Document: 457 U.S. 55 102 S.Ct. 2309 72 L.Ed.2d 672 Ronald M. ZOBEL and Patricia L. Zobel, Appellants,v.Thomas WILLIAMS, Commissioner of Revenue, Alaska. No. 80-1146. Argued Oct. 7, 1981. Decided June 14, 1982. Syllabus After Alaska amended its Constitution to establish a Permanent Fund into which the State must deposit at least 25% mineral income each year, state legislature in 1980 enacted dividend program distribute annually portion Fund's earnings directly State's adult residents. Under plan, resident receives one unit for year residency subsequent 1959, first Alaska's statehood. Appellants, residents since 1978, brought an action court challenging statutory distribution plan as violative of, inter alia, their right equal protection guarantees. The trial granted summary judgment appellants' favor, but Supreme Court reversed upheld statute. Held : violates guarantees Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Pp. 58-65. (a) Rather than imposing any threshold waiting period entitlement benefits or establishing test bona fides residence, statute creates fixed, permanent distinctions between ever-increasing number classes concededly fide based on how long they have lived State. Sosna v. Iowa, 419 393, 95 553, 42 532; Memorial Hospital Maricopa County, 415 250, 94 1076, 39 306; Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 92 995, 31 274; Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 89 1322, 22 600, distinguished. When distributes unequally, it makes are subject scrutiny under Clause, generally law will survive that if rationally further legitimate purpose. 58-61. (b) has shown no valid interests served by citizens who established residence before 1959 those become then. Neither claimed interest creating financial incentive individuals maintain nor assuring prudent management is related such distinctions. And rewarding past contributions not reasoning could open door apportionment other rights, benefits, services according length residency, would permit states divide expanding numbers classes. Such result be clearly impermissible. 61-64. 619 P.2d 448, remanded. Mark A. Sandberg, Anchorage, Alaska, appellants. Avrum Gross, Atty. Gen., Juneau, appellees. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented this appeal whether scheme derived from natural resources varying amounts, citizen's rights newer citizens. sustained constitutionality 448 (1980). We stayed funds, 449 989, 101 524, 66 286 (1980), noted probable jurisdiction, 450 908, 1344, 67 331 (1981). reverse. 2 * 1967 discovery large oil reserves state-owned land Prudhoe Bay area resulted windfall State, had total budget $124 million 1969, revenues began flow coffers, received $3.7 billion petroleum during 1981 fiscal year.1 This continue, most likely grow some years future. Recognizing reserves, although large, finite resulting continue perpetuity, took steps assure current good fortune bring long-range benefits. To accomplish this, 1976 adopted constitutional amendment year. Const., Art. IX, § 15. prohibits appropriating principal permits use general governmental purposes. 3 In 1980, citizen 18 age older fixed value $50 1979 year; one-year thus receive unit, $50, while became 21 units, $1,050. vary depending amount allocates now estimates 1985 nearly four times 1979. 4 suit migrate there thereafter enjoy full citizenship same terms all Superior Third Judicial District holding violated interstate travel protection. A divided statute.2 II 5 quite unlike durational requirements we examined 532 (1975); 306 (1974); 274 (1972); 600 (1969). Those cases involved laws required new reside minimum eligible certain available basis residents.3 asserted purpose was only persons provided 6 does impose seeking benefits; with less entitled share distribution. Stat.Ann. 43.23.010 (Supp.1981).4 Nor purport residence. Instead, perpetual residents, been 7 Appellants two passed. distinction complain arrived after enactment were prior enactment. instead challenge made within class when 1980. appellants attack include preference given over then, well settled different period.5 8 Amendment.6 Generally, furthers Some particularly invidious more rigorous scrutiny. Apellants claim should subjected higher level applied supra, supra. hand, asserts need meet rationality test. event, cannot pass even minimal proposed decide enhanced called for. 9 advanced accepted three purposes justifying program: creation Alaska; encouragement Fund; (c) recognition undefined "contributions various kinds, both tangible intangible, residency," 458.7 10 As apparently realized, objectives—creating resources—are seeks make 1959.8 Assuming, arguendo, granting increased continued might give stay order reap future, way greater dividends enactment.9 11 furthering support retrospective application date On score contention straightforward: 12 "[A]s population increases, individual stream diluted. equally among increasingly people. If believed twenty fund per capita doubt temptation great urge provide immediately highest possible percentage return investments principal, require riskier ventures." Id., 462. 13 similarly argues encourage rapacious development resources. Ibid. Even assume increasing beginning enactment, amounts resided enactment? think not. 14 last objectives—to reward contributions—alone relied upon 1959. However, objective similar "past contributions" argument rejected U.S., 632-633, S.Ct., 1330: 15 "Appellants argue challenged classification may attempt distinguish old community through payment taxes. . Appellants' apportion tax [or intangible] services." (Emphasis added.) 16 Similarly, Vlandis Kline, 412 441, 93 2230, 37 63 (1973), "apportion[ment of] tuition rates rise grave problems Amendment." 449-450, n.6, 2234-2235, n.6.10 17 can cash depend what preclude university sliding scale residence—or limiting access public facilities, eligibility student loans, civil service jobs, government contracts domicile? Could taxes residence? residency.11 It classes.12 impermissible.13 B consider enact prospectively only. Invalidation necessarily render whole invalid unless evident legislation without portion. Buckley Valeo, 424 1, 108, 96 612, 677, 46 659 (1976); United States Jackson, 390 570, 585, 88 1209, 1218, 20 138 (1968); Champlin Refining Co. Corporation Comm'n Oklahoma, 210, 234, 52 559, 564, 76 L.Ed. 1062 (1932). Here, speculate intent Legislature; expressly provides invalidation renders invalid: 19 "Sec. 4. provision sec. Act [which included entirety] held final judgment, decision competent then nonseverable, provisions force effect." Sess. Laws, ch. 21, course courts severability clause III apparent justification aspect program, "favoring residents," constitutionally unacceptable. 450, 2235. our view hold Accordingly, reversed, case remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion. 23 Reversed 24 BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, POWELL join, concurring. 25 I join Court, agree conclusion aspects dividend-distribution write separately emphasize pervasive discrimination embodied gives concerns somewhat larger proportions cursory reading Court's my view, these prospective operation scheme. 26 O'CONNOR fundamental defects are, part, reflected come "right travel."1 That right—or, precisely, federal free migration—is clearly, though indirectly, affected law, threat migration independent rationale unconstitutional. At outset, however, note frequent attempts assign textual source seem me proved inconclusive unnecessary. plausibly argues, post, 78-81, predates carried forward Privileges Immunities IV. But plausible, think, resides Commerce see Edwards California, 314 160, 173, 62 164, 166, 86 119 (1941), Amendment, id., 177-178, 168-169 (Douglas, J., concurring). light unquestioned historic principle migration, role Nation, feel impelled "ascribe particular provision." 630, 1329, suffices that: 27 " 'The another occupies position concept Federal Union. firmly repeatedly recognized. 28 '. [T]he finds explicit mention Constitution. reason, suggested, so elementary conceived necessary concomitant stronger Union created. freedom throughout recognized basic Constitution.' 630-631, quoting Guest, 383 745, 757-758, 1170, 1177-1178, 239 (1966). 29 clear cases, achieves forceful expression context analysis. if, finding citable passage source, led vitality find unmistakable essence document transformed loose confederation Nation. sort structure operation. 30 undertake enhance advantages industry, economy, desirable place live. addition, boundaries attractive offering direct form services, lower offer, distributions munificence. Through means, attract citizenry. healthy rivalry: inheres very idea maintaining sovereigns framework, fully—indeed, necessarily—consistent Framers' joining single compound offer inventive manner exemplified scheme: For incrementally leaving thereby forfeit his accrued seniority, begin building seniority again mobility essential economic progress commonly social order, survive. today reaffirms important that, respect durational-residency discrimination, desire "to "not purpose." Ante, 63. do "odd," 72, disclaims reliance travel" limitation power. acknowledged illegitimacy heritage—it reflects protected equality. See 1330 ("The services"); 2235, (1973). places recently naturalized immigrant foreign footing able trace lineage back many generations borders. 18-year-old native much 55-year-old resident. discriminates against citizen, favor longer duration; resident, duration. limited discriminations these, did apply migrants sister States, noticeably burdened—yet surely suspect. 32 Amendment anyone territorial jurisdiction suggest treatment denied person does, recognize distinguishing time—by setting forth citizenship. significant Citizenship equates simple residence.2 for, allow degrees residence.3 tolerate short, travel, equality Republic. notes, "divide classes." 64. 33 is, course, bar making reasoned citizens: Insofar ends present difficulty, jurisprudence attests. never suggested duration vel non discrimination. contrary, supported itself. sure, allegiance attachment measured residence—length may, example, used citizenship—and bear rational relationship Cf. Chimento Stark, 353 F.Supp. 1211 (NH), summarily aff'd, 414 802, 125, 38 (1973) (7-year requirement run Governor); U.S.Const., I, 2, cl. 3, 3; II, 5. instances rare. 34 Permissible relevant characteristics. While imprecision unavoidable process legislative classification, ideal requires attention merit, need. almost instances, business past, present: remedy continuing injustices, fill needs, build better actions assessing needs; also predicting ability future performance. extent, utility people engage comparably meritorious service. offers scarce contribution" durational-residence classifications tenuous relation actual 35 Thus, past-contribution proves too little predicate far much, "it citizens." 1330. effect, far-reaching potential application, contribution vague insupportable, restatement criterion purports justify. measure things fact, relevant, resort largesse closely track untenable one's worthier favor. difficult escape underlying shall invariably unstated premise "some others." and, believe, implicitly forms Clause. 36 O'CONNOR, concurring judgment. strikes scheme, purporting rely solely phrase appears fleetingly analysis, dismissed observation analysis refers analysis." 60, n.6. reluctance explicitly odd, because depends assumption Nothing itself, declares illegitimate. (1969), reveals, implementation abridge migration. respectfully suggest, therefore, misdirects criticism labels compensate neither inherently irrational. circumstances, wholly reasonable.1 generalized endurance, where hardship produced prosperity, innately improper. difficulty plans treat favorably term "reward." inequality, recognized, conflicts rather mere "league States." Paul Virginia, Wall. 168, 180, 357 (1869). task, (1) articulate principle, explaining sources, (2) strength imperative. By choosing declare illegitimate, establishes uncertain jurisprudence. What illegitimate? Is illegitimate circumstances? Will "illegitimate" review becomes "important" "compelling"?2 These ambiguities prompt develop own approach distinguishes long-term recent arrivals. Stripped essentials, denies non-Alaskans settling privileges afforded IV, "[t]he Citizens several States," addresses just type discrimination.3 principles implementing addition resolving raised supplies needed foundation claims discussed opinions. 40 Our opinions teach IV's "was designed insure ventures enjoy." Toomer Witsell, 334 385, 395, 68 1156, 1161, 1460 (1948). protects nonresident enters work, Hicklin Orbeck, 437 518, 98 2482, 57 397 (1978), hunt commercial game, Toomer, procure medical Doe Bolton, 410 179, 739, 201 (1973).4 fortiori, protect "citizen B" settle home. 41 case, forces nonresidents accept status inferior oldtimers. operation, $1,050 Alaskan $500, $50. told "Your you here. migrated bounty here you." Surely imposes "disabilities alienage" prohibited 180. argued trigger nonresidents. argument, misinterprets system. classifies former residential status, relative burden Residents valuable oldtimers preceded them. arrive tomorrow smaller fact unfolds insulate Each group chooses move lives favorable earlier. circumstance disfavored already live negate "the [Alaska]" home labors continuous disability.5 43 applies system, describe proper standard review. Baldwin Montana Fish Game Comm'n, 436 371, 1852, 56 354 "without unnecessary distinctions" "engage activity exercise right." 387, 1862. engages conduct "fundamental" "bea[r] Nation entity," affords 383, 1862, 1860. 44 Once ascertains burdens "essential activity," two-part First, 'something indicate non-citizens constitute peculiar evil aimed.' 525-526, 2487 (quoting 398, 1163). Second, "substantial relationship" practiced noncitizens. 527, 2488. 45 Certainly infringed "fundamental." choose State.6 imagine Just system experiment programs, New Ice Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 386, 747 (1932) (Brandeis, dissenting), allows programs best tailored her tastes.7 encumbrance satisfy dual identified Hicklin. "peculiar source" addressed disbursement arrivals turnover problem. Indeed, urges special persuading young adults, grown maturity remain there. Brief Appellees 35, n.24. evidence old, foolishly deplete Finally, compensates intangible hardly "evil" partaking having contributions. multitude Alaskans—including children paupers—may failed contribute past. Yet dock paupers failures contribute, awards every 47 evils, chosen cure bears malady. dissenting judges below observed, largest longest awarded small them size weak contributions, finally, ill-suited. mathematical precision, demands contributed significantly arrival, natives. 48 reasons, conclude reach destination along precisely identifies evils 49 outlined above litigant interstate.8 historians, surprise. Article enjoyed association interstate. 50 derives IV Articles Confederation. latter "free ingress regress State," guaranteeing inhabitants [the] immunities States."9 Framers omitted reference regress," retained guaranty "privileges immunities." Charles Pinckney, drafted version Convention "formed exactly 4th article Confederation." Farrand, Records 1787, p. 112 (1934). Commentators, assumed express merely redundant, wished excise Constitution.10 51 Early Justices traced Corfield Coryell, F.Cas. 546, 552 (No. 3,230) (CC ED Pa.1823), Washington explained through, state." Wall., found "undoubt[ed]" effects egress ." Ward Maryland, 418, 430, (1871). Wheeler, 254 281, 297-298, 133, 135, 65 270 (1920), fused distinct concepts: peacefully in, from" States. History, supports assessment infringements address conceivable previously denominated travel. controversies involving task reuniting elusive embodies. Because believe concur insofar reverses 53 REHNQUIST, dissenting. 54 represents effort unique Although wealth deposits substance allocation being nature regulation, am loss behind denial regulations presumptively valid, violate rarest circumstances: "When local regulation violating consistently defers determinations desirability discriminations. See, e.g., Lehnhausen Lake Shore Auto Parts Co., 356 [93 1001, 351] Unless trammels personal drawn suspect race, religion, alienage, decisions presume interest. accorded wide latitude economies police powers, substantially exactitude." Orleans Dukes, 427 297, 303, 2513, 2516, 511 (1976). Minnesota Clover Leaf Creamery 456, 715, (1981); Railroad Retirement Board Fritz, 453, 368 (1980); Hughes Alexandria Scrap Corp., 426 794, 2488, 220 Despite highly deferential taken toward regulations, retroactive concludes justifications third justification—the contributions—is objective. recognizing considering infringement travel,1 majority itself rightly declines strict right-to-travel cases. ante, 60-61. issue impedes person's anything, prospect receiving annual immigration cannot, simply language about legitimacy relevance us. So understood, passes muster. There acted concluded statehood "recognize 'contributions intangible,' residency." 458 (Alaska 1980). perhaps Union, reason contributions.2 based, dissent guise analysis.3 striking down seems momentarily forgotten power views constitutes wise policy." Dandridge Williams, 471, 486, 90 1153, 1162, 491 (1970). Dept. Revenue Sources FY 1981-1983 (Sept.1981). (Includes General unrestricted $3.3 deposited $400 million. An additional $900 transferred year.) census reports 270,265; $13,632 Petroleum 89% revenue. infusion Legislature giving one-third exemption residence; operated exempt entirely residency. 3-2 vote, Constitution's clause. Williams 422 Rabinowitz, justice statute, "be perceived penalty imposed Alaska." P.2d, 458. periods divorce courts, Iowa; nonemergency care, County; voting Blumstein; welfare assistance, Thompson. Section 43.23.010(b) provides: "For he section "(1) age; "(2) part paid." remainder units method payment. 43.23.010(f) subsection prorated months native-born Alaskans states; discriminate exercised long-time born 1962 $100 someone 1960. Of moved involve kind prevent. applicable case. considered accepted, yet remained obscure. Jones Helms, 452 412, 417-419, nn.12 13, 2434, 2439-2440, 69 118 629-631, 1328-1329; 757-759, Z. Chafee, Three Human Rights pp. 188-193 (1956). protecting erection barriers movement, requirements, disadvantaged otherwise treated differently reality, Right examined, terms, newcomers involves therefore enumerated Sess.Laws, 1(b): "(b) mechanism equitable state's energy production belonging Alaskans; reduce state; "(3) awareness involvement expenditure (art. 15, constitution)." Thus objectives legislature. response stabilizing encouraging justify maintained justified 461-462, n.37. Dimond, 469-471. dissatisfied leave well-established residents; larger, smaller, wanted discourage emigration. separation persuade welcomes wants stay. reducing interpreted inhibit encountering insurmountable difficulties. 629, 1328. ironic Representative Randolph debate statute: "The pipeline entity allowed us we're doing, session. newcomers, couldn't built pipeline. Without skill, ability, money, wouldn't get bit tired of—and I've got hunch awful lot five six seven ten years, whatever knock off chastized penalized discriminated years." Apportionment "fundamental rights" deemed "basic necessities life." 259, 1082. "Such produce nothing discord mutual irritation, possess it." Passenger Cases, How. 283, 492, 702 (1849) (Taney, C.J., dissenting). Starns Malkerson, 326 234 (Minn.1970), 401 985, 91 1231, 527 (1971), read contrary affirmance adoption supporting Fusari Steinberg, 379, 391, 533, 540, 521 (1975) (concurring opinion). Colorado Springs Amusements, Ltd. Rizzo, 428 913, 920-921, 3228, 3232, 1222 (1976) (BRENNAN, dissenting); Edelman Jordan, 651, 671, 1347, 1359, 662 (1974). Moreover, pointed out 452-453, n.9, 2236-2237, commonwealth. notably stake account determining national fluid movement. always easily translated involved, intensified implicated "actual movement," "state residents." "[A] can, volition, therein, State." Slaughter-House 36, 80, (1873). 112-113 (Bradley, dissenting) ("A perfect go chooses, citizen"). American aversion aristocracy developed elsewhere 9, ("No Title Nobility States"). Virginia Declaration (1776), R. Rutland, Birth Bill Rights, App. (1955) ("no man, set men, exclusive separate emoluments community, consideration publick services"). time volunteer organizations. graded devoted service, said intended contributions." Alternatively, credit ecology alternative fuel sources recycling plants. retroactive, benefit launched improvements fashionable, once dismiss goals inquire lacks masks puzzling refusing extend objective, implies described n.1, demonstrated compelling promoting conservation measures. opinion, review, actually insures "Citizens," 'citizen' 'resident' 'essentially interchangeable' Clause." n.8, 2486, (1978) Austin Hampshire, 420 656, 662, 1191, 1195, 530 (1975)). refer "nonresidents" "noncitizens" corporations. word "Citizens" suggests excludes aliens. 177 (dictum); Tribe, Constitutional Law 6-33, 411, n.18 (1978). Any prohibition aimed aliens corporations derive provisions. (1871) (The "plainly unmistakably secures engaging lawful commerce, trade, business, molestation; acquire property; [and] take real estate. ."). Note, Analysis Bar Residency Requirements Interstate Harv.L.Rev. 1461, 1464-1465, n.17 (1979) (labeling "technical"). points out, 59-60, n.5, differentiates Alaskans, tying birth. distributed age, beneficiaries 25-year-old Texan Alaskan. moves explain age-based objectionable. "burden" immaterial, lacked completely differences treatment; judge quality G.A.F. Seelig, Inc., 294 511, 523, 497, 500, 79 1032 (1935) (the framed theory peoples sink swim together, prosperity salvation union division"); 180 ("Indeed, removing disabilities alienage privilege Republic constituted league States; exists"); (1941) (Constitution "attempts isolate difficulties common restraining transportation property across borders"). requirement, treats say, fail (one obtain divorce), survived above. showed requirement. misrepresent Iowa divorces susceptible collateral reasonable problem requiring demonstrate obtaining divorce. confident adequately identify requirements. Articles, few Colonies Rhode Island Charter gave members Colony passe repasse freedome, rest English Collonies, civill occasions." Massachusetts Body Liberties provided: "Every man Jurisdiction libertie, standing Civill power, remove himselfe familie pleasure same, legall impediment contrarie." 178. liberality foreigners entering Colony: "If Nations professing true Christian Religion flee Tiranny oppression persecutors, famyne, warres, like compulsarie cause, They entertayned succoured us, prudence god us." attitudes contrasted restrictive prevailing 17th-century Europe. 163-171. 185; Travel Exclusionary Zoning, Hastings L.J. 849, 858-859 Comment, Travel: Search Source, Neb.L.Rev. 117, 119-120, n. Strict Scrutiny Travel, UCLA L.Rev. 1129, 1130, n.7 (1975). 661, 1195 (footnotes omitted) (Article Confederation "carried comity briefer change intent, strengthen fashioning nation"); 294, 134, (1920) ("the text Constitution, manifest corresponding perpetuate limitations; conclusively room controversy"). relies Shapiro, "touche[d] movement" promoted "compelling interest." 638, 1333 (emphasis original). concerned Connecticut, dicta impermissible 6, expressed disagreement 286-287, 1095-1096, (1974) (REHNQUIST, 468-469, 2244 (same), analyze Compare 60-61, 261-262, 1083-1084, 634, 1331, 1333. noted, borne unusual expenses hardships: 'A constitution, complete range expensive taxation. boast couple pulp mills. enterprises catered mostly needs. modest amounted medium-sized city continental 'Accordingly, small. Yet, great. overhead modern society. instance, relatively roads, furnish normal protection, customary school facilities. remains superlatives. Subarctic engineering new, face permafrost conditions frequently cause roadtop buckle heave. Police one-fifth forty-eight roads available. Flying life enforcement officials Alaskans—an life. "Bush schools" scattered Aleutian chain, Yukon Valley, Seaward Peninsula islands southeastern maintain. until picture changed.' 462, n.37 C. Naske, Interpretive History Statehood 169-170 (1973)). disagree suggestion contravenes assures enjoy: "It ago whose complained of. alluded create threw around security exercised. profess control governments 77,

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