Document: 485 U.S. 112 108 S.Ct. 915 99 L.Ed.2d 107 CITY OF ST. LOUIS, Petitionerv.James H. PRAPROTNIK. No. 86-772. Argued Oct. 7, 1987. Decided March 2, 1988. Syllabus Two years after respondent, a management-level employee in one of petitioner city's agencies, successfully appealed temporary suspension to petitioner's Civil Service Commission (Commission), he was transferred clerical position another city agency, from which laid off the next year. In respondent's suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, jury found liable on theory that First Amendment rights had been violated through retaliatory actions taken response his appeal. The Court Appeals affirmed judgment entered this verdict, finding implicitly determined layoff brought about by an unconstitutional policy. Applying test "policymaker" is whose employment decisions are "final" sense they not subjected de novo review higher ranking officials, court concluded could be held for adverse personnel made supervisors. Held: reversed, and case remanded. 798 F.2d 1168 (CA 8 1986), reversed Justice O'CONNOR, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, SCALIA, that: 1. Petitioner's failure timely object Federal Rule Procedure 51 instruction municipalities' 1983 liability their employees' acts does deprive jurisdiction determine proper legal standard imposing such liability. same issue raised motions summary directed considered decided Appeals, likely recur litigation against municipalities. Review will undermine policy judicial efficiency underlies 51. Pp. 118-121. 2. applied incorrect determining when isolated municipal officials or employees may expose municipality identification having "final policymaking authority" question state (including local) law, rather than fact jury. Here, it appears City Charter gives authority set Mayor Aldermen, who empowered enact ordinances, Commission, function hear appeals. Petitioner cannot unless respondent proved existence promulgated authority. Aldermen did ordinance permitting transfers layoffs. Nor has indicated were permissible; has, contrary, granted at least partial relief series appeals decisions. Appeals' findings supervisors individually reviewed "substantive propriety" supervisory accorded substantial deference appeal, insufficient support conclusion delegated establish transfer When subordinate's discretionary constrained authorized policymakers, they, subordinate, have final Positing delegation based mere acquiescence in, investigate basis of, serve 1983's purposes where (as here) wrongfulness those arises motive other unstated rationale. 121-131. BRENNAN, MARSHALL BLACKMUN, agreed supervisor first agency possess allegedly unlawful decision dead-end job, but any tortfeasor doubt, although law naturally appropriate starting point, ultimately factfinder must actually resides, simply applicable purports put it. BRENNAN also "custom usage" doctrine compensate inherent inflexibility approach relies exclusively apply subordinates facto, statutory, authority; rendered nonfinal because subject some form review, however limited; open whether can that, while itself, give rise constitutional deprivations. 132-147. J., announced delivered opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE JJ., joined. filed opinion concurring judgment, joined, post, p. 132. STEVENS, dissenting ----. KENNEDY, took no part consideration case. James J. Wilson, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Charles R. Oldham, St. Louis, Mo., respondent. O'CONNOR SCALIA join. 1 This calls upon us define itself 1983. 2 * principal facts dispute. Respondent Praprotnik architect began working Louis 1968. For several years, consistently received favorable evaluations job performance, uncommonly quick promotions, significant increases salary. By 1980, serving planning Community Development Agency (CDA). 3 Director CDA, Donald Spaid, instituted requirement agency's professional employees, including architects, obtain advance approval before taking private clients. CDA objected requirement. April suspended 15 days CDA's Urban Design, Kindleberger, accepted outside without prior approval. body charged with reviewing grievances. Finding penalty too harsh, suspension, awarded backpay, reprimanded failed secure clear understanding rule. 4 Commission's well CDA. Kindleberger later testified believed lied Spaid angry 5 Respondent's two annual performance markedly less previous years. discussing these apparently mentioned displeasure 1980 appeal Commission. both Department Personnel. each case, ordered upheld Personnel 6 1981, new came into office, replaced as Frank Hamsher. As result budget cuts, number layoffs significantly reduced size section worked. Respondent, however, retained. 7 spring 1982, second round occurred At time, Heritage Design (Heritage) seeking hire someone qualified architecture urban planning. Hamsher arranged Heritage, Henry Jackson, certain functions Heritage. arrangement, possible employ relatively high-level "city manager," approved Jackson's supervisor, Thomas Nash. then fill position. transfer, declined suffered reduction pay grade. District Court, alleging unconstitutional. named defendant, along Hamsher, Jackson (whom deleted list trial), Deborah Patterson, succeeded 9 became embroiled disputes successor, Robert Killen. dissatisfied work assigned, consisted unchallenging far below level responsibilities previously enjoyed. obtained appealing decision. 10 December attributed lack funds, meant create lower positions funds being used amended complaint lawsuit include challenge layoff. He proceedings forum postponed pending never completed. Tr.Oral Arg. 31-32. 11 went trial theories: (1) suspension; (2) carried out pretextual reasons violation due process. returned special verdicts exonerating three individual defendants, theories. Judgment verdicts, appealed. 12 A panel Eighth Circuit process claim submitted erroneous vacated portion judgment. With judge dissenting, verdict holding violating rights. (1986). Only holdings challenged here. 13 Id., 1173. 1173-1175. contention policies scope "highly circumscribed" allow fairly said initiated leading injury, responsible setting 1175. 14 Turning rational injured policy, "orchestrated" amounted "constructive discharge," injury reached fruition eventually Nash 1175-1176, n. 8. jury's defendants reconciled "the directly causing lay off, actual damages arose." 1173, 3. Cf. Los Angeles v. Heller, 475 796, 106 1571, 89 806 relied our Pembaur Cincinnati, 469, 1292, 452 power Charter, rules properly respected. F.2d, 1180. dissent evidence proving established retaliating 1179-1181. even if there record would retaliation suspension. 1181-1182. 16 We certiorari, 479 1029, 871, 93 826 (1987), we now reverse. II 17 begin addressing threshold procedural issue. presented petition certiorari reads follows: 18 "Whether local government appellate procedure officials' defer original decisionmaker's constitutes imposed act alone, neither pursuant rule general applicability nor specific application adopted formal process?" Pet. Cert. i. 19 Although manifestly framed light argues preserve objection instructions Arguing parties treated "policymakers" trial, emphasizes given following instruction, offered itself: 20 "As principle, its employees. However, committed official high enough so her represent decision." App. 113. 21 Relying Oklahoma Tuttle, 471 808, 105 2427, 85 791 (1985), Springfield Kibbe, 480 257, 1114, 94 293 contends should only plain error, tested sufficiency evidence. Declining defend vigorously insists alleged comply 22 preserved issues ways. First, pretrial motion alternatively pleadings. motion, argued allege impermissible indicate existed. Second, close renewed all evidence, notwithstanding verdict. 23 arguments do bring question, lose sight fact, stressed "decision grant represents commitment scarce resources view deciding merits more questions petition." U.S., 816, S.Ct., 2432. true, writ dismissed sought trial. us, focus denial render 'law case' verdict." supra, 264, 1118 (dissenting opinion) (citations omitted). Court—that policy—was consistent advocates. It surprising much detailed makes Appeals. That, imply certiorari. 165—167 (STEVENS, dissenting). Accordingly, find obstacle very clearly considered, decided, 24 note, too, throughout confronted landscape contours "in evolving definition uncertainty." Newport Fact Concerts, Inc., 453 247, 256, 101 2748, 2754, 69 616 (1981). therefore believe raising "is important municipalities," id., needs clarification, courts litigants fairer chance craft require scrutiny review. III A. 25 Section Ku Klux Act 1871, Rev.Stat. 1979, amended, provides: 26 "Every person who, color statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage, State . ., subjects, causes subjected, citizen United States within thereof deprivation rights, privileges, immunities secured Constitution laws, shall party action equity, proceeding redress. ." 27 Ten ago, municipalities bodies "persons" meaning statute. Such sued caused tort "a statement, officially body's officers." Monell New York Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 690, 98 2018, 2036, 56 611 (1978). pointed authorizes "for deprivations visited governmental 'custom' though custom decisionmaking channels." 690-691, 2036. rejected use respondeat superior inflicted government's "lawmakers edicts policy." 694, 2037-2038. 28 rejection superior, insistence governments results "policies," arose language history here, crucial terms statute provide "subjects [a person], [that person] subjected," Aware natural persons, when, cause violate person's Reading statute's legislative history, vicarious incompatible causation face See 691, That conclusion, like widened recognizing unheard repeatedly reaffirmed. See, e.g., Owen Independence, 445 622, 633, 655, 39, 100 1398, 1406, 1417-1418, 63 673 (1980); Polk County Dodson, 454 312, 325, 102 445, 453-454, 70 509 (1981); 818, 5, 2433-2434, (plurality opinion); 828, 2438-2439 (BRENNAN, judgment); 478-480, nn. 7-8, 1297-1299, 7-8. 259, 2755 ("[B]ecause 1871 designed liability, defeat promise recognize pre-existing immunity serves compatibility 1983"). 29 undisputed requiring take Court's Without attempting draw line between independent agents, left "full contours" developed further "another day." 695, 2038. 30 since cases involving assumed inferred single highest area business. supra; Penbaur, 480, 1298-1299. end spectrum, unjustified shooting police officer cannot, more, thought 821, 2435 830-831, 2439-2440, judgment). 260, 1116 opinion). 31 Terms Pembaur, undertook precisely occasion unable settle formulation, BRENNAN's articulated guiding principles. majority responsible, "that is, sanctioned ordered." 1298. 483, 1300 Third, particular law. Ibid. Fourth, making 482-483, 12, 1299-1300, 32 Courts already diverged interpretations Compare, example, Williams Butler, 802 296, 299-302 (CA8 1986) (en banc), cert. sub nom. Little Rock Williams, 86-1049, Jett Dallas Independent School Dist., 748, 759-760 (CA5 (dictum). Today, again clarify last addressed Pembaur. B 33 reiterating "Authority make enactment possesses authority, course, law." opinion).1 Thus federal usual sense. extremely wide latitude takes, preferences led profusion distinct forms. Among many kinds corporations, political subdivisions, districts sorts, expect rich variety ways distributed among host different bodies. generally C. Rhyne, Law Local Government Operations §§ 1.3-1.7 (1980). canvass numberless factual scenarios come litigation, confident (which valid ordinances regulations) always direct responsibility business.2 34 not, predicting speak perfect clarity. reason suppose, greater difficulties here routinely address contexts. aware shared body. adopt relating administration compatible Charter. Art. XVIII, 7(b), 62-63. part, required "prescribe enforcement provisions article, pursuance thereof, inconsistent therewith." 7(a), 62. Assuming reviewable vice versa, conclude either attributable itself. event, justified assuming lies somewhere And certainly justification giving discretion 35 plurality recognized, arise contended policymaker official. 12. If exercise violation, indistinguishable If, lawful policymakers insulate delegating others, intended purpose. elegant resolve conundrum, principles useful guidance. 36 whatever analysis identify egregious attempts themselves precluded separate doctrine. long recognized plaintiff able prove widespread practice written express "so permanent settled constitute 'custom usage' force Adickes S.H. Kress & Co., 398 144, 167-168, 90 1598, 1613-1614, 142 (1970). affected subsequent cases, ensures most deliberate evasions sharply limited. 37 necessarily 481-484, 1299-1301. official's making, policies, departures them, municipality. Similarly, municipality's retained measure conduct conformance policies. approve it, ratification chargeable final. C 38 Whatever refinements suggested future, little difficulty concluding reaching decide forbade retaliate advantage grievance mechanism 1980. compensable taken. Finally, city. Even resolved favor, affirm 39 contend anyone ever promulgated, articulated, attempt himself. read angered Commission; chose, passed informal means, transferring him agency; scheme led, year half later, assumes says nothing whom makers matters administration. enacted similarly situated On correct improper actions. deny repeated relief, hinted permissible. points indicating interpret enforce Article XVIII 2(a), 49: 40 "Merit fitness. All appointments promotions service measures control regulation positions, separation therefrom, sole merit 41 "appointing authorities," Killen, initiate layoffs, "policymakers." officials; decisions, all, circumscribed manner gave decisionmaker. 1174-1175. propositions Killen respect To expressly states duty: "To consider matter involved [Civil Service] article accordance therewith referred director [of personnel], appointing employe, taxpayer city, commission final, subject, right States." 7(d), 63. 43 resembles hypothetical example Pembaur: "[I]f [city] [Mayor Commission], [those] bod[ies'] true Commission] [appointing authorities] fire [they] exercised manner. 1300, authorities Simply going one's subordinates, them equally presumption faithfully supposed guide them. subordinate cast statement supervising policymaker. manifested aware. 130. realistically deemed happened formulated lower-ranking But amount especially circumstances, served treating employee's reflection 44 finds implications discussion think necessary correct. 142—147. nowhere say imply, charter's precatory admonition discrimination fitness effectively insulates Post, 145, 7. Rather, embodied allocate individuals Refusals carry stated obviously help show ones announced. showing made, today. 45 "gaping hole" filled vague concept "de facto authority." 144. Except perhaps step towards overruling adopting ad hoc searches possessing " primarily foster needless unpredictability IV 46 accept broad suggestion entitled inference exonerated appear depend similar STEVENS' 171, accept. Our examination suggests warranted discussed. task best free invite additional briefing argument necessary. remanded opinion. 47 ordered. 48 KENNEDY 49 BLACKMUN join, 50 Despite somewhat confusing background, bottom presents straightforward question: Agency, possessed Hamsher's job. ago (1986), I concur reversing below. write separately, commendable desire today's "define enough" ante, 123, embrace unduly narrow unrealistic, permit small minority policymakers. worked licensed architect, career 1968 planner risen mid-level management (CDA), garnering evaluations, raises, rapid during intervening marked turning point fortunes civil servant. year, failing secondary professionals undertaking work. head 1978, (CSC), arguing invasion privacy event complied CSC validity excessive, reinstate backpay letter reprimand lieu 52 Testimony revealed pleased actions, "very down on" testimony CSC. Record 1-54 1-55, 3-237. October just decision, overall rating "good" recommended two-step decrease six months earlier proposed salary grades, citywide scale reorganization. viewed recommendation petitioned relief; Department, considers initial challenges ratings, approving one-step reduction, disposition 53 witnessed change administrations arrival Director. remained evaluation, 1981 rated merely "adequate" overall. confidential memorandum superiors explained get citing former Spaid. "good," Personnel, relief. 54 Six underwent major staff reductions and, resulting reorganization, duties consolidating vacant Commissioner unnecessary, Public Safety Nash, consolidation, formally proposal. move CSC, reasoning classified consolidated grade "lateral" "adverse" action. Thereafter, successor rights.1 55 meantime, over architectural tasks ostensibly assigned mainly duties, arrangement latter highly unsatisfactory. November "inadequate" salary, classification Nonetheless, substantially downgraded summer abolishing altogether. plan off. reflect simultaneously stayed pendency lawsuit. machinery, thereby personally ills befallen Conspicuous absence, counsel argued, motivating behind infected evaluations; elimination Heritage; counsel, defended choice "primarily responsible" 4-56. 57 instructed answer wrongs "committed lengthy advised favor "Hamsher [respondent's] and/or layoff." 118. $15,000 claims 58 (a ruling claim. claim, reasoned accountable improperly motivated indirectly, behalf essentially test, noted department heads, undertake substantive conditioned compliance procedures. Moreover, engaged deferential reveals, lateral transfers, authority's 59 Having ample latter's turn precipitated constructive discharge theory, found, verdicts: motivation proximate dismissal but, administered blows, Patterson "personally involved" instructions; accordingly, reasonably liable. 1176, 8.2 60 below, central respecting transfers. unfulfilling, am constituted abuse entrusted him. 61 derives significance determination (1978), every wrong rejecting emphasized touchstone allegation protected Constitution." More recently "official policy" "to distinguish municipality, limited responsible." 479-480, 1298 (emphasis original). 62 Municipalities, business governing human agents. Where agents practices law," (1970), ascribe hold Monell, pregnant unpaid leave fifth month pregnancy, doubted capable subjecting (1981) (City Council canceled concert content-based reasons); (1980) resolution firing Police Chief pretermination hearing). nor, suggests, reflected "policies" term commonly understood, perfectly obvious organs, themselves.3 And, exclusive province legislature national level," 1298-1299, executive policymaker, therefore, likewise [its] behalf," 1174. behalf; rather, four explained, [challenged] action." 481, 1299. Thus, noted, "[t]he official—even official—has discretion." 481-482, way illustration, if, county, Board Commissioners county Sheriff alone manner, unlawfully Board." out, areas, practices, so, short, Concerts fair isolated, bodies, regardless govern future situations. contested conduct, treat deprivation. 64 my view, controls authority," transferee agency. confers heads otherwise, promulgate binding guidelines criteria how accomplished. reveal matters. There indication, purported institute announce concerning Instead, discloses decision—the respondent—which program fiscal restraint budgetary reductions. most, then, demonstrates effectuate superiors, Like laterally; punish injury.4 suggest together orchestrated ultimate layoff, constitutionally animus. Because identified decision,5 suffered. 65 These determinations, seems me, sufficient dispose unnecessary decide, does, are. necessity course passing announces restrict reach 66 begins assessment Louis' structure asserting means "not sense." 124. explains, referring statutory Not surprisingly, cites startling proposition, formulaic unrealistic fashion. "where it." Ante, 126. acknowledges, myriad slight dignity few real apparent diverge, still others fail disclose rests. Indeed, upholding Prosecutor Sheriff's office forwarded followed areas. 485, 1301; ibid. (WHITE, concurring); 491, 1304 (O'CONNOR, concurring). While splintered camps generated five opinions Member reliance extrastatutory county's allocation improper. agree juries open-ended "discretion itself," 126 added), predicate regrettably vague, plurality's solution tosses baby bath water. sense," rightly 67 adequately leaves doctrine, see 167, 1613, bearing usage." Under Yet fall gaping hole construction actor official, deprivation, definition, well-settled carrying law.6 68 reasons, subscribe overly rigid "final." Attempting place gloss finality requirement, whenever review—however limited—that nonfinal. wields affirmatively 127. Reviewing invoke plenary oversight powers circumscribed. 4, supra. effect pronouncement subject. Certainly considerations jury, concerned niceties draftsmanship realities decisionmaking, practical one.7 endorse determination, own Mayor, Louis. hardly ends matter; indicated, thus could, reaches result, analysis, turns blind eye reality, ignores court's disputed, deferential, refused propriety falling jurisdiction. account predecessor, what readily acknowledges regarding employment;8 modified sanctions devoid substance hollowest divest save mayor clarity ease commend rule, steadfast conviction Congress injuries lawmakers, "by mechanical "finality" fundamentally odds pragmatic inquiry contemplated join perceive unwarranted abandonment traditional factfinding 71 emphasize despite suggesting today need "prove[s] 128. Just Term, time (1987); (1985). forecloses consideration. 72 above, remanding resulted 73 dissenting. 74 personal vendetta quite impose top administration, relying grounds, truthfully occasions, public controversy importance members cabinet. No narrowly standards affirmed. 75 order explain why affirmance precedents,1 complete disputed comment posture discuss character wrongful disclosed record. 76 hired During ensuing decade, promoted "superior" ratings. increase immediate superior. 1-51. 77 occasions critical (CSC) successful 15-day oral voiced objections approval.2 offended CDA.3 78 (HUD) connection proposal acquire controversial rusting steel sculpture Richard Serra. undisclosed offer sculpture, erection removal structures expended $250,000.4 government, possibly supported acquisition Serra superiors.5 They duty loyalty expressing sculpture. defendant testified: "I'm fond wasn't then. elected people installation 79 "Therefore, forums look like." 3-180. 80 Defendant point: 81 "Well, obligation senior boss which, happens mayor. would—I something do." 3-250. 82 After recipient culminated menial assignment "grossly qualified," 1-80, eventual layoff.6 preparing ratings incident, unusual" regulations.7 implementing "there reason" transfer—except, seem, incident."8 asserted 1983—a funds—was pretextual.9 83 amply supports administrative HUD.10 testify opposition Constitution. Given government. dispute identity persons violation. alternative Either (who defendants) accountable, or, responsible. 84 contains good deal participation himself.11 closing argument, defense attempted exonerate defendants.12 full acting gifted freethinking exercising 1983.13 86 little, any, denied contained affidavit stating "was 'connivance' mayor, mayor's chief staff, director." questioned proposition liable.14 87 advancing argued: 88 "I understand you liable—a allowed someone's that." 3-28. disagreed initially attorney, 119; Brief 48; Reply 6: 91 Instruction 15, 113.15 92 late erroneous.16 permitted raise contemporaneous-objection until brief Court. "should attention certiorari." 2432 relevant instruction. Opposition 10-11.17 Apparently acknowledging error instructions, views preserving 120. disputed. unfair defeated litigant tried agrees, opponent's law.18 Although, Appeals," 119, poor practice, bulldozer reshape 'in uncertainty.' 120 (citation wiser run Nevertheless, "set Pembaur," 124 opinion), precedents 95 corporations Since corporation incapable doing anything except beings, activity undertaken litigation.19 96 dealing was, female Services Education constitutionality pregnancy leave. Once "person," assume departments doubt nevertheless litigation. 97 (1980), faith officials. premise rights." 1406; 1470, 39. fired notice hearing, Manager publicly property room. applicability; nonetheless, problem city.20 seizure bind (1985).21 common-law measuring reject possibility might predicated 471, 1294, definitively occasion" award Sheriffs doorstep recalcitrant doctor "go [the witnesses]" charges fraud doctor. 473, 1295. arrest warrants witnesses search warrant doctor's well, advice unconstitutional, Steagald States, 451 204, 1642, (1981), Prosecutor's commanded Brennan wrote: "[A] frequently chooses tailored situation decisionmakers, surely 'policy' understood. importantly, once repeatedly." 1299 (footnote Powell correctly dissent, focus[ed] almost status decisionmaker." 498, 1308. enforced (Monell) ; sufficiently stature acted (Owen) (Pembaur). precedents, 103 Both acknowledge regulations. 479-481, 1298-1299; 123 (plurality), 139—140 (concurrence). reference nonstatutory "policy," plainly embraced word covering applicability. Instead class remembers "what policy?" "when agents?", inclusion sense, misdeeds low not. 104 Every kind "statement" out; assumption across cases. Lower way. dictate responses various potential controlling decisionmaking; perceived broken Dr. Pembaur's door officer's initiative, seen overanxious officer, sent message officers countenanced. One himself forward wrong"; himself, self-correction accomplish task, countywide ramifications. him, high-ranking ramifications, situations, follow lead.22 low-ranking differ nature, torts differ. An illegal (Pembaur) (Tuttle) category. thing common open"; unconstitutionality events (the breaking-in ) comported norms. typical pits story another; everyone admits occurred, sharp, central, reasons—the motivation—behind nature avoid Owen's relevance clear. willing nonrule process, "underground," were. truly remarkable foolish "formal process," pretext concerns, Owen. large (or subordinates) break-down-the-door lead) opportunity heard whistleblowers dealt fashion offend superiors. Furthermore, discharging council formally—for type commit formally—so speech informally—for informally. individuals, officials—including himself—cooperate whistleblower rights.23 Unlike replace becomes "appropriate point" "assessment structure." 143, 145. Municipalities expected predict assess "actual structures," uncertainty easily lead hard regime governed charge invested else, inevitably capricious, lens factfinder's evaluation believes incorrectly reflects perceptions congressional underlying 148, ignore "high" "low" extent decisionmaking," "perceived itself." 171. Whether conducted judges juries, imprecise adjudication principled analysis. reason, justify introducing difficult. STEVENS 1, interpretation Congress' intent. execution customs, solely 2037, (1978); plurality, self-evident legally so. 924, nothing, notion unauthorized "potential" become as" dropped moved things, "were 118 added). phrase "and/or" understood mean "and." 1172-1173, construed inconsistent. "assumed decision," elevates talisman. imposes laws. interpreting Congress, held, intend cities tortfeasors. inflicts superfluous: bare inflict harm. erred equated CSC's accord great appeals, Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 500, 2794, 2800, 394 (1985); Varig Airlines, 467 797, 815, 2755, 2765, 660 (1984), lacked infra at, provides complicity sustain conspiracy espoused unwelcome reception drew Mayor's office. else strength dissent's flawed respect: refer mention testimony. liberty associates; explains forestall "egregious policies," "most limited." 127 (emphases redress "most" deprivations, limit "egregious." asserts "[w]hen municipality." quarrel abstract, Again, mechanisms. prohibiting discriminatory shield prohibition, irrelevant, event. careful label Spaid's directive "requirement" draws fine semantic distinctions. "promulgated 'secondary employment' architects," "[respondent] resented 2-3 would, easy disavowed dicta Part 691-695, 2036-2038, 714, 2074 part). commentators remain convinced 1933 834-844, 2441-2447, (1985) dissenting); 489, 1303, (1986) Whitman, Responsibility Constitutional Torts, Mich.L.Rev. 225, 236, reiteration contrary ipse dixit opinions, 2433-2434; 477-480, intelligible boundary agents' departure intention context, endeavor involves "new theory," 125, (plurality). guided judge-made "extremely latitude" "local preferences." "Q. [Mr. attorney] Mr. Praprotnik, period salaries Charter? "A. Praprotnik] Yes. $25,000 annually. right. employment— Yes, document? questionnaire rating. Now, form? did, Now. Were employment? April, 29th, information your supervisors? did. Did gave, detail, places worked? past, explaining practiced architecture. suspended, protest anybody correction you? Commission? ruled myself. Could tell me length was? fifteen days. reinstated back pay? was." 1-45-1-47. Ms. Ronzio, singled information. was—in asked this, listing was—and ethical practice." 2-35. Oldham] rating, is—this 30th, [Director Planning, CDA] day, decrease? understand, know, similar, that—at increase—and occurring shortly thereafter decrease. What that? 'The director, [Director, 1981], you.' exact words. Commission." 1-54-1-55. Ronzio] guess irritated whole point. gotten adequate cooperative might. thought, believe, looking participating conciliatory procedures described Duffe [City Personnel], whereby unsatisfied talking other. dissatisfaction, inappropriate Jim lawyer got told Brewster [Deputy Director, CDA]." 3-230-3-231. Praprotnik? Kindleberger] sounds felt honest, honestly words effect? don't know time." 1-57, 1-58, 1-60, 1-66, 2-94, 2-141. want Does refresh memory recollection incident? do. What—could approximately incident occurred? immediately Market Street, that. meeting liaison Agency. requested chairperson appropriateness spot? That's was. conformed Gateway Mall, center space courthouse." 2-3-2-4. Do appeared regard sculpture? [Ms. Buckley, Chairperson, HUD] attend "Mr. capacity. committee before. presenting City. describe present hearing room interest interest. applicants [sic] projects wanted bring. in— Was there, too? yes, knew whispering around faces familiar people, watch." 2-88-2-90. conversation transferred; elevated Deputy Development, Office, June, off]? called morning. 'muffed it.' You shouldn't have— Meaning concealed their—from exposure about? City's expenditure block amounting $250,000 develop originally, remove result—was factors rating? 2-4-2-6. rate Karetski, Planning factor, yes." 3-45. [L]et break ask There's Hamsher] downtown here? term. yes. displeased done? Will upset newspaper morning quoted, for, recommend disagree I'm like. disciplinary No, note important, that's didn't Frankly, 3-179-3-181. Committee? Is commissions enter truthfully? Well, had— obviously, truthful. he's do? personal, awfully somehow staff's it's things managers upset; he? fact. spoke Isn't Pulitzer family interested this? Emily She connected Post-Dispatch? she married publisher." 3-249—3-251. I'd 1982. transfer? [O]n 23rd, director's weeks recommendations agency." Commissioner, services? place, historic preservation position, grades level." unknown dismissal], receive [1982]. Let hand Plaintiff's Exhibit 92, page thereof. qualifications overqualifications position? paragraph related 'Have changed period,' states—Mr. space: 'Mr. Praprotnik's included unit supervision staff. capacity vacancy junior existing grossly overqualified.' 1-66 1-67, 1-71, 1-79—1-80. Would menial? Buckley] would." 2-88. given? Brewster] operating procedure, think, procedure. Certainly, So Kindleberger's telling unusual? unusual. study determinations recall, discrepancies memo on—I Can Brewster? exhibits. recall memory? so-called measured, quantifiably qualifiably. So, actuality, "And, two, rater one, collaborated done, estimation, completely regulations specifically influenced person." 2-106—2-107, 2-109. needed services facility? I'll go minute incident. meeting, unfortunately, "He expressed, say, disappointment saying need. "On coming come." 2-90. What's total [HUD] [1982] then? $144,339. [1984]? hundred fifty thousand. there's $6,000? Yes." layoff? Insufficient funds. notice? 1-83, 1-85. responding plaintiff's evidence: "Plaintiff thrust true. Required reports weren't others. effect. Reduced nine three. allegation. 1st. Transferring nonmanagement, nonsupervisory Failure goals measured. things. laying 30th furtherance pretextual." 3-26—3-27. [T]here [HUD's] board; correct? "A budget, involve Estimate Apportionment, president director—I'm sorry, comptroller. Those people? They're correct." 1-74—1-75. [A]fter May '82, claiming injure damage supervision? am. be? staffing funding Heritage? CDA? long? know? implemented HUD]. layoff; May. How continue director? switched Then assistant; right? aide. "You controlled Department's budget? affect its, time. Are maintaining budget. played strong influence departments." [W]hat claiming, anything, direction demise up options available asking transferred. play role group E You're using 'could.' things? influence. anything? influence." [H]ow CDA], defendant? supervised all; agency? What, you, meetings A." 2-75—2-77, 2-81—2-82. [W]hy fairly? Zelsman, colleague above position." 2-97—2-98. [From deposition; trial] advisors purpose countless meetings. hadn't Had done initiative transfer. Safety], paperwork Praprotnik. request nobody you; concurred myself out." 2-174, 2-177—2-178. Who authority? Duffe] depends situation. Apportionment cases; knowledge." 2-180. Anybody yourself, [transfer agencies]? Edwards, Executive Development] particularly guess, adopted, pretty generally. remember divergence recommendation." 2-185—2-186. do, Hamsher? occupation? development Saint [Discussion 1982 layoffs] voice concerns mayor? Oh, reaction concerns? listened. discussed forth. 'Go ahead off'? 3-134, 3-167. [Y]ou mayor; doesn't keep tight rein operations City? Sure." [transfer], sort pushed wouldn't done. try 3-184—3-185, 3-200. "Now, seriously matter. defendant. guy one—not on, man allegedly, according lengths retaliate, retaliate. "Don Okay? "Who off? really signed Rob form. He's prepared Patterson. Killen's boss, Tom Nope. Let's hang guys." 4-50—4-51 concurrence disapproves ground testimony." 142, 5. suffice response. "must" preclude grounds well. recognizes, 135, quote text field fails "sufficient below." latter, sustained exists support, rendered. detail II, examine retaliated freedom speech. quotations introduced judgment: "In instant Plaintiff [municipal] refers instance complaint—at 29(c), wherein followed. absence allegations indicative exists, City, liable." Memorandum Support Motion Summary Alternative, Pleadings 16, contentions indeed, discern defendants' receiving reconsideration, accompanied affidavit, text, motion. Proposing strategy, Presumably representing hoped focused innocent higher-ups implicated. verdict—judgment city—this strategy partially failed. inconsistent, participated litigant's method instructions: "At directs, file requests instruct forth requests. inform court, election, both. assign objects thereto retires distinctly objection. Opportunity jury." (Emphasis added.) liability: "An servants usage 1983." A, holding. motions, "much nonetheless "preserve[d] sparsely ones, overcome evidentiary insufficiency. case—a slow accept—such quickly spoil moving admits, opponent shown offering "theme" Monell—"that found"—has "difficult" largely employs." supra 236. words, tort, involved. principle Owen, Members varying explanations conclusion: "[T]he release action—that custom—of city," 832, 2441 body—whether past future—because unquestionably policy," J.); "Formal involve, voting reports, extended deliberation, records 'may policy.' 1309 (Powell, offers explanation dissent: "We business." 123. concurrence's "Nor liability." 138; 139, ought differently duly narrowest BRENNAN. infer inadequate training. inference, disguise. proof training wait day. (1987) (dismissing improvidently issue). Central Tuttle act. surprise, pyramidal pervades instance, distinguishes agent agent; "authorized transactions continuity service," transaction service." Restatement (Second) 3(1), (1958). distinction usually accompany incidental forbidden principal, authorized." 161. agent, "has contracts conveyances make," exceptions. 161A. binds principal. known extends far. Likewise, city) deals rely organizing behavior. firm "basis theory" bound recognize, institution, beings. see, Independence; erring unpersuasive, multifarious "area-by-area" do; none "personnel" virtue rank, thread characterized "policy" "influence," gunshot errant colleagues, other, follow.

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