Document: 363 U.S. 420 80 S.Ct. 1502 4 L.Ed.2d 1307 John A. HANNAH et al., Appellants,v.Margaret M. LARCHE al. Petitioners, v. J. H. SLAWSON Nos. 549, 550. Argued Jan. 18 and 19, 1960 on the Petition for Writ of Certiorari, theJurisdiction Appeal, Merits. Decided June 20, 1960. Mr. Lawrence E. Walsh, Washington, D.C., appellants in No. 549 petitioners Jack P. F. Gremillion, Baton Rouge, La., appellees 549. W. Shaw, Homer, respondents Chief Justice WARREN delivered opinion Court. 1 These cases involve validity certain Rules Procedure adopted by Commission Civil Rights, which was established Congress 1957.1 Rights Act 1957, 71 Stat. 634, 42 U.S.C. §§ 1975—1975e, U.S.C.A. 1975—1975e. They arise out Commission's investigation alleged Negro voting deprivations State Louisiana. The are registrars voters Louisiana, 550 private citizens Louisiana.2 After having been summoned to appear before a hearing proposed conduct Shreveport, these requested United States District Court Western Louisiana enjoin from holding its anticipated hearing. It alleged, among other things, that governing investigations were unconstitutional. specific rules challenged those provide identity persons submitting complaints need not be disclosed, testify Commission, including against whom have filed, may cross-examine witnesses called Commission. held authorized adopt here question, therefore issued an injunction prohibits any hearings as long procedures remain force. this review Court's decision.3 We granted motion advance cases, oral argument accordingly scheduled jurisdiction appeal petition certiorari 550, merits both cases. 2 Having heard scheduled, we now take grant questions must decide (1) whether respondents, (2) if so, violate Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment. 3 A description events leading up litigation is necessary only place legal their proper factual context, but also indicate significance Shreveport During months prior decision convene hearing, had received some sixty-seven individual Negroes who they discriminatorily deprived right vote. Based upon complaints, pursuant statutory mandate 'investigate allegations writing under oath or affirmation being vote counted reason color, race, religion, national origin,'4 began into situation making several ex parte attempts acquire information. Thus, March 1959, member staff interviewed Voting Registrars Claiborne, Caddo, Webster Parishes, obtained little relevant one interviews informed Mrs. Lannie Linton, Registrar Claiborne Parish, file four sworn statements charging her with depriving rights solely because race. Subsequent interview, Linton's personal attorney, wrote letter Gordon Tiffany, Staff Director it asserted Linton knew lodged false. indicated wished prefer perjury charges affiants, Shaw demanded forward him copies affidavits so presentment could made grand jury. On April 14, Tiffany replied Shaw's denied request affidavits. following official statement Commission: 'The first meeting forward, considered all submitted confidential such confidentiality essential carrying duties hereby instructed disclose names complainants information contained anyone except members assigned process, study, investigate complaints.' 5 copy Tiffany's sent Attorney General previously law adviser federal commission. 6 Another attempt obtain occurred May 13, when authorization, list 315 written interrogatories Gremillion. very detailed information, answered nineteen parishes. Although Gremillion Governor assented idea interrogatories, 28, indicating refused answer interrogatories. reasons given refusal many seemed unrelated functions registrars, neither accompanied nor related time research required placed unreasonable burden registrars. 7 In response refusal, 29, telegram informing latter based reaffirming position would disclosed. further 5, 1959. 2, reiterating registrars' again requesting 8 Finally, result exchange correspondence, frustrated, acting Section 105(f) 1957,5 decided hold commencing July 9 Notice between 29 6, subpoenas duces tecum served ordering them at bring various registration records within custody control. Subpoenas apparently explain activities regard rights.6 10 8, enclosing Procedure.7 Gremillion's attention drawn 102(h) Act, permits submit, subject discretion brief pertinent inclusion record.8 11 Two days later, 10, filed two separate Both suffer irreparable harm virtue furnish deprivations, well contents allegations, permit confront allegations. addition, refusals violated numerous provisions Federal Constitution, constituted 'ultra vires' acts either Executive. comply prohibited removing 'upon order competent court,' 'court.' complaint unconstitutional did constitute 'appropriate legislation meaning XV Amendment.' 12 sought temporary restraining permanent prohibiting (a) compelling 'testimony production records' until charges, together addresses filing respondents;9 (b) 'conducting regulations by' Commission; (c) 'conspiring * person deny privileges citizens' 'or confronted accusers, know nature character them,' represented counsel. declaratory judgment 1957 13 day district judge combined prayers orders. 12, he found orders show cause why preliminary should granted. Larche Hannah, 176 F.Supp. 791. concerned others similarly situated determination injunction. 14 Inasmuch attacked constitutionality three-judge court convened 28 § 2282, 2282. Since challenge case single judge. That panel August 7, 15 October divided 177 816. constitutional since 'very definitely constitutes appropriate legislation' Fourteenth Fifteenth Amendments Article I, Constitution. Id., page 821. then respondents' apprisal, confrontation, cross-examination raised 'serious issue,' Greene McElroy, 360 474, 79 1400, 1377, specifically 'to deprive parties investigated confrontation apprised them.' 822. issued. deciding issue never reached issue' allegations.10 wherein 'accused vote, cross examination.'11 rendered incorporating reference Court, injunction, identical substance entered I. 16 last Term supra, action taken inferior governmental agency accomplished raise serious questions, initial inquiry will determine 'the President Congress, respective powers, has imposed warranted use.' 507, 1419. considerations prompted us analyze question authorization reaching issues presented no less case. Obviously, complained disposed without premature questions. See Vitarelli Seaton, 359 535, 968, 1012; Kent Dulles, 357 116, 78 1113, 1204; Watkins States, 354 178, 77 1173, 1273; Peters Hobby, 349 331, 75 790, 99 L.Ed. 1129. 17 consider authorization. As above, complaints. Moreover, permitted contend, below held, authorize adoption procedural cross-examination. court's best summarized language opinion: '(W)e find nothing expressly authorizes inform persons, criminal conduct, nature, source accusations them, there authorizing cross-examination.' F.Supp., 19 thoroughly analyzing legislative history led erred conclusion question. 20 said ignored follow conducting hearings. 102 lists number intended safeguard potential abuses. Briefly summarized, subdivisions Chairman shall make opening hearing; available witnesses; 'may own counsel purpose advising concerning rights'; potentially defamatory, degrading, incriminating testimony executive session, defamed, degraded, incriminated opportunity voluntarily witness subpoena additional session released consent submit record.12 21 absence cross-examination, addition fact counsel's role limited rights, creates presumption intend appearing claimed respondents. This strengthened beyond reasonable doubt Act. 22 complete story begins 1956 House Bill, H.R. 627. bill reported Judiciary Committee used H.R.Rep. 2187, 84th Cong., 2d Sess. floor debate, Representative Dies Texas introduced extensive amendments designed regulate procedure Cong.Rec. 13542. Those guaranteed provided, part, might adversely affected another 'shall fully advised matters proposes inquire adverse material presented'; evidence public 'appear his behalf'; 'have recalled' stated time; witnesses.13 23 bill, finally passed House, Dies. 13998—13999. However, taken, died Senate. proposals relating civil Session bills became prominent contenders support. One S. 83, Senator Dirksen containing same amended contained. 6127, Celler, Committee, incorporated so-called 'fair play' govern hearings.14 debate hearings, 6127 Houses rules, provision notice, preference more protective suggested 83.15 24 background provides congressional distinguishes relied heavily. express Department Defense type security clearance program involved. Nor directive Secretary establish government employment basis secret undisclosed Therefore, concluded problems presented, mere acquiescence sufficient Defense. facts present sharp contrast Greene. Here, substantially than Government There conscious, intentional selection providing none over provided procedures. Congress' consideration rejection according adopted, II. 25 existence inevitably requires consistent Amendment.16 26 requirements due process frequently vary proceeding involved, e.g., compare Opp Cotton Mills, Inc. Administrator, 312 126, 152, 61 524, 536, 85 624, Interstate Commerce Comm. Louisville & N.R. CO., 227 88, 91, 33 185, 186, 57 431, think outset ascertain function 104 specifies performed consist investigating written, vote; studying collecting 'concerning developments constituting denial equal protection laws Constitution'; (3) reporting activities, findings, recommendations.17 apparent sketch purely investigative fact-finding. does adjudicate. trials anyone's liability. indict, punish, impose sanctions. determinations life, liberty, property. short, cannot affirmative affect individual's rights. subsequently action. 27 therefore, whose entitled, Clause, investigated, complainants,18 crossexamine witnesses. desirable situations, indicate, constitutionally proceedings 'Due process' elusive concept. Its exact boundaries undefinable, content varies contexts. agencies adjudicate binding directly individuals, imperative use traditionally associated judicial process. hand, partake adjudication, example, general fact-finding conducted, full panoply used. generalization, can embodies differing fair play, through years, become types proceedings. Whether Constitution particular depends complexity factors. proceeding, possible account. An analysis factors demonstrates probably merely normally adjudicatory proceedings, bound Yet, contend implied, irreparably subjecting opprobrium scorn, distinct likelihood losing jobs, possibility prosecutions. consequences conjectural. record past harmful effects even collateral flow investigations, legitimacy function.19 30 completely disrupted transformed trial-like indirectly absolute every testify. Fact-finding power diverted legitimate plagued injection interminable. Even demand affidavit allegedly defamed him, call unlimited selection.20 shambles stifle gathering facts. 31 persuasive considerations, highly significant historically foreign forms our system. Far unique, similar which, shown Appendix opinion,21 governed vast majority agencies. 32 committee. committees old Republic.22 volumes about proliferated almost rapidly themselves, courts occasion committees.23 varied course years. clearly infrequently afforded adjudicative proceeding. instances, notice confront, witnesses.24 conducted branch marked issue.25 example administrative regulatory quasi-judicial investigations. When doing former, Administrative 60 237, 1001—1011, adjudication accorded traditional safeguards trial. nonadjudicative, Investigations, generally do obtain. 34 typical Trade draw clear distinction CFR, 1958 Supp., 1.34. initiated informants, id., 1.11, 1.15, although during initiate 1.42, nevertheless, entitled scope investigation,' 1.33, while advice counsel, 'counsel not, matter right, otherwise participate investigation.' 1.40. obvious. efficient convert authorities suggesting understandable subsequent just safeguards, instituted. 35 Securities Exchange conducts parties. CFR 202.4. determined, 1959 201.3, 201.5, inapplicable 201.20,26 though discloses violations law.27 Undoubtedly, prevent sterilization burdening 36 presidential survey commissions presents definite pattern practice, each commission whatever seem it,28 most famous Commission.29 For Roberts 1941 Japanese attack Pearl Harbor, success resulted derelictions duty part American military personnel, involved fact, interrogation Hearings Joint Investigation Harbor Attack, 79th 1st Sess., pts. 22—25. 37 followed agencies, profitable point discuss oldest and, perhaps, known bodies, jury refuse access ever come body accused wrongdoing. extended disruptive influence investigates reports. try. 38 fairly phases legislative, executive, judicial, suggest committee respects Commission,30 mention created alien three major branches Government. logic behind historical practice recognized described Cardozo's landmark Norwegian Nitrogen Products Co. 288 294, 53 350, 796. case, Tariff Specifically, asked 1922, 858, gave examine files testifying phrase terms significant: 39 advises; ordain. indeed common bond alike instruments accepted classification judicial. Whatever label, kind emerges ordain impinges different way report advises. traditionary unknown other. What recommendation President, accepted, modified, rejected. If happens bear fruit anything trenches rights.' U.S., 318, 359. 40 And referring Cardozo say: 41 '(W)ithin act 'hearing' assured change include privilege ransack agents examination learned. thought revolutionize bodies generally, particular.' 319, 360. (Emphasis supplied.) general, leads conclude comport process.31 43 cited support position. rely primarily Morgan 304 1, 58 773, 999, 82 1129; Anti-Fascist Refugee McGrath, 341 123, 95 817; supra. distinguishable adjudications affecting Morgan, Agriculture fixing maximum rates charged market stockyards challenged. voiding failure referred proceeding: 44 'Congress, requiring 'full hearing,' standards—not technical sense respect fundamental fairness essence nature.' 777. 45 Likewise, 140—141, 632—633, 817, General's adjudication. year McElroy lends reviewed certainly nature. Security Clearance Boards investigation; determining clearance—a license real sense, impact employment. By contrast, 'clearances' licenses effect. Rather, reports leaving action, any, where de novo. 46 contended inappropriate argument, merit. unduly lengthen add disposition claim. pages 819—821. 47 Respondents' final 241, 1006, falling coverage party 'such true disclosure facts.' what fail recognize terms, applies 4, 238, 1003, 1003 (rule making), 239, 1004, 1004 (adjudications), already indicated, performs specified sections. 48 From said, obvious enjoining judgments reversed, remanded direction vacate injunctions. 49 Reversed remanded. 50 (For FRANKFURTER, concurring result, see 486, 1542.) 51 HARLAN, joined CLARK, 493, 52 dissenting DOUGLAS, BLACK, post, 1546.) APPENDIX TO OPINIONOF THE COURT1 (Footnotes end table) Extent agency's Scope 54 Agency authority 55 56 Executive "make studies Agencies2 59 Atomic Energy meetings produce (it) deem documents "at assist 62 designated place." 63 exercising" 68 948, 64 functions. 65 2201(c), 66 2201(c). 67 Miscellaneous Comments 69 70 proceedings3 proceedings4 72 statute. Practice 73 74 require informal formal 76 (t)he Formal "cases adjudication," 2.708, 81 serve 83 84 2.720. "will 2.735, 86 hearing." witnesses, 87 2.747. Informal 88 89 "for 90 purposes obtaining 91 useful 92 Ibid. 93 affording 94 participation interested 96 formulation, 97 amendment, 98 rescission 100 regulations." 101 2.708. 103 105 mentioned 106 Rule 107 108 109 110 111 112 Communications "subpena 113 "in attendance 114 manner means 115 116 proper." 117 1073, 208, 118 119 208. books, papers, 120 121 schedules 122 contracts, 123 special 124 agreements 125 Telephone 126 Telegraph Company, 127 128 company's 129 investigation." 130 structure, services 1096, 131 it, 132 409(e), 133 reduce rates, effect 409 134 monopolistic control 135 (e). 136 company, methods 137 138 competition engaged 139 140 141 142 143 statute 144 propaganda 145 146 43. 147 148 Company. 149 150 "the "subpoena 151 organization, business, 152 153 practices, management 154 155 corporation 156 157 commerce"; 158 159 documentary 160 antitrust decrees 161 162 carried out; 163 164 165 investigation. 166 167 168 169 170 b noted 171 172 Report 173 174 refer 175 specify 178 179 180 cross- 181 examining examination. 182 (p)rocedures 183 Company "to 184 185 shall, unless 186 pointing 187 prescribed inaccuracies 188 (Rules), data 189 proceeding." statistics 190 1.10. 191 192 portion 193 (any investigative) 194 connection 195 therewith, 196 197 198 confined 199 Id. presentation 1.101-1.193. 200 201 therein 202 conclusions 203 therefrom." R. Doc. 204 340, 76th 205 Sess xviii. 206 interesting 207 note 208 209 210 211 212 (a)ny 213 "may 214 compelled 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 722, 223 Acts 49, 224 corporation; 49. 225 - 226 Continued. trade conditions countries 228 229 associations, combinations, 230 231 practices manufacturers, 232 233 merchants, traders, 234 235 conditions, 236 motor vehicle 237 States." 238 industry. 721-722, 46, 239 218. 240 46. 241 242 243 244 industry 245 extent concentration 246 monopoly 247 manufacturing, warehousing, 248 distribution, sale 249 automobiles, accessories, 250 parts, 251 devices manufacturers 252 maintaining 253 254 extent, 255 fraudulent, dishonest, unfair, 256 injurious (were) 257 employed, 258 monopolies, price fixing, 259 unfair practices"; 260 " 261 262 violated." 263 264 265 266 267 CFR,1959 268 269 over, 270 271 1.33. 272 observed FTC 273 Motor 274 Vehicle Industry "upon 275 1.31-1.42, 276 consuming 277 public, businessmen, 278 concerns aggrieved 279 3.16. practices," 280 281 468, 282 283 Presumably, 284 Commissioner's charge "any 285 regular violation 286 obtained. 287 jurisdiction." 289 1.12 290 Also 291 292 293 "publish 294 divulge name 295 applicant 296 complaining party." 297 1.15. 298 (4)Finally, 299 important observe 300 FTC, 301 unlike 302 thority 303 commence 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 1.42. 313 314 National Labor Under "For Relations Board 316 Board. 317 petitions 318 (may) 319 union 320 321 representation labor 322 323 practices. 144, 149, 324 325 159(c), 160(l), 326 327 C.A. 160(l). 328 proceeded 329 relates 330 331 investigation," 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 150, 340 161, 161. 342 All 343 1933, amended, 344 345 "all 346 347 348 enforcement of" bestow 350 85, 351 352 77s(b), 77s(b). 353 355 compel 1934 356 attendance, 358 deems 361 memoranda, 362 agreements, 364 (the Act) 365 366 rule regulation 367 368 thereunder." 369 899, 78u (a), 370 (a). 371 Public Utility Holding 372 77s (b), 1935 empowers 373 374 77c (b); 375 "investigate facts, 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 Board's Statements 383 384 Regulations collected 385 Regulation 386 387 witnessess formal, 388 389 U.S.C.§ 390 101.10, 102.38. 102.66, (l). 391 102.86, 102,90, 392 393 power. 394 Board, 395 violater, 396 101.4, 101.18,101.22, 397 101.27,101.32, 102.63, 398 102.77, 102.85. 399 give 400 401 402 injunctive relief, 403 101.18, 101.22, 404 101.27, 101.32, 405 406 407 408 by. 410 411 412 413 414 415 Parties Investigations 416 417 418 419 contain 421 giving illegal 422 conduct. 423 424 201.20. noted, however, 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 body, 432 210.20 433 434 435 1934, 436 Exchnage 900, 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 1935, 831, 444 79r (c), 445 thereunder, aid 78r 446 447 (c); Trust Indenture 448 Act), prescribing 1939, 449 450 Stat.1174 451 452 77uuu 453 454 recommending 455 (a); Investment 456 457 1940, 458 842, 459 relates." 460 80a-41(b). 461 80a-41 462 463 (4) Advisers 1940 1939 853, 464 80b-9(b).15. 465 466 805-9(b). 467 468 469 1174, 470 471 uuu 472 (5) gives 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 rule, regulation, 480 481 482 483 484 instituted 485 486 487 488 489 490 transaction transactions." 491 492 80a-41(a), 493 80a-41(a). 494 (6) 495 496 497 498 499 500 gathered 501 502 503 504 505 "administrative 506 looking 507 imposition 508 remedial sanctions, 509 (or) injuction 510 511 courts, 512 willful 513 violation," 514 "matter 515 516 prosecution," 517 518 86, 519 520 77t 521 U.S.C.A, 522 523 524 900 525 (e), 526 527 (e); 528 529 530 832, 531 (f), 532 533 (f): 534 1940. 535 536 843, 537 538 539 80a- (e): 540 854, 541 542 80b-9(e), 543 544 80b-9(e). 545 546 547 548 Continued thereof, 551 552 person." 553 80b-9(a), 554 80b-9(a). 555 Office Price Production 556 Stabilization.5 1950 557 "issue conferred 558 establishing ceiling 559 560 ceilings price, rental, 561 power, 562 commission, margin, 563 "subpena, 564 rate, fee, charge, otherwise, 565 allowance paid 566 delivery, 567 from, 568 purchase receipt, 569 570 person, 571 keeping 572 service, 573 by, 574 575 inspection 576 577 578 stabilizing wages, records, 579 salaries, writings, 580 compensation accordance 581 premises property 582 583 of, 584 803, 585 586 Appendix, 2102(b). 587 588 delegated 589 Economic Stabilization 590 appropriate, 591 Adminstrator Exec. Order 592 discretion, 10161, Fed. Reg. 6105, 593 594 2071 note. 595 administration Administrator turn 596 (the) 597 issuing 598 599 600 601 Stabilization. Gen. 816, 602 603 Agency, 2155. 604 738. Pursuant authority, 605 606 607 608 promulgated Procedure, 609 610 611 612 issuance 613 614 regulation. Procedural 615 616 Revision 2—note; 617 Procedures, 618 3788. 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 noticed 626 Office's 627 Order. preissuance 628 usually 629 630 severe 631 individuals; 632 yet, 633 634 personalized 635 Register 636 pre-issuance "be 637 manner, 638 639 expeditious 640 1—General fullest Prrocedures, 641 are, 642 643 Director, 644 qualified 645 646 647 648 likely 649 seriously 650 651 652 hearing."Price 1--General 653 procedures, 654 655 656 657 658 Administration.6 "authorized 659 660 (in 661 662 investigation) 663 (deemed) 664 665 666 (could) subpena 667 668 669 670 671 672 regulations, orders, 673 674 675 documents, both, 30. 676 677 Perishable 678 Agriculture. Agricultural Commodities 679 1930, 680 1930 681 682 alleging someone 683 "require 684 685 686 534, 499f(c), 687 499f(c). 688 enforces 689 690 Packers Stockyards 691 accounts, 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 Administrator's 699 smacked 700 701 702 requirement 703 704 705 1944 706 stage 1300.2, 1300.5. 707 708 709 actions. 1300.2. 710 investigation, 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 published Register. 1300.4. 720 721 722 723 724 725 1300.-5. 726 727 Agriculture, 728 Department's 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 1921, memoranda 740 741 742 powers possessed 743 744 under" 745 168, 222, 746 747 222. 499m U. 748 S.C.A. 499m(b). 749 750 751 752 1921 753 754 Secretary. 202.23. 755 756 757 "sections 758 48-50 Title 15." Among 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 47. 47.7. 768 3; 202.3, interest 769 770 771 772 47.3; 773 §47.15, 47.32; 774 202.11, 202.29, 775 202.48. 776 commenced 777 778 779 47.6, 47.27; individuals. 202.6 47.3 780 202.23, 202.39. 202.3. 781 782 783 784 administers 785 Seed 786 1275, 787 1551-1610, 788 789 makes unlawful 790 engage 791 792 labeling 793 importation 794 seeds, 795 regulating 796 export standards 797 apples pears, 798 799 800 581-589,7 801 581-589. 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 statutes 810 811 812 813 814 815 Secretary.These 816 817 818 819 820 investigated; 821 822 Commodity 823 (Department 824 Agriculture). (acting 825 Commission) 826 827 828 829 vested 830 regarding operations 831 832 boards trade, 833 enactment 834 835 836 empowered 837 383, 838 marketing commodity 839 443, 904, 840 products 798, 841 byproducts, supply 842 46-48, 843 commodities, cost 844 845 consumer, handling 846 46-48. 1002, 847 transportation charges." 848 849 1499, 850 160, 851 1491, 15, 852 12. 15. Food Drug Administration 853 854 Health, Education 855 Welfare). Caustic Poison 1406, 401-411, 856 testimony. 857 858 285.15, 859 860 "whenever appears 861 section 862 863 864 865 contemplated." 285.17. 866 [471] 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 201,151, 33.17. 878 879 880 881 882 investigations; 883 884 885 886 disciplinary 887 888 complaint, 889 890 made. 891 No 0.53. 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 901 902 903 904 905 Administration's 906 907 instances 908 909 activity, 910 911 912 913 914 Administration) 915 prosecution 916 contemplated. 917 918 919 Attorney. 920 1409, 921 (b),15 922 (b). 923 924 925 Presidential 926 Commissions may, 927 fiscal 928 industrial customs 929 country 930 force hereafter 931 932 enacted, relations 933 934 935 raw materials law, 936 finished products, 937 938 ad valorem 939 940 compound 941 document, 942 duties, 943 paper, record, 944 relative 945 946 arrangement 947 948 articles 949 950 951 possession 952 953 firm, 954 operation 955 copartnership, 956 laws, relation 957 corporation, 958 revenues, 959 association 960 (and) 961 production, 962 industries 963 importation, 964 country." 698, 965 distribution 966 1332(a), 1322(a). 967 article 968 969 970 971 (2)* summon 972 tariff 973 974 testimony, 975 countries, commercial treaties, 976 administer oaths, 977 preferential provisions, 978 (3)* 979 economic alliances, 980 981 bounties 982 983 volume 984 985 importations compared 986 association, 987 domestic 988 books 989 consumption, 990 papers 991 causes 992 993 994 pertaining 995 996 dumping 997 998 production." 999 1000 1332(b), 1001 1002 1322(b). 1005 Paris 1006 writing, Economy Pact 1007 detail 1008 organizations arrangements 1009 form 1010 Europe." 1011 1012 1322(c), 1332(c). 1013 prescribe, 1014 1015 1016 1017 difference costs 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 Many 1024 1025 1026 1027 appearance exercised 1028 1029 assisting execution 1030 investigatory 1031 1032 readily 1033 prospective investgation." 1034 given. 201.14. 1035 701, questioning done far 1036 1336 1037 1038 1336(a): limitations 1039 72, regulations. 1040 1360( ) (1), 1041 1360 business 1042 (1); 1043 74, U.S.C 1044 1364(a), classified 1045 1364(a); confidential, 1046 774, 294. 201.6, 1047 1048 624(a), 1049 624(a). applications 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 pending inspection. 1055 201.8. 1056 1057 201.10 1058 1059 1060 1061 1062 like 699, 1063 article." 1064 ammended, Stat 1336(a), 1065 679, 1066 1336(a). 1333 1067 1068 1069 1333(a). 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 States. 703, 1337(a), 1076 1337(a, b). 1077 Before enters 1078 negotiations 1079 1080 agreement, 1081 1082 1083 1084 agreement 1085 carry 1086 1360(a), 1087 1360(a). 1088 (7) 1089 1090 thereon 1091 product 1092 concession 1093 1094 is, 1095 whole 1096 treatment 1097 reflecting concession, 1098 imported 1099 increased quantities, 1100 actual relative, 1101 threaten injury 1102 producing 1103 competitive 1104 products." 1105 C. 1106 1364 1107 (8) 1108 1109 dumping, 1110 1111 "an 1112 injured, prevented 1113 established." 11, 1114 160(a), 1115 160(a). 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 (9) 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 practically 1128 1129 1130 quantities render 1131 tend ineffective, 1132 materially interfere with, 1133 undertaken 1134 Adjustment Soil Conservation Domestic Allotment 1135 1248, 1136 1137 To 1138 Investigate 1139 Attack subpenas 1140 Hawaii. bases sound 1141 decisions 1142 1143 errors 1144 1145 Army 1146 1147 Navy personnel contributed 1148 1149 successes 1150 1151 achieved enemy 1152 1153 mentioned, 1154 1155 1156 1157 were, 1158 Commission." 1159 responsible therefor." 1160 854. 8983, 6569 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 Neither 1166 creating 1167 1168 6569, 1169 joint resolution responsibility 1170 conferring 1171 successful 1172 1173 1174 1175 1176 1177 duty. 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 them. earmarks 1184 1185 1186 1187 Admiral Kimmel 1188 1189 Short, 1190 1191 commanders 1192 1193 provided. 1194 1195 1196 1197 Temporary 1198 "monopoly 1199 Committee. 1200 financial 1201 1202 1203 1204 goods 1205 1206 view 1207 1208 1209 1210 1211 competition; 79r(c), 1212 existing system 1213 79r(c). 1214 policies 1215 706. 1216 level 1217 employment, long- 1218 term profits, 1219 1220 tax, patent, 1221 competition, levels, 1222 unemployment, 1223 consumption." 705. 1224 Congressional 1225 Investigating send 1226 Committees7 William Duane, 1227 Senate newspaper editor, 1228 Privileges. defaming 1229 (1800) Annals Cong. (1800). 1230 1231 1232 1233 requisite 1234 1235 commission." 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241 testifying. 1242 1243 1244 1245 22-25. 1246 1247 1248 1249 1250 1251 1252 1253 1254 "(i)n 1255 1256 1257 liberally construed." 1258 1259 1260 pt. 1261 193. resolution. later rejected Duane assistance defense," allowed individual; (him) excuse himself bar extenuation offence." 118, Smith conspiring Aaron Burr commit treason, Ohio Should Retain His Seat "should (1807). longer seat" (1807) Conduct (Civil) War war." Globe, 37th papers." (1861). 32, truth rumored slaughter Union troops, after surrender, recent rebel forces Fort Pillow, Tennessee; also, Pillow sufficiently reenforced evacuated, done." 405. Here again, ommittee furnished "claimed, defense individual, compulsory Committee's findings him. circuit individual. claims ground court, rather Smith's generals centered assisted derelict Botterud, leveled (M.A. Thesis, Georgetown University, 1949), 42. 1949),42. Electric Boat New Jersey "been Res. efforts exert corrupting 288, 60th (1908). Members Rec. 2972. capacities, (had) exerted influence." Violations ascertaining Antitrust Laws 1890, Sugar Refining supplementary thereto, (1911). 157, 62d Co.," further, organization Co., corporations manufacturing refining sugar, sugar other." R., 1143. lobbying Lobbying (1935-1936) influence, encourage, promote, retard legislation, directly, 'holding-company corruption named propound House. Rep. 1727, 1168, 11. 1262 Once 1263 1264 1265 1266 "counsel attend 1267 investigate, 1268 Procedure. committee, 1269 1270 1271 1272 law. 1273 1274 time, 1275 1276 arises." 1277 Special 1278 1279 1280 Vols. 3. 1281 1282 1283 1284 1285 1286 bill', 1287 1288 proposal legislation." 1289 165, 74th 1290 1291 11003. 1292 advisable." 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 attorneys 1300 1301 1302 1303 1304 propounding 1305 1306 Activities, 1469. 1308 result. 1309 exercising (71 635, 1975c, 1975c), actions declare restrain it. 1310 formulated amply rest leave Congress. I phase opinion. While salutary doctrine strained construction avoid facing constitutionality, 'avoidance difficulty pressed disingenuous evasion. intention revealed too distinctly ignore misgivings problem faced answered.' Moore Ice Cream Rose, 373, 379, 620, 622, 1265. us. agree rejecting clients. view, divergences mine us, authoritative relevance re Groban, 330, 510, Anonymous Baker, 287, 1157, 1234, state my agreement. 1311 wrongdoing plaintiffs, disclosing identities would, claimed, thus turns exclusively application 'infamous crime,' indictment (Amendment V), 'criminal prosecutions' defined Amendment VI. axis turn, concern absolutes, protecting Inquiry directed adjustment clashing interests—that respectively—in scheme devised satisfies strivings justice guarantees, judged light reflect traditions political thought, duly meet hazards hardship entail. 1312 Barring rare lapses, doctrinaire conception 'due process.' mindful manifold variety perplexity tasks recognizing another. Compare, instance, Den dem Murray Hoboken Land Improvement How. 272, 372, Ng Fung Ho White, 276, 492, 938, WJR, 265, 275, 1097, 1103, 1353. questioned offends rudiments play,' Chicago, St. P.R. Polt, 301, 554, tested loose generalities sentiments abstractly appealing. precise freedom curtailed, balance hurt justifying good—these avowed implicit, 1313 risks plaintiffs. likewise that, plaintiffs seek, greater theirs Some touching withdrawn revealed. seek forum scrutiny disprove or, least, incompatible innocent 1314 Were accusatory function, individuals wrongful deprivation advertise finding prosecution, rigorous protections prosecutions controlling starting assessing provides. objectives creation, functioning quite otherwise. inquiries directed. develop based. such, normal impulse blameworthiness divert frustrate purpose. turned culpability effectively equipped deal, deflect life established. 1315 shutting eyes actualities unmindful dissuade sources vitally reveal valid secrecy passing incriminatory defamatory investigatorial arm narrow risk unintended outweighed justification permitting critic protector wrong assume responsibly scrutinize reliability rigorously vigilant protect brought 1316 appraising permissive incrimination defamation adequate ense, preliminaries those, gather solid foundation Judgments condemning stigmatizing for. pronouncements purport excepting, course, institution prerogatives rooted centuries Anglo-American history. introduction adversary contests guilt thwart turning digression 1317 recently deal unfairly reputation incriminate inquiry, particularly, objective scrutiny. Such 1377. revoked. shut off wide field unfavorable livelihood gravely jeopardized. Again, contrasting designate 'Communist,' furnishing grounds discharge innocence aims acts. realities say McGrath 'It blindness designation drastically restricts organizations, proscribe (concurring opinion). wanting characterized maim decapitate, say-so General, outward-seeming lawful *.' Nothing characterization remotely Rights. 1318 Contrariwise, arising strongly challenged, truly investigatorial. 376, sustained Fire Marshal fire excluding subpoenaed occurred. witness, arrest believed arson. guiding suspects discovered, Marshal's purs e policy prevention discovery origins fires. applied 1158, 'a improper local bar'. Rejecting claim groundwork Groban 'solely witnesses.' much Baker. Just surely, drastic judgment, deemed insure specific, targets 1319 limited, carefully hedged aware significantly direct abstain exposure taking tending defame, degrade, person.' read reply obviously screening keep contrasted 'Communist.' condemnation taint members. manifest task confided argumentatively trial thereby invalidate functioning. inadmissible transformation entrusted role—that judgment. Resort proposing well-founded passage ample precedent. 1320 Finally arguments assumed novelty employing area establishment, Committees particularly relevant. History satisfy title deeds Mere age preclude new ends achieving has, framework, unfairness offending fall. comports Accordingly join reversing 1321 CLARK joins, concurring. 1322 joining opinion, do, desire principles dispositive herein favor. 1323 BLACK concu s, dissenting. 1324 With great deference Brethren dissent reversal judgments. 1325 serves surface, dedicated At bottom controversy protected withholds abridge 'on account previous condition servitude.' stands reach government. Only qualifications conform proscribed prescribed. Lassiter Northampton County Elections, 45, 985, 1072. Terry Adams, 461, 809, 813, 1152, Amendment, explicit racial discrimination elections.' democratic values fundamental, concept 'of people, people,' Lincoln's words, franchise. 1326 Yet sacrifice live work temptation men goodwill cut corners, short cuts, desired regardless means. Worthy advances 1327 branch' Government, 1975(a), appointed confirmed 1975(a). broad 'findings recommendations' 1975c. empowered, 1328 origin; affirmation, set forth belief beliefs based.' 1975c(a)(1). 1329 Complaints color. acted willfully (see Screws 1031, 1495), criminally subjects fine imprisonment1 deprives citizen 'by race.'2 242, 242. 1330 necessarily aimed violated. adduced. 1331 'If etermines receive session; afford witness; dispose requests 1975a(e), 1975a(e). 1332 grace, difficulty. First, suspect's, determines public. Thus evils protested 337, 348—353, 515, 521—524, (dissenting inquisition underlines inherent vices: 'Secret inquisitions dangerous things justly feared free everywhere. breeding arbitrary misuse often beginning tyranny indispensable survival. Modern ancient bears guilty seized officers whisked away worse securely laid inevitable conviction.' 352—353, 523. 299, 1164, 'secretly lose potentialities because' Second, seems me patently secret. provision, fashioned defendant, exclude entirely accusers. inclined sessions, comfort untested evidence, publicized across Nation. justified composed Senators Congressmen infringed circumstances redress courts. Kilbourn Thompson, 377. Cf. Greenfield Russel, Ill. 392, N.E. 103, A.L.R. 1334; Opinion Justices, N.H. 530, A.2d 433. judiciary becomes implicated asks back done; victim relief punishment Then Bill play. 1273. 1334 Congressmen; move crime 1335 Stephen, Criminal Law England, 252: accusers.' Thomas Erskine ac urately eloquently Jones Shipley How.St.Tr. 847, 977. '(I)t unnecessary remind your lordships, conceives aggrieved, states court,—avails pleasure process,—compels defendant authority,—or pro confesso default, debt, interposition But otherwise; cognizance people forming inquest. man capital offense face judges united put trial:—they supreme safe custody, equally peace:—the alone arraign throwing lordships exclusive extend lesser misdemeanors, prosecuted information; answer, doubly preserve left.' 1337 idea, uttered 1783, modern here. brings neighbors, strangers. Stirone 212, 218, 270, 273, 252, indicted limit jeopardy offenses group fellow independently prosecuting attorney judge.' 1338 guarantee fairness. neighborhood. independent juries only; continuing job guide, role. 1339 jury, 'hasty, malicious, oppressive' Ex Bain, 781, 787, 849, open crime. Today volition, originally prosecutors Hale Henkel, 43, 59—60, 370, 372—373, 652. investigational look offensive Johnson, 503, 1233, 1237, 1546. returned rests wholly hearsay. Costello 359, 361—362, 406, 407—408, 397. counsel; secretly—a abhorrent England old, laymen, secret, pledged indict prejudice 362, 408. 1340 Grand defects. always return prejudices community radiate saving quality familiar allow engine government, place—at least cross-examinat 1341 equal. guns committed crime, prosecution. Our theory manner. relationship defined. marshalled way. substitute method, innovation prepares tells how proceed. 1342 true, returns indictment. registrar televised broadcast radio.3 seen probing television screen. reality Nation sits Their verdict prison. condemns produces convict saturates impossible. A.B.A.J. (1951), million viewers hear politician, businessman movie actor subjected searching interrogation, accusers offer support, stand convicted, compromised, mind, be.' puts tried replaces inquisitorial devices.' Note, Temp.L.Q. 70, 73. 1343 trial,' Alan Barth (1955) p. 81, 'is device formalities went 1344 purposes: punish criminal; supposedly conviction law; drive trap suspected 'disloyalty' committing contempt hard get espionage, found,' McCarthy once remarked. 'We getting putting worst away. hope comes gone fine-tooth comb, annot disloyal perhaps perjury.' Senator.' 83. Telford Taylor, Inquest (1955). 1345 loyalty apply person's liberty stake. Committees. evil compounded 'legislative trial' 'Commission trial.' limits, properly invoked. 1346 contest them—to heard—to cross-examination—these implicit hearing' agency, 18, 1129, emphasized. spoke context greater. one's hinged 1347 tradition 496—497, 1413, 1348 'Certain remained relatively immutable jurisprudence. injures reasonableness prove Government's disclosed untrue. consists momory faulty who, perjurers motivated malice, vindictiveness, intolerance, prejudice, jealousy. formalized roots. expression Sixth enjoy him.' zealous erosion. spoken scrutiny.' (Italics added.) 1349 jobs loyalty. Certainly 1350 Respondents ask accuser, Absent 'where individual.' 496, 1413. Injury plain here—injury job, trials—civil criminal—there proceed criminals, for, them.4 Commissioner.5 Confrontation basic (Peters 31, 351—352, 800—801, opinion)) denies 1351 References inference there. surprise years effort made, am aware, violating run gantlet objection. objection advanced was, know, overruled. made; searching. Justice. before, believe, attempted, objections accused, did, lawless relief. 1352 today head fragmentation returned, commitment jail Hence condoned guarantee. 'try' ways envisaged damaging summoning invoke pillorying asserting case—like others—is expose criminals. invention prosecutorial included subjective whimsical notions constituted. prevailing is; differs judge, court. notion tool activists respond visceral reactions fair, decent, reasonable. elastic follows: 1353 'Whether legisla ion entail.' 1354 preference, reason, seems, controlling. 1355 Illustrative First classroom teacher Sweezy Hampshire, 234, 255, 261—263, 1203, 1214, 1217—1218, opinion), leader discussion groups summer camp Uphaus Wyman, 1040, 1090; forceful stomach pump Rochin People California, 205, 183, blood unconscious prisoner. Breithaupt Abram, 432, 408, 448. 1356 chameleonlike 'an exercise whim will,' 'founded something deeper justifiable preference. lies human limitations, impersonal presuppositions widespread acceptance attributed.' 267, tries rationalize cold fails. predilections judge; louder evident emotion dictates answer. pay adopting free-wheeling confining enumerated itself. Adamson 68, 89, 1672, 1695, 1903 opinion): 1357 'In nation ours survives conscientiously interpreted, enforced respected continuous new, purposes. fear substituting concepts decency departure interpreting enforcing Rights.' 1358 vitality concerned. 1359 circumscribed permissible employ citizen. Men goodwill, ones only, invent, feelings urgency, awful transient persuaded decent. My confines judges—as lawmakers Executive—to expressed Constitution—not judges—to permissible. justify way, amendment alternate path parts commissions, committees. Farming pieces fragmentizing authorizes. ultimate itself; hands officials awesome Framers judges, jurors petit lives. inquisition. 1361 desires; adduce likes; search archives needs Morton Salt 632, 357, 401; Oklahoma Press Pub. Walling, 494, 614. summons election lieu magistrate. sifting magistrates crimes. 1362 affirm cease exist 724. Hereinafter, Commission.' hereinafter 'respondents.' Because 1253, 1253. Appeals Circuit. 1975c(a)(1), provides: '(f) Hearings; subpenas. subcommittee members, party, times places advisable. Subpenas 1975a(j) (k) title, signature subcommittee, Chairman.' 636, 1975d(f), 1975d(f). McElveen, D.C.E.D.L.a., affirmed Thomas, 58, 612, 535. 3(i) 1958, cross-examining reads: 'Interrogation personnel.' text reads '(h) Submission statements. record. sole pertinency adduced hearings.' 1975a(h), 1975a(h). 105(f), but, customary confers enforce enlisting 1975d(g), 1975d(g). Judge Wisdom, dissented, precedures constitutional. 828. 'For ordered, adjudged decreed defendants agents, servants, employees enjoined restrained plaintiff 'This prohibit 85—315, 85th 1975 seq., 'Thus signed Chambers November, 1959.' breadth procedure, 1975a. procedure. '(a) Opening statement. announce '(b) Copy rules. 'A '(c) Attendance 'Witnesses '(d) Censure exclusion Acting breaches decorum unprofessional ethics censure '(e) Defamatory, degrading evidence. Requests 'Except 1975d(f) '(g) Release session. 'No sessions Whoever releases uses fined $1,000, imprisoned year. '(i) Transcripts. 'Upon payment transcript '(j) Witness fees. attending $4 day's occupied going returning same, cents per mile residence. Witnesses points removed residences thereto $12 expenses subsistence, attendance. Mileage payments tendered service behalf thereof. '(k) Restriction subpena. presence subpenaed outside State, resides transacts business.' 1975a, protection. 3(f) accurate Each inspect purchased 2(i) above. Transcript thereof.' 3(j) 2(e), advise voluntary behalf.' amendments, Dies, read, "(q) that: (i) libel slander (ii) alleges misconduct tends disgrace contempt, hatred, scorn. "(r) Insofar practicable, presented. probative value "(s) right: behalf, recalled thirty witness' (iii) heretofore (iv) counsel) (v) defense. rebuttal promptly "Cross-examination hour extends "(t) release contemplated have, comment "(u) Any (except press testifies professional capacity) reflects endanger security." 13542—13543. H.Res. 151, focused distinctions attested extracts hearings: Subcommittees considering bills, Brownell supported instead restrictive outlined statement: 'Now 'These considerably desirable. yet experience predict obstruct 'Yet feel importance mistake experimenting 2-year you spend Subcommittee Constitutional 14—15. 593. lack commented Senate: Statement Talmadge 11504: notification Stennis 13835: 'Defamatory slandered, injured He falls Kilday 8673: purpose? all. develops transaction, lawyer remainder favorable Frazier 176: authors contemplate yield thousands will, incontrovertible principal concerned, cross-examine. True, (sec. 102), demonstrated author bill: chairman exclusion. Protection derogatory testify, 8491. merit discussion. prosecutions,' fall category. Zucker, 475, 481, 641, 643, Duties; reports; termination. shall— '(1) based; '(2) study collect Constitution; '(3) appraise interim desirable, comprehensive recommendations September 9, 1957. Sixty submission exist.' inquiry. withheld complainants. revealing complainant. Sinclair 263, 295, 268, 692, McGrain Daugherty, 135, 179—180, 330—331, 580, invalid 'it possibly wrongdoing' 180, 330. lead compilation representative 454, 1521. full-fledged 1792 'inquire late expedition Major Clair.' (1792). development colonial governments discussed Eberling, 13—30. English origin Dimock, Committees, 46—56. See, 377; 580; 692; Christoffel 84, 1447, 1826; Bryan, 323, 724, 884; Fleischman, 349, 739, 906; Barenblatt 109, 1081, 1115. 478—485, 1536—1541. 153; 283, 390; McGeary, Developments Investigative Power, 80; Liacos, B.U.L.Rev. 359—361; Bar Association, Individual Affected Security, 67—68. Clokie Robinson, Royal Inquiry; Finer, Investigations: British System, Chi.L.Rev. 521; Keeton, Parliamentary Tribunals Inquiry, Vol. Current Legal Problems 454—471, 1521—1532. Gellhorn, Proceedings, 108; Monagraphs Monograph, 34—41. extract here: 'Where utilized decisive event, includes exhibited examined requests; ordinarily violation, thus, unaware friends sometimes rise antagonism feeling besmirching back, why, simply good ordinary (governing briefs, like) contrary exception II, representatives recorded *. usual latter's self-incrimination claiming benefits immunity clause (a presiding officer apprise witnesses) assertedly exceed 37—38. Loss, 1152. 1153. 463, 1526. Marcy, Commissions, 97—101. 472—479, 1532—1537. likened 642, 363, 216, 509, 614; Consolidated Mines Calif. Comm., Cir., F.2d 704, 708; Woolley 258, 262. cites participated adheres subscribed therein. differences instant litigation, analyzed herein, describes departments, enumeration hundreds country's demonstrate enpowered listed unable apprisal catagory are: Bureau Corporations Labor, 827; Industrial Relations, 415; Railroad 469; Coal 1023; Retirement 972, 215-218 note; Bituminous 992; Wage Hour Division 1061, 204; Various Modes Transportation, 952, preceding 1; Organization Branch 143, 138a-138j (10) Intergovernmental 145, mentioned. negative few 1532 S.Ct., therefrom another, 1381, appoint marine casualties. defunct, terminated Exec.Order 10434, Fed.Reg. U.S.Code Adm.News 1953, 994. transferred Controls 9809, 14281, x, note, 9841, 2645, contemporary standing Most Privileges Elections typical. "There witness. wishes propounded client voting, Chairman, Member Counsel orginal modified language. admissibility form, final." S.Rep. 20; Administration, S.Res. 65, 146, 223, 249, 253, 256, S.Con.Res. 83d Part 3, 141-142, 344, 345, 374; Select Improper Activities Management Field, Reference text, 436-439, Ct. 1512, 1513, suits damages authorized. 1983, 1983; Lane Wilson, 872, 1281. 'Whoever, color statute, ordinance, custom, inhabitant privileges, immunities secured race $1,000 year, both.' Subdivision provide: 'Subject physical room staff, communications, newspapers, magazines, radio, news reels, television. televised, filmed, photographed objects distraction, harassment, handicap.' Frankfurter, Hands Off Republic, 21, 1924, 329, 331: remembered tools truth, tribunal seeking 'are mainly guarding over-weening kinds evidence.' system, pointed Wigmore, applicable precedent, practical policy' 'inquiries determinable tribunals.' Still Of decencies observed, namely representing 5(b), U.S.C.A., retain 5(c) states, introduce

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