Document: 515 U.S. 646115 S. Ct. 2386132 L. Ed. 2d 564 VERNONIA SCHOOL DISTRICT 47J, PETITIONER v.WAYNE ACTON, ET UX., ETC. No. 94-590 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES March 28, 1995, Argued June 26, Decided ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT. 23 F.3d 1514, vacated and remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered the opinion of Court, in which REHNQUIST, C. KENNEDY, THOMAS, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. filed a concurring opinion, post, p. 666. O'CONNOR, dissenting STEVENS SOUTER, joined, JUSTICE SCALIA Court. 1 The Student Athlete Drug Policy adopted by School District 47J town Vernonia, Oregon, authorizes random urinalysis drug testing students who participate District's school athletics programs. We granted certiorari to decide whether this violates Fourth Fourteenth Amendments United States Constitution. 2 * A 3 Petitioner Vernonia (District) operates one high three grade schools logging community Oregon. As elsewhere small-town America, sports play prominent role town's life, student athletes are admired their community. 4 Drugs had not been major problem schools. In mid-to-late 1980's, however, teachers administrators observed sharp increase use. Students began speak out about attraction culture, boast that there was nothing could do it. Along with more drugs came disciplinary problems. Between 1988 1989 number referrals rose than twice reported early several were suspended. became increasingly rude during class; outbursts profane language common. 5 Not only included among users but, as Court found, leaders culture. 796 F. Supp. 1354, 1357 (Ore. 1992). This caused particular concern, since use increases risk sports-related injury. Expert testimony at trial confirmed deleterious effects on motivation, memory, judgment, reaction, coordination, performance. football wrestling coach witnessed severe sternum injury suffered wrestler, various omissions safety procedures misexecutions players, all attributable his belief 6 Initially, responded offering special classes, speakers, presentations designed deter It even brought specially trained dog detect drugs, but persisted. According Court:"The administration its wits end . large segment body, particularly those involved interscholastic athletics, state rebellion. Disciplinary actions reached 'epidemic proportions.' coincidence an almost three-fold classroom disruptions reports along staff's direct observations using or glamorizing alcohol led inescapable conclusion rebellion being fueled abuse well student's misperceptions culture." Ibid. 7 At point, officials considering drug-testing program. They held parent "input night" discuss proposed (Policy), parents attendance gave unanimous approval. board approved for implementation fall 1989. Its expressed purpose is prevent from protect health safety, provide assistance B 8 applies participating athletics. wishing must sign form consenting obtain written consent parents. Athletes tested beginning season sport. addition, once each week names placed "pool" student, supervision two adults, blindly draws 10% testing. Those selected notified same day, if possible. 9 be completes specimen control bears assigned number. Prescription medications taking identified providing copy prescription doctor's authorization. then enters empty locker room accompanied adult monitor sex. Each boy produces sample urinal, remaining fully clothed back monitor, stands approximately 12 15 feet behind student. Monitors may (though always) watch while he sample, they listen normal sounds urination. Girls produce samples enclosed bathroom stall, so can heard observed. After produced, it given checks temperature tampering transfers vial. 10 sent independent laboratory, routinely tests them amphetamines, cocaine, marijuana. Other such LSD, screened request District, identity does determine will tested. laboratory's 99.94% accurate. follows strict regarding chain custody access test results. laboratory know whose tests. authorized mail superintendent results personnel telephone after requesting official recites code confirming authority. Only superintendent, principals, vice-principals, athletic directors have results, kept year. 11 If positive, second administered soon possible confirm result. negative, no further action taken. athlete's notified, principal convenes meeting parents, option (1) six weeks program includes weekly urinalysis, (2) suffering suspension remainder current next season. retested prior start she eligible. states offense automatic imposition (2); third seasons. C 1991, respondent James Acton, seventh grader, signed up He denied participation, because refused forms. Actons suit, seeking declaratory injunctive relief enforcement grounds violated Constitution Article I, § 9, Oregon bench trial, entered order denying claims merits dismissing action. 1355. Appeals Ninth Circuit reversed, holding both 1514 (1994). certiorari. 513 1013 II 13 Amendment provides Federal Government shall violate "the right people secure persons, houses, papers, effects, against unreasonable searches seizures ." extends constitutional guarantee officers, Elkins v. States, 364 206, 213, 1669, 80 1437 (1960), including public officials, New Jersey T. O., 469 325, 336-337, 83 720, 105 733 (1985). Skinner Railway Labor Executives' Assn., 489 602, 617, 103 639, 109 1402 (1989), we state-compelled collection urine, required Policy, constitutes "search" subject demands Amendment. See also Treasury Employees Von Raab, 656, 665, 685, 1384 (1989). 14 [2] [3]As text indicates, ultimate measure constitutionality governmental search "reasonableness." least case this, where clear practice, either approving disapproving type issue, time provision enacted, n1 meets reasonableness standard "'is judged balancing intrusion individual's interests promotion legitimate interests.'" Skinner, supra, 619 (quoting Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 654, 59 660, 99 1391 (1979)). Where undertaken law discover evidence criminal wrongdoing, has said generally requires obtaining judicial warrant, 619. Warrants cannot issued, course, without showing probable cause Warrant Clause. But warrant establish government searches; when (and Clause therefore applicable), invariably either. unsupported constitutional, said, "when needs, beyond need enforcement, make probable-cause requirement impracticable." Griffin Wisconsin, 483 868, 873, 97 709, 107 3164 (1987) (internal quotation marks omitted). [4]We found "special needs" exist context. There, "would unduly interfere maintenance swift informal [that are] needed," "strict adherence based cause" would undercut substantial freedom maintain schools." 340, 341. cause, individualized suspicion wrongdoing. explicitly acknowledged, "'the imposes irreducible suspicion,'" id., 342, n. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, 560-561, 49 1116, 96 3074 (1976)). upheld suspicionless conduct railroad train accidents, see supra; federal customs officers carry arms interdiction, automobile checkpoints looking illegal immigrants contraband, drunk drivers, Michigan Dept. State Police Sitz, 496 444, 110 412, 2481 (1990). III 16 [5]The first factor considered nature privacy interest upon here issue intrudes. subjective expectations privacy, society recognizes "legitimate." O. 338. What varies, context, 337, depending, example, individual asserting home, work, car, park. legitimacy certain vis-a-vis depend legal relationship State. For Griffin, that, although "probationer's like anyone else's, protected Amendment," supervisory between probationer justifies "a degree impingement [a probationer's] applied large." 875. Central, our view, present fact subjects children, committed temporary schoolmaster. 17 [6] [7]Traditionally common law, still today, unemancipated minors lack some most fundamental rights self-determination--including liberty narrow sense, i. e., come go will. subject, physical freedom, guardians. Am. Jur. 2d, Parent Child (1987). When place minor children private education, stand loco parentis over entrusted them. fact, tutor schoolmaster very prototype status. Blackstone describes it, "may delegate part parental authority, child; parentis, portion power charge, viz. restraint correction, necessary answer purposes employed." W. Blackstone, Commentaries Laws England 441 (1769). 18 [8] rejected notion schools, exercise students, course constraints. 336. Such view things, "is entirely 'consonant compulsory education laws,'" ibid. Ingraham Wright, 430 651, 662, 51 711, 1401 (1977)), inconsistent decisions treating actors Due Process Free Speech Clauses, State's schoolchildren formally delegated did deny, indeed emphasized, custodial tutelary, permitting exercised free adults. "[A] proper educational environment close schoolchildren, rules perfectly permissible adult." 339. While not, suggest general matter give rise "duty protect," DeShaney Winnebago County Social Servs., 189, 200, 249, 998 acknowledged many "school authorities act parentis," Bethel Dist. 403 Fraser, 478 675, 684, 92 549, 106 3159 (1986), duty "inculcate habits manners civility," 681 Thus, assuredly "shed schoolhouse gate," Tinker Des Moines Independent Community Dist., 393 503, 506, 21 731, 89 (1969), what appropriate school. See, e. g., Goss Lopez, 419 565, 581-582, 42 725, 95 729 (1975) (due process challenging teacher "informally alleged misconduct minutes occurred"); 683 ("It highly function prohibit vulgar offensive terms discourse"); Hazelwood Kuhlmeier, 484 260, 273, 98 592, 108 562 (1988) (public censor school-sponsored publications, long censorship "reasonably related pedagogical concerns"); Ingraham, 682 ("Imposing additional administrative safeguards [upon corporal punishment] entail significant into area primary responsibility"). 19 [10]Fourth rights, less First different elsewhere; "reasonableness" inquiry disregard schools' tutelary responsibility children. own good classmates, submit examinations, vaccinated diseases. American Academy Pediatrics, "provide vision hearing screening dental dermatological checks. Others mandate scoliosis levels." Committee Health, Health: Guide Health Professionals 1991-1992 year, 50 diphtheria, measles, rubella, polio. & Human Services, Public Service, Centers Disease Control, Immunization Requirements 1991-1992, 1. Particularly regard medical examinations procedures, therefore, "students within lesser expectation members population generally." 348 (Powell, concurring). 20 Legitimate athletes. bashful. require "suiting up" before practice event, showering changing afterwards. rooms, usual sites these activities, notable afford. rooms typical: No dressing provided; shower heads lined wall, unseparated any sort partition curtain; toilet stalls doors. Seventh noted, "an element 'communal undress' inherent participation," Schaill Kross Tippecanoe Corp., 864 F.2d 1309, 1318 (1988). There respect reduced privacy. By choosing "go team," voluntarily themselves regulation higher imposed generally. Vernonia's preseason exam (James testified giving urine App. 17), acquire adequate insurance coverage waiver, minimum point average, comply "rules conduct, dress, training hours matters established sport head director principal's approval." Record, Exh. 2, 30, P 8. Somewhat adults choose "closely regulated industry," reason expect intrusions privileges, 627; Biswell, 406 311, 316, 32 87, 1593 (1972). IV 22 Having scope here, turn character complained of. recognized collecting intrudes excretory traditionally shielded great privacy." 626. depends manner production monitored. Under male urinal wall. remain behind, all. Female female standing outside listening tampering. These conditions nearly identical typically encountered restrooms, men, women, especially daily. conditions, compromised negligible. other privacy-invasive aspect is, information discloses concerning subject's materials ingested. look epileptic, pregnant, diabetic. 617. Moreover, standard, vary according And finally, disclosed limited class know; turned used internal function. 1364; 1521. n2 24 Respondents argue, intrusive suggests, avoid sanctions falsely positive test, identify advance taking. agree raises concern. flagged salutary features Customs Service employees disclose unless and, then, supplied licensed physician rather employer. 672-673, 2. On hand, never indicated requiring disclosure per se unreasonable. Indeed, invasion 626, 7. argued went analyzing 609, 610 (railroad responsible forwarding presumably accompanying information, Government's lab); coaches--to persons personally student--is greater Assuming sake argument propositions true, believe difference respondents entitled rely here. 25 General Authorization Form sign, refusal basis James's exclusion program, (in relevant part): "I authorize I and/or release guardians student." 10-11. seems take medication 29, 42, set forth in, by, says simply: "Student verification (either authorization) tested." Id., medication, permitted him requested confidential manner--for sealed envelope lab. Nothing contradicts choose, effect, challenge face, assume worst. Accordingly, reach Skinner: significant. V 26 ]Finally, consider immediacy concern efficacy means characterized motivating "compelling." 628 (interest preventing railway accidents); 670 ensuring fitness interdict handle firearms). Relying cases, called absence suspicion, "must demonstrate 'compelling need' program." 1363. appears agreed view. 1526. mistake, think phrase "compelling interest," fixed, quantum dispose answering isolation question: Is compelling here? Rather, important enough justify light factors show relatively genuine Whether met. That important--indeed, perhaps compelling--can hardly doubted. Deterring Nation's enhancing efficient laws importation 668, deterring engineers trainmen, 628. years physical, psychological, addictive severe. "Maturing nervous systems critically impaired intoxicants mature ones are; childhood losses learning lifelong profound"; "children grow chemically dependent quickly record recovery depressingly poor." Hawley, Bumpy Road Drug-Free Schools, 72 Phi Delta Kappan 310, 314 Estroff, Schwartz, Hoffmann, Adolescent Cocaine Abuse: Addictive Potential, Behavioral Psychiatric Effects, 28 Clinical Pediatrics 550 (Dec. 1989); Kandel, Davies, Karus, Yamaguchi, Consequences Young Adulthood Involvement, 43 Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 746 (Aug. 1986). drug-infested visited just users, entire body faculty, disrupted. case, moreover, necessity magnified evil individuals large, whom care direction. Finally, lost sight directed narrowly athletes, immediate harm user playing high. Apart psychological include impairment slow reaction time, lessening perception pain, demonstrated pose risks Amphetamines "artificially induced heart rate increase, peripheral vasoconstriction, blood pressure masking fatigue response," making "very dangerous type." Hawkins, Ingesta: Effects Athletic Performance, H. Appenzeller, Managing Sports Risk Management Strategies 90, 90-91 (1993). Marijuana causes "irregular responses changes position," "reduction oxygen-carrying capacity blood," "inhibition sweating resulting increased temperature." 94. "vasoconstriction[,] elevated pressure," "possible coronary artery spasms myocardial infarction." 27 concerns: inclined question--indeed, possibly find clearly erroneous--the Court's rebellion," "disciplinary proportions,'" 1357. crisis proportions existed findings nationwide, proof railroads test. 607. much documented history officials. 673; (SCALIA, dissenting). addressing problem: us self-evident largely "role model" effect athletes' use, danger effectively addressed sure drugs. argue "less end" available, namely, "drug use." Brief 45-46. repeatedly declare "least intrusive" practicable reasonable under 629, (collecting cases). Respondents' alternative entails difficulties--if impracticable, thing, simply willing accept accusatory transforms badge shame. proposal brings impose arbitrarily troublesome drug-likely students. generates expense defending lawsuits charge arbitrary imposition, demand imposed. all, adds ever-expanding diversionary duties schoolteachers new spotting bringing account abuse, task ill prepared, readily compatible vocation. Cf. Fed. Reg. 31526 (1985)) (a "will seldom display outward 'signs detectable lay person or, physician.'"); Goss, 594 dissenting) ("There ongoing relationship, occupy roles--educator, adviser, friend, times, parent-substitute. rarely adversary nature...") (footnote respects, think, "suspicion" better, worse. n3 VI 29 Taking above--the decreased relative unobtrusiveness search, severity met search--we conclude hence constitutional. 30 [15]We caution assumption pass muster contexts. discussed: furtherance government's responsibilities, system, guardian care. n4 Just conducts employer warrantless absent employee's desk urgently needed file, example), question might engage O'Connor Ortega, 480 94 714, 1492 (1987); acts undertake. Given made is. 31 note appear agree. shows objection districtwide couple here--even though, described, parents' views. insufficient contradict judgment board, reasonably circumstances. [16]The Amendment, also, violation, contravened Our former error latter rested flawed premise. vacate remand proceedings consistent opinion. 33 ordered. 34 concurring. 35 constantly observes policy Ante, 650, 657 (reduced closer athletes), 662 (drug play). Correspondingly, sanction allowed extracurricular 651. comprehend reserving constitutionally routine others team sports, attend Edwards, 498 496, 500 (CA2 1974) (Friendly, J.) contrast notice opportunity examination, airport passengers luggage avoidable "by travel air") 36 SOUTER join, dissenting. 37 grades through 12, numbers around million. Education, National Center Education Statistics, Digest Statistics 58 (1994) (Table 43). reasoning today's decision, millions overwhelming majority whatsoever suspect school, open bodily search. 38 justifying result, dispenses grounds. First, explains precisely every athlete tested, Second, broad-based regime, reasons, dilutes arguments, sidesteps powerful, countervailing concerns. Blanket searches, involve "thousands millions" "pose threat liberty" suspicion-based ones, "affect time," Illinois Krull, 365, 364, 1160 (O'CONNOR, Searches afford potential targets considerable will, searched acting objectively suspicious way. surest way suspiciously underlying costs minimal. 39 blanket "better," ante, 664, regime debate should engage. my judges better history, mass, meaning exceptions recent ineffectual. Because dissent. 40 41 Carroll 267 132, 69 45 280 (1925), explained denounce seizures, unreasonable." 147. Applying car merely warrantless; impractical easily movable object explained, required. held, supported level cause. Significantly, base express contained Clause, which, inapplicable. views "what deemed seizure [the Amendment] adopted" "[what] conserve citizens." 149. With "rights citizens," eventually offered simple yet powerful intuition "those lawfully country, highways, passage interruption known competent believing vehicles carrying contraband merchandise." 154. More evenhanded treatment substitute requirement:"It intolerable prohibition agent stop chance finding liquor thus highways inconvenience indignity search." 153-154. "intolerable unreasonable" grounded history. recently exhaustive analyses original ever undertaken, Cuddihy, Amendment: Origins Original Meaning (1990) (Ph. D. Dissertation Claremont Graduate School) (hereinafter Cuddihy), Framers strongly opposed, wholly inapplicable searches--that writ assistance, broad statute, similar 1402, 1499, 1555; Clancy, Role Individualized Suspicion Assessing Reasonableness Seizures, Mem. St. U. Rev. 483, 528 (1994); Maclin, Cure Worse Than Disease, 68 Cal. 1, 9-12 Levy, Intent Framers' 221-246 Although, ironically, warrants, writs, statutes see, Cuddihy 1140 ("Typical warrants 1761-76 Starke's 'tobacco' commanded bearer 'enter suspected Houses'") (emphasis added), requirements unenforceable. forms authority "virtually unrestrained," "general," searches. J. Landynski, Search Seizure Supreme (1966). To sure, prohibits name warrants. abuses vivid minds generation, 1554-1560, viewed kinds "Prohibition larger scheme extinguish categorically." 1499. 44 important, indication historical opposition stemmed solely single render extend house group. (1979) (REHNQUIST, (referring "'misery loves company'" theory Amendment). contrary, arbitrary, so. Some arguably even-handed "door-to-door" kind. 1091; 377, 1502, 1557. Cuddihy's descriptions few worrisome typical 575 ("One [between 1700 1760] searcher inspected places, categories places not"); ("During exigencies Queen Anne's War, colonies 1706 extended geographic areas, houses district, conventional allowed"). Perhaps telling reflected chose curb warrants--and implication, searches--was novel "evenhandedness" requirement; retain meaningful enforceable, instance, raising objective Const., Amdt. 4. So, Congress collectors concealed goods import duties, specific land; sea, required, nonetheless searching ships vessels "in collector] goods, wares merchandise concealed." Collection Act July 31, 1789, 24, Stat. added); 1490-1491 ("The 1789 [the] [of statutes], techniques framers amendment believed framing it"). surprisingly, relied statute subsequent arriving Carroll, 150-151, 154; cf. ("While plain component demonstrates quality seizures"). 46 True, suspicion--although did. incident arrest obvious example 1518, shared essential characteristics distinguish abusive searches: 365 dissenting), refraining 667. Protection evenhandedness, now touchstone 47 however evenhanded, remains inviolate Ybarra Illinois, 444 85, 62 238, 100 338 (invalidating nonaccusatory patdown weapons patrons tavern dealing going on), minimally intrusive, (upholding brief detention, observing signs intoxication, motorists approaching roadblock). worth noting state-compelled, state-monitored Bell Wolfish, 520, 558-560, 60 447, 1861 (visual cavity searches), "particularly destructive personal dignity." 680, (1989) dissenting); 658; hesitated treat monitored bowel movements (even border context), compare (1976) (brief interrogative stops crossing checkpoint suspicion), Montoya de Hernandez, 473 531, 87 381, 3304 (1985) (monitored movement crossers alimentary canal smuggling), easy draw distinction. Fried, Privacy, 77 Yale 475, 487 (1968) ("In culture functions absolute privacy"). certainly urination combined trigger protections past. Cupp Murphy, 412 291, 295, 900, 93 2000 (1973) (Stewart, (characterizing scraping dirt person's fingernails "'severe, though brief, cherished security'") (citation person, four mentions name. (listing "persons, effects"); 835, 1552, 394 (indicating outrage 1789). 48 police cannot, say, entering leaving drug-ridden neighborhood crime. LaFave, 9.5(b), pp. 551-553 (2d ed. 1987) LaFave). true hard fight scourge streets neighborhoods. Nor otherwise, evaluating open-ended presupposes category nonnegotiable, LaFave 4.1, 118, dead letter. Outside response modern cases strong need. Most distinguishable insofar nature, closely businesses, York Burger, 482 691, 699-703, 601, 2636 1501 ("Even strongest restrictions exposed commercial establishments inspection"), arising unique contexts prisons, 558-560 prisoners following contact visits); 1516-1519, 1552-1553 prisoner founding). why dissent Raab "until today separate wrongdoing prison inmates, relying uniquely environment." 680 distinguished suggested above supra (blanket scheme); (same); Camara Municipal City San Francisco, 387 523, 930, 1727 (1967) (area-wide residences), recognizing Amendment's longstanding preference pointing sound reasons likely ineffectual unusual circumstances presented. stated outright "'some suspicion'" "usually required" 624, quoting 560, built announced: "In circumstances, implicated minimal, furthered jeopardy despite suspicion," 624 added). negative implication objectives jeopardy, forsaken. 665-666. firm understanding operators serious accidents unworkable scene rail accident chaotic." 631. (Of plausibly occurred amounted name, link use.) performed well. 674 (suspicion "not feasible [such] work product kind day-to-day scrutiny norm traditional office environments"); Camara, 537 homes violations "faulty wiring" observable house); 559-560, smuggling visits observation gain "obvious disruption confidentiality intimacy intended afford"); 557 ("A routes inland always flow traffic tends too heavy allow particularized study enable carrier aliens"); (suspicion-based passengers' carry-on plane travelers "conceded inapplicability" profile method detecting hijackers). 52 often situations undetected instance injurious consequences people. 535 violation "fires epidemics [that] ravage urban areas"); drug-or alcohol-impaired operator lead "disastrous consequences" wreck, "great human loss"); 670, 674, 677 caught can, virtue impairment, susceptibility bribes, indifference, result noninterdiction "sizable shipment," injures lives thousands, breach "national security"); hijacked airplane destroy "'hundreds dollars property'") 53 instant marked contrast. One vain recognition precedent (regardless required) exception 674-675 page. Far acknowledging anything treats run-of-the-mill, alternative--that by-pass intrusion, estimation, outweighed concerns unrelated practicability. 54 initial matter, doubts out-weighed adversarial abuses. 663-664. fear "troublesome drug-likely" 663, ignores context suspicion. respect, facts decision (1985), reassuring. ninth-grade girl's purse cigarettes girl smoking companion admitted 328, 345-346. distress turns false accusation minimized keeping confidential. 55 another (which rightly accused) ignore vacuum. Schools already adversarial, schemes areas besides investigate (often searches); determinations occurred; punishment. scheme, addition. elaborate handbook, lists "problem areas" sanctions: "DEFIANCE AUTHORITY," "DISORDERLY OR DISRUPTIVE CONDUCT INCLUDING FOUL LANGUAGE," "AUTOMOBILE USE MISUSE," "FORGERY LYING," "GAMBLING," "THEFT," "TOBACCO," "MISCHIEF," "VANDALISM," "RECKLESSLY ENDANGERING," "MENACING HARASSMENT," "ASSAULT," "FIGHTING," "WEAPONS," "EXTORTION," "EXPLOSIVE DEVICES," "ARSON." 11; 20-21 regulating dress grooming, displays affection, wearing hats inside); ("RESPONSIBILITIES SCHOOLS" "To develop distribute regulations governing behavior attendance" fair standards enforce action"). illustrates robust 56 addition overstating understated extent students' invading (nationwide, thousands millions), searched, significantly intrusive. 57 weighed beside point. stated, alternative; pedigree old itself, cast aside forsaken, established, having misconstrued analysis, seriously engages practicality case. failure crucial nowhere pool targets--students--is constant coaches, classrooms, hallways, rooms. 339 ("[A] schoolchildren"). indicates exception. irony all) introduced consisted first- second-hand stories particular, identifiable ways plainly in-school use--and justified drug-related decision. 340-342 (warrant sufficient). Small groups "passing joints forth" across street restaurant hours. Tr. 67 (Apr. Another group skipping houses. 93-94. Several actually (some marijuana pipes). 24. presented himself "clearly obviously inebriated" home. 68. Still dancing singing top voice classroom; asked on, replied, "Well, I'm life." 89-90. final road trip, smelled smoke motel occupied wrestlers, 110-112, (after questioning) probably 10.11(b), 169 instances prompting principals sufficiently detailed meet test"). concluding vigorous (for place, 14, 17) gone toward solving preserving Acton him. doubt conclusion, removed indications supplemented equally campaign encourage voluntary (describing program); 665 (noting widespread support testing). dictates categorically 61 recognize effective controlling regime. true--just be. "But realization" price. Arizona Hicks, 321, 329, 347, 1149 price pay observe (all citizens area) ordinarily adhere rigid counterargument central lenient correct, for, explains, 655-656, guardianlike responsibilities necessitate leeway. principle leeway enjoy categorical seizures: requirement. 337-343. nonschool setting." 63 asks deprived remaining, basic, protection: requirement, antipathy mostly innocent protection, inmates); 675 Wolfish), "we ready hold prisons equated Amendment." 338-339. mean proclaim--that (1969)--the no. 64 contrary position, relies (1977), (1975). 655-656. reliance ironic. anything, affirm mission responding (leeway investigating wrongdoing); punishing punished). 65 contrast, innocent, am aware. prefer trust otherwise. Acton's father witness stand, "[suspicionless testing] sends message trying prove they're ., sets bad tone citizenship." 66 unpersuasive reliance, 656-657, vaccinations, sort. Of practices significance, exams vaccinations "required" regardless attaches submit. forming impractical; nonsensical, suspicious. saying new; part, inventory South Dakota Opperman, 370, 5, 1000, 3092 approach unhelpful analysis centers caretaking functions"). practicability doubtful latent manifest does. 679-680. noted vaccinations) reflect regarded punitive. explain challenges diluted one, reflecting perspective, motives notwithstanding; reason, invariably--and quite reasonably--understood best explanation want testing: "Because feel drugs." resonates intensely tradition this. facts. flaws serious, virtually Washington Grade School, eighth grades, attended litigation began. surprising, witnesses incidents, coaches 65; 86; 99, fourth, litigation, employed leading beyond) policy. 17. review uncovered "guarantee" late-arriving "our problems we've '88 '89 didn't level. started elementary school." 43. hope assertion serve uphold athletes--in reasoning, districts record. least, insist parties address remand. school's choice testing--a driven muster, 45-47 targeted activity), Reading full authoritative summary 1356-1357 1992), driving force adoption combat disorder classrooms campus. criticism strength interest. existence problem, self-evidently compelling. "Without establishing discipline maintaining order, begin educate students." 350 surely "'epidemic proportions.'" considerably weaker. 70 record, me far focus published campus, 11--disruption nexus trial. share virtues regime: dramatically fewer tens hundreds, control, behavior, likelihood feared "badge shame," exist, due antecedent disruption. analogous little hesitation. 611 "'Authorization Test Cause'" event rule violations, noncompliance signal excessive speeding"). 71 greatest threats freedoms times crisis. stay mindful hysterical overreactions; crises real, are, measured rights. mediate conflicting impulses anyway: them, judgments alone. reviewed sweeps broadly, imprecisely, --------------------------------Footnotes 73 until 1852 Massachusetts, pioneer "common school" movement, enact school-attendance late 1870's laws. R. Butts, From Revolution Reform 102-103 (1978); Children Youth America 467-468 (R. Bremner 1970). technology testing, recent. 74 Despite physicals vaccinations--which apparently finds unobjectionable "are sort," 682--the prophylactic distinctly nonpunitive (protecting injury, population), 1363, lump together "evidentiary" 653, because, "regarded" "understood" punishment, 683-684. definition irrational else law. believes, 682-683, reasonable, well; prevalent practices, general, diminished 656-657. 75 dissent's insinuation upholding equating status prisoners, who, asserts, calls "categorical protection" "strong requirement," 681. proposition, Bell, (1979), stronger today. reiterates proposition rely, "'elaborate less-restrictive-alternative arguments raise insuperable barriers search-and-seizure powers.'" 559, 556-557, Even Wolfish's arguendo "assumption alternatives determination issue," 40, dissent, ultimately hypothesized (as do) ground impair policies institution. (monitoring instead conducting afford"). 76 devotes meager paragraphs pages 680-682, none displayed 669-671. framing, substantially "rights" legislatures courts confer Kramer, Legal Rights 1.02, 1994); Wald, Children's Rights: Framework Analysis, 255, 256 (1979). n5 short shrift relates thought let alone (the concept 652, 1), extremely scarce. itself offer meaning, resorts now. child's schoolmaster's child rendered unlawful; source delegation parent's 654-655. Today, refuse child--as here--is moment. 22, (1977) ("Parental approval punishment required"). 78 n6 allows confine advanced lab, controls count program's flaws.

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