Document: 528 U.S. 62120 S.Ct. 631145 L.Ed.2d 522 SyllabusNOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as being done in connection with this case, at the time opinion issued. The constitutes no part of Court but has been prepared by Reporter Decisions for convenience reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 321, 337. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES KIMEL et al.v.FLORIDA BOARD REGENTS al. CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR ELEVENTH CIRCUIT No. 98791. Argued October 13, 1999 Decided January 11, 2000 Age Discrimination Employment Act 1967 (ADEA or Act), amended, makes unlawful an employer, including State, to fail refuse hire discharge any individual otherwise discriminate against because such individuals age. 29 U.S.C. 623(a)(1). Petitioners, three sets plaintiffs, filed suit under ADEA respondents, their state employers. Petitioners suits sought money damages respondents alleged discrimination on basis Respondents all cases moved dismiss Eleventh Amendment. District one case granted motion dismiss, while each remaining denied motion. All decisions were appealed and consolidated before Circuit. Petitioner intervened appeal defend constitutionality ADEAs abrogation Amendment immunity. In divided panel opinion, Circuit held that does not abrogate Held: Although contain clear statement Congress intent immunity, exceeded authority 5 Fourteenth Pp. 728. (a) satisfies simple stringent test uses determine whether federal statute properly subjects individuals: made its intention immunity unmistakably language statute. Dellmuth Muth, 491 223, 228. states provisions shall enforced accordance powers, remedies, procedures provided sections 211(b), 216 (except subsection thereof), 217 title, (c) section. 626(b). Section 216(b), turn, authorizes employees maintain actions backpay employer (including public agency) Federal State court competent jurisdiction . 203(x) defines agency include government political subdivision thereof, State. text 626(b) forecloses claim existence enforcement provision itself renders incorporate 216(b)s ambiguous. use phrase 216(b) also render less than clear. Finally, inquiry focuses what did enact, when so, infer ambiguity from sequence which textual added 813. (b) This EEOC Wyoming, 460 226, 243, valid exercise Article I Commerce Clause power. powers I, however, do power subject hands private individuals. Seminole Tribe Fla. Florida, 517 44, 7273. grant sovereign Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 456. 1316. affirmative Congress. City Boerne Flores, 521 507, 517. That includes both remedy deter violation rights guaranteed thereunder prohibiting somewhat broader swath conduct, forbidden Amendments text. cannot, decree substance restrictions States. Id., 519. ultimate interpretation determination substantive meaning remains province Judicial Branch. remedial legislation appropriate 5, [t]here must congruence proportionality between injury prevented remedied means adopted end. 520. 1618. (d) purported accordingly invalid. 1827. (1) requirements imposes local governments are disproportionate unconstitutional conduct conceivably could targeted Act. suspect classification Equal Protection Clause. See, e.g., Gregory Ashcroft, 501 452, 470. therefore may age without offending if question rationally related legitimate interest. rationality commanded require match distinctions interests they serve razorlike precision. Rather, rely proxy other qualities, abilities, characteristics relevant interests. proves inaccurate irrelevant. Judged backdrop Courts equal protection jurisprudence, so out proportion supposed preventive object cannot understood responsive to, designed prevent, behavior. Boerne, supra, 532. Act, through broad restriction discriminating factor, prohibits substantially more employment practices would likely applicable protection, rational standard. reliance bona fide occupational qualification defense 623(f)(1) misplaced. decision Western Air Lines, Inc. Criswell, 472 400, conclusively demonstrates far cry standard applies true prohibition absolute, Acts nevertheless remain level akin heightened scrutiny exception permits employers engage prohibited where differentiation based reasonable factors confirms, rather disproves, conclusion extends beyond characteristics, Hazen Paper Co. Biggins, 507 604, 611, whereas Constitution reliance, see, Gregory, 473. 1824. (2) very little unconstitutional, significant, alone provide answer inquiry. Difficult intractable problems often powerful never precludes enacting reasonably prophylactic legislation. One determined difference attempts substantively redefine legal obligations examining legislative record containing reasons action. 530531. A review whole reveals had virtually reason believe unconstitutionally identified pattern States, much whatsoever rose constitutional violation. failure confirms was necessary field. 2427. (e) Todays signal end line who find themselves Those protected statutes, recover employers, almost every Union. 2728. 139 F.3d 1426, affirmed. OConnor, J., delivered Court, Parts II, IV joined Rehnquist, C. Scalia, Kennedy, Thomas, JJ., Part III Stevens, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ. dissenting concurring part, joined. Opinion 1 NOTICE: formal revision publication preliminary print Reports. Readers requested notify Decisions, Supreme Washington, D. 20543, typographical errors, order corrections goes press. Nos. 98791 98796 2 ON WRITS OFAPPEALS 3 [January 2000] 4 Justice OConnor Court. 81 Stat. 602, 621 seq. (1994 ed. Supp. III), these cases, plaintiffs seeking Appeals Circuit, validly we asked consider contains and, proper authority. We conclude 6 * 7 respect his compensation, terms, conditions, privileges employment, provides several exceptions prohibition. For example, normal operation particular business. 623(f)(1). 623(a)(1) action age, 623(f)(1), discharge[s] discipline[s] good cause, 623(f)(3). prohibitions originally applied only least forty years sixty-five 607, 631 (1964 ed., subsequently removed upper limit, now covers 40 over, 631(a). Any person aggrieved bring civil equitable relief. 626(c)(1). enforce certain Fair Labor Standards 1938 (FLSA), specifically incorporates 16(b) FLSA, 216(b). 8 Since enactment, scope coverage expanded amendment. Of importance treatment employees. When first passed 1967, 630(b) III) (defining term exclude corporation wholly owned Government thereof ). 1974, consisting primarily amendments extended application 1974 (1974 28, 88 74. accomplished expansion amendment definition contained 630(b): [employer] instrumentality amended employee, still defining mean employed excluding elected officials appointed policymakers levels. 630(f). same FLSA incorporated reference into ADEA. 61. jurisdiction. [p]ublic generally Government. 74, 633a III). Under current ADEA, mandatory limits law officers firefightersat federal, state, levelsare exempted statutes coverage. 3307(d), (e); 623(j) B 9 December 1994, Roderick MacPherson Marvin Narz, ages 57 58 time, University Montevallo, Northern Alabama. complaint, university discriminated them retaliated filing charges Opportunity Commission (EEOC), College Business, associate professors, evaluation system disparate impact older faculty members. Narz declaratory injunctive relief, backpay, promotions full professor, compensatory punitive damages. App. 2125. Montevallo lack matter jurisdiction, contending barred No party disputes holding On September 9, 1996, Universitys Civ. Action 94AR2962S (ND Ala., Sept. 1996), Pet. Cert. 98796, pp. 63a71a. that, although enact extend 67a, 69a70a. 71a. 10 April 1995, group former librarians Florida University, J. Daniel Kimel, Jr., named petitioner todays Board Regents Florida. Complaint Demand Jury Trial 95CV40194, Record, Doc. 2. complaint add International University. 41. over 40, refused two universities allocate funds previously agreed upon market adjustments salaries eligible contended violated Civil Rights 1992, 760.01 (1997 1998), base pay longer service, most whom 4245. liquidated damages, permanent salary 46. grounds May 17, motion, expressed congressional TCA 9540194MMP Fla., 57a62a. 11 Wellington Dickson Department Corrections, failed promote him he grievances acts discrimination. 83109. Corrections November unequivocally Dept. 5:9cv207RH Nov. 72a76a. 12 defendants Kimel appeals 1433 (1998). Judge Edmondson, stating believed exists doubt (or have properly) enacted pursuant Amendment, id., 1430, rested evidencing Ibid. He noted lacks contain, place, plain can sued court. 14301431. Cox concurred Edmondsons immune brought 1444. Cox, chose address thorny issue Congresss intent, 1445, instead found concluded confers extensive those provides, 1446, proportional response widespread elderlys rights. 1447. Chief Hatchett dissented grounds. 1434. 13 certiorari, 525 1121 (1999), resolve conflict among abrogates Compare Cooper New York Office Mental Health, 162 770 (CA2 1998) (holding immunity), cert. pending, 981524; Migneault Peck, 158 1131 (CA10 (same), 981178; Coger Tenn., 154 296 (CA6 98821; Keeton Nev. System, 150 1055 (CA9 (same); Scott Miss., 148 493 (CA5 Goshtasby Trustees Univ. Ill., 141 761 (CA7 Humenansky Minn., 152 822 (CA8 981235; 1426 (CA11 (case below). II states: 14 construed equity, commenced prosecuted Citizens another Subjects Foreign 15 concern citizens own long aeunderstood stand says, presupposition confirms. 54 (1996) (quoting Blatchford Native Village Noatak, 775, 779 (1991)). Accordingly, century now, nonconsenting Savings Bank Prepaid Postsecondary Ed. Expense Bd., 527 ____, ____ (1999) (slip op., 23); Tribe, 54; see Hans Louisiana, 134 1, (1890). contend Alabama present merits abrogated To petitioners correct, predicatequestions: first, immunity; second, did, acted 55. 16 individuals, apply test: aeCongress constitutionally secured making 228 (1989) Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234, 242 (1985)). agree test. clearly concerning identity defendant dispelled looking 203(x), Read whole, 17 statutory reasons. Brief 15. First, note already provision, 626(c)(1), [a]ny relief effectuate purposes chapter. 626(c)(1) FLSAs argument. [section 216(b)] (emphasis added). accord language, explained repeatedly provisions, options operate together McKennon Nashville Banner Publishing 513 352, 357 (1995) ([The ADEAs] 1938); Hoffman-La Roche Sperling, 165, 167 ([T]he 1938, using (citation omitted)); Lorillard Pons, 434 575, 582 (1978) ([B]ut changes expressly [in ADEA], intended fully remedies FLSA). argument create where, according repeated interpretations there none. 18 next point Relying our distinct context waiver Kennecott Copper Corp. Tax Commn, 327 573 (1946), perhaps simply permit waived suit. disagree. Our read context. Utah authorized taxpayers taxes protest aethereafter return n. Code Ann. 80576 (1943)). undoubtedly courts, fell short required declaration consent courts. U.S., 579580 ambiguity. employee eliminates Copperwhether only, clearactions maintained choice sufficiently indicates 19 Thomas concedes make single section post, 7, concludes requisite clarity events surrounding enactment 626(b), 4. unwilling assume recognized consequences Post, 5. respectfully fact actions. Indeed, precisely 6(d)(1), 61 (amending 216(b)); 28(a), 74 (extending States). confirm us effect mere happenstance. event, speak different gradations depending specific circumstances (e.g., amending opposed time). so. 20 disagree points, 712. acknowledges 626(c)(1)s save indicated 626(b)s proviso. (The chapter sectio[n] thereof) added)). how suggested carry embellishments except authorization permissible one. accept interpretation, portion third sentence collective actions, (An liability prescribed either preceding sentences behalf himself similarly situated). 21 fails 1012. As explained, presence word 1011. Employees Public Health Welfare Mo. Mo., 411 279 (1973), support contrary proposition puzzling, given separate 6(d)(2)(A) Crucial front acknowledgement intend frustrated invocation avail newly 5; 1112. implication statement: Employees, light effectuated 22 considered validity extension governments. 243 (1983), [t]o regulate Art. 8, cl. 3, transgress external restraints imposed commerce Tenth Because power, unnecessary supported 243. But 259263 (Burger, dissenting). Resolution requires decide question. 23 Even vests complete lawmaking area, prevents parties unconsenting 72. Last Term, series decisions, reaffirmed central Tribe. Bank, 4); Bd. 67); Alden Maine, 12). overrule constructive rule Parden Terminal R. Ala. Docks Dept., 377 184 (1964), holding. 16) (Recognizing exact waivers also, practical matter, circumvent antiabrogation Tribe). firmly established precedent then, rests solely 24 Stevens well-established again. Alden, 158) (Souter, dissenting); 2, 2) (Stevens, 713) (Breyer, Prepaid, 1819) 76100 100185 [a]lthough derives common-law tradition, structure history today design. 2324). decision, sufficient occasion substantial adhering 245); 12, 2024); 5455, 5973; Pennsylvania Union Gas 3042 (Scalia, part). dissenters refusal natural import like Hans, rendered ago difficult additional meaningful debate place Constitution. 10, 1416, 56. Today adhere Tribe: 25 445 (1976), principle sovereignty embodies, necessarily limited 456 omitted). Fitzpatrick, numerous occasions. 2); 78); 4648); 59. if, 26 part: 27 1. abridge immunities States; nor deprive life, liberty, property, due process law; deny within laws. 28 enforce, legislation, article. 30 recently (1997), It instance aedetermin[e] needed secure guarantees conclusions entitled deference. 536 Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 651 (1966)). confined merely parrots precise wording 518. 31 Nevertheless, serves limit aeto 519 (emphases 536. purportedly effects redefinition right issue, difficult. 519520. fine recognizing wide latitude determining [that line] lies, Religious Freedom Restoration 1993 (RFRA) evidence RFRAs provisions. uncovered anecdotal standing alone, reveal religious country. 531. Second, RFRA 32 again Patent Plant Variety Remedy Clarification (Patent Act). statute, subjected patent infringement suits, meet let violations. 11) Moreover, unlikely many affected likelihood objectives. 1819). Instead, [t]he apparent basic aims uniform footing regime. 19). While acknowledged concerns insufficient after 1920). C 33 Applying Initially, claims times. 452 (1991); Vance Bradley, 440 93 (1979); Massachusetts Retirement Murgia, 307 (1976) (per curiam). classifications violate 473; 102103, 20, 108112; 317. classifications, unlike governmental race gender, characterized seldom achievement interest laws grounded considerations deemed reflect prejudice antipathy. Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 432, (1985). Older persons, again, suffer aehistory purposeful unequal treatment. 313 San Antonio Independent School Dist. Rodriguez, (1973)). Old define discrete insular minority live life spans, experience it. 313314. 470; 97; 34 conducting overturn [government action] unless varying groups persons unrelated combination [governments] irrational. 97. contrast, discriminates tighter fit discriminatory ends serve. Adarand Constructors, Pe±a, 515 200, 227 ([Racial] narrowly tailored measures further compelling interests); Mississippi Women Hogan, 458 718, 724 (1982) gender aeimportant objectives aesubstantially omitted)). preclude generalizations. [W]here test, aedoes imperfect. 316 Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 485 (1970)). presumptively rational, challenging bears burden proving facts apparently conceived decisionmaker. 111; 35 illustrate principles. generalizations upheld challenge requiring police retire 50. justified ground assured physical preparedness officers. 314315. Officer Murgia excellent health perform duties officer, met 311, 314317. chooses fitness individualized testing 50 [does prove] objective assuring furthered maximum-age limitation. 316. Service 60. explained: If increasing brings susceptibility difficulties, able past 60 invalidate [the statute] similar truth undercut compulsory retirement uniformed Murgia. 108. Missouri judges 70. Noting generalization about old ability judges, [i]t significant deterioration performance 70, probably do, all. Missouris review, imperfect entirely These thus demonstrate person-by-person basis. draw lines doing class-based level, even majority cases. 36 unlawful, context, discriminat[ion] relying exceptions, dispute extent erects protections Constitutions requirements. They prohibition, arbitrary discrimination, corresponds violates 37 stake (BFOQ) 400 (1985), BFOQ defense, permitted fact. 417. rejected argument, explaining aereasonable necessity, reasonableness, 419, significantly different, 421. 38 prima facie unlawful. 623(a)(1); 422 (Under evaluate age). Application starts presumption favor determination. ibid. shifts focus necessity aemeant extremely narrow general 412 restrictive EEOCs regulation interpreting exception. CFR 1625.6(a) (1998) (It anticipated concept [BFOQ] application. Further, construed). succeed believing nearly above qualifications position, highly impractical insure job. 422423 Measured plainly higher burdens Thus, 39 some clause productivity, directly. 611 (1993). Constitution, characteristics. (generalization 70); 108109, 112 officer 60); 314317 50). Congress, effectively elevated analyzing scrutiny. task just or, instead, attempt ________ 1118); appropriateness evil presented. Strong harm unwarranted another, lesser 530 (citing South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 308 41 examination inconsequential problem. compiled attention falls well mark. consists isolated clipped floor debates reports. S. Rep. 93846, p. (1974); 93690, 56 H. 93913, 4041 93300, (1973); Senate Special Committee Aging, Improving Law, 93d Cong., 1st Sess., (Comm. Print 1973); 113 Cong. Rec. 34742 (1967) (remarks Sen. Steiger); 34749 Donohue); 110 13490 (1964) Smathers); 9912 Sparkman); 2596 Beckworth). statements Senator Bentsen indicative strength relied petitioners. 118 24397 (1972) (stating ample broadly practiced newspaper articles employees); 7745 (Letters my revealed guilty toward ([T]here strong indications hiring firing units elderly a). 42 consideration 1966 report California agencies. Hearings 3651 Subcommittee House Representatives Education Labor, 90th 161201 (Hearings) (reprinting California, Advisory Agencies Like assorted cobble decades worth reports debates, study indicate engaged fact, stated survey firefighting occupations. 168. ibid., currently agencies constitute [unconstitutional discrimination] become problem national import. 13). 43 sector, 38, beside point. findings doubts sector extrapolated finding identify ___ 11). 44 determinative inquiry, 1718); 531532, uncover here indiscriminate requirements, hold D 45 Union.1 avenues available today, decision. 46 dismissed. judgment 47 ordered. 48 49 Breyer join, part. American economy sectors labor market. rules outlawing workplace, wages hours safety standards, authorize coextensive impose place. Neither doctrine places 165168 247248 (1983) concurring). 51 ancient judge-made supposedly freestanding authority, protect dignity impairment National Framers not, select Branch guardian important structural safeguards ensure (and enforcement), adequately undue infringement. Wechsler, Political Safeguards Federalism: Role Composition Selection Government, Colum. L. Rev. 543 (1954). 52 compromise giving representation principal composition legislatures guarantee ignored Congress.1 directed composed selected voters consequence strategic yardsticks measurement special centers activity, geographical determinants politics. 546. 53 Whenever passes background place; propriety taking measured metric existing norms seeks supplement supplant.2 persuasiveness justification overcoming inertia action, creating new providing enforcement, judged interests, laws, course, shaped nuanced withhold lower haled forum law, thus, contracted deems proper, acts, contemplates range flexible tools approach delicate balance careful manner.3 quite evident, therefore, view protecting burdensome laws.4 Federalism regulates cases,5 safely presume taken account during deliberative leading measure. cost defending proceedings paying whatever penalties might incurred violating judgment, should conducted exclusively agencies, well, policy decide. once choice, satisfied, evenhanded explicitly endorsed VI countenance limitations. There supporting parties, respecting assign business dictates firm resistance majoritys substitution views federalism signed President. 55 view. before, limitation diversity 286289 (1985) (Brennan, courts defined Here, invoke jurisdiction; asserting arise law. (relying Tribe) novel judicial immunity,6 treats though precept. me asserting, give violations rights, version essence 1323 (1989). convinced correctly decided five Justices profoundly misguided. Despite stare decisis, am controlling precedent. First foremost, reasoning mistaken fundamentally inconsistent conception forsaken usual deference owed Stare furthermore, force area Burnet Coronado Oil 285 393, 406410 (1932) (Brandeis, And instance, hollow pretense seek refuge decisis credibly ordering affairs potential adherence leaves open Nor solace promoting consistent development Payne Tennessee, 808, 827 (1991). perverted invoked deliberate settled unquestionably serious ramifications future cases; indeed, effect, equally misguided (1999). Further still, unnecessarily forces vexing questions overruling earlier precedent, discounted law.7 kind activism manifested represents radical departure role whenever opportunity arises. dissent. 59 Kennedy joins, 234 cognizant 242. aeassures legislature faced, critical matters involved Will Michigan Police, 58, 65 Bass, 404 336, 349 (1971)). especially deals (ADEA), whose mandates elevator operators, janitors, charwomen, security guards, secretaries, office building hierarchy. 279, (1973). think dissent opinion.1 begin reside four corners Private observe 623(a) (providing practices); State); 630(f) employer), establishes right-of-action (Any chapter). Since, possible submitted qualify 62 logical appeal, squarely foreclosed precedentwhich explains employ statement, ante, 9. confronted pre-1974 included following provision: aeAction 283 (1970 ed.). abrogate. Secretary raise 285286, reluctant pursuit harmonious desired treat harshly abrogating 286. aebring district regard amount controversy ) 1415(e)(2) (1982 ed.)). 63 examined Employees. mention augmented diminished concomitant acting responsibly, presumed take silently. 284285. 64 Perhaps obstacle posed FLSA. incorporating reference, remained constant since provides: argued 216(b)one FLSAunequivocally [a]n But, discussion always worded. At relatively sparse 216(b)which immunityprovided [a]ction until modified formulation. Amendments), 66 suggests, view, circumspection theory incorporation. amends Acts, bill references inspire confidence deliberated Acts. here. 6(d)(1) Amendments, acknowledge And, purpose aeassur[e] faced abrogation, Will, 349), indulge fiction (the ADEA) provision. 67 sure, modify suggest 11. 6(d)(2)(A), suggests opposite. limitations 255 (d), suspended running periods cause [FLSA, 18, 1973, date decided, hundred eighty days effective Amendments]. subsectionrevealed entered jurisdictionwas allow 216(b).2 appears, oblivious 255(d), 7(e) 626(e) (1988 ed.) (Sectio[n] title chapter),3 automatically became 1974. yet 255(d) because, observes, 28(a) Amendments. 255(d)s tolling overinclusiveness problem, 255(a)(c). Cf. (incorporating left insouciance inattentive 6(d)(1). 68 Insofar closer terms space certainly outweighs inference 28. notion evidences awareness last ripple best inference, unequivocal abrogation. Dellmuth, 232. 69 advances critique approach, Ante, descriptive observation, agree, hardly probative incorporation presented previous appear 710 (1989), overruled grounds, (1996); 5657 (confirming subsection). subsections time. Gas, 713, (consulting original Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, Liability 1980 1986 accepting situation analogous Gas. setting, later actually earlier-enacted focused various old, combine express 70 clarifying sometimes incorporated, assuming entirety, expression 71 seems creates provision626(c)(1). 358 vital element Title VII Act: grants injured obtain 626(c)); B. Lindemann P. Grossman, Law 573574 (3d 1996) sue 626(c)(1)) (footnote 626(c) identically phrased, compare chapter), ), function. 72 hence superfluousan interpretive pause acknowledge. avoid overlap, exclusive then embellishments, elsewhere 626(c)(2) (trial jury), parts (collective actions); (attorneys fees); (liquidated damages).4 73 course interpretationthat plaintiff choose actionis plausible. force, that: inference. Apparently rule, resorts extrinsic evidence: prior decisions. ( ae[T]he (alteration original)) Hoffmann-La opinions, issued subsequent enactments question, bearing How they, historywhich antedates reviewis irrelevant Amendment? 230. Roche, immunity,5 perfectly extras overlapping follows situated added)), viewed falling outside overlap described above.6 unmistakable insofar describes adjudicate citizen consents tradition barrier 284 distinguish (discussing (1946)), illuminates aspect neither say why modern relative enough absolute satisfy clarity. 75 elucidates recalled, 1973 decided) [1974 Amendments], suspension II,7 face amend 255, ed.), strongly paid scant furnishes guidance purposes, assistance construction purposes.8 76 reasons, opinion. Notes 77 Together 98-796, al., certiorari 78 Alaska 18.80.010 (1998); Ariz. 41-1401 (1999); Ark. 21-3-201, 21-3-203 Cal. Govt. 12900 (West 1992 1999); Colo. 24-34-301 Conn. Gen. 46a-51 Del. Ann., Tit. 19, (Supp. 1998); 112.044, Ga. 45-19-21 (1990 1996); Haw. 378-1 (1993 Cum. Idaho 67-5901 (1995 Ill. Comp. Stat., ch. 5/1-101 Ind. 22-9-2-1 (1993); Iowa 216.1 Kan. 44-1111 Ky. 344.010 (Michie 1997 La. 23:311 51:2231 Me. 4551 (1998-1999 Supp.); Md. Code, 49B, (1998 Mass. Laws 151:1 Mich. 37.2101 1985 Minn. 363.01 (1991 Miss. 25-9-149 213.010 Mont. 49-1-101 (1997); Neb. 48-1001 613.310 (1995); N. 354-A:1 10:3-1, 10:5-1 M. 28-1-1 Y. Exec. 290 (McKinney 126-16 Cent. 14-02.4-01 Ohio 4112.01 Okla. 25, 1101 Ore. 659.010 Pa. Cons. 951 I. 28-5-1 1997); 1-13-10 (1986 Tenn. 4-21-101 Tex. Lab. 21.001 (1996 34A-5-101 Vt. 21, 495 (1987 Va. 2.1-116.10 Wash. 49.60.010 (1994); W. 5-11-1 Wis. 111.01 Wyo. 27-9-101 79 Federalist 45, 291 (C. Rossiter 1961 (J. Madison)) regarded constituent essential absolutely legislaturesa [it] owe governments, consequently feel dependence, beget disposition too obsequious overbearing towards them). 80 form 1a-25a. 3. aggrandize responding takes bolster plan odds plan. forbidding necessitate enlargement bureaucracy decentralize decisionmaking citizens, communities, variety powers. ___, 13) (dissenting opinion); Printz U. S 898, 976-978 (1997) 82 President plays likewise selection electors manner legislatures. cast vote person, chosen Representatives. chusing manner, directs Votes having Vote. added); Amdt. 12. protects ways Articles IV, V, VII. My here, safeguarded ordinary process. reflected vary, Term Limits, Thornton, 514 (1995), concerned, crafted accounted recognize limiting product runs up command. 166-167 instances, crafting doctrines text, guise safeguarding 83 join 84 6. traditional comity asserted sovereign, forum. Schooner Exchange McFaddon, Cranch 116, 136 (1812) (Marshall, J.); Nevada Hall, 410, 414-418 (1979). 85 7. 8-14) (overruling (1964)); 63-73 (1989)); Pennhurst Halderman, 465 89, 127, 132-137 (1984) dissenting) repudiates spanning jurisprudence). 86 concur 87 mind effortsthe qualifies statement. description added), ambiguous infra, contemplate 1991 remove reference. 1991, 115, 105 1079, 626(e). 89 willful 626(b); 581 (1978). 90 implications selective quotation 216(b)omitting words agency). 167168 (This around incorporates, states, pertinent aemay 91 relies, 582), 92 Supra, 8. 7(e), 605, unavailability purports examine form, 255(d). sheds

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