Document: 533 U.S. 405121 S.Ct. 2334150 L.Ed.2d 438 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.UNITED STATES and DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, PETITIONERSv.UNITED FOODS, INC. No. 00-276 SUPREME COURT THE UNITED Argued April 17, 2001June 25, 2001 Syllabus The Mushroom Promotion, Research, Consumer Information Act mandates fresh mushroom handlers pay assessments used primarily fund advertisements promoting sales. Respondent refused assessment, claiming it violates First Amendment. It filed a petition challenging assessment with Secretary Agriculture, an enforcement action District Court. After administrative appeal was denied, respondent sought review Court, which consolidated two cases. In granting Government summary judgment, court found dispositive decision Glickman v. Wileman Brothers & Elliott, Inc., 521 457, Amendment not violated when agricultural marketing orders, as part larger regulatory scheme, required producers California tree fruit for product advertising. Sixth Circuit reversed, holding did control because mandated payments this case were comprehensive statutory program. Held: requirement Pp. 2-11. (a) Even viewing expression here commercial speech, there no basis under Court's precedents sustain assessments. prevent government from, inter alia, compelling individuals subsidies speech they object. See Abood Detroit Bd. Ed., 431 209; Keller State Bar Cal., 496 1. Such provide beginning point analysis here. wants convey message its brand mushrooms superior those grown by producers, objects being charged contrary seems favored majority producers. values at serious risk if can compel citizen group citizens subsidize on side favors; apparent principle distinguishing out hand minor debates about whether branded better than just mushroom. Thus, compelled funding must pass scrutiny. 3-5. (b) program sustained differs from one issue fundamental respect: ancillary more restricting autonomy. stressed entire considered resolving case. There, fruits marketed detailed orders had displaced competition such extent antitrust exemption; presumed contribute funds cooperative advertising bound together statute market their products according rules. Those important features present Most generic advertising; regulating production sales, exemption, nothing preventing individual making own decisions. growers forced associate makes Although simply support others, utter itself, principles set forth cases involving groups include persons who object but, nevertheless, remain members law necessity. See, e.g., Abood, supra, Keller, supra. Properly applied, Abood's rule protecting against some requires scheme invalidated. Before addressing conflict freedom belief exists, threshold inquiry state imposed obligation membership less voluntary; only overriding associational purpose allows subsidy first place. Glickman, objecting purposes speech. Here, however, contends serve very question. Were sufficient say germane Keller's limits would empty meaning significance. No corollary Glickman's structure exists here; association's independent itself; rationale extends party There also suggestion necessary make voluntary nonmisleading consumers. Zauderer Office Disciplinary Counsel Ohio, 471 626, distinguished. Because raise theory permissible will entertain argument 5-11.197 F.3d 221, affirmed. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR SIXTH CIRCUIT Kennedy, J., delivered Rehnquist, Stevens, Scalia, Souter, Thomas, JJ., joined. Justice Kennedy 1 Four Terms ago, 457 (1997), rejected challenge constitutionality series that, certain federal product. Appeals determined marketing, thus dictating different result Glickman. held unconstitutional, we granted certiorari. 530 1009 (2000). 2 question, enacted Congress 1990, Act, 104 Stat. 3854, 7 U.S.C. § 6101 et seq. authorizes Agriculture establish Council pursue statute's goals. importers, defined statute, submit nominations among Secretary, then designates membership. 6104(b)(1)(B), 6102(6), 6102(11). To programs, impose mandatory upon amount exceed cent per pound produced imported. §6104(g)(2). "projects promotion, research, consumer information, industry information." §6104(c)(4). undisputed, though, most monies raised spent promote 3 Foods, large enterprise based Tennessee. grows distributes many crops products, including mushrooms. 1996 Act. advertising, contended, violation challenged Secretary. Western Tennessee, seeking pay. Both matters stayed pending 4 decided, Administrative Law Judge dismissed respondent's petition, Judicial Officer Department suit Government's action. challenge, motion judgment. App. Pet. Cert. 18a. 5 controlled reversed 197 221 (1999). We agree now affirm. 6 A quarter century usually does propose transaction, protected Virginia Pharmacy Citizens Council, 425 748, 762 (1976). "The marketplace, like spheres our social cultural life, provides forum where ideas information flourish." Edenfield Fane, 507 761, 767 (1993). have standards determining validity regulations accord protection expression. Ibid.; Central Hudson Gas Elec. Corp. Public Serv. Comm'n N. Y., 447 557 (1980). That approach, turn, has been criticism. 504 (Thomas, dissenting); 44 Liquormart, Inc. Rhode Island, 517 484, 518 (1996) concurring judgment); Rubin Coors Brewing Co., 514 476, 493 (1995) (Stevens, judgment). need enter into controversy, even entitled lesser protection, find either should noted, moreover, itself rely Appeals' decision, Reply Brief Petitioners 9, n. 7, therefore do consider interest could substantial test. question underwrite sponsor viewpoint using special exacted designated class persons, whom idea advanced. 8 Just prohibiting express views, see Wooley Maynard, 430 705, 714 (1977); West Ed. Barnette, 319 624 (1943), 209 (1990); U. S, 469, 13. Our concerning contributions analysis. fact aid deprive all already cited. matter but small segment population; yet whose business livelihood depend way involved doubt deem them discrete, little noticed society resulting diverse parts. concerns apply disagree. 9 "[T]he general speaker audience, government, assess value presented." Edenfield, 767. instances contradict constitutional principle. Here disagreement seen minor: worth consuming branded. particular citizen, discrete citizens, distinguishes As consequence, 10 view permitted similar respects. imposes restraint communicate message; (here corporate entity) views disfavors; political ideological views. U.S., 469-470. These points noted context type controlling outcome. respect. practical purposes, far ancillary, principal scheme. 11 outset deciding emphasized "the importance arises." 469. "pursuant ha[d] aspects activity." Id., Indeed, "displaced competition" "expressly exempted laws." 461. regulated characterized "[c]ollective action, rather aggregate consequences competitive choices." Ibid. use "d[id] so broader collective act independently [wa]s constrained scheme." proceeded premise extent, participation logical concomitant valid economic regulation. 12 us. notes, contest, cf. almost collected purpose: Beyond collection disbursement funds, regulate how sold, exemption laws, recognized, "heavy regulation through orders" market. F.3d, 225. growing unregulated, except regional program," collectivized, subjected uniform price, otherwise subsidized price supports restrictions supply." 222, 223. 13 true protests itself. conclude, who, (1990). 14 claims despite lack inapplicable. "recognized organization expressive activities one's 'freedom belief.' " (quoting 235). take further instruction, statement receives protection. 232. proper application us invalidate instant infringement rights worked union shop arrangement "constitutionally justified legislative contribution system labor relations established Congress." 222. attain desired benefit bargaining, nonmembers another, legitimate furthered association. 15 situation obtained state-mandated, integrated bar ensure "all lawyers derive unique status admitted practice courts [were] called fair share cost." 12. Lawyers reason justifying association place, example expenditures (including speech) related "activities connected disciplining proposing ethical codes profession." 16. incident expenditure goal requiring activity. central give 16 much same above, cooperative. proceed, deprived ability compete replaced regime cooperation. cooperation judged maintain stable Given common venture, imposition caused was, furtherance Though four Justices join disagreed, additional regulation, concerns. 474; id., 477 (Souter, dissenting). 17 mechanism relates concededly Glickman; require save generate contrast upheld argued "part principally concern speech," Petitioner, O. T. 1996, 95-1184, p. 4, place greater might implemented Agricultural Marketing Agreement 1937, 50 246, 601 seq., observed relied finds For these reasons forth, 18 conclusions inconsistent 626 (1985), attempts prohibit licensed attorneys. invalidated permit attorneys advertised choice referred contingent fees disclose clients liable costs. Noting numbers potential misled omission explanation, consistent State's "preventing deception consumers." 651. private others somehow 19 argues immune scrutiny apply. admits forthright manner, "not addressed" Appeals. 32, 19. Government, citing Lebron National Railroad Passenger Corporation, 513 374 (1995), suggests embraced within Lebron, presented petitioner brief merits addressed judgment reviewed. 379. contrast, undisputed mention put forward consideration. 20 failure address significant difficult Government. example, although asserts approval pro forma. issues labeled, sustained, 21 however. allowed defend grounds pressed passed below, see, Estate Romani, 523 517, 526, (1998), quite allow assert new substantive arguments attacking, defending, reviewing, least it. Term declined invitation amicus overturn Lopez Davis, 531 230, 244, (2001), course decline party's doing 22 discussed, 23 Affirmed. 24 opinions. 25 Breyer, dissenting opinion, Ginsburg, joined, O'Connor, joined Parts I III. 26 concurring. 27 Breyer correctly case, "does compels payment money." Post, 7-8 (dissenting opinion). suffices distinguish 705 (1977). follow, implicated person he objects. 1, 13-14 number cases, "germane," endeavor. incremental impact liberty surrendered entity (either voluntarily compulsion) not, my main 28 raises open compulsion stake. naked compulsion, me.* decide interests, health artistic mentioned post, 10, justify this, surely entrepreneur finance his competitors, contribute, insufficient. NOTES: * purposes. Buckley Valeo, 424 (1976) (per curiam). means follows reasoning think clear objectionable money others. context, entirely evaluating significance compulsion. 29 30 controlling. write separately, reiterate "paying involves "compelling speech." Any stringent 31 Ginsburg joins, O'Connor joins III, dissenting. 32 view, disregards precedent, fails properly analyze strength relevant introduces unreasoned legal well pose obstacle development beneficial forms consequently dissent. 33 Only years ago one, (1997). there, here, prohibited collecting fee grower (nectarines, peaches, plums). "rais[e] resolve," "simply policy Executive resolve." 468. gave following conclusion: 34 "First, producer audience. Second, engage actual symbolic Third, endorse views." 469-470.This fruit, identical each three critical otherwise. And believe characteristics demand conclusion. 35 sees difference what says Wileman's (presumably supply regulation) 'displaced competition,' "extent 'expressly laws.' Ante, 461). says, 'subjected restrictio[n] supply,' ante, 223 (CA6 1999)), "common venture" "depriv[es]" "ability compete," 8. characterizes "fundamental." 5. 36 But record indicates critical. refer presence output regulations. "authorized" kind 462 (emphasis added). 461 (citing while noting issued authority "may include" quantity controls added)). then-existing Souter's respect regulations, "authorized," fact, CFR pts. 916, 917 (1997) (setting container, packaging, grade, size regulations); 500, (souter, dissenting) (noting eliminates varies orders"). Wileman, authorized promulgate ("greater 1937"); 608c(2), (6)(A), (7). neither she actually done so. Perhaps why heavily existence Secretary's prices output. 469 passing). 37 Regardless, understand absence difference. (unlike advertising) "logical concomitant" "economic" "scheme." 6. explain Producer price-fixing schemes seek keep higher conditions dictate, supply. Antitrust exemptions concomitant," agreement unlawful. obvious comparable connection. suggests, might, help bring dictate. Certainly contrary. Cf. (criticizing "reasonably implement regulation"). 38 By directly, incidental subsidiary program's underlying "maintain[ing] expand[ing] existing markets uses mushrooms." 6101(b)(2). Act's goals indicate, promotion research perfectly traditional form intervention marketplace. Promotion overcome inaccurate perceptions Hearings H. R. 1776 al. Subcommittee Domestic Marketing, Relations, Nutrition House Committee 101st Cong., 1st Sess., 99 (1989) (hereinafter Hearings) (statement Rep. Grant) fears safety eating capita consumption Canada twice States). Overcoming sometimes public benefits. 6101(a)(1)-(3) (mushrooms "valuable human diet," "benefits environment"). needed produce benefits where, otherwise, free ride 95-96 James Ciarrocchi) ("The embarked several campaigns over . [A] lesson every unreliability, inefficiency, inequities participation"). 39 Compared "command control," relies self-regulation trade associations dissemination consistent, choice. Constitution seeks protect regulation," 6, special, determinative refusing intrusive If classifies former, "economic regulation" similarly classify latter, differ significantly comparatively degree allows. 40 invokes conclusion namely, (1977), (1990), different. two, employees unions associations, respectively. unlawful (1) helped organization, i.e., legally contribution; (2) "conflict (communications abortion, prayer schools, gun control); 213 politics religion). 41 funded involve described messages incapable "engender[ing] crisis conscience" producers' objections "trivial." 471, 472. indistinguishable. Compare 10-11 (objecting treats unbranded alike, associates "with alcohol tout[s] aphrodisiac"), 467, (dismissing suggested 'all varieties equal quality,' included 'sexually subliminal evidenced ad depicting young girl wet bathing suit' ") Appendix, infra. directly basic goal. 42 Neither resemble Barnette Wooley. children, conscience, salute American flag. 632. motorists, display license plates bearing "Live Free Die." 707. Wooley, "our clearly inapplicable" financial 470. 651 (1985) (refusing interests stake order"). explained: 43 respondents repeat mouths, 624, 632 property antagonistic message, Pacific Co. Util. 475 (1986) (plurality opinion), force respond hostile 'would prefer silent,' ibid., publicly identified associated another's PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 74, 88 Respondents merely advertising." 470-471. statements applicable How today base expressly distinguished Wileman? II 45 Nearly affects, virtually governmental activity, contexts activity arise, applying speech-protective rules presumptions areas, Board Regents Univ. Wis. System Southworth, 529 217, 229 (2000) (indicating restrictive speech); 557, 564 (1980) (commercial "mid-level" scrutiny); Pickering Township High School Dist. 205, Will Cty., 391 563, 568 (1968) (applying employees). strictest level area touched would, minimum, create operation well-established, legislatively created, thereby seriously hindering democratic self-government protect. Constitutional Status Commercial Speech, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 9-10 46 That, believe, "species 477, "warrant scrutiny," 474. Irrespective characterize reasons. 47 First, interfere interests. money. Money identical. Nixon Shrink Missouri PAC, 528 377, 388-389 (2000); 398 concurring) ("Money property; speech"); 400 (Breyer, ("[A] campaign (it not); enables speech"). contested achieve objective resembles targeted tax. 241 Stevens judgment) ("[T]he university tax"). "government, rule, programs policies taxes exactions binding protesting parties." (majority Regan Taxation With Representation Wash., 540, 547 (1983) ("Legislatures especially broad latitude creating classifications distinctions tax statutes"). furthers, hinders, "commercial speech" objective. amounts ordinary marketplace arena typically both supervision channels debate, communicative process 14-15. restrained contributing moving writing literature, art, invoking processes self-government, anything else Amendment's self-government. 49 When purely issue, consumer's flow truthful information. 766 (1993) ("First coverage designed safeguard" society's "interes[t] access complete accurate information"); Zauderer, extension consumers Hudson, 563 informational function advertising"); Nat. Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 783 (1978) ("A advertisement constitutionally pertains seller's furthers societal 'free information' 764 (1976)). Unlike previously addressed, promotes producer's claim likely available. applied "compelled doctrine strike down laws provision speech-related harm. pointed out, held, harm individual's conscience. Supra, 5-7. censor unrelated justification. 2. harming "discrete, grou[p]." 4. excludes (11) (exempting import 500,000 pounds annually) unlike respondent, large, influential corporation. contains methods implementing requirements democratically. §§6104(b)(1)(B), (g)(2) (Mushroom sets rate, composed representatives); §§6105(a), (referendum Agriculture's go effect five thereafter, request referenda). §6104(d)(3) (requiring approve programs). upset participants, bureaucrats, legislators concluded [collective advertising] beneficial"). safeguards abuse program, "making competitors." concurring). indication brands "debat[e]" versus nonbranded mushrooms, Wileman. 5-6. 51 Taken together, circumstances lead me presumptions. such, cannot lacks justification survive 476-477. 52 stricter finding violated, unfortunate precedent. precedent perhaps requires, striking tobacco companies harms smoking portion museum entry charges citywide art. Moreover, uncertainty involvement immunity "government doctrine, 10-11, infects related, say, warranties doubt. 53 Alternatively, distinction between speakers former Consolidated Edison Y. 530, 534, (Even "heavily businesses enjoy protection") (citing, Pharmacy, 763-765). 54 At contrasted creates incentive increase information-based unnecessarily increasing restrictiveness. limit choices Due Process Clause. Lochner New York, 198 (1905). III 55 somewhat standard reach result. permits "directly advance" "substantial" "be served limited restriction." 564. explained substantial, compared typical remains advance 56 Several indicate aspects, monetary contributions, proportionate promotional seeks. hearings led enactment representatives pre-existing efforts worked. rational 4; 222 (relying "free rider" context). 57 time, dissenters disproportionately absent covered various commodities patchwork geographically limitations "prohibit[ing] national scope" reason. 499 applies explicitly "[a]ny" "shall scope." 6103(a). ("[I]f attack problems across interstate given commodity them, substantiality "). 58 Nor "[m]ere speculation" 501 Rather, provided empirical evidence demonstrating effect. Food Economics Group, Program Effectiveness Review, 1999, (Feb. 2000), lodging (available Clerk file) (finding "for million dollars growth rate [of sales] increases 2.1%"). whatever cause proportionate. Bartnicki Vopper, 532 ___ (2001) 59 converts "a Executive" "First issue," 468 (internal quotation marks citation omitted). principles. reasons, dissent

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