law holding. ante, 821. Our job, judgments, edit opinions, am firmly convinced defect review. recognizes, "can [constitutional] suit." Ante, 816. reading light earlier (1977) (hereafter I), (1978),reveals examined "direct" "substantive" 816, 821-822. merely developed common-law principles accommodate novel litigation—other either yet precisely Consequently, Constitution1 Amendment's Clause2 prevent errs today loose definition sort "conflict" allowing tactical victory here allegations "putative" "likely" conflicts. 817. treats provisions constraints my view, impact sovereign separately considered. 644, (1981) (STEVENS, judgment). inquiries, better understanding underlying begin background (Phillips) independent producer, purchaser, seller gas. Beginning 1954, pipeline companies regulated (Commission).3 347 672, 794, 1035 (1954). producing leases, obligated value production, usually one-eighth, owning areas, so-called "royalty owners." Some monthly contractual directly Phillips. I, 532, 1298. Others contracts producers sell Phillips—by producers, "assumed producer's responsibility distribute 218, 1159, 1178 materially control pricing series orders entered established practice suspending undertaking disapproved Pursuant regulation, agrees collects "with seven percent (7%) annum date receipt 18, 1970, eight (8%) FPC [does] approve sales price." 533, 1299 (emphasis deleted) (citing 154.102(c) 586, F.P.C. 761, 791 (1970)). Phillips' receipts during periods include components—the "firm" proceeds "FPC suspense money." cents Mcf (thousand cubic feet) consideration, collection firm money. 63 July 1961, tri-state Hugoton-Anadarko area (Kansas, Texas) pending, advising "until notice" based "determined sums collected longer refund." advised ongoing furnished "acceptable cover proportionate refunds, interest." 534, added).4 security covering estimated production 2-year period, approved. indemnity; 6,400 years later, finally succinctly summarized I: 64 "From 1, 65 deposited increased monies account funds, holding note period entitlement owners' share 'suspense royalties,' FPC. owned eight-eighths (8/8) condition one-eighth (1/8) attributable go That share, eventual ruling, owners, purchasers other." 535, 1300 original). approving $153,000,000 disapproving $29,000,000. 18% refunded customers, regulation. Having silent $153 refunded. Ninth Circuit 1972, re Area Rate Case, 466 974, mailed checks moneys since 1961. However, "Phillips offered money, Phillips." 537, 1301. 67 foregoing gave (Shutts ) 1978 larger (28,100) areas Otherwise, "[w]ith exceptions factual presented [I]." 198, 1165. involve characterized undeniably pending.5 undisputed enjoyed unfettered 560, 1316 (testimony Treasurer). ended, To disapproved, purchasing pipelines, required; approved, contractually noted: "What belong deleted).6 equitable statements cases7 line concluding circumstances." 1317.8 "several grounds arrive compensation. (Smith Owens, 673 [Okla.1963]; First Nat. Exchange 517 805 [Okla.App.1973] )."9 construed containing "contractual obligation" "for 562, 1317. point, 550 360 (Tex.Civ.App.1977), "awarded royalties" terms unjust enrichment." Significantly, subsequently decide 480, 485-488, 69 determining upon,10 express agreement, evidenced undertaking, refundable. 564, 1319. declined own. "[E]quitable require, dictate, treatment" purchasers, interest.11 563, 1318. "waived" accepting post "acceptable" contemporaneous "conditions far FPC," 567, 1320, "apparent [that] previous imposition conditions designed accomplish disclose. Virtually complied conditions, leaving hands stakeholder pleasure. 566, 1320. "payment sum bar subsequent interest" inapplicable facts. 1321. Instead, [the due] instead extinguishing debt, constituted partial interest-bearing debt[,] [t]his invokes 'United Rule,' provides debt due, absence contrary, due." Ibid.12 71 II, review, adopted repeating "Although substantially same. complex thoroughly reviewed I." 1174.13 Noting satisfactorily why enunciated I," went "nationwide action" asserted, reached faithfully State. purely issue, delegated us restraint unconstitutional [actions] correction errors committed judiciary." Commercial Cincinnati Buckingham's Executors, How. 317, 343, 169 (1847). mandate Rather, invoke protections, hence contravenes explicit limitation.14 73 settled "a mere misconstruction sister violation Clause." Carroll Lanza, 349 414, 75 804, 807, 1183 (1955) (Frankfurter, dissenting).15 accord "full credit" States' laws—that acknowledge validity finality attempt home courts.16 Holmes explained, "nothing suggest [one court] candidly construing [another law] ability, wrong error construction necessary" Constitution. Pennsylvania Fire Gold Issue Mining Milling 243 93, 96, 344, 345, 610 (1917). Merely refute below indicates, careful proffered But, acknowledges, 816-818, and, roughly reached. declared that, multistate "court attempted do, possible problems." 557, 1314.17 judge disagree determinations (although nothing seems erroneous me), evinces requires. imaginable good-faith "unjustifiably infring[e] legitimate State" violate 323, 645 lease treated policy honest blunder, "parochial entrenchment" Texas' Thomas Light 448 272, 2647, 2656, 757 (1980) (plurality opinion).18 pursue theoretical possibility. contend plainly contravened, discussion founded reported speculation "most likely" this. simply demonstration impaired infringed sovereignty slightest. 76 nevertheless "totally unfair" violates 326, 647 parties, "frustrat[e] justifiable expectations parties" unconstitutional. 327, 647.19 77 Again, "unfair surprise" unexpected law—it rest persuasive arrived laws, produce, violated. theory plan relations consequences actions. base belief govern. change execution performance unanticipated ruling unanswered law—perhaps question. perfectly clear classic case.20 demonstrated theories language suggests results. 816-818. heavy reliance characterization neutral 817 ("Petitioner claims," "petitioner shows," to," "Petitioner ."). unmistakable cited indicative conflicts, supportive result.21 precedents, second-guess judgments. examination demonstrates solid conclusions.22 crux disagreement standard evaluate sufficiency Rather potential, "putative," unambiguous Arguments reconciled arguably erroneously unprecedented circumstances suffice 80 equity, interpretation agreements, regulations,23 contravened consequently find decision.24 analysis, expressing statement Considering confident obligation "respect infringement sovereignty." 322, judgment); Nevada Hall, 440 421, 424, 24, 1182, 1188, 1190, 416 unsound necessarily implicate concerns embodied concurring); 823 ("in law"); 307, 637 opinion). attention fairly making law.25 "reviews opinions," Chevron U.S.A. Natural Resources Defense Council, 467 837, 842, 2778, 2781, 694 (1984), criticism taken context reversing Unless actual U.S.C. 2111, law—including law—does extend reversal law's application. record convincingly despite protestations development disregard occurred.26 develop differently. engage detailed evaluations foreclose review.27 Accordingly, today's momentary aberration, constitutionalize developments whenever result. decided unreviewable supra. "To wherein defeated detriment." Johnson 187 491, 496, 194, 273 (1903). ignored admonition today, renew turn-of-the-century efforts convince 84 join respectfully Part petitioners petitioners. enforcing emphasis counterclaims, costs. cites however. rarely disposition left presents way. seek known wholly predominately intimate types actions, relief. Nor, address Reporter amendments stated: "[R]equiring individuals freezing people—especially people—who another, ignorance, timidity, unfamiliarity matters, affirmative step." 397-398 following 23(c)(2)(A); Ala.Rule Alaska Rule Ariz.Rule Cal.Civ.Code Ann. 1781(e)(1) (West 1973) (consumer action); Colo.Rule Del.Ch.Ct.Rule D.C.Super.Ct.Rule Fla.Rule 1.220(d)(2)(A); Idaho Ind.Rule Trial Proc. 23(C)(2)(a); Iowa 42.8(b); 60-223(c)(2) Ky.Rule 23.03(2)(a); Me.Rule Md.Rule 2-231(e)(1); Mich.Ct.Rule 3.501(C)(5)(b); Minn.Rule 23.03(2)(A); Mo.Rule 52.08; Mont.Rule Nev.Rule N.J.Civ.Prac.Rule 4:32-2; N.Y.Civ.Prac.Law 904 (McKinney 1976); N.D.Rule 23(g)(2)(B); Ohio 12, 2023(C)(2)(a) Ore.Rule F(1)(b)(ii); Pa.Rule 1711(a); Tenn.Rule Vt.Rule Wash.Ct.Rule 23(c)(2)(i); Wyo.Rule 23(c)(2)(A). Opinion Nos. 699, 749, 770. reimbursed $3.7, $2.9, respectively. follows. OPINION 699 Oklahoma..... 1,266 $ 83,711.35 2,653 Texas........ 4,414 839,152.73 9,591 Kansas....... 152.88 496 Arkansas..... 3,228.22 173 Louisiana.... 2,187,548.06 1,244 Mexico... 941 433,574.85 621 Illinois..... — Wyoming...... 690 148,906.93 413 Mississippi.. Utah......... Virginia Code (.05) 1,025 ----- ---------- 7389 3,696,274.97 749 1,948 243,163.49 3,591 3,479 2,171,217.36 7,881 2,619.24 553 1,769.33 171 178 352,539.45 740 350 22,670.27 1.30 67,570.01 694.93 88 184.60 W. Virginia.. 10,364.61 246 1,032.59 1,553 ------------ 6109 2,873,827.18 770 1,430 471,122.53 2,684 3,702 2,615,744.46 8,550 115.10 504 552.83 162 516,248.13 361 591 194,799.95 .01 353 476 945,441.09 272 1,046 ---- 6232 4,744,024.10 Louisiana. At 7%. La.Civ.Code Ann., 1938 (amended 1982); Wurzlow Placid 279 So.2d 772-774 (La.App.1973) (applying royalties). states state's applied." 1180 actually incorporated reference inapplicable. insufficient. pre-Allstate region primarily borders. considered statutes, finding precedent. 562-565, 1317-1319. "Full shall given Acts, Records, Proceedings And Congress Laws prescribe Manner Records proved, Effect thereof." 1738. "No deprive life, liberty, property, Amdt. 14, responsibilities transferred 1977. 91 Stat. 578, 582-584. 1961 full: "Effective you excluding exceeds [cents] (presently maximum level recently announced Statement General Policy). Payment balance refund. "Interest desiring currently arrange furnishing Company acceptable 1299. withholding sustained Ashland Refining Staats, 271 571, 579 (Kan.1967), Boutte 316 524 (ED La.1970), aff'd, 442 1337 (CA5 1971) (per curiam ). "Had put royalties' fund, operating solely dovetail nicely 'common fund' cases." 552, 1311. Accord, 212, criticizes concept funds. 819-820. alone, fund readily itself. Perlman National Chicago, Ill.App.3d 784, 799-802, 305 N.E.2d 236, 247-250 (1973) (cited 553, 1311-1312); Sprague Ticonic 307 166-167, 777, 780, 1184 (1939) (common "recovered" litigation); Dawson, Lawyers Involuntary Clients: Attorney Fees From Funds, 87 1597, 1615 (1974) ("Funds itself"). chooses doctrines. foundation lacking here, gratuitous. argued distinction purposes "suspense" sold. Yet acknowledges exists gas." 215, 1177 added). "[b]y choosing withhold allowed rightfully belonged turn, deprived receiving using time." 216, 1177. Applying enrichment accordingly distinction. 217, 1178. turn pursues footnote itself, "fund" existed. Brief 21, 18. "easily computed" sales. Lightcap Mobil 221 448, 562 876, 228, 156 Shapiro Public Retirement System, 216 353, 357, 532 1081, 1084 (1975). six cases, four Fifth Northern refunds ordered inappropriate preventing enrichment. (United Callery Properties, 382 223 [86 360, 284] )." 1317-1318. 16-201 ("Creditors annum, upon"); (1971) ("The cent interest"); ("When specified allowed") (all accruing entry 16-204 bars courts. demonstrate irrefutable carried Klaxon Stentor Electric Mfg. 313 487, 498, 1020, 1022, 1477 (1941) (State "an incidental item commonly fit"). " Rule' Texas," "raised lost" waiver 568, 1321, Riverview 486 accepted "as such" waiver, (1971), inasmuch accepted. apparently new subclass agreement. assumed additional "without clause producers. argument, consideration purported 220, "[T]hese provisions, unilaterally casinghead appear." 1257: "Final decrees rendered highest (3) [b]y writ title, right, privilege immunity specially up principle side century. (1917); Western Indemnity Rupp, 275, 37, 220 (1914); Louisville Nashville Melton, 218 36, 51, 52, 676, 679, 680, 921 (1910); Allen Alleghany 196 458, 464-465, 311, 313, 551 (1905); (1903); Glenn Garth, 147 367-370, 350, 352-353, 203 (1893). Guaranty York, 99, 109, 1464, 1470, 89 2079 (1945) (federal furtherance goal court"). "not fulfilled" "liability varying laws." 1314. notion plans "bootstrap," 821, onto actions; opposite suggested. challenging clearly "bears burden establishing" infringement. 325, 13, 647, 13. "Prima facie enforce statutes. challenges assumes showing, rational basis, superior forum." Packers Assn. 294 547, 523, 1044 (1935). ("It called Illinois placing construction, indeed section existed, incumbent prove it"). failed call ways, irrationally favoring nonresidents representing "dramatic departure obtains American jurisdictions." 647. possibility here; exactly alike analysis. second possibility, departure" distinguished situations. criticize allegedly "unique notions law," 33, objection. constantly overarching achieving Today's decision, newly establishes lawful anticipated ago. obtaining "[n]o hinted" result, unavailing. '[F]alse conflict' really 'no laws.' same, produce Leflar, Conflicts Law p. 188 (3d ed. 1977). E. Scoles P. Hay, Conflict 2.6, (1982) ("A 'false potentially differ"). distinguishes (1930), Mutual (1936), clear, conceded, dispositive. same" "[w]hile "damages compensate derived money," "[i]n instant I" respecting Two sentences paragraph, reason." multi-state performed Phillips, conclusions reexamined. ambiguous, benefit doubt reviewing frankly understand summary rejection incorporate 822, 8. implication "did precedent" added), wrong. 22, infra. list "putative omissions dangers relying characterizations technically "no royalties," 816-817 "caused breach obligation, thereon." added); ("Any certain, calculation, thereon"). specifically field recovery. Line authority string citation Oklahoma's supports "in contract" 6%. Okla.Stat.Ann., recoverable obligations, discussing examining authorities, rate, terms, 220-221, 1180; 563-565, 1318-1319. contradicts McAnally Ideal Union, (Okla.1967) (where excess 12% year, "must govern" rate). similarly 6%—it equally plain sought. have, recovery contract, implied oral rates. Preston Farm Ranch Supply, Bio-Zyme Enterprises, 625 295 (Tex.1981); Moody Main Houston, 667 613 (Tex.App.1984). 4. noting "accepting whole principal, such, waives interest," (1981), statute's open "cf." Okla., 238 "based become 'a itself,' Title 8, "is applicable." (citation omitted). 565, 1317, explicitly impossible suggest, does, "ignor[ed]" 5. misconstrues suggesting "offer" would, excuse mentions pages, F.Supp., 495-496, into. 490. authority, cite "unconditional offer possession disputed created. 355, 370 (1975) Adams 487 Fuller 408 643, 646 Tex.1976) (entering terminates "lost money"). found, "unconditional"—to "far FPC." uncontested continued freely unpaid "burdensome" drastically "appears" uniform agreed, parochialism decision. absolutely differently residents, lie exist. throughout unarguable reside, "perceived possible" "at contracting." 331, 649, 316-318, 642-643, 22. possible, Weinberg, Cases Problem Relevant Time, Hofstra L.Rev. 1023, 1040-1043 geographic distribution residences goes "likelihood" easy enough national firms clauses contracts. 318, 24; 324, 328, 646, 648 Clay Sun Office, Ltd., 377 179, 1197, 1199, 229 (1964). judgment) (footnote omitted): "I judge's irrational. judges presumably consuming discover efficient justice sufficient, attach presumption jurisdiction." H. Newberg, Newberg Actions 13.28, (2d 1985) ("the harmless among involved"). criticized ground therefore, discussion. Weintraub, Who's Afraid Constitutional Limitations Choice Law?, 17, 18-24 demonstrated, again criticism. restricted unambiguous, risk misconstruing evidence speculates "would apply" lawsuit. resolve remains abide

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