Document: 499 U.S. 365 111 S.Ct. 1344 113 L.Ed.2d 382 CITY OF COLUMBIA and Columbia Outdoor Advertising, Inc., Petitioners,v.OMNI OUTDOOR ADVERTISING, INC. No. 89-1671. Argued Nov. 28, 1990. Decided April 1, 1991. Syllabus After respondent Omni entered the billboard market in petitioner Columbia, South Carolina, Inc. (COA), which controlled more than 95% of enjoyed close relations with city officials, lobbied these officials to enact zoning ordinances restricting construction. such were passed, filed suit against petitioners under §§ 1 2 Sherman Act State's Unfair Trade Practices Act, alleging, inter alia, that result an anticompetitive conspiracy stripped any immunity they might otherwise be entitled. obtained a jury verdict on all counts, District Court granted petitioners' motions for judgment notwithstanding ground their activities outside scope federal antitrust laws. The Appeals reversed reinstated verdict. Held: 1. city's restriction construction is immune from liability Parker v. Brown, 317 341, 352, 63 307, 314, 87 L.Ed. 315—which held principles federalism state sovereignty render inapplicable restraints imposed by States "as act government"—and subsequent decisions according municipal competition implementation policy, see, e.g., Hallie Eau Claire, 471 34, 38, 105 1713, 1716, 85 24. Pp. 370-379. (a) correctly concluded was prima facie entitled its restrictions. Although does not apply directly municipalities or other political subdivisions States, it where municipality's authorized policy. Carolina's statutes unquestionably regulate size, location, spacing billboards. additional requirement possess clear delegated authority suppress competition, Hallie, supra, U.S., at 40-42, S.Ct., 1717-18, also met here, since suppression very least foreseeable regulations. 370-373. (b) erred, however, applying "conspiracy" exception Parker, supported language case. Such would swallow up rule if means nothing agreement impose regulation question, both inevitable desirable public agree do what one another group private citizens urges upon them. It similarly impractical limit instances governmental "corruption," acts "not interest"; virtually open charges risk unfavorable ex post facto judicial assessment impair States' ability domestic commerce. Nor appropriate bribery some violation law has been established, then unrelated purposes condemns trade restraints, activity. With possible situation State acting as participant, action qualifies ipso exempt operation 374-379. 2. COA relating enactment Eastern Railroad Presidents Conference Noerr Motor Freight, 127, 141, 81 523, 531, 5 464, states corollary Parker: laws conduct individuals seeking government. erred "sham" doctrine. This encompasses situations persons use process itself—as opposed outcome process—as weapon. That here. California Transport Co. Trucking Unlimited, 404 508, 512, 92 609, 612, 30 642, distinguished. Omni's suggestion this adopt rejected largely same reasons prompt reject Parker. 379-384. 3. remand must determine (if theory properly preserved) whether evidence sufficient sustain based solely assertions engaged actions, can liable state-law claim. P. 384. 891 F.2d 1127 (CA4 1989), remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. STEVENS, dissenting opinion, WHITE MARSHALL, joined, post, p. ----. Joel I. Klein, Washington, D.C., petitioners. A. Camden Lewis, S.C., respondent. Justice SCALIA Court. case requires us clarify application governments who seek * Petitioner Carolina corporation, business (also here), 1940's. By 1981 conceded relevant market. local owned family deep roots community, leaders. mayor members council personal friends COA's majority owner, company officers occasionally contributed funds free space campaigns. According beneficences part "longstanding" "secret agreement" whereby "the City each [sic ] respective power resources protect . monopoly position," return "City Council received advantages made monopoly." Brief Respondent 12, 16. 3 In 1981, Omni, Georgia began erecting billboards around city. responded several ways. First, redoubled own efforts modernized existing stock. Second—according Omni—it took number offering artificially low rates, spreading untrue malicious rumors about attempting induce customers break contracts. Finally (and gives rise issue we address today), executives restrict alone urging course; concerned recent explosion billboards, including writers articles editorials newspapers advocated 4 spring 1982, passed ordinance requiring council's approval every constructed downtown Columbia. later amended 180-day moratorium throughout city, except specifically council. A court invalidated conferral unconstrained discretion violated Federal Constitutions. requested regional planning comprehensive analysis basis developing final, constitutionally valid, ordinance. September after series hearings numerous meetings involving (in which, positions contrary genuinely considered), new These restrictions, particularly those spacing, obviously benefited COA, already had place; severely hindered compete. November charging 26 Stat. 209, amended, 15 U.S.C. 2,1 well S.C.Code Ann. § 39-5-140 (1976). contended, particular, between parties enjoy January 1986, two weeks trial, returned general verdicts claims. awarded damages, before trebling, $600,000 claim, $400,000 claim.2 answered special interrogatories, finding conspired restrain monopolize Petitioners moved verdict, contending among things 1988, motion. 6 divided panel United Fourth Circuit counts. (1989). We certiorari, 496 935, 110 3211, 659 (1990). II 7 landmark 315 (1943), contention program marketing privately produced raisins, adopted pursuant California's Agricultural Prorate Act. Relying sovereignty, did government." 314. 8 Since emphasized role sovereign system, initially unclear actions similar protection. years, have governments, see 24 (1985); Community Communications Boulder, 455 40, 50-51, 102 835, 840-841, 70 810 (1982); Lafayette Louisiana Power & Light Co., 435 389, 412-413, 98 1123, 1136-1137, 55 364 (1978) (plurality opinion). recognized, may sometimes accorded 9 acted present authorize land buildings structures within boundaries.3 undisputed that, matter law, could argued, municipality beyond authority, purposes, whenever nature substantively even procedurally defective. On example, "authorized" 5-23-10 (1976), n. 3, not, statute requires, "for purpose promoting health, safety, morals welfare community." As scholarly commentary noted, expansive interpretation Parker-defense authorization unacceptable consequences. 10 "To sure, 'authorizes' only agency are correct. Errors fact, 'authorized.' Erroneous subject reversal superior tribunals because unauthorized. If demands unqualified 'authority' sense, inevitably becomes standard reviewer activity but alleged body, though possessing engage challenged conduct, actually exercised manner law. should lightly assume dictates transformation administrative review into job. Yet consequence making depend undiscriminating mechanical demand full sense." Areeda H. Hovenkamp, Antitrust Law ¶ 212.3b, 145 (Supp.1989). 11 assessment, believe order prevent undermining interests designed protect, necessary concept broader applied legality approach principle, necessarily precise application, elsewhere. See Stump Sparkman, 349, 1099, 331 (1978). suffices conclude here no needed establish, unquestioned over 12 Besides regulate, defense competition—more specifically, "clear articulation policy conduct" connection regulation. 1717 (internal quotation omitted). delegating explicitly permits displacement id., 41-42, 1717-1718. enough, held, "foreseeable result" authorizes, 42, 1718. condition amply displace unfettered freedom regularly effect preventing normal entrants. (surely common form zoning) protects newcomers.4 13 therefore correct conclusion immunity. upheld invoking recognized Courts Appeals. See, Whitworth Perkins, 559 378 (CA5 1977), vacated, 992, 1642, 56 81, aff'd rehearing, 576 696 (1978), cert. denied, 440 911, 99 1224, 59 460 (1979). thought our statements "[W]e question becoming participant combination others restraint trade, cf. Union Pacific R. 313 450 [61 1064, 1453]." 351-352, 314 (emphasis added). "The adopting enforcing prorate contract establish but, sovereign, government undertake prohibit." Id., apply, Circuit, "where politicians entities involved conspirators" actors trade. F.2d, 1134. 14 There exception. rationale light national commitment federalism, interpreted prohibit capacities regulators. sentences quoted above simply obtain regulatory capacity commercial given evident citation 450, 61 1453 (1941), unlawful Elkins certain rebates concessions Kansas City, Kansas, owner operator wholesale produce integrated railroad facilities. read suggest proposition deemed private—and liability—when taken parties. impracticality principle if, exception, question. often them, rule: All vulnerable charge. 203.3b, 1; Elhauge, Scope Process, 104 Harv.L.Rev. 667, 704-705 (1991).5 suggests, limited defined variously "abandonment responsibilities interests," "corrupt bad faith decisions," 44, "selfish corrupt motives," ibid. Ultimately, asks define "corruption" all, leave task jury: "[a]t bottom, jury's province constituted corruption 43. amicus eschews emphasis instead encompassing interest." Associated Builders Contractors, Amicus Curiae 5. narrowed along vague lines impractical. Few charge interest" sense "corrupt." scheme itself, readily viewed put "private" interest raisin growers "public" consumers. fact benefits segments society harms others; universally considered good net economic loss losers exceeds gain winners. written ignorance reality determination manifold areas entails merely mathematical value judgment, meant shift elected judges juries. Columbia's decision newspaper called "billboard jungles," Record, May 21, 14-A, col. App. 88-1388 (CA4), 3743, interest," consequence, will gone far "compromise commerce," Southern Carriers Rate Conference, 48, 56, 1721, 1726, 36 (1985). better, arguably worse, courts subjective test: interest, so. require sort deconstruction probing official "intent" consistently sought avoid.6 "[W]here complained regardless motives taking action." Hoover Ronwin, 466 558, 579-580, 1989, 2001, 80 590 (1984). Llewellyn Crothers, 765 769, 774 (CA9 1985) (Kennedy, J.). 16 foregoing establishing seeks (however impractically) draw line impermissible prohibiting permitting interest. Another possible, virtue practicality vice being purposes. consider established. relationship guilty accepting bribe he taken, paid. (That frequently asserted criminal charge—and never valid Jannotti, 673 578, 601 (CA3) (en banc), 457 1106, 2906, 73 1315 (1982), plausible fact.) When, moreover, body single individual legislature council, there less reason (by bribing minority decisionmakers) establishes purpose. Cf. Fletcher Peck, Cranch 87, 130, 162 (1810). To influence test undoubtedly vindicates rather blunt way) But construing directed end. Congress aimed combating governments. 18 1951 (Hobbs Act). "Insofar [the Act] sets code ethics activity." 140, 464 (1961). 17 For reasons, reaffirm rejection allow plaintiffs look behind sovereigns base claims "perceived conspiracies trade," Hoover, 580, 2001. reiterate "ipso laws," 568, 1995. mean, course, Act; way qualify well-established "a give violate authorizing them it, declaring lawful." 351, (citing Northern Securities 193 197, 332, 344-347, 436, 459-461, 48 679 (1904)). Schwegmann Brothers Calvert Distillers Corp., 341 384, 71 745, 95 1035 (1951). III While regulation, purport immunize urge However, peculiar democracy, perhaps derogation constitutional right "to petition Government redress grievances," Const., Amdt. category lawful permitted urge. Thus, beginning developed doctrine, like rests ultimately recognition laws, "tailored world, arena." Noerr, 531. party's selfish irrelevant: "Noerr shields concerted effort intent purpose." Mine Workers Pennington, 381 657, 670, 1585, 1593, 626 (1965). 19 come known "There publicity campaign, ostensibly toward influencing action, mere sham cover attempt interfere relationships competitor justified." 144, 533. found behalf restrictive fell view error. 20 classic example filing frivolous objections license competitor, expectation achieving denial expense delay. 642 (1972). involves defendant whose procuring favorable action" Allied Tube Conduit Corp. Indian Head, 486 492, 500, 4, 108 1931, 1937, 100 497 (1988), "who 'genuinely achieve his result, so through improper means,' " 10, 1941, (quoting Sessions Tank Liners, Joor Mfg., 827 458, 465, 1987)). 21 Neither Appeals' theories facts sound. reasoned, first, interaction 'actually [sic] competitor.' 1139 533). relies ignores import critical word "directly." indisputably set out disrupt relationships, lobbying, causing measures, ultimate product lobbying consideration, viz., ordinances. second "that delay entry deny meaningful access legislative fora." 1139. delaying competitor's "sham," unless (as suggested true here) achieved seeks. "If teaches anything foreclose protection." Sullivan, Developments Doctrine, L.J. 361, 362 (1987). "deny[ing] fora," unlawful, "sham." hold Transport, excluding participation context conspirators' itself claimed employed imposing cost ("It 'instituted proceedings without probable cause, merits cases.' 612.) holding situation. extend invoked genuinely, fashion, precisely conversion avoid. Any lobbyist applicant, addition getting himself heard, procedural get opponent ignored. Policing legitimate boundaries defensive strategies, when conducted genuine case, "meaningful fora" course earnest been. wrongful remedies, exemption applies. 22 concluded, inapplicable, recognize immunity—a conspire party employ stifling competition. left possibility Tube, 502, 7, 1938, Oberndorf Denver, 900 1434, 1440 (CA10 1990); First American Title Dakota Land Assn., 714 1439, 1446, (CA8 1983), 1042, 709, 79 173 At affirmed existence dicta, Duke Foerster, 521 1277, 1282 (CA3 1975), Fifth holding, Affiliated Capital Houston, 735 1555, 1566-1568 (1984) banc). 23 Giving consideration first time, rejected. need describe length, forth Part rejecting described, complementary expressions business, politics; former governing, latter citizens' Insofar identification immunity-destroying concerned, generally faces coin. Noerr-invalidating just Parker-invalidating standpoint private-sector participants participants. factors described above, make impracticable identify invalidate lawmaking infected selfishly motivated likewise officials. "It unlikely succeed became 'co-conspirators' Metro Cable CATV Rockford, 516 220, 230 (CA7 1975). And invalidating element unlawfulness (beyond motivation), invalidation policies "deliberately deceived officials" successful said "deception, reprehensible is, concerned." 145, IV Under therefore, entirely resolve dispute us, respect COA. asserts libel, setting inducement breach contract. although cannot stand (since instructions erroneously ordinances, Sunkist Growers, Winckler Smith Citrus Products 370 19, 29-30, 82 1130, 1135-1136, 305 (1962)), alone, preserved, trial. 25 remains claim claims; tantamount finding" violated, 1143. Given reasoning longer applicable. remaining questions remand. reversed, remanded further consistent opinion. 27 ordered. whom MARSHALL join, dissenting. 28 Section provides part: "Every contract, trust otherwise, conspiracy, commerce foreign nations, declared illegal." previously completely literal "every" intended Congress,1 todaycarries extreme deciding agreements municipalities, confer exclusive privileges particular reach History, tradition, demonstrate Court's create "better" inclusive West Virginia University Hospitals, Casey, 83, 101, 1138, 1148, 68 (1991) ill advised. 29 preface "state so-called "Noerr-Pennington" exemptions remind common-law examples prohibited party. official—the Queen England—had her subjects making, importation, sale playing cards generate revenues crown. grant Case Monopolies, Co.Rep. 84, 77 Eng.Rep. 1260 (Q.B.1602), prevailed. Chief Popham explained bench: grant; weal public, patentee, prejudice public; moreover abuse away, shall patent, potius increased benefit void jure Regio." 87a; Eng. Rep., 1264. 31 today, alleges comparable advertising. 3-week composed vicinage despite fathers' denials, indeed agreement, presumably past favors advertising, friendship, beneficial future relationship—and exclusively concern interest.2 Today acknowledges consequences decides exempted coverage fears enunciating allows motivations probed mean innocent harassed baseless charges. evidences unfortunate lack confidence system fosterthe evils eradicate. 32 distinction hand, environment. parlance "regulated industry" prices output firms, collective approval. Economic motor carrier airline industries 1930's; "deregulation" eliminate types continue safety environmental concerns. 33 reflect basic favoring markets regulated markets.3 essence, prohibits unsupervised goods marketplace. prohibition specific subjected supervision price decisions. Moreover, "state-action" reflects understanding intend pre-empt borders. 34 contours state-action relatively cases. Ever Olsen Smith, 195 52, 49 224 (1904), Texas fixing rates charged pilots operating Port Galveston, most identified exemption, substitute sales quotas control—the purest regulation—for raisins. 35 Olsen, pricing decision. 1940 crop raisins administered agency, engages inapplicable. 568-569, 1995-1996, (1984); Bates Bar Arizona, 433 350, 360, 97 2691, 2697, 53 (1977). Underlying fundamental federalism. stated 312: "In dual Constitution, save subtract unexpressed nullify state's control agents attributed Congress." 37 long ago deference due fully undertaken municipalities. Rather, "within geographical limits States" resides [with] Union. exist broad domain two. cities, counties, organized bodies functions, derived from, in, subordination these." Kagama, 118 375, 379, 1109, 1111, 228 (1886). 38 Unlike constitute bedrocks unlike apt promote narrow parochial "without regard extraterritorial impact efficiency." 404, 1132, (1978); Federalist (J. Madison) (describing greater tendency smaller societies oppressive good). choices counseled effects, serious chink armor protection introduced odds established." 408, Indeed, "[i]n dislocation cities place Nation's goals reflected especially unwilling presume exclude reach." 1136-37.4 39 Nevertheless, insofar serve implement policies, enacted clearly articulated affirmatively expressed directive replace regulation." 569, behavior "Acceptance proposition—that implies ordinances—would wholly eviscerate concepts 'clear affirmative expression' precedents require." 843, (1982). 40 Accordingly, State. clarity industry intends terse statement why (1985), illustrates point: "They provision sewage services 47, 1720.5 41 adopts significant enlargement exemption. articulate industry. notes, expressly 'health, community,' ante, 370, Like Colorado's "home rule" powers neutral arguable concluding enter person, favored competition.6 guise welfare, amounted market; recognizes, "obviously [and] compete." Ante, 368. 42 Concededly, difficult differentiate welfare. "Social impacts, social effects." D. Hjelmfelt, Regulated Industries nevertheless important purported constitutes displacing "An disguised limitation advertising lawyers protecting incompetent lawyers. Also, posing encountered health care industry." 3-4. 43 welfare—was my leads fundamentally having incidental effects. Because I cases wisely embark nondelegable immunity, (1904) (Texas pilotage Galveston); (1943) (California program), scrutiny.7 44 reluctance find unauthorized fear subjecting effects scrutiny "made 'the interest.' 377. fear, turn, assumption "it them." 375. 45 "inevitable" precondition wrong.8 am persuaded rule, are, be, disfavored. position plainly Fisher Berkeley, 475 260, 266-267, 106 1045, 1049, 89 206 (1986); Theatre Enterprises, Paramount Film Distributing 346 537, 541, 74 257, 259, 273 (1954). many circumstances, seem reasonable infer—as case—that elevate good. 46 separate protected monopolist threatened construction, attorney's advice When litigation, replaced apparently creating formidable barriers Throughout decisionmaking enacting various demonstrated publicly. noted: "Implicit direction detriment 1127, 1133 1989). 47 Judges closer trial share juries capable recognizing difference independent sole carrying party.9 re Japanese Electronic Litigation, 631 1069, 1079 1980) ("The presumes rational means. contemplate scientific precision resolution fair legal rules"). problems inherent determining illegal substantially arising scrutiny.10 difficulty proving intimidate exempting proved convincing evidence. should, must, deal proof past—through heightened evidentiary standards expansion Matsushita Electric Industrial Zenith Radio 574, 1348, 538 (1986) (allowing summary predatory founded circumstantial evidence); Monsanto Spray-Rite Service 465 752, 768, 1464, 1472, 775 (holding plaintiff vertical price-fixing "tends action"). Unfortunately, today converts enjoys status federalist exercise decisionmaking. applies refusing "conspiracy exception" doctrine nonproprietary capacity, errs extending previous limitations Congress' sweeping mandate support traditions amounts little bold disturbing legislation dramatically curtails statutory trade.11 50 Just convinced "lawmaking 383, remove (1961), Noerr-Pennington petitioner's satisfied record existed affirm 51 respectfully dissent. pertinent person monopolize, combine persons, felony." monetary damages assessed ruled immunized Local 1984, 2750, 34-36, exempts paying violations events retroactively determines, circumstances inequitable subsection pending case." 35(b). determined refused disturb judgment. express matter. (1976) ("Building regulations authorized") "[f]or incorporated towns height, stories size structures." 5-23-20 ("Division districts") divide districts number, shape area best suited carry article. Within erection, reconstruction, alteration, repair buildings, land." 6-7-710 ("Grant zoning") guiding development accordance needs improve morals, convenience, order, appearance, prosperity, governing authorities counties may, conditions procedures specified chapter, bulk, structures. lessen congestion streets; secure fire, panic, dangers, provide adequate air; overcrowding land; avoid undue concentration population; scenic areas; facilitate transportation, water, sewage, schools, parks, requirements." dissent contends successfully delegate municipality, (1) "economic regulation," 388, (2) industry, 391. specificities precedents, defy implementation. If, "economic" squarely discussed text. Seemingly, specify whereunder "decisions body." Post, 387. "output" industry? assuredly is—and gravamen complaint. seems dissent's concession welfare," 393, gross understatement. Loose talk suffice calls "antitrust parlance," 387, definition ought depend. delegation immunity—that pertain industry—the problem used generic term "structures," conferring industry-by-industry (presumably "billboards," "movie houses," "mobile homes," "TV antennas," conceivable object "market" analysis). refute it. Our fail suggest, positively reject, approach. "[T]he 'be able point specific, detailed authorization' assert suit." 39, 1716 415, (1978)). confident tell "independent party." 395-396. No doubt. polar extremes, geographic poles rarely seen jurors vicinage. Ordinarily allegation says enough) prompted "exclusively 387 real difference—whether Solomon difference—between municipal-action-not-entirely-independent - partly -with-private-parties unlawful. how coherently, much answer intelligently. "Independent unobjectionable, "action party" everything else (that world poles) unaddressed. contends, "[t]he fairly read, told prevail interfering market." 396, sum substance "an accomplish manner." 79. "[i]t perfectly government," immediately added, "but conspiracy." Ibid. instructions, then, circular: An something observation, places weight, "if you [COA] procured brought passage hindering, [Omni] thereby conspired, excused laws", ---- 2, instruction "conspiracy." proceeded "very well-defined class [this] inquiry." O'Brien, 391 367, 30, 88 1673, 1682, 672 (1968) (bill attainder). Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development 429 252, 268, 18, 555, 565, (1977) (race-based motivation). Construing concerning contracts unreasonable prohibited. "One presented says. 'every' restrains But, Mr. Brandeis perceptively essence contract; literally, outlaw entire enforceability enables competitive markets—indeed, economy—to function effectively. "Congress, text delineate meaning concrete situations. history makes expected statute's drawing tradition. Rule Reason, origins antedating served [The Reason] focuses restraint's conditions." National Society Professional Engineers 679, 687-688, 1355, 1363, 637 (footnotes confined Act's covered (1943). following Court: "So Plaintiff once again entity procure legislati[on] motive anti-competitive. Defendants together your issue." 81. lower prices, better services. 'The heart competition.' Standard Oil FTC, 340 231, 248 [71 240, 249, 239 (1951) ]. method allocating recognizes elements bargain—quality, service, durability immediate cost, favorably affected opportunity select alternative offers. Even assuming occasional exceptions presumed precludes inquiry bad." Engineers, 695, 1367. Owen Independence, 445 622, 1398, (1980), "notwithstanding [42 U.S.C.] 1983's absence incorporation immunities, have, occasions, tradition firmly rooted strong 'Congress provided wished abolish doctrine.' Pierson Ray, 386 547, 555 [87 1213, 1218, 288] (1967)." 637, 1408. established corporations torts agents. "Where time 1983 enacted, compatible Civil Rights construed incorporate corporations, neither nor supports justify" 638, 1409. Will Michigan Dept. Police, 491 58, 70, 109 2304, 2311, (1989) ("States Eleventh Amendment while ."). Contrary reading industry-specific character Wisconsin explaining articulation' requirement. town's refuse treatment nearby towns—a legislation. 41, 1717. wrote: "Applying 389 [98 364] served." "Nor Towns' Towns liken Home arguing pursue either free-market field analogy Boulder inapposite. Colorado Constitution allocated govern affairs. satisfy component test. cable television. home decide aspect television, concern. Here, contrast, take foreseeably argument was." 43, insufficient mention Claire's surely 'location, structures,' 371, (citation omitted), indirect total 373-374, industries, misreads represents exercises Westborough Mall, Cape Girardeau, 693 733, 746 1982) ("Even characterized 'state action,' thwart injure illegally depriving property furtherance policy"); 378, 379 1977) presence insulate defendants where, trade"). action—the service system—that unilateral Berkeley Ordinance stabilizes rents run afoul 1"). supra. "polar extremes," 5, juries—as Solomon—can identify. mixed below. describes enough liability, ibid., prove square (1986), automatically obstacles discovering conspiracies, frequent difficulties three. price-fixers miscreants seldom admit open. Often, infer behavior. Second, coordinated communication observable Third, causal observable, controllable act—such solicitation meeting—and parallel obscure." Areeda, 1400, 3-4 (1986). Turner, Definition Agreement Act: Conscious Parallelism Refusals Deal, 75 655 (1962) (discussing condemning absent explicit parties). 1972, 62,437 different units country. Of 23,885 goal services, 38,552 represented townships, governance do, participate affect life Nation great variety owners providers aggrandizing interrelate, potential distortion efficient allocation resources, efficiency regime embodied engender." 407-408, 1134,

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