Document: 537 U.S. 186 ELDRED ET AL.v.ASHCROFT, ATTORNEY GENERAL No. 01-618. Supreme Court of United States. Argued October 9, 2002. Decided January 15, 2003. The Copyright and Patent Clause, Const., Art. I, § 8, cl. provides as to copyrights: "Congress shall have Power ... [t]o promote the Progress Science . by securing [to Authors] for limited Times exclusive Right their Writings." In 1998 Term Extension Act (CTEA), Congress enlarged duration copyrights 20 years: Under 1976 (1976 Act), copyright protection generally lasted from a work's creation until 50 years after author's death; under CTEA, most now run 70 death, 17 U.S.C. 302(a). As in case prior extensions, principally 1831, 1909, 1976, provided application terms existing future alike. Petitioners, whose products or services build on copyrighted works that gone into public domain, brought this suit seeking determination CTEA fails constitutional review both Clause's "limited Times" prescription First Amendment's free speech guarantee. Petitioners do not challenge CTEA's "life-plus-70-years" timespan itself. They maintain went awry with respect newly created works, but enlarging term published copyrights. Tim[e]" effect when is secured, petitioners urge, becomes boundary, clear line beyond power extend. Amendment, contend content-neutral regulation inspection heightened judicial scrutiny appropriate such regulations. District entered judgment pleadings Attorney General (respondent here), holding does violate restriction because terms, though longer than Act's are still limited, perpetual, therefore fit within Congress' discretion. court also held there no Amendment rights use others. Columbia Circuit affirmed. court's unanimous view, Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises, 471 539, foreclosed petitioners' CTEA. appeals reasoned impermissibly restrict speech, it grants author an right only specific form expression; shield any idea fact contained work, allows "fair use" even expression A majority rejected Clause claim. ruled precedent precluded plea interpretation view preambular statement purpose: "To Science." found nothing text history suggest if may later be extended another Tim[e]." Recounting made 1790 applicable arising state laws, construction contemporaries Constitution's formation merited almost conclusive weight Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. Sarony, 111 53, 57. early McClurg Kingsland, 1 How. 202, Appeals recognized, plain permits amplify patent's terms. added has been similarly deferential regarding copyright. E. g., Sony Corp. America Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 417. Concerning assertion could evade limitation its authority stringing together unlimited number Times," stated legislative misbehavior clearly was before it. Rather, emphasized, matched baseline States European Union order meet contemporary circumstances. Held: placing parity acted did transgress limitations. Pp. 199-222. 1. extension exceed Clause. 199-218. (a) Guided text, history, precedent, cannot agree extending categorically authority. Although conceding life plus qualifies applied copyrights, endure same "limited." time prescription, once set, forever "fixed" "inalterable." word "limited," however, convey meaning so constricted. At Framing, "limited" meant what means today: confined certain bounds, restrained, circumscribed. Thus understood, appropriately automatically cease To comprehend scope power, "a page worth volume logic." New York Trust Eisner, 256 345, 349. History reveals unbroken congressional practice granting authors benefit extensions all will governed evenhandedly regime. Moreover, empowering confer authorizes patents, Court's inquiry significantly informed Congresses numerous individual patents well Lower courts saw impediment extensions. Further, although never had occasion decide whether complies barrier expansion patents. See, e. McClurg, How., at 206. consistent historical reflects who sold his work week should placed worse situation day enactment extension. follows keeping provisions largely place simply adding each them. rational exercise conferred On point, defers substantially Congress. Sony, U.S., 429. judgments kind typically makes, dismiss outside Legislature's domain. key factor passage 1993 (EU) directive instructing EU members establish deny non-EU country laws secure term. By term, sought ensure American would receive Europe counterparts. provide greater incentive other create disseminate Additionally, passed light demographic, economic, technological changes, rationally credited projections encourage holders invest restoration distribution works. 199-208. (b) Petitioners' arguments, which rely several novel readings unpersuasive. 208-218. (1) Nothing warrants 20-year attempt override constraint. Critically, fail show how crosses constitutionally significant threshold Acts not. Those earlier perpetual neither 208-210. (2) dominant series premised proposition extend absent new consideration author, unavailing. first contention, overlooks requirement "originality," incorrectly relies Feist Publications, Rural Telephone Service Co., 499 340, 359. That touch protection. addressed core question copyrightability. Explaining originality requirement, trained words "Authors" "Writings," id., 346-347, construe bearing. Also unavailing second argument, "promote Science" stimulate merely adds value already created. justifications motivated enact set forth supra, basis concluding "promote[s] since founding generation applying definitions adjustments overwhelms argument. third without demanding additional ignores copyright's quid pro quo, whereby original "exclusive Right" exchange dedication thereafter. Given placement holders, last 170 reasonably comprehend, offered her, gained, renewal legislated during time. Sears, Roebuck Stiffel 376 225, 229, Bonito Boats, Thunder Craft 489 141, 146, involved federal patent regime, contrary, concerned nor suggested might infirm. Furthermore, given crucial distinctions between one extract language decisions—language grant's duration—genuine support quo Patents entail exchange, immediate disclosure objective of, exacted from, patentee, whereas desired while gives holder monopoly knowledge, fact, idea, grant prevents full others inventor's knowledge. 210-217. (3) "congruence proportionality" standard described cases evaluating exercises 5 Fourteenth context. It hold sway legislation enacted, are, pursuant Article I authorization. Section "enforce" commands incorporated Amendment. contrast, empowers define substantive right. See Judicial deference definition "but corollary power." Graham John Deere Kansas City, 383 1, 6. more subject unconstitutional per se. 217-218. 2. were adopted close This proximity indicates Framers' monopolies compatible principles. addition, law contains built-in accommodations. 560. First, 102(b), makes expression, ideas, eligible protection, strikes definitional balance permitting communication facts protecting expression. 556. Second, defense codified 107 ideas itself purposes. "Fair thereby affords considerable latitude scholarship comment, 560, parody, see Campbell Acuff-Rose Music, 510 569. supplements these traditional safeguards two prescriptions: libraries similar institutions reproduce distribute copies scholarly purposes being exploited commercially further unavailable reasonable price, 108(h); exempts small businesses having pay performance royalties music played licensed radio, television, facilities, 110(5)(B). Finally, reliance Turner Broadcasting System, FCC, 512 622, 641, misplaced. statute requiring cable television operators carry transmit broadcast stations through proprietary systems. oblige anyone another's against carrier's will. Instead, protects authors' unrestricted exploitation. securely freedom make—or decline make—one's own speech; bears less heavily speakers assert make people's speeches. When, case, altered contours unnecessary. 218-222. 239 F.3d 372, GINSBURG, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C. O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, JJ., joined. STEVENS, post, p. 222, BREYER, 242, filed dissenting opinions. CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR DISTRICT COLUMBIA CIRCUIT. Lawrence Lessig argued cause petitioners. With him briefs Kathleen M. Sullivan, Alan B. Morrison, Edward Lee, Charles Fried, Geoffrey S. Stewart, Donald Ayer, Robert P. Ducatman, Daniel H. Bromberg, R. Nesson, Jonathan L. Zittrain. Solicitor Olson respondent. brief Assistant McCallum, Deputy Wallace, Jeffrey A. Lamken, William Kanter, Koppel.* JUSTICE GINSBURG Court. concerns Constitution assigns prescribe Constitution, 1998, measure here inspection, years. Pub. 105-298, §§ 102(b) (d), 112 Stat. 2827-2828 (amending 302, 304). 2 individuals seek Act, death. 94-553, 302(a), 90 2572 Act). "Whether enough, too much," they acknowledge, "is Court." Brief 14.1 awry, maintain, ibid. 3 accord Appeals, we reject challenges legislation, previous parity. prescribing alignment, hold, 4 * We evaluate constitutionality backdrop Nation's statute, enacted 1790, 14 date publication, renewable survived May 31, ch. 124 (1790 14-year (i. e., yet published) Ibid. expanded 42 1831 (28 years), 56 1909 28 years). Feb. 3, 16, 436, 439 (1831 Act); Mar. 4, 320, 23-24, 35 1080-1081 (1909 Both times, 16; 23-24; qualify extension, initial became effective, 16. 6 method computing 302-304. For identified natural persons, creation, not—as Acts—its publication; respects, aligned then-dominant international Berne Convention Protection Literary Artistic Works. Rep. 94-1476, 135 (1976). anonymous pseudonymous hire, 75 publication 100 whichever expired first. 302(c). 7 These instructed, effective 1978, regardless 302-303. date, granted 304(a) (b), 19-year increase over 56-year Act. 8 issue here, installed fourth major copyrights.2 Retaining general structure enlarges lasts harmonizes 1993. Council Directive 93/98/EEC 29 Harmonizing Certain Related Rights, Official J. Eur. Coms. (L 290), 9 (EU 93/98). 95 120 expires Paralleling applies 1978. 303(a). 1978 extends publication. (b). Thus, common Acts, apply copyrights.3 B 10 cross-motions pleadings, here). 74 F. Supp.2d (DC 1999). Id., 3. "there others." 11 372 (2001). 539 (1985), F.3d, 375. Copyright, reasoned, 375-376. 12 upheld contention exceeds Specifically, discretely "preambular purpose" Clause: 377-378. Schnapper Foley, 667 F.2d 102 (CADC 1981), determined, plea. regard, took account acknowledgment preamble places limit power. 378. 13 `limited Time' Time.'" 379. recounted "the subsisting states." "by [those] [the Constitution's] formation," said, "very great" "almost conclusive" weight. (quoting 57 (1884)). 202 (1843), added, "plain" "amplify patent." 380. recognized realm (citing 417 (1984); Stewart Abend, 495 207 (1990)). "an Times,'" "clearly us." noted, "matches" "United [with] Union." "[I]n era multinational publishers instantaneous electronic transmission," "harmonization regard obvious practical benefits" `necessary proper' circumstances rather step way making perpetual." 15 Judge Sentelle dissented part. He concluded lacks expand 380-384. subsequently denied rehearing en banc. 255 849 16 certiorari address questions: Clause; violates 534 1126 1160 (2002). answer those questions negative affirm. II below Text, conclude, confirm level present future. 18 years, concede, copyrights.4 contend, argument essentially reads command "confine[d] bounds," "restrain[ed]," "circumscribe[d]." Johnson, Dictionary English Language (7th ed. 1785); T. Sheridan, Complete (6th 1796) ("confine[d] bounds"); Webster's Third International 1312 (1976) ("confined limits"; "restricted extent, number, duration"). And observe, infra, 209-210, suspect purpose prompted adopt 19 349 (1921) (Holmes, J.). recounted, 194, accorded protections 1.5 Since then, regularly 302-303; 302-304.6 Because informs our inquiry. count Jan. 7, 1808, 6, (patent); 1809, 35, 80 1815, 36, 147 24, 1828, 145, 389 (copyright); 11, 1830, 13, 403 Ochoa, Constitution: Historical Perspective, 49 Soc. extensions; renewed days, example, Chief Justice Marshall Story sitting circuit justices. Evans Jordan, Cas. 872, 874 (No. 4,564) (CC Va. 1813) (Marshall, J.) ("Th[e] constitution admits patent, controverted. confers rights, original."), aff'd, Cranch 199 (1815); Blanchard Sprague, 648, 650 1,518) Mass. 1839) (Story, ("I entertained doubt congress" "operates retrospectively"); Robinson, 886, 888 4,571) Md. (Congresses "have times granted, restrained renewing prolonging" it.).7 21 instant patents.8 pathsetting precedent. patentee unprotected force issued he allowed employer briefly invention obtained patent. Only upon enactment, later, exemption allowances become valid, retroactive issued. law. explained legal regime governing particular "depend[s] stood emanation changes made; retrospective operation, sound objection validity." 206.9 Neither validity authority, covers 22 concisely Representative Huntington Act: "[J]ustice, policy, equity alike forb[id]" "author [work] ago, sell passing [the] act." Cong. Deb. 424 (1831); accord, Symposium, Constitutionality Extension, Cardozo Arts Ent. 651, 694 (2000) (Prof. Miller) ("[S]ince indeed Congress's policy yesterday's get lesser reward tomorrow's just lengthening today."). submission 23 Satisfied turn defer 429 ("[I]t assigned task defining give access product.").10 24 respondent describes, Respondent 37-38, 93/98, 1(1), 11; 144 Rec. S12377-S12378 (daily Oct. 12, 1998) (statement Sen. Hatch). Consistent Convention, directed Conv. 7(8); Goldstein, 5.3, counterparts.11 Perlmutter, Participation System Means Promote Useful Arts, 36 Loyola (LA) Rev. 323, 330 (2002) ("[M]atching th[e] [copyright] EU] can stronger abroad avoid competitive disadvantages vis-à-vis foreign rightholders."); 332 (the "play leadership role" give-and-take evolution system, "lose flexibility," "if progress science incentives works").12 25 addition concerns,13 25-26, 33, nn. 24,14 34-37; 105-452, (1998) (term "provide[s] owners restore older them public").15 26 sum, find enactment; liberty second-guess determinations order, however debatable arguably unwise be. Accordingly, conclude — continues treating impermissible 27 arguments next explain why literally Tim[e]," constraint creating effectively repeated disagree. observed, constraint.16 again emphasize, 194-196; Austin, supra n. ("If existence suspect," "extending attached."). CTEA.17 30 dominantly advance author. pursue main theme three headings. Science," quo. "originality" draws 340 (1991). Feist, observed "[t]he sine qua non originality," narrow category creative spark utterly lacking trivial virtually nonexistent," Relying urge sufficiently "original" instance, because, published, original. 31 decision copyrightability, i. "creative spark" must all. "Writings." 346-347. protected, bearing prescription. 32 More forcibly, contemplated 8. sustain objection, argue independently enforceable 378 (Petitioners acknowledge (internal quotation marks omitted)). identifies sole end legislate; accordingly, "determined specified end." 19. argue, 33 point out, "both limitation," (1966), said primary copyright" "[t]o "constitutional command," Congress, extent enacts all, "system" Graham, 6.18 34 stressed, courts, best objectives. 230 tellingly illustrates difficulties faces. [I]t role alter delicate labored achieve."); [rights] inventors product."); ("Within limits grant, may, course, implement Framers selecting effectuates aim."). out 205-207, conclusion duration, start, routinely domain.19 Such entitled great weight, remembered thus established disputed period [over two] centur[ies], conclusive." Indeed, "[t]his repeatedly laid down principle contemporaneous exposition founders Government framers actively participating affairs, acquiesced long fixes provisions." Myers States, 272 52, 175 (1926). se Science."20 Closely related variant it, "imbeds quo." 23. "Autho[r]" "Writin[g]." contingent exchange: receives Extending consideration, bestows unpaid-for heirs, violation requirement. 37 demur description "to bargain that." Mazer Stein, 347 201, 219 (1954) ("The economic philosophy behind clause conviction encouragement effort personal gain welfare talents `Science useful Arts.'"). But recalled demonstrates entails. "this" time.21 Progress" including every express guarantee bars adopting position matter practice. 31-32. 38 225 (1964), 141 (1989), contrary. cases, invalidated inconsistent 231-233; Bonito, 152. Describing Boats noted: "The need innovation avoidance stifle competition concomitant `Progress Arts.'" 146. Sears "[p]atents favors rewarding inventor right, fixed exclude invention." 229. duration. Nor either reiterated unclouded understanding: "It determine system" goals 168. documented, 201-204, many effectuate 39 note, furthermore, references appear Ag Supply, Pioneer Hi-Bred International, 124, 142 (2001) required `the exclude.'" Kewanee Oil Bicron Corp., 416 470, 484 (1974))); 161 ("the substantial [patent] statute"); Brenner Manson, 519, (1966) basic derived utility."); Pennock Dialogue, Pet. (1829) (If commonly known used sought, reason presuming, legislature intend right," absence "quid quo."). understandable, patentee. price paid exclusivity secured. 142. objective, something 302(a); 40 Further distinguishing kinds intellectual property, reader writing she acquires her reading. 102(b). hand, prevent 22; Alfred Bell Catalda Fine 191 99, 103, (CA2 1951) (The book prevented information acquire reading." W. Copinger, Law 1936))). distinctions, decisions genuine bold view. stops expanding manner puts parity.22 41 alternative various se, ask us Boerne Flores, 521 507 (1997). context; enforce Amdt. 14, enforce, article." (emphasis added)). 43 reasons stated, III 44 separately Amendment.23 imposition uncommonly strict scheme incorporates speech-protective safeguards. that, Row observed: "[T]he intended engine establishing marketable one's supplies ideas." 558. 45 spurring distinguishes latter provides: "In authorship procedure, process, concept, principle, discovery, described, explained, illustrated, embodied work." "idea/expression dichotomy strike[s] expression." 556 omitted). Due distinction, theory, instantly available exploitation moment 349-350. 46 Codified 107, fair reproduction ., criticism, news reporting, teaching (including multiple classroom use), scholarship, research, infringement copyright." "latitude comment," 569 (1994) (rap group's musical parody Roy Orbison's "Oh, Pretty Woman" use). 47 libraries, archives, "reproduce" "distribute, display, perform facsimile digital form" "during preservation, research" price. 36. Title Fairness Music Licensing businesses, restaurants, like entities facilities. 110(5)(B); James Sensenbrenner, Jr., et al. Amici Curiae 5-6, 48 622 (1994), little "must-carry" provisions, implicated heart Amendment," namely, person himself herself beliefs deserving adherence." 641. raise government compels burdens ideas. make— assertions concerns, adequate recognize D. spoke broadly declared "categorically immune Amendment." 3d, when, U. S., 560; cf. San Francisco Athletics, Olympic Comm., 483 522 (1987).24 IV If vision sway, render severable invalid work. pattern followed, vulnerable well. 51 read instruction, property regimes overall, body's judgment, serve ends (Congress "implement aim." Beneath facade inventive interpretation, forcefully pursued very bad wisdom action, province second-guess. remains inside domain Branch, affirm Appeals. 52 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici curiae urging reversal Association Libraries Arnold Lutzker Carl Settlemyer III; College Art Cunard Bruce Keller; Eagle Forum Education Legal Defense Fund Karen Tripp Phyllis Schlafly; Free Software Foundation Eben Moglen; Intellectual Property Professors Weinberg; Internet Archive Deirdre K. Mulligan, Mark Lemley, Steven Harris; Jack Balkin Burt Neuborne. amici affirmance Baila Celedonia, Haddad, Roger Parkhurst; Society Composers, Authors Publishers Carey Ramos, Peter Felcher, Drew Days III, Beth Brinkmann, Paul Goldstein; Amsong, Dorothy Weber; AOL Time Warner, Kenneth Starr, Richard Cordray, Daryl Joseffer, Cappuccio, Weiss, Shira Perlmutter; Sims Jon Baumgarten; Bureau National Affairs, Bender Michael Klipper; Directors Guild George Cohen, Leon Dayan, Laurence Gold; Dr. Seuss P., Karl ZoBell, Nancy O. Dix, Cathy Ann Bencivengo, Randall Kay, Herbert Cheyette; Owners Ossola Ronald Myrick; Coalition Eric Lieberman; Motion Picture America, Seth Waxman, Randolph Moss, DuMont, Neil Richards, Simon Barsky; Recording Artists Thomas G. Corcoran, Jr.; Industry Verrilli, Perrelli, Hohengarten, Matthew Oppenheim, Stanley Pierre-Louis; Songwriters Floyd Abrams Joel Kurtzberg; Beeson I. Fred Koenigsberg Gaela Gehring Flores; Senator Orrin Hatch Lee; Samuels, se; Arthur Culvahouse, Schwartz. Hal Roach Studios Jefferson Powell David Lange; Intel Burger; Nashville Stephen Rush; Wexler Saxon; Writers Jaszi; Progressive Davis; Akerlof Englert, Tyler Ochoa Mr. Ochoa; Malla Pollack, BREYER's dissent restrained. meaningfully distinguish grants. See,e. 242-243, 254-260, 264-266. reasoning, globally unconstitutional. Asserting decades seen proliferation departure pace amendment area, cite nine statutes 1962 1974, incrementally periods. 87-668, 76 555; 89-142, 79 581; 90-141, 81 464; 90-416, 82 397; 91-147, 83 360; 91-555, 84 1441; 92-170, 85 490; 92-566, 86 1181; 93-573, 88 1873. (Attorney Ashcroft) points temporary placeholders subsumed systemic effected distinguished ground covered existingworks Reply 3-7. parties disagree regarded part compensation loss then state- common-law protections. 28-30; 17, 9; Without resolving dispute, underscore note BREYER concession. Seesupra, 193, train fire, do, choice Moving bounds parties' presentations, abundant precious condemn entire product irrational. approach comported Statute Anne, 1710, Ann. c. 19, books composed published. Seeibid. ("[T]he composed, printed hereafter assignee assigns, printing reprinting fourteen commence publishing same, longer."); bookseller booksellers, printer printers, hath purchased acquired copy books, print reprint twenty tenth April, longer."). STEVENS stresses rejection proposed Anne reports opponents feared perpetuate enjoyed booksellers. Post, 232-233, 9. Parliament confronted existed Through late 17th century, government-sanctioned Stationers' Company, ancient London guild printers booksellers." Rose, Owners: Invention (1993); Patterson, Perspective (1968). ended 1695, about monopolistic practices remained, 18th-century resistant enhancement booksellers' publishers' entrenched position. 52-56. country, among publishers, booksellers "intens[e]" founding, rough analog Company horizon." Nachbar, Constructing Copyright's Mythology, Green Bag 2d 37, guarded accumulation authorizing vest "Authors." Parliament's response England's experience construed impose precise grant. yearsif retained subsequent statutes. 207, 217 (1990) ("Since earliest ownership split term."). Similarly, measuring measured rendering indeterminate sweep away decisions, asserting thatGraham "flatly contradicts" 237. wishful thinking underpins assertion. controversy invention's eligibility spent enlarge recites fromSears, supporting uncontroversial State "extend expiration date," 231, boldly asserts either. 226. reins life. sentence extracts words, reads: "Obviously not, consistently Supremacy article lacked patents." 231. insistently this: measures laws. ("[A] encroach directly [and] clashes objectives laws."). rooted turned around shrink choices. STEVENS' appeal private letter written Madison. 230, 6; 246-247, 260, 261. better "demonstrat[ion]," 226, (STEVENS, dissenting), Madison's understanding patents: "[T]hen-President administrator perhaps Founder narrowest powers signed 1808 1809 law; Madison, drafted Times' language, Secretary State; Madison President 1815." 15. readsMcClurg change patentee." 239. change. acknowledges, patentee's invalidate 1834 "even 1836." evaluated issued, "such ha[d] made." inescapably heightened, three-part test enactmentsPost, 245. irrational harmonizing "apparent[ly]" achieve "significant" uniformity. 264. infra novelty "rational basis" presents plain. Cf. Board Trustees Univ. Ala. Garrett, 531 356, (BREYER, dissenting) ("Rational-basis presumptions favoring `a paradigm restraint.'" FCC Beach Communications, 508 307, 314 (1993))). Rather subjecting choices area scrutiny, stressed "it achieve." 230; 417, (1984). rational, BREYER'S stringent version rationality unknown literary jurisprudence. Responding "forever," Register Copyrights Marybeth Peters emphasized CTEA: "There certainly proponents copyright: heard proceeding However, says really isn't good indication is. you're going life-plus-70 today ." Term, Film Labeling, Preservation Legislation: Hearings 989 Subcommittee Courts House Committee Judiciary, 104th Cong., 1st Sess., (1995) (hereinafter Hearings) cited currently vice president Associate Policy Office Does Mandate Isolationism? Colum. 59 (cautioning isolationist reading tension America's relations hundred years") Members expressed result increases human longevity parents' average age children born, pre-CTEA adequately profit licensing lifetime take pride comfort knowing posthumous popularity." 6553 Feinstein); S12377 Hatch) ("Among developments [compelling reconsideration term] demographic trends, increasing trend toward rearing life, effectiveness life-plus-50 creators heirs."). failure keep increased commercial resulting rapid growth communications media."Ibid. Hatch); 430-431 ("From beginning, developed technology. [A]s occurred fashioned rules technology necessary."). urges accompanying insignificant "mov[e]" perspective."Post, 255; 254-257. Calibrating incentives, "fashion[ing] [in of] technology," 431, primarily courts. testimony prominent artists; belief system's assurance themselves heirs create. 233-239 Quincy Jones); 1995: Hearing Senate 55-56 Bob Dylan); 56-57 Don Henley); Carlos Santana). crediting evidence which, "propositions incentives" "undeniably true." 255. According Register, "could income finance production works." 158. "Authors able continue create," "unless earned finished benefits creations. truism illustrated ways, examples Noah Webster[,] supported family earnings speller grammar complete dictionary." 165. agrees act unconstitutionally" CTEA,post, 256, breath, seems accusation, What else glean selection scattered statements Congress? identify statutory installs copyright, none. ambiguous warrant recourse selections sort accords high value: surveying authoritative source finding intent lies Reports bill, `represen[t] considered collective [Members Congress] drafting studying legislation.'" Garcia 469 70, (1984) Zuber Allen, 396 168, (1969)). reflect thing. Notably, Report expressly acknowledged precludes works," 104-315, (1996), disclaimed contravene prohibition, instrumental effect. H1458 25, Coble) (observing "copyright only" "[p]erpetual society"). nevertheless insists "economic effect" "virtually 243. formulas assumptions amicus petitioners, creates 99.8% 254-256. calculations unconstitutional, surely fall well, indulges secures 99.4% (describing relevant formula). analysis character (97.7%) (94.1%) suspect. Founding Fathers side. doubtful, architects Nation, framing thought calculator calendar. notes life-plus-70-years expected produce "resembles some long-accepted durational law, 99-year leases real bequests rule perpetuities." 27, 18. Whether referents mark outer boundary today. suggests permitted perpetuitiesPost, 256-257. looks lives rule, bequest vests easily equal anticipated If, vesting deed defined reference infant, sum add up characterization secondary consideration" law,post, 227, omitted), understates relationship rewards "Progress [Copyright] [C]lause inventors." (1954). celebrates motive, recognizing redound knowledge.... motive ensures science." Geophysical Texaco 802 Supp. (SDNY 1992), 60 913 1994). Rewarding labor "promot[ing] complementary; fully coincides claims individuals." Federalist 43, (C. Rossiter 1961). public, private, ends," 247, misses mark. mutually exclusive; serves providing ones. seesupra, 196, followed. surrender whatever enhanced uniformity certainty "promote[d] Progress." 28-31. confirms, understood Every adjustment understanding. STEVENS,post, 235, refers "legislative veto" INS Chadha, 462 919 (1983), observes reached despite impact geared "contemporary political system," 967 (White, dissenting). Placing purposes, pragmatic endeavor responsive modern times. generation. 194-196. Standard assignment agreements expectation. Kohn Kohn, (3d 1992-2002) (short composition, assignor conveys "including therein versions composition(s), renewals thereof (whether presently intervening legislation)" added)); Nimmer Nimmer, 21.11[B], 21-305 assets relating limitation, and/or thereof"); 30.04[B][1], 30-325 (form composer-producer agreement composer "assigns Producer (copyrights, otherwise, known) (as exist)"). involve different exchanges mean guided 201-204. exacting copyright's, strongly permissible. originally framed implicating Cert. Now, 39-48; 16-17; Tr. Oral Arg. 11-13. consider limited. moored prospective/retrospective draw, say aspects notably persuaded distinguishHarper declaratory action presented. observes, arise posture. 42. postures, internal accommodate concerns. X-Citement Video, 513 64, 78 ("It incumbent eliminate [serious constitutional] doubts plainly contrary Congress."). 53 dissenting. 54 Writing 1964, Black 231 (1964).1 explain, monopoly, date. insofar Sonny Bono 2827, purported unexpired invalid. majority's rests mistaken premise reviewing privileges authors, inventors, successors, respectfully dissent. 55 stems Inventors respective Writings Discoveries." settled limitation" "may overreach restraints imposed purpose." 5-6 (1966). context, dimensions. Most obviously writings discoveries creativity Inventors." ultimate promoting Arts" guaranteeing innovations enter soon expires: 58 "Once issues, strictly construed, Masonite 316 265, 280 (1942), Morton Salt Suppiger 488, 492 especially expires, too, article—including precisely shape carried patented—passes public. Kellogg Biscuit 305 111, 120-122 (1938); Singer Mfg. June 163 169, 185 (1896)." 230. explains unless discloses detail skilled art Grant Raymond, 218, 247 (1832) section [of 1793 Act] requires, preliminary correct specification thing discovered. necessary privilege expire, advantage allowed, foundation patent"). precondition issuance justifies expires.2 Almost centuries ago inventions possible essential 61 "While object was, giving period, efforts genius; `to arts;' done best, large make, construct, use, vend invented, possible, due inventor. back knowledge secrets invention; retain publicly, gather whole profits relying superior skill structure; only, danger farther years; materially retard arts, premium those, least prompt communicate discoveries." (1829). 62 postponing exploiting commercially. recently "implicit itself" "that exception. goal system bring designs technologies disclosure." 151 (1989). 63 quo—the contribution Pfaff Wells Electronics, 525 55, represents carefully crafted encourages advances technology, return time"). manifestly unfair if, issuing representative modify shortening accelerate invention. fairness considerations underlie ex post facto impairing obligation contracts presumably disable public's taking. protect plans exploit enters modification monopoly. discuss below, few exceptions undermine analysis. quite plainly, limitations itself," 151, 231.3 64 encouraging overriding interest advancing served retroactively completed frustrating legitimate expectations want market. twin avenue Copyright/Patent 65 motion pictures, "release author's] genius." Paramount Pictures, 334 131, 158 (1948).4 And, activity motivate allow genius control expired." Ex gratuitous transfer wealth successors interest. 66 Respondent, four extensions: shortly ratified produced; authorized patents; arts preserve valuable pictures; (4) equity, whenever equivalent None persuasive. 67 bills content debate accompanied differences ultimately strong Congresses' examine 68 inaugural session 1789. bill debated, Resolution 10—"a discoveries," Documentary Federal 94 (L. de Pauw, Bickford, Hauptman eds. 1977) History)—provided terms.5 pass 10, reintroduced 1790. After minimal debate, Representatives began separate bills, covering Because, recognizes, "congressional inquiry," ante, legislation. 69 eventually genesis 41, introduced February resolution differed important respect. Whereas "not used," phrase "within States" "any person, act, import device States." 1626-1632. importation, elsewhere. change, short lived removed floor March 5, Walterscheid 125. Though exact records lost, correspondence indicate provision led removal. Fitzsimmons wrote leading industrialist stating "`allowing Importers, left Constitutional Questionable.'" 126 Letter Tench Coxe (Mar. 1790)). flatly "forbids Papers 128 Hobson Rutland 1981) (reprinting 28, 1790)).6 final 109, contain geographic qualifier importation. omission, coupled legislators, class properties. recognition categorical fundamentally odds does, indeed, inform analysis, should, excision correct. 71 maps, charts, printed, reduced pre-existing protections, protection.7 supplanted diverse previously existed. attach rights: "That congress, legislate appears clear." Wheaton Peters, 591, 661 (1834); Fox Doyal, 286 123, 127 (1932) ("As sanction one"). types Republic. exercised unquestionable retroactively. 72 arguing proves unquestionably new, favorable 12-13. understanding, presented case—whether copyrights?" i.8 Precisely put, implicate created, extended, conception 73 aware distinction patterned, England 1710. Ann., 19; Fisher Witmark Sons, 318 643, 647-648 (1943). replaced claimed single 21-year 1735, 1756, defeated. Opponents pass, "in Effect Monopoly Gain Booksellers ."9 model familiar history. wary variety relief changing conferring privileges. Some Other so. comprehensive look "`volume logic,'" 200, constitutionality. aside process systems During time, bills. seeks "Congress's using copyrights." 13. Carefully read, respondent's gloss, example relied respondent, Oliver Evans' pitfalls incomplete Evans, improvements milling flour, received 1791. Federico, Trials Pat. Off. 586, 590 (1945). expire 1805. Claiming sufficient realize net developing steam engine, December 1804. 598; Annals 1002 (1805). Unsuccessful 1804, tried 1805, 1806, persuade bill. Undaunted, revive receiving adverse action. Chambers, 837 4,555) Pa. 1807). successful, An 70. 21, restored such, exceeded purpose. authorize effects remove existent materials available." added). 77 isolated incident. allowing otherwise untimely applicants approximately 1875. Of fallen domain.10 patently completely undermines "significant." Ante, 201. amended 1831. amendment, amendments, argues establishes buttressess presumption attaches But, demonstrates, duty finally challenged case. White pointed sounded "death knell nearly 200 provisions" "`legislative veto.'" 967. Regardless enactments "`the question, Court.'" 529 598, 614 Heart Atlanta Motel, 379 241, 273 (1964) (Black, concurring)). For, "[i]t vested protected span national existence." Walz Tax Comm'n York, 397 664, 678 (1970). particularly significance landscape enacted. based grounds thereafter improper Judiciary prepared asserted preference other, fruits labor." Deb., App., cxx (1831). echoed sentiment. Verplanck (rejecting implied contract public" "[t]here contract; labor" "merely right")). sweat-of-the-brow emphatically Pet., ("Congress, instead sanctioning contended for, it"). No discredited power.11 1861, opportunity 7-year flat permitted. 2, 88, 249. retroactive, "all granted." sure, much heterogeneous contends. replete actions relevant, dispositive historic illuminates controlling strongest acts considered, overlap identity constituted "contemporaneous weighty evidence" "true meaning." Wisconsin Pelican Ins. 297 (1888). member delegate convention earlier. opinions interpreting implicitly overruled claimed. contradicts "renewed days." 202.12 J.); 1813); J.), valid. Jordan Robinson discussed above 213, 589, Blanchard's five months. Irrespective days," holdings and, therefore, cites Contrary suggestion opinion, expansion" 202. former inventor, Harley, liable infringer continuing Harley invented employ. employer's 1836. 206-208. disposed 1839 alleged infringer's 209-211. Our plenary is, detriment insulate challenge. V promotes old movies. reasons, preserving perishable films justify wholesale preservation inventors. movies protection.13 justification be, equally expired. Yet seriously contends solely restoration. concern aging permit remedy offered—a blanket —simply harm. VI concludes believe simple requires lengthened copyrighted. classic sequitur. inducement already-created actually promised patented granted. creativity, equitable claim doing more. 87 One indulge untenable respondent— entirely worthless class, windfall activity. apparently indulged exception renewed, past 2019. provision. unsupported interest, frustrate central VII textual "for Times." extraordinary length functional answered petition normally save respecting term.14 prohibiting preclude importantly, Lords refused amend embody ad infinitum 89 failing artistic genius—indeed, ignoring Clause—the quitclaimed principal responsibility Fairly intents judicially unreviewable. squared tenets structure. hyperbole recall trenchant Marshall: department is." Marbury 137, 177 (1803). discharge Chadha. 91 92 us, extension—the longest founding—is perpetual. Its estates, corporate successors. promote, inhibit, "Science" —by learning Walterscheid, Nature Study 125-126 93 believes conclusions rest unwise, often matters degree. Panhandle Mississippi rel. Knox, 277 223 (1928) Alabama King Boozer, 8-9 (1941); 678-679 failings degree serious amount kind. broad limits. my falls "monopoly privileges" "are designed special benefit." enforceable. Trade-Mark Cases, 82, 93-94 (1879). assessing purpose, document, related. objectives—the dissemination information. When working tandem, reinforce serving "engine expression," 558 assuring throws obstacle dissemination. proper cross-purposes, depriving speech-related Founders, both, promised. 96 Consequently, plausible seriously, unjustifiably, restricts somewhat jurisprudence suggest, 204-205, 10. There characterize search "`congruence proportionality,'" variation called "intermediate scrutiny," 522, 536-537 (1987) (applying intermediate normal trademark protection). Nixon Shrink Missouri PAC, 528 377, 402-403 concurring) (test proportionality "where implicates competing interests"). involves pure regulation, where necessarily focus expression—in dedicated information, learning, culture. sense line-drawing interests issue, harder statute's rationality—though hard justify, see, Cleburne Living Center, 473 432, 446-450 (1985); Plyler Doe, 457 223-224 (1982); Department Agriculture Moreno, 413 528, 534-538 (1973). 97 public; threatens expressive values embodies; Clause-related objective. Where, examination difficult, impossible, dispute characterizations, "choice wrong." Helvering Davis, 301 619, 640 (1937). 98 begin "tax readers bounty writers." Parl. Ser.) (1841) 341, 350 (Lord Macaulay). Why? "bounty" serve? 99 describes learning. exists "provide benefit," 429, good," Twentieth Century Aiken, 422 156 (1975). "motivat[ing] authors" reward." "reward" means, end. beneficiaries—the public—"will permanently deprived artist's labors." 228 (1990). ("[C]opyright owner omitted)); ("[L]imited grant" "intended [authors'] expired"); 545 (Copyright impede harvest knowledge"). 212, so, views Founders. 101 generation, warned dangers monopolies. Monopolies. Perpetuities. Corporations. Ecclesiastical Endowments. 756 (J. Rakove 1999) Monopolies); (July 1788), 443 Boyd 1956) Jefferson) (arguing monopolies); 1917 (1791) Jackson 1791) ("What drove forefathers country? Was ecclesiastical corporations Scotland?"). noted Books, inventions." Monopolies 756. justified amounts "compensation for" actual community "benefit" "temporary"— (once renewable). "under recompence given." "guarded strictness agst abuse." Many Legislative Branch similarly. landmark "primarily" "author" citizens, worthy." 2222, 60th 6-7 (1909). "primarily public," body people, 7. "believed, accomplish" "would Congress" enact. 6-7. implemented Works facilitate flow learning." 100-609, (1988) added: 103 "Under labors. create, ways: domain." 17. 104 following established: ends; learning; removing restrictions Tim[e]"—a (like monarch") "restrain[ed]" "circumscribe[d]," [left] large," 1151 (4th rev. 1773). well-established 105 imposes expression-related costs higher evoke obtain holder's permission. translates prices potentially objection. sense, inevitable concomitants here. 106 Congressional Research (CRS) study royalty-related large. Rappaport, CRS Extension: Estimating Economic Values Report). conjunction official figures renewals, 2% value—i. generate (estimate, uncontested data CRS, Census Bureau, Library Congress). songs, vintage earn $400 million year royalties. Hence, (despite declining consumer time) conservatively estimate extra billion royalty dollars copyrights—copyrights together, billions "reward." payments come thin air. wish hear recordings survived. Even $500,000 Airlines play Gershwin's 1924 Rhapsody Blue cost business, reflected ticket fly. Ganzel, Copywrong? Training (Dec. 2002). likely enough unnecessarily (or lead disobedience law)—not theory ("[N]ew, cheaper editions copyright"); (One Willa Cather's My Antonia, seven appeared ranging $2 $24); 40-41, abandoned charge Girl Scout camps $257 $1,439 annually license sing songs God Bless campfire). 108 second, important, arises "permissions" requirement—not potential users "classic" value, Again estimates, 2018, 350,000. abolished renew still-in-copyright (of value) millions. 302-304, 2572-2576; Dept. Commerce, Census, Statistical States: From Colonial Present 956 History). 109 include movie buffs jazz fans, historians, scholars, teachers, writers, artists, database operators, researchers kinds—those accessible permissions inhibit ability accomplish task. computer-accessible databases promise research stand realization hope. 110 (particularly value): prove expensive track holder, impossible find, permission outright misinformed bargain. "can prohibitive." 4. amici, along harm issue. clearance associated archive, Documenting South, "consumed dozen man-hours" 20. obtaining images, excerpts, prohibitively high; abandonment include, campaign film documents exposing "horrors chain gang" archives; try cultural 7-13. examples. 25-27. fees youth orchestras, church choirs, performing 20th-century music. 3-5; App. 16-17 caused sheet Maurice Ravel's Alborada Del Gracioso). describe tend collections difficult contact, Arms, Getting Picture: Observations Providing Online Access Pictorial Images, Trends 379, 405 (1999) tendency archives). accompany preventing 1920's 1930's falling dramatically size as— perversely—the diminish. retains current holder. historian, artist, teacher. reproduction, creator, but, say, corporation great-grandchild whom creator knew. permission, millions dollars, multiply affected thousand million. 249-250. nonprofit databases, numbering low millions, computer-assisted prevalent. Project Gutenberg). qualitative education, ever dependent databases—thereby condemning accessible, purgatory emerge. 113 finds permissions-related harms overstated inclusion exemption, "facsimile digital" "library archives" research," 108(h). 220. listed purposes; library (not users) copy" "published" "subject exploitation" obtainable, copy, "reasonable price"; assure investigation" conditions met. proprietor exemption—particularly open-ended commercial, noncommercial, aspects? 114 invokes exception, restricted content. 219-220. restriction, help material there—say, teachers wishing students albums Depression Era photographs, recorded slavery, Gary Cooper's heroic portrayal Sergeant filmed reality battlefield Verdun. harm, more, 248-252, occur exemptions "First safeguards" trust, 115 overstated, films, sometimes profitable reissue saving extinction. Amicus 14-24. preservationists minority silent preserved. Librarian 1993, pp. 3-4 (Half pre-1950 feature 80% pre-1929 lost); (Out 1,200 Twenties video disc). remainder. (Nonprofit digitized 1,001 public-domain releasing online charge); (reporting 200,000 titles tell forbidding collections. 10-21; 16-29; 26-27. 116 subsection costs, countervailing benefits, ago. half equation: Could extension's toll-related preservationist ways? C 117 copyright-related protection? rationale spur Mazer, philosophy" "advance welfare" "encourag[ing] effort" "personal gain"); ones"). tiny chance survive matter. percentage surviving (a typical pre-extension term)—must far smaller. 248; (estimating renewal, 3.8% go year). remaining monetary diminished arrive future, distant shareholders successor corporation, Using money group economists Nobel prize winners), 5-7, 1% likelihood earning $100 starting cents 3a; 5. Appendix, Part A, infra. 118 Shakespeare, Wharton, Hemingway moved sum? monetarily Melville grandchildren putting interest-bearing bank account? (referring Webster) artist "`continue[s] create.'" 208, undeniably true propositions general. applicability mysterious. How today's Webster death? Or hypothetical supposed discounted pennies? (to metaphor) Dumas fils père's Three Musketeers royalties? 119 Regardless, specifically somehow, somewhere, great-grandchildren century hence, centuries, 1,000 "'til End Time." perspective difference periods difference. conservative assumptions, perpetuity (more 99.99% songwriter Irving Berlin song Alexander's Ragtime Band). lack practically meaningful ante infinite latest square insistence (Solicitor General's concession). am considers "[n]othing [1998 Act's] constraint." 209. course unconstitutionally. named Member who, records, "wanted forever." H9952 Mary Bono). Committee, Bono) (questioning expire); Berman) guess permanent moratorium copyrights"); Hoke) ("Why years? Why forever? 150 years?"); Copyrights) (In proceedings, term"); 234 Jones) ("I'm fascinated Hoke's statement. [W]hy forever?"); start 20, start"). (were 19th-century issue) perpetuities. Powell, Real 71.02[2]-[3], 71-11 (M. Wolf 2002) (traditional estate vest, years); 71.03, 71-15 (modern shorter 95-year terms). 121 event, incentive-related numbers rationally, economic-incentive described. II-B, supra. created—the described—the 226-227 122 205-206. helpful norms Printz 898, 977 (1997) surprisingly weak. nations uniform themselves. implements conform standard. "uniformity" statute? 123 Despite appearances, American-European lion's share economically affects—all hire" B, produces comparable vary Compare 302(c), 304(a)-(b), Arts. 1-3, 11-12 11. post-1977 attributed persons. 302(a) constitute subset (likely minority) comes late, bringing conformity aspect long-dead way. 125 benefit, partial achieve? "greater States," suggesting "`avoid disadvantages.'" elaborates theme, postulating uncorrected disuniformity Europe, prospect lasting "life years" (instead years"), publish initially delaying 38. uniformly corrects disincentive produce. disincentive, possibly General, fears. thing, unclear hurt how, second—for offers delayed days. 3(4), 5(4). another, few, any, publish" seen, comparative pennies. rested knife edge fine invisible. invisible, nonexistent partially achieves? Unlike treaty Convention. 135-136 "required adherence Convention"); 94-473, (1975) (same). acceptance seem institutional considerations, needs politics surrounding, development Union. Copyrights); 396-398 Reichman). coexisted differences, Europe's "moral rights" Kwall, Moral Right: Is Marriage Possible? Vand. 1-3 (1985) (moral rights); 187 (testimony ("limited [T]imes"). partial, promises 129 Third, filmmakers republish redistribute Clause—as assumes followed termination disappearance perpetuation, will, balance, existence. empirical possibility resurrect long-lost Shakespeare. base —lest lest dissemination, bestow retroactive. 130 antimonopoly environment antecedent, Anne—a break offering, alternative, Understanding 365, (Statute Anne); 144-147 (1968) (same); 756-757; 442-443; Formation 334, 338 (W. Solberg 1990); 246-247. 131 precedents. control"); "permanently depriv[ing]" labors"); 245-246. 132 Story, Commentaries 558, 402 (R. Rotunda Nowak 1987) "admit[s] people large, interval, possession enjoyment restraint" "Authors," reconcile death creator. 346-347 133 sources judgment. logical endlessly self-perpetuating nature difficulty stopping accept uniquely publisher-related rationale. (Would indefinitely, Scott Fitzgerald contemporaries? Would continued Melville, Mozart, Salieri, Mozart's popular contemporary? Happy Birthday You (melody 1893, litigation 1935), owned subsidiary Warner? Profitable "Happy Birthday," London, Aug. 2000, 6.) 134 support, conflicting advance, retard, perverse—unable, speaking, 239-240 Fourth, justification. frequently financial assistance entertainment industry, promotion exports. (1996) healthy surplus trade"); Rec., H9951 Foley) (noting importance community," "[w]hether BMI, Disney," companies). suppression Americans abroad—though simultaneously taken care buyers domestic prices. Webb-Pomerene (Export Trade), 516, amended, §§61-65; IA Areeda Hovenkamp, Antitrust ¶ 251a, 134-137 (2d 2000) (criticizing export cartels). commerce, enhance home abroad, earnings. Nor, standing alone, closely tied alone enhancement. 1The benefits. 136 mentions "demographic, changes"—by live longer, age. 206-207, 14. against, corrected grows lifespans. Health Human Services, Centers Disease Control Prevention, Deaths: Final Data 2000 (Table 8) 4-year lifespan 1998). fact—that adults life—is makeweight explanation death—a history—is insufficient bequest. weakness rationales underscores emerges attempts justification: legitimate, statute. 137 decisionmaking leeway 222. implications 1976—an changed (assuming renewal) 194-195. many—a fears require "right" suited. ibid.; 210, 138 concern, intrusion 205, intrudes objectives, 245-248, 260-263; total implausibility effect, 254-257; apparent uniformity, 257-260. intrude underlying correctly drawing Clause/Amendment boundary. Supra, 243-245. saying protection," 221, answer. vigilance—at boundaries Clause—is warranted consequent preclude. vigilance forms economy citizens. 139 doom thoroughly revised enabled join —an condition inception, 7(1). sided. maximum 28-year putative elapsed. 194; 956-957. Heckler Mathews, 465 728, 746 considering, consider, 140 aversion draw bright line, decide) goes far. —of far—sometimes offer guidance absolute-sounding rules. "this sits" Oil, "[t]ext, precedent," 199, lines 242-248, 260-263. complains "restrained" "train[ed my] parity." willingness accept, "[j]ustice, equity"—as practice—it authority" "exten[d] copyrights" 204 accepted argument's sake—putting side, present, persuasive 226-242 (dissenting opinion). assumption emphasize desire "parity" (old copyrights) (new (if put characterization), asking Tom Thumb Bunyan's ox. Where weak, "justice," "policy," "equity" tolls barriers imposes? interfere heritage heritage, educate children. easy understand clear. 143 judgments. leads inexorably 145 APPENDIX OPINION 146 text's estimates relative 255-256, incremental 75-year 254-255, discount rate economist amici. 5-7. expects book, (by book—i. write—by 0.33%. corresponding hire pre-1978 copyrights). economists' slightly (Petitioners' figure). 70" applies, Band), yield figure 99.996%. 148 unrealistically majority, constant stream. 248, expect stream forever. overwhelming zero, zero. 149 Nonetheless, remain profitable. "decay" viability: Find annual decay corresponds year, revenue successive accordingly. Following approach, conservatively, survives 5%. (and conservatively) 1950 1970. amici's 7% rate, realistically estimated 99.8%, 99.996% "Irving Berlin" 99.99999%. (With 5% 99.999% 99.999998%, respectively.) underestimates assume available, earns creation. Conclusions "works judgmental statistical ratio scarce. Community Creative Non-Violence Reid, 490 730, 737-738, know 1955, accounted 40% registered Varmer, Made Hire Commission, Revision Studies Nos. 1-19, Patents, Trademarks, 86th 139, (Comm. Print 1960). hire—feature-length movies—were remained viable, rate. 13-14. "harmonization" exports, (1998), revenues computer software), Siwek, Industries Economy: 2002 categories, predominate. 176 ("[A]udiovisual hire"). Taken important—pre-1978 nearing hire. Harlan concurrence, Black's portion Wirt's inGibbons Ogden, Wheat. 171 (1824): declares, throughout only. New-York discovery thirty permit. limiting Wirt Wheat., 175: society pays results public." acknowledges "uncontroversial" today, seeante, highly controversial 1800's. pre-emptive itself, demonstrated letter, quoted statutes, consideration. InFox 127, Hughes `The lie labors authors.' induce release found, considering Arts: Administration, 1798-1836, 87-88 Walterscheid). reprinted 513-519 "Your appropriating district territory imported worthy apprehend forbids your expedient. mode fund land money. fetter Legislature tho' unfortunate one, deliberate one. Latitude wished urged rejected." "fetter Legislature" inGraham. Importantly, aquid register work: map, chart, deposit, deposit title clerk's office reside." 124. registration court—a works—further rights. Respondent's reformulation confuses distinction. question: "Did err —"Whether effect"—significantly substance irrelevant violated Rule 24(1)(a), states [on merits] in" "A LETTERto MEMBER concerning Bill depending effectual 8th Year Reign Queen entituled, Encouragement Learning, Vesting Copies Printed Books Purchasers." Document reproduced Goldsmiths'—Kress Literature, Segment I: 1800, Microfilm 7300 (reel 460). 74, 458 (patent months); 113, 467 589 158, 734 72, 621 175, 461 613 six 317, 659 439, 689 inWheaton, Patent/Copyright profession. Gibbons 44-61, 141-157, defenders York's 30-year passenger trade Jersey Manhattan interpreted confirming State's supplemented recent endorse implicit unsettled passed. true, out,ante, overrule observation endorsed "wishful thinking." ("Congress `authorize available'" 6)). Lodging asAmicus classics. Casablanca Digital Video Disc (DVD) "documentary Must Remember This, hosted Lauren Bacall featuring unearthed outtakes" "[a]ll-new introduction Bacall." cover text. Citizen Kane DVD includes "[t]wo feature-length audio commentaries: critic Ebert director/Welles biographer Bogdanovich" "gallery storyboards, rare photos, alternate campaigns, studio correspondence, call sheets memorabilia" 2-hour documentary. presented, expectation result. CfHeckler ("We contexts, legitimacy now, enactment.

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