Document: 528 U.S. 495120 S.Ct. 1044145 L.Ed.2d 1007 SyllabusNOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as being done in connection with this case, at the time opinion issued. The constitutes no part of Court but has been prepared by Reporter Decisions for convenience reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 321, 337. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES RICEv.CAYETANO, GOVERNOR HAWAII CERTIORARI TO STATESCOURT APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT No. 98 818. Argued October 6, 1999Decided February 23, 2000 Hawaiian Constitution limits right to vote nine trustees chosen statewide election. compose governing authority state agency known Office Affairs, or OHA. administers programs designed benefit two subclasses citizenry, "Hawaiians" and "native Hawaiians." State law defines Hawaiians" descendants not less than one-half races inhabiting Islands before 1778, larger class that includes peoples 1778. are election which only may vote. Petitioner Rice, citizen without requisite ancestry "Hawaiian" under law, applied OHA trustee elections. When his application was denied, he sued respondent Governor (hereinafter State), claiming, inter alia, voting exclusion invalid Fourteenth Fifteenth Amendments. Federal District granted summary judgment. Surveying history their people, determined Congress Hawaii have recognized guardian-ward relationship native Hawaiians, analogous between Indian tribes. It examined qualifications latitude legislation passed pursuant Congress' power over affairs, see Morton Mancari, 417 535, found electoral scheme rationally related State's responsibility its Admission Act utilize proceeds from certain public lands Hawaiians' benefit. Ninth Circuit affirmed, finding "may conclude group whom trust obligations run owe duty loyalty, should decide who ought be." 146 F.3d 1075, 1079. Held: Hawaii's denial Rice's elections violates Amendment. Pp. 15 28. (a) Amendment's purpose command set forth explicit comprehensive language. National Government deny abridge on account race. Amendment reaffirms equality most basic level democratic process, exercise franchise. protects all persons, just members particular Important precedents give instruction instant case. quite sufficient invalidate grandfather clause did mention race instead used an attempt confine restrict franchise, Guinn States, 238 347, 364 365; sufficed strike down white primary systems exclude one racial (at least) voting, see, e.g., Terry Adams, 345 461, 469 470. structure case neither subtle nor indirect; specifically grants persons defined others. Ancestry can proxy here. For centuries isolated migration. inhabitants shared common physical characteristics, 1778 they had culture. provisions issue reflect effort preserve commonality present day. In interpreting Reconstruction Era civil rights laws observed discrimination singles out "identifiable classes solely because ethnic characteristics." Saint Francis College Al&nbhyph;Khazraji, 481 604, 613. very object statutory definition here treat early Hawaiians distinct commanding own recognition respect. also demonstrates purpose. drafters definitions Hawaiian" emphasized tie additional argument restriction neutral differentiates even among Polynesian people based date ancestor's residence undermined classification's express actual effects. ancestral inquiry implicates same grave concerns classification specifying name, demeans person's dignity worth judged her merit essential qualities. forbidden further reason using classifications corruptive whole legal order seek preserve. itself become instrument generating prejudice hostility too often directed against whose disclosed characteristics cultural traditions. enacts race-based qualification. 21. (b) three principal defenses rejected. argues first non-Hawaiians permitted Court's cases allowing differential treatment However, if authority, delegated State, tribes, authorize create sort created establish electorate officials tribal Indians non-Indian citizens. separate quasi-sovereign, applies. distinguished. contention limited franchise sustainable holding one-person, one-vote rule does pertain special districts such water irrigation fails, compliance excuse final more ensure alignment interests fiduciaries beneficiaries founders terms, clear symmetric administers. While bulk funds appears earmarked Hawaiians," permits both trustees. fails grounds; rests demeaning premise citizens somehow qualified others matters. There room concept allocated 21 27.146 reversed. Kennedy, J., delivered Court, Rehnquist, C. O'Connor, Scalia, Thomas, JJ., joined. Breyer, filed concurring result, Souter, Stevens, dissenting opinion, Ginsburg, joined Part II. opinion. Opinion 1 NOTICE: This subject formal revision publication preliminary print Reports. Readers requested notify Decisions, Supreme Washington, D. 20543, any typographical other errors, corrections made goes press. 818 2 HAROLD F. RICE, PETITIONERv. BENJAMIN J. CAYETANO, 3 ON WRIT OFAPPEALS 4 Justice Kennedy Court. 5 A comes us claiming explicit, qualification barred him binding Government, political subdivisions, controls 6 Haw. Const., Art. XII, §5. citizenry. smaller comprises those designated statute, supplementary language later full, prior Rev. Stat. §10 (1993). second, benefited "Hawaiians," be, refinements contained statute we quote, Ibid. course Art 7 thus himself well-accepted sense term, class. He not, then, terms statute; so presented whether Rice barred. Rejecting arguments question that, is, nevertheless valid reasons, hold petitioner's violation 8 * enacted about discuss review, assessments events intertwine America itself. We begin brief historical background. Historians scholars write different do we. They draw judgments either laudatory harsh ones refer. Our role, posture recount understood lawmakers, ensuring accord proper appreciation purposes adopting policies issue. litigants seem agree works appropriate our consideration, rely sources. L. Fuchs, Pono: An Ethnic Political History (1961) Fuchs); R. Kuykendall, Kingdom (1938); (1953); (1967) Kuykendall). 9 origins reached islands established certainty, usual assumption were Polynesians voyaged Tahiti began settle around A. 750. Fuchs 4; Kuykendall 3; G. Daws, Shoal Time: xii xiii (1968) (Marquesas Tahiti). England's Captain Cook landfall expedition developed, preceding 1,000 years so, own. well-established traditions customs practiced polytheistic religion. Agriculture fishing sustained and, though population estimates vary, some modern historians 200,000 300,000. Schmitt, Historical Statistics (1977) Schmitt). accounts life remark upon people's capacity find beauty pleasure island existence, altogether idyllic. Cook's ruled four kings, intra-Hawaiian wars could inflict great loss suffering. Kings chieftains, well high priests, death sacrifice subject. society one, however, identity, cohesive forces, history. 10 after voyage many expeditions would follow. few ships' companies remained islands, authorized advisors, deserters. Their intermarriage infrequent. 11 1810, united kingdom leadership admired figure history, Kamehameha I. difficult say how settlers Europe when King consolidated power. One historian there 60 time. 27. influx soon Beginning 1820, missionaries arrived, Congregationalists New England dominant years. sought teach abandon religious beliefs contrary Christian teachings practices. 12 1800's story increasing involvement westerners economic affairs Kingdom. Rights land became concern, unremitting pressure allow use secure title. Westerners pressing concerns, disposition ownership came unsettled matter themselves. 13 status issues complexity controversy least I interpret lest comments thought bear us. suffices refer various conclusions appear persuasive discussed. 14 power, reasserted suzerainty provided control parts them system described "feudal." Housing Authority Midkiff, 467 229, 232 (1984); Kaiser Aetna 444 164, 166 (1979). well-known description King's decrees 1864 Hawaii. court, turn, drew extensively earlier report recited, part, follows: "'When conquered I., followed example predecessors, divided warrior chiefs, retaining, portion hands cultivated managed immediate servants attendants. Each chief anew gave inferior chiefs rank, subdivided again (often) passing through four, five six lowest tenants. All these considered lands, productions them, proportions clearly defined, although universally acknowledged . possessed superior landlords several grades inferiors, joint land, really owning allodium, person placed trust.'" re Estate His Majesty IV, 715, 718 719 (quoting Principles Adopted Board Commissioners Quiet Land Titles, Laws 81 82 (Haw. 1847)). 16 1839 next decade, successive ruler, III, approved series accommodate demands security words "[t]he daily importance newly formed obvious internal resources country developed until undivided undefined abolished." Haw., 721. Arrangements confer freehold title individuals. retained vast himself, extensive held government, 1840 adopted islands. Thus effected fundamental historic division, Great Mahele. 1850, foreigners, given ownership. 17 new result wide dispersal Though attempted tenants claim proved ineffective instances, concentrated. 1920, Report bill establishing Homes Commission, assessment policy following terms: 18 "Your committee finds since institution private outside small Islands. Under homestead somewhat majority homesteaded lost improvidence inability finance farming operations. Most frequently, Hawaiian, future, obtained nominal sum, turn sell wealthy sum nearly approaching real value. business men shown themselves unable meet competitive conditions unaided. end speculators laws. tax returns 1919 show 6.23 per centum property possession approximately thousand descendents chiefs." H. Rep. 839, 66th Cong., 2d Sess., (1920). 19 developments unfolding, European powers constant efforts protect influence general. "articles arrangement" signed 1826, Department Treaties Other International Agreements 1776 1949, p. 861 (C. Bevans comp. 1968), treaties conventions countries 1849, 1875, 1887, Treaty Islands, 977 (1849) (friendship, commerce, navigation); Convention 625 (1875) (commercial reciprocity); Supplementary 25 1399 (1887) (same). interested century reality American dominance trade, settlement, expansion, apparent. 20 Tensions intensified anti-Western, pro-native bloc government hand Western owners other. conflicts fore 1887. forced resignation Prime Minister adoption Constitution, which, things, reduced monarchy extended non-Hawaiians. 344 372. continued 1893, peaked, response then monarch, Queen Liliuokalani, promulgate constitution restoring monarchical House Nobles limiting subjects. so-called Committee Safety, professionals businessmen, active assistance John Hawaii, acting armed replaced provisional government. That annexation States. On December year, President Cleveland, unimpressed indeed offended actions Minister, denounced role forces called restoration monarchy. Message Senate Representatives, reprinted 243, 53d (1893). resume former place, 1894, Republic abdicated throne year later. 22 1898, McKinley Joint Resolution, sometimes Newlands annex territory 30 According ceded Crown, resolution revenues "used educational purposes." Two Organic Territory asserted put "in possession, use, otherwise Congress." Apr. 30, 1900, ch. 339, §91, 31 159. 23 1993, intervention reviewed Stevens. Resolution recounting detail offering apology people. 107 1510. 24 Before relevant important matters, affected demographics must recounted. tragedy inflicted introduction western diseases infectious agents. As establishment I, becoming apparent serious vulnerability borne settlers. High mortality figures experienced infancy adulthood, illnesses diarrhea, colds, measles. 13; Schmitt 58. More took greater tolls. smallpox epidemic 1853, thousands lives lost. By 1878, 100 arrival, 47,500 Id., 25. These mortal doubt initial cause despair, disenchantment, despondency commentators noted 13. feature immigration cultures. Mostly demand sugar industry arduous labor cane fields, waves brought Chinese, Portuguese, Japanese, Filipinos 293 Chinese 1852, plantations alone estimate, something 400,000 men, women, children century. 24; Lind, People (4th ed. 1980). national groups struggles societal official discrimination, successes, creating E. Nordyke, Peopling Hawai'i 28 (2d 1989). 1990 census resulting diversity population. Dept. Commerce, Bureau Census, Census Population, Reports, Detailed Groups (Oct. 1992). 26 With background legislative enactments direct relevance II 27 Not long creation Territory, concerned condition (1920); Hearings Rehabilitation Colonization Proposed Amendments Territories, Sess. Reciting rehabilitate population, 2, Commission Act, aside acres program loans long-term leases Hawaiians. July 9, 1921, 42, 42 108. Hawaiian[s]" include "any descendant blood previous 1778." admitted fiftieth Union 1959. admission, agreed adopt Constitution. Pub. 86 3, §§4, 7, 73 5, (Admission Act); §§1 3. addition, within boundaries save use. §5(b) (d), 5. grant included almost 1.2 million land. Brief Amicus Curiae 4. 29 authorizing recited income generated, "as trust" "managed disposed of" purposes: "[1] support schools institutions, [2] betterment amended, [3] development farm home widespread basis possible[,] [4] making improvements, [5] provision use." §5(f), 6. decades apparently administer balance said "by large flowed department education." Journal, Standing 784, pp. 1350, 1351 32 1978 amended §5, mission [and] Members constitutional convention, amendments drafted proposed, proposed agency: 33 "Members [of Whole] impressed Affairs establishes entity ancestry. foresaw provide determine priorities effectuate welfare promote protection preservation race, unite people." Proceedings Constitutional 1978, Whole 13, 1018 (1980). 34 Implementing statutes vested broad categories funds: percent share revenue "for 13.5, federal appropriations donations and/or §6. generally §§10 16. (The administered agency. §26 (1993).) Legislature charged "[s]erving responsible performance, development, coordination activities relating "[a]ssessing practices agencies impacting "conducting advocacy "[a]pplying for, receiving, disbursing, sources services," receptacle reparations." 35 overseen nine-member board trustees, "shall presenting precise shall "elected voters law." §5; §§13D 1, 13D 3(b)(1) term statute: 36 "'Hawaiian' means aboriginal exercised sovereignty subsisted thereafter reside Hawaii." 2. 37 38 "'Native Hawaiian' amended; identically refers quantum 39 Harold pre-annexation residents noted, pre-1778 natives, statute. March 1996 To register office required attest: "I am desire elections." Affidavit Application Voter Registration, Lodging Petitioner, Tab marked "am and," checked form "yes." denied application. 40 Benjamin Cayetano, capacity, Attorney General defends challenged enactments. "the State.") contested August 1996. After rejected latter challenge, 941 Supp. 1529 (1996), (a decision us), parties moved judgmenton excluding 41 judgment State. 963 1547 1997). court 1551 1554. premise, affairs. 1554 1555 (citing 535 (1974)). Finding "rationally Native violate Constitution's ban classifications. Supp., 1555. Appeals affirmed. 1075 (CA9 1998). constitutionality underlying Considering bound "accept trusts administrative [it found] assume lawful," notwithstanding implementing "contain face." 43 certiorari, 526 1016 (1999), now reverse. III 44 comprehensive. principle: Color servitude, too, criteria classifications, unnecessary consider 45 Enacted wake Civil War, concern guarantee emancipated slaves vote, freedom. Vital objective remains, beyond it. Consistent design cast transcending impetus enactment. 46 reaffirm resolve absolute simple reach. Fundamental effect self-executing operation, prohibits denying abridging "[B]y inherent word disappeared" laws, bringing excluded generic suffrage State." 363 (1915); Neal Delaware, 103 370, 389 (1881). mandate neutrality straightforward "If having another be. Previous amendment, guaranty discrimination: is." Reese, 92 214, 218 (1876). 47 commitment clear, far promise. Manipulative devices employed blacks. cataloged "variety persistence" techniques. South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 311 312 (1966) (citing, Guinn, supra (grandfather clause); Myers Anderson, 368 (1915) (same); Lane Wilson, 307 268 (1939) ("procedural hurdles"); 461 (1953) (white primary); Smith Allwright, 321 649 (1944) 362 58 (1960) (per curiam) (registration challenges); Gomillion Lightfoot, 339 (racial gerrymandering); Louisiana 380 145 (1965) ("interpretation tests")). Progress slow, particularly litigation proceed district district, voter voter. U.S., 313 315. 48 emerge, 1910, Oklahoma literacy requirement eligibility, exempted " 'lineal descendant[s]' 'on January 1866, thereto, entitled resided foreign nation.' supra, 357. Those ancestors previous, discriminatory eligibility test. Recognizing test served perpetuate old transparent exclusion, invalidated 365. 49 subtle, perhaps, device evasions cases; Amendment, systems, voting. Terry, 470; 663 666 (overruling Grovey Townsend, 295 (1935)). held, circumvented: "The bans nation. discriminated governmental select officials, national, state, local." 467. 50 Unlike cited cases, indirect. specific granting maintains category time, regardless Respondent 40. points theories concluding migrated Marquesas Pacific Northwest, Tahiti. 39, n. 15. Furthermore, argues, operation excludes traceable exclusively none 1778; hand, trace, say, sixty-fourth inhabitant pivotal date. factors, said, mean classification. reject line argument. 51 Even diverse backgrounds cultures, favoring But Indeed, "unique culture ancient explaining work. 1354; ibid. ("Modern scholarship identified culturally distinguishable peoples"). interpretation era "racial discrimination" 613 (1987). congressional counterpart enacting us, 52 point. 53 54 promulgated 1018. Rejected ratified manner, Kahalekai Doi, 324, 342, 590 P.2d 543, 555 (1979), modified quoted above. 1353 id., Conf. Comm. 77, 998. drafters' changes cosmetic. Noting 'native 'Hawaiian' changed substitute 'peoples' 'races,'" revised "stress[ed] change non-substantive, 'races.'" Ibid.; 999 ("[T]he substituted 'races' 'Hawaiian'. Again, your wishes emphasize substitution merely technical, "). 55 compilation incorporates preserves race: 56 'Native 2.This makes clear: "[T]he [the] peoples" descendant[s] races." 57 simply insufficient prove nonracial operation. Simply suffice make neutral. Here, mandated name. reasons treated into lines consistent respect unique personality each possesses, secures 59 "Distinctions nature odious free institutions founded doctrine equality." Hirabayashi 320 81, (1943). Ancestral tracing achieves employs mechanisms, causes injuries, IV offers contends, allows prevail examine, reject, arguments. 61 reaching decisions subject, tribes elements quasi-sovereign cession Brendale Confederated Tribes Bands Yakima Nation, 492 408, 425 (1989) (plurality opinion); Oliphant Suquamish Tribe, 435 191, 208 (1978). relates self-governance. Brendale, opinion). reliance theory giving employment preferences 553 555. Mancari rests, invoked defend directly protecting 62 If accept beginning premises yet law. Among postulates, necessary Congress, reciting transfer 1993 like organized may, has, status. propositions raise questions considerable moment difficulty. dispute, instance, Compare Van Dyke, Status People, Yale Pol'y 95 (1998), Benjamin, Equal Protection Special Relationship: Case 106 537 (1996). stay off terrain, however. 63 reason. take substantial step sort. 64 Of course, fulfill treaty responsibilities dedicated circumstances needs. Washington Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel Assn., 443 658, 673, (1979) (treaties securing preferential rights); Antelope, 430 641, 645 647 (exclusive jurisdiction crimes committed country); Delaware Tribal Business Weeks, 73, 84 85 (distribution property); Moe Salish Kootenai Flathead Reservation, 463, 479 480 (1976) (Indian immunity taxes); Fisher Sixteenth Judicial Dist. Mont., 424 382, 390 391 adoptions). observed, "every piece dealing reservations single[s] constituency Indians." 552. 65 above rely, preference hiring promoting (BIA), favored individuals "'one-fourth degree member[s] Federally-recognized tribe.'" 553, BIAM 335, 3.1 (1972)). Although component, "not towards 'racial' consisting 'Indians,'" rather "only 'federally recognized' tribes." n.24. "In sense," [was] nature." 554 ("The preference, applied, discrete group, but, rather, entities governed BIA fashion"). Because "tied fulfillment obligation toward Indians," "reasonably self-government," offend careful note, confined BIA, "sui generis." 554. 66 extend exception dimension. contends "one afford measure self-governance," fits model Mancari. 34. follow toestablish Indians, 67 cites illuminate error. Menominee Restoration U.S.C. § 903b Reorganization 476). lacks elections, affair quasi-sovereign. contrast, agency, administration obligations. §§5 declared exists serve th[e] 3(3)); Annual 94, (May 27, 1994) (admitting "OHA technically government," while asserting "it operates semi-autonomous entity"). Foremost entrusted "be trust." §§5(b), (f), 6; §4. 68 delegates convention explained position structure: 69 intends independent executive branch branches chairman ex officio member governor's cabinet. University particular, desired maximum budget, assets personnel. felt arrange method whereby kept rest treasury." 59, 645. 70 remains arm 71 validity appeals did, trusts, intimating Nonetheless, context permit classification, fence decisionmaking critical forbids result. B 72 person, districts. Ball James, 451 355 (1981); Salyer Co. Tulare Lake Basin Water Storage Dist., 410 (1973). Just involved significant extension applicable dispositive event, suggested excuses ago "extensive met overcome Constitution." Gomillion, 345. meaning force. so. C 74 trust. Thus, goes, beneficiary 75 matter, trustee. create, eliminate, identity what calls beneficiaries. 76 grounds. end, reasoning attacks central applies decided selected." 468. Race cannot qualify disqualify full participation democracy. citizens, interest selecting behalf, affect assume, petitioner principled advanced rise indignities, tensions animosities, eliminate. review prohibited 77 78 way engulfed control, generations; dismay community. attempts address realities, must, always, consensus begins heritage 79 invalidates 80 ordered. Souter joins, much says rationale underlies seeks justify drawing analogy (OHA) Tribe. analogy. point assumes, argument's sake, "revenues proceeds" 'public trust.' Ante, 24. assumes deciding "treat 22. Leaving undecided, holds scheme, agency," quasi-sovereign," tribe. 83 need, vague "quasi-sovereign," subscribe consequently sweeping prohibition. Rather, my view, rules tribe record (1) "trust" here, (2) OHA's electorate, sufficiently resemble seems agree, decide, bears little resemblance notes uses referring Act. 10, 12. specifies education of, homes farms publicimprovements by, "native." §5(f). Moreover, funding See, Fiscal 1998 Report) ($15 lands; $11 "[d]ividend income"; $3 appropriations; $400,000 grants). ordinary statutes. 4, 13.5 (1993); ("OHA's fiscal 99 budget Acts 240 115 1997 legislature"). amounts legislation. spends most, all, money ways. (OHA projects education, housing, health, culture, nonprofit organizations). importantly, membership Americans. limit Rather adds 80,000 130,000 including anyone ancestor lived thereby five-hundredth original (assuming generations present). Data Book (1998). Approximately 10% 15% spent 38, 60% electorate. 87 broad. Alaska Claims Settlement example, "Native" "a one-fourth Indian" "who regarded village claims father mother group" perhaps likely requirement). 1602(b). Many constitutions define name appeared roll distant past. Choctaw Nation Oklahoma, (membership consists rolls 1906 lineal descendants); Sac Fox Tribe 1937, born nonmember council); Revised Jicarilla Apache 1968 three-eighths blood); Mescalero 1936 enrolled blood). 88 membership. Santa Clara Pueblo Martinez, 436 49, 72, reasonable, (which tribe) creates definition. And possible 500, unknowable body potential leaving combination luck reasonable limit. tribe, definition; pointed out, 89 sufficient, destroy justification depend. independently cf. post (Justice dissenting); analogies offer absence majority's ultimate conclusion. 90 Ginsburg joins II, dissenting. 91 today largely repetition glittering generalities little, any, compelling up manifest Amendments, me upheld. Union, managing occupied arrival Cook. addition administering assets, providing benefits Established amendment intended advance multiple goals: carry duties Islands' indigenous States; compensate past wrongs peoples; help distinct, existed arrival. senior Senator Inouye, (like petitioner) supported amendments, "an honest sincere rectify past, Hawaiians."1 93 Today concludes electing conclusion, assumed valid. surely correct. judgment, supporting legitimacy general undermine invalid. Fifteenth. 94 conclusion keeping overlapping principles. First, been, afforded carrying arising peoples, fiduciary Finally, ignore precedent practice follows, invidious compensated wrongs, vibrant Nation's any. Throughout plenary Americans character once sovereign peoples.3 source Government's inhabitants, military conquest, crudest remain instructive nonetheless. 96 "These wards communities dependent Dependent food. From weakness helplessness, due promised, arises protection, always Executive, whenever arisen." Kagama, 118 375, 384 (1886) (emphasis original). 97 consistently recognized, implement "care protection."4 Pueblos Mexico, "public moneys expended implements utensils, civilization instruction." Sandoval, 231 28, (1913). Today, (BIA) countless responding comparably pragmatic impoverishment. Register, Manual 1999/2000, 312. regulation area strictly practical encompassed values; desecration graves sacred sites led passage Graves Repatriation 3001 et seq. Critically, extent depended allotment lands,5 coherence existence self-government,6 varying "Indian" adopt.7 taken "numerous occasions" "legislation treatment" upheld, concluded "long tied disturbed." (1974). reveals, grounds recognizing overwhelming. Shortly (installed merchants revolution facilitated Government) expropriated 1.8 territorial "until Congress," diseases, mass coupled poor housing sanitation, hunger, malnutrition toll. ante, 9. Confronted "frozen driven cities," (1920), tracts comprising 203,500 acres, residences Relying goal rehabilitating culture.8 statehood Statehood Admissions (Admissions Act), §4, §5 conveyed con- ditions purposes. motivation articulated containing "apology behalf overthrow acknowledgments, stated "without consent compensation government." 1512. need discern withthe varied 150 expressly benefited.9 classifying "Native Americans" statutes, enjoy privileges accorded Indian, Native, Eskimo, Aleut communities." 11701(19). §11701(17) legislate matters affecting Hawaii"). 101 splendidly acknowledging agreements reveals recognize import. mainland Aleutian subjugation colonial purposefully specialized "guardian-ward" follows targeting evaluated according understanding equal continental States: "special obligation" peoples. 102 Declining confront logic foregoing, seemingly pair reasons. trust-based dealings individuals, 23. Second, State," upholding "to affairs." overcomes similarity, fully precedent, subjugated, sufferings parallel Membership suggests, descendants, sine qua non realm law; itself, proposition clear. seen decisive factor Mancari; non-tribal possess blood.10 alone. nn.6, supra. light painful irony restore self-governance currently lack vestigial possibility deprived them.11 104 fact confronted enactment entire alter analysis. explained, hardly characterized "affair State" alone; instruments pass fulfilling 439 500 501 upheld challenge assuming measure" achieve accomplished 'rationally State.' Massachusetts Bd. Retirement Murgia, 427 307, 314 curiam)). 105 desires Government. §4 adopted," benefiting More, manner provide, constitute breach suit States." discretion provide." continues fund furthering obligation. sole remaining further[s] standard, certainly reasonably "self-government" "more responsive needs constituent groups." provides "separate" "independent [State] branch," executes trust, character, 3(1), 13.5; trust's beneficiaries, §13D 3(b) "directed agency." others, legitimate, nonracially goal." foregoing 108 tests measure, equally letter spirit Amendment.12 109 Section provides: 110 abridged color, servitude." Amdt. 111 tacitly admit, 18, apply. speaks current residence, color. "Hawaiian," ability function descent modern-day resident blood-based resident, proximity "peoples" arises. distinction plain trace one's progenitor single convey information today. Neither necessity imply identification "on race." manifestly meanings, framers prohibitions. 112 Presumably distinction, relies "[a]ncestry 18. true, Cases dramatically one. 347 (1915), relied proxy. blatant blacks patently "served [racially voting] exclusion." 17. fairly properly viewed lens honed reveal realities behind restrictions tested. 113 clarify, obscures virtually polar opposite relies. (1953), proscribed Texas "Jaybird primaries" "with proviso Negroes excluded," 469. Similarly, 649, 664 (1944), "discrimination Negroes" party action "strike voting," 17, empower politically sovereign, 114 pretext discrimination. eligible enough possesses: OHA, elected novel concept. Scott W. Fratcher, Law Trusts §108.3 1987). "people belong enhance representative governance decision-making accountability strengthen member, trustee, beneficiary."13 aspect wholly apart focused mandate, responsibilities. legitimate read principally descended islander circa (1993), descendant" "which Hawaii," notes, enjoys therefore mismatch electors, 116 true depending construction nothing racially enlarge broader serves practically "dilute" becomes phenomenon lavish summary, political, community, inherited memory protect. putative underscores purely secure; unlike survival Hawaiians.14 117 refuses entirely,15 ancestry-based stands shoes privilege penalize place multiracial non-"Hawaiians" appropriately every audience addressed. full-blooded imagine residing Conversely, southern schemes 'taint' non-Hawaiian excluded, she European, Asian, African inclusive fall along lines. At pains identify work singularly purpose," whatever might mean, phrase 'proxy' posits "[o]ne qualities." 20. blessings wrong property, proud heritage. manage Monticello Thomas Jefferson elect Such benign, happened race.16 119 light, easy understand why "demeaning" "premise matters," permissible families "any" live self-determination not. deep demean honor 120 likewise "become traditions." motivated nonnative reflected preserving testifies concerning fear "prejudice hostility" petitioner. traditional democracy conceive discriminates against, represents toward, self-same majority. best insurance danger retains revise 121 ignores overwhelming differences recalls age abject insular minority South; last yielded "political consensus" seeks, correct view Judge Judges Circuit.17 Rymer explained: 122 equivalent election, perform functions Nor limitation suggest reflects trustees' 'a insure management adherence needed principles.' contrived keep general, pertinent interests. Therefore, [petitioner's] 123 "18 644. reporting 'people beneficiary.' Id."146 1081 1082 124 wooden approach 125 Accordingly, respectfully dissent. 126 127 dissent essentially Stevens (relying Americans). prerogative enter relationships (1974), cogently explains, Indians. encompasses numerous qualifying once-sovereign (Stevens, dissenting). responsibility, recognize, Both fulfillment" No demonstrate Notes 128 1. App. E Congressional Delegation statement Akaka "fact voted amend illustrates foundation Aloha spirit." 129 Village Venetie 522 520, 531, (1998); Wheeler, 313, 319 (1978); (1977); 551 (1974); Lone Wolf Hitchcock, 187 564 565 (1903); 375 (1886). 130 (1913); 385; Cherokee Georgia, Pet. (1831). 131 45; 385. 132 Celestine, 215 278, 286 287 (1909). 133 John, 437 634, 652 (1978) ("Neither Choctaws Mississippi remnant removed Mississippi, supervision continuous, destroys deal them"); 82, 14, (whether financial nontribal choice 'tied Indians' 555)). 134 7. generally, Cohen's Handbook (1982). 'Indian' [this Act] jurisdiction, were, June 1934, reservation, blood. Eskimos Indians"), §1603(c)(3) "considered Secretary Interior purpose"). 135 8. Reflecting compromise sponsor legislation, "all veins," plantation "Hawaiians pure blood" qualify, Act: 13500, 3d 1778," 136 A; also, Religious Freedom seq.; Programs 1974, 2991 2992; Comprehensive Employment Training 872; Drug Abuse Prevention, Treatment, 1177; Cranston-Gonzalez Affordable §958, 4422; Health Care 1988, 1601 137 10. Frickey, Adjudication Discontents: Coherence Conciliation Law, Harv. 1754, 1761 1762 (1997). aptly federally 479. Only membership, 'be blood.' 138 11. Breyer suggests (i.e., scheme) "reasonable." (opinion result). suggestion defect. counts delegate defined. Breyer's tribes' core "unconstrained framed limitations authority," inapposite.) Nothing jurisprudence anything perfectly delegated. nn. match precisely targeted. R., §5.1 (1999) (extending "persons [d]escendants [tribal] reservation"); 1934 cease singular defining "native" points, 1602(b) (including regard group), underscore "tribal" se, acid arena. Clinton, N. Newton, M. Price, 1054 1058 (3d 1991) (describing geographic regions natives interest, 1606 requiring organize corporation settlement benefits, §1607, Fund monies distributed "enrolled natives," §§1604 1605); determination "real membership," 139 divorce analysis pretend discussion never where, requirements express, repeatedly predominates. refusing face 15, able denies 140 141 14. salient Mancari-like stake. approached involving delegates, "classes" quantum, eclipsed significance Beyond this, comprise structure, religion." Prior "was land," (1984), "lived highly organized, self-sufficient, subsistent social communal tenure sophisticated language, religion," 11701(4). Akaka, steeped science [and they] honored 'aina (land) environment, methods irrigation, agriculture, aquaculture, navigation, medicine, forms subsistence sea efficiently waste damage. Respect environment tradition." Legends oral histories generation artifacts carved images, colorful feathered capes, songs, dances survive some, Pele, God Fire, still inhabits crater Kilauea, Kahuna uniquely protection. 142 "there 'trust' here," mistake conflating 11, "analogy depend," "destroy[ed]" (in trust) looking proposition, conveyance purport contain corpus "[t]wenty cent derived coincide one-fifth better specific, beneficial 20% revenues, supplemented degrees nontrust monies, negates "destroys" centrally "analogy" continent, compared States-owned pages satisfies standard testing 143 "[i]n another, family Anglo-American feudal times." Hodel Irving, 704, 716 minute fractional allotted receive shares parcels Sioux 1889 value denominator 3,394,923,840,000 size smallest interest. 713 717. Whether wise recompense injured come gone policy, acquired inheritance assignment significance. 144 indicates 20-plus judges petition rehearing en banc circulated petition. Cert. 442.

Category: 1