Document: 525 U.S. 182119 S.Ct. 636142 L.Ed.2d 599 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 97 930 VICTORIA BUCKLEY, SECRETARY STATE COLORADO, PETITIONER v. AMERICAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW FOUNDATION, INC., et al. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR TENTH CIRCUIT [January 12, 1999] Justice Ginsburg delivered the opinion of Court. 1 Colorado allows its citizens to make laws directly through initiatives placed on election ballots. See Colo. Const., Art. V, §§1(1), (2); Rev. Stat. §§1 40 101 133 (1998). We review in this case three conditions places ballot-initiative process: (1) requirement that initiative-petition circulators be registered voters, §1 112(1) (1998); (2) they wear an identification badge bearing circulator's name, 112(2); and (3) proponents initiative report names addresses all paid amount each circulator, 121. 2 Precedent guides our review. In Meyer Grant, 486 414 (1988), we struck down Colorado's prohibition payment for circulation petitions. Petition circulation, held, is "core political speech," because it involves "interactive communication concerning change." Id., at 422 (internal quotation marks omitted). First Amendment protection such interaction, agreed, "at zenith." 425 have also recognized, however, "there must a substantial regulation elections if are fair honest some sort order, rather than chaos, accompany democratic processes." Storer Brown, 415 724, 730 (1974); see Timmons Twin Cities Area New Party, 520 351, 358 (1997); Anderson Celebrezze, 460 780, 788 (1983). Taking careful account these guides, Court Appeals Tenth Circuit upheld State's regulations, but found controls issue excessively restrictive speech, therefore declared them invalid. American Constitutional Law Foundation, Inc. Meyer, 120 F.3d 1092 (1997). granted certiorari, 522 ___ (1998), now affirm judgment. 3 * The complaint action was filed 1993 United States District pursuant 42 U.S.C. § 1983; challenged six many process. Plaintiffs, respondents, included Inc., nonprofit, public interest organization supports direct democracy, several individual participants refer plaintiffs-respondents, collectively, as ACLF.1 ACLF charged following prescriptions law governing petitions violate Amendment's freedom speech guarantee: petition least 18 years old, (1998);2 further ibid.;3 limitation period months, 108;4 (4) badges stating their names, status "VOLUNTEER" or "PAID," latter, name telephone number employer, 112(2);5 (5) attach section6 affidavit containing, inter alia, address statement "he she has read understands petitions," 111(2);7 (6) requirements disclose (a) time file petition, address, county voter registration circulators, money per signature, total (b) monthly basis, proponents, proposed ballot measure, owed circulator during month, 121.8 4 Court, after bench trial,9 portions disclosure requirements, age six-month limit circulation. 870 F. Supp. 995, 1001 1004 (Colo. 1994). "limits persons available circulate and, accordingly, restricts core speech." 1002. Nevertheless, court requirement. 1980, noted, had been adopted by voters constitutional amendment. ibid. For reason, believed, restriction "not subject any level scrutiny." Ibid. 5 affirmed part reversed part. (CA10 1997). That properly sought guidance from recent decisions access, see, e.g., 351 (1997), handbill distribution, McIntyre Ohio Elections Comm'n, 514 334 (1995). F.3d, 1097, 1103. Initiative-petition resemble distributors, both seek promote support particular position. id., candidate-petition signature gatherers, access. common with upheld, reasonable regulations process, restriction, 1098 1100, 1101.10 held invalid trenching unnecessarily improperly expression. 1101 1105. II 6 As recognized upholding requirement, allowing considerable leeway protect integrity reliability respect processes generally. Biddulph Mortham, 89 1491, 1494, 1500 1501 (CA11 1996) (upholding single unambiguous title proposals amend Florida's Constitution), cert. denied, 519 1151 Taxpayers Assessment Cuts Austin, 994 F.2d 291, 293 294, 296 297 (CA6 1993) Michigan procedures checking voters' signatures petitions).11 times said "no litmus-paper test" will separate valid ballot-access provisions interactive restrictions; come upon substitute hard judgments made." Storer, U.S., 730; Timmons, 359; Anderson, 789 790. But requires us vigilant making those judgments, guard against undue hindrances conversations exchange ideas. 421. detail why satisfied that, restrictions question significantly inhibit about change, not warranted state interests (administrative efficiency, fraud detection, informing voters) alleged justify restrictions.12 Our judgment informed other means employs accomplish regulatory purposes. III 7 By amendment §1(6) (1980), corresponding statutory change next year, 1981 Sess. Laws, ch. 56, §4, added residents, voters.13 Registration, Attorney General explained oral argument, demonstrates "commit[ment] law-making process," Tr. Oral Arg. 10, facilitates verification residence, 14. Beyond question, drastically reduces persons, volunteer paid, inquire whether concerns warrant reduction. 358. 8 When before numbered approximately 1.9 million. At 400,000 eligible vote were registered. 159 (testimony Donetta Davidson, official Secretary office);14 1100 ("Colorado acknowledges there qualified unregistered state.").15 9 Trial testimony complemented statistical picture. Typical submissions, proponent Paul Grant testified: "Trying you're drawing people who involved normal partisan politics most . [L]arge numbers people, natural support, voters." 128. 10 earlier supra, 5, testimonial evidence: "The record does show limits sign [initiative] Supp., Because requirement's source referendum approved Colorado, deemed prescription [judicial] misjudgment corrected Circuit: may no more Constitution enacting general assembly legislation." 1100. 11 reasoned voter-eligible population produces diminution very kind produced ban Meyer. agree. merely eligible, scarcely debatable given uncontested numbers, 9, n. 15, decreases pool potential certainly decreased circulators.16 Both "limi[t] voices convey [the proponents'] message" consequently, cut "the size audience [proponents] can reach." 422, 423; Bernbeck Moore, 126 1114, 1116 (CA8 1997) (quoting Meyer); 423 (stating, further, reduced chances would gather sufficient qualify ballot, thus limited proponents' "ability matter focus statewide discussion"). case, "imposes burden expression State failed justify." 428. 12 severely, asserts, "it exceptionally easy register vote." Reply Brief 6; Petitioner 30 31. ease which vote, lift time. Of course individuals fail out ignorance apathy. post, (O'Connor, J., concurring dissenting part). whom, trial shows, choice implicates thought 14 organizer Jack Hawkins). A lead plaintiff long active party doubt "'able willing' message," cf. part) testified his refusal "form private protest." 223 William Orr, executive director ACLF). Another similarly stated refuse "they don't believe process responsive needs." 58 Jon Baraga). misses point.17 13 dominant justification appears strong policing lawbreakers among circulators. seeks ensure amenable subpoena power, matters extend beyond borders. 32. reaching violators, served below, submit setting out, particulars, "address he resides, including street number, city town, [and] county." 111(2) 4, 7. This attestation, note, immediacy, reliability, voter's lack. attestation made section submitted; lack currency. did challenge right require said, "more precisely achieved" service objective. Nor eligible-to-vote qualification contest lawsuit. maintains difficult determine resident voter. force argument diminished, attesting residence section. 15 sum, assuming needful integrity-policing measure we, like Circuit, occasion decide parties warranted. cuts message carriers arena without impelling cause. IV 16 enacted provision requiring 1993, five decision 183, §1.18 insofar display names. 1104. rule constitutionality elements provision, namely "requirements volunteer, whom." do we. 17 Evidence presented found, "demonstrated compelling inhibits participation petitioning process." 1001. veteran ballot-initiative-petition stated, "very definitely willing work degree go public." 127 Grant).19 witness told harassment personally experienced hemp petition. He reluctance face recrimination retaliation bearers "volatile" issues sometimes encounter: "[W]ith badge, makes afraid." 60 Other advocates reported "potential personal badges." urges enables identify, apprehend, engage misconduct. 36 37; 17. Here again, unsuccessfully 6, concern; 7, contain, along collected signature. notarized submission, enforcers, renders less badges. 19 While reveals record, tuned speaker's well State's. Unlike worn soliciting signatures, separated moment speaks. explained, "forces reveal identities same deliver 1102; operates when reaction immediate "may intense, emotional, unreasoned," affidavit, contrast, expose risk "heat moment" harassment. Cf. (observing affidavits instantly accessible, likely used "for purposes harassment"). 20 (1995), instructive here. complainant prohibited distribution anonymous campaign literature. writing urging defeat issue. Applying "exacting scrutiny" Ohio's prevention justifications, violated Amendment. 347, 357. "Circulating akin distributing handbill," observed us. involve one-on-one communication. restraint severe McIntyre. fleeting encounter, endeavor persuade electors 21, 25 26. endeavor, "of necessity desire discussion merits 21 injury heightened compels precise anonymity greatest. 1102. inclusion [election process] requirement[s]" alluded 353 ("We recognize enforcement might shown scant cause inhibiting leafletting here."); (Ginsburg, concurring). Appeals, met only completed electors, exemplifies type left room.20 22 conclude, current discourages forcing reiterate qualification: final observation, noted ACLF's "arguments evidence focus[ed] entirely identification] requirement"; therefore, expressed additional status, whom "would pass muster standing alone." confine decision. V 23 Like post-Meyer 1993. §1.21 trimmed provisions. pay submitted State, reports period. 121 set 8. invalidated information specific particular, circulators' circulator. 1104 modified decision, thus, effectively, 24 addressed demanding "detailed disclosures." concise paragraph, rejected compelled (residential business) month question. 121(2)(b), (d) identified infirmity required reporting call measures engaged. 121(2)(a), (c). express prescriptions, alone, survive ruling circulations, looked primarily Buckley Valeo, 424 (1976) (per curiam). necessary campaign-related payments 64 65. nevertheless substantially related important governmental interests, recordkeeping, reporting, Federal Election Campaign Act 1971, 86 3, amended, 88 1263, 431 seq. (1970 ed., IV). 66 68, 84. provides electorate "as where comes how spent," thereby aiding evaluating vote. "deter actual corruption avoid appearance exposing large contributions expenditures light publicity." 67; Grosjean Press Co., 233, 250 (1936) "informed potent restraints misgovernment"). 26 Mindful Buckley, upset whole." (Rehnquist, C. dissenting). Notably, payors, spent collect regard, supporting amici stress importance control check domination affluent special groups. ("[T]here increasingly product monied interests."); Council Governments Amici Curiae ("Today dominated professional firms."). Disclosure sponsors, amounts gathering initiatives, responds interest. 1003 ("What payor, payees."); Court's Rule 37.6 (requiring "every person entity monetary contribution preparation submission brief"). 27 Through remain place, get ballot; words, "who [a measure]," provided funds circulation." benefit revealing lower courts fairly determined whole, hardly apparent demonstrated.22 28 furthermore, "quid pro quo" present to, for, candidates. 427 428 (citing Nat. Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 790 (1978) ("The perceived cases involving candidate simply popular issue.")); McIntyre, 352, 15. addition, corruption, thereof, remote stage balloting." 427. Finally, absent contrary, "we prepared assume whose qualifications similar future assignments depend reputation competence accept false motivated having proposition ballot." 426.23 29 agree appraisal: Listing income "forc[es] surrender enjoyed counterparts," 1105;24 tenuously serves, extent target "fai[l] exacting scrutiny," VI problematic measures, meet regulating aims specifically, deter diminish corruption. 24, 42, 45; 13, 14, To serve interest, retains arsenal safeguards. 426 427; 1103, 1105; 130(1)(b) (1998) (making criminal forge signatures); 132(1) (initiative-petition void circulation). inform "where [the] from," omitted), reiterate, legitimately sponsors pays much. 31 grass roots placement proposal proponent's representing percent votes cast candidates previous election. §1(2); 109(1) 426; Furthermore, aid veracity, clarity, array contested here ACLF. These prescribe, limitation, 106.5(1)(a) method, 116, large, plain-English notice alerting signers law's 110(1), text subscribe, 111(2). 32 33 reasons conclude correctly proper access unjustifiably Therefore, 34 Affirmed. Notes 35 1. Individual plaintiffs included: David Aitken, who, chairman Libertarian organized petitions; Baraga, coordinator Hemp Initiative; Craig Eley Hawkins, Safe Workplace Initiative Worker's Choice Care Lonnie Haynes, initiative-supporting member ACLF; Alden Kautz, numerous Bill voter, regularly participated wanted minor 1092, 1096 1097 1997); Respondents Aitken 2, 6. 2. Section provides: "No shall circulated elector eighteen circulated." 37 3. one reside Colorado. 101(1)(b). residency action. 38 4. 108(1) relevant part: effect unless secretary within months date titles, clause, summary fixed sections 106 107 ." 39 5. 112(2) "(a) All circulating includes words 'VOLUNTEER CIRCULATOR' bold-faced clearly legible name. "(b) 'PAID legible, employing circulator." "bound compilation forms include copy [ballot] measure; ruled lines consecutively electors' signatures; page contains 111(2)." 102(6). 41 "To attached signed, notarized, dated executed section, her printed county, signed affidavit; listed electors; petition; thereon affixed presence; purports be; best knowledge belief signing was, signing, elector; believes pay, indirectly, thing value signer purpose inducing causing affix filing thereto Any invalid." "(1) "(2) state, due ten days last day behalf Monthly forth following: proponents; residential business circulators; "(c) being "(d) question." 43 9. cross-motions trial. 997 44 10. "age commonly proxy maturity," "maturity reasonably preserving elections." 1101. Such need satisfy "[e]xacting "neutral" "temporary"; "merely postpones opportunity circulate." limit, orderly lines; again "[e]laborate verification," "reasonable window," sensible, "nondiscriminatory regulation." 1099 responded " 'ensure possess various degrees initiative, exercise care prevent mistake, fraud, abuse obtaining thousands throughout state.' Loonan Woodley, 882 P.2d 1380, 1388 1389 1994) (en banc)). denied cross-petition regarding issues. 45 11. Nothing should suggest agents State. Although accountable compliance legitimate controls, 111, 130 act themselves initiatives. 46 12. keeping "now-settled approach" "impos[ing] 'severe burdens' [must] narrowly tailored interest." (Thomas, judgment). 47 13. place ballot. 905(1) (only "eligible elector" petitions); 104(16) ("eligible defined "registered elector"). 48 Volume transcript reprinted Pro-Se Plaintiff's App. I 94 1576 (CA10), cited hereinafter 49 fact, residents closer 620,000. Dept. Commerce, Bureau Census, Statistical Abstract 282 (1993) (Table 453). More statistics 65 voting-age 1997. 289 (1997) 463). Using exclude 964,000 proportion extraordinary comparison proportions States. generally 50 16. Persons "convicted drug felons franchise punishment," dissenting), could barred dissent's concern hordes dealers," swell ranks unstoppable regulation, undue. Even imaginary suggestion children foreign lands far behind. familiar parade dreadfuls calls mind wise counsel: "Judges lawyers live slippery slope analogies; supposed ski bottom." R. Bork, Tempting America: Political Seduction 169 (1990). counsel applies O'Connor's floodgate fears today's which, separates financial backers (opinion 51 O'Connor observes primary office "classic" examples permissible regulation. hired collector, notably different category. unanimously paying petitions, surely imply tolerate sponsor's hourly piecework candidacy. 52 18. 905 (regulations circulators). 53 19. ("I want jail. And, won't think it's right.") Grant). 54 20. observed, 1101, neither Riley National Federation Blind N. C., 487 781 nor Martin City Struthers, 319 141 (1943), wear. North Carolina restricting solicitation charitable fundraisers. ordinance prohibiting knocking door ringing doorbell unchallenged portion fundraisers i.e., employer's donors. 799, dictum Martin, "a stranger community" establish identity authority represent. 148, Neither specification solicitor's revealed. either counterpart puts record. 55 21. disclosures 56 22. states "[k]nowing [will] allo[w] members evaluate sincerity or, alternatively, bias approaches them." Post, It so, containing hand "approac[h]." 57 23. suggests "occasional process" follow night "paid commit circulators." Far ultimate finding effect, preventing "financial resources [initiative proponents]" "special interests" "significantly advanced [a] petition." 1003. reports, risked "to intimidation, retribution manner requirement." 24. receives, "[d]istinguishable affidavit," part), individually 59 Opinion O'Connor, J. BUCKLEY INC. 61 ____ U. S. (1999) 97-930 62 63 Breyer joins, undoubtedly significant component. asks engaging 414, (1988). imposition concerned Grant. concern, burdening one-on-one, communicative aspect strict scrutiny. 420. 67 Not circulation-related however. Some govern electoral directing qualifies latter indirectly step removed maintain Accordingly, standard 68 respect, elections. Regulations invariably one's associate necessary, "if [elections] honest." (1974). allow nature overly rights, developed flexible succinctly described Burdick Takushi, 504 428, 434 (1992): 69 "[W]hen [First Fourteenth Amendment] rights subjected restrictions, drawn advance importance. imposes reasonable, nondiscriminatory restrictions." citations 70 test, Burdick, Hawaii's write-in voting, holding imposed voters. 433-441. 362-370 Minnesota banned fusion candidacies ground asserted "sufficiently weighty" interest). application precedent. Prior applied test rational governed administrative aspects Rosario Rockefeller, 410 752, 756-762 (1973) enroll prior voting impose onerous 71 Under approach, threshold inquiry imposing indirect burdens If former, reasonableness. I. 72 badges, specifically §1-40-112(2)(b) fails, Requiring while regulates introduces into dialogue otherwise refrain delivering, shows deters disseminating messages. logic ante, 12-14, cannot identifying apprehending requirement-that identify volunteer-is below resolve, it. II. 73 majority, §1-40-112(1) indeed classic example analogous eligibility primary); 728-737 requirement). Chief observes, parallels Columbia certify neutral 74 views qualification, becomes incidentally terms, prohibit 758 (holding enrollment association enrolling parties). Moreover, illustrates dissent, quite easily. indeed, since 999 1994), impact ability groups Davidson increased over past few years). 75 way, differs statute unconstitutional There, reviewed unlawful S., 417, regulated burdened excluding class obtain allotted time." is, silenced "able willing" message. 422-423, existing silence Indeed, appear litigation needed disseminate 417. 76 respondents offered slight negatively affects argue otherwise-qualified form protest. Yet existence severity established suggests. 77 example, cites expression," ibid., testify anyone statement. "[y]es, that's true" leading "are your non-registered choice?" went explain "political choice" follows: 78 "They interesting They're under misconception called jury duty they're really jurist, you jurist drive car taxes anything else. So, misconception, can't turn around that." 15-16 (emphasis supplied). 79 Likewise, feel needs, 11, supported 58. Considered alternative enforce guarantee power laws, two patently interests. See, 366-367; Schaumburg Citizens Better Environment, 444 620, 636-637 (1980). past, difficulty enforcing forging violators fled 115 Davidson). verifiable way fall power. 14; Appellee's Supplemental Nos. 94-1576 94-1581 p. 268 (describing signatories signatures). reasons, uphold III. 80 Most disturbing partially unconstitutional. types reports: submitted. §1-40-121 addresses, month. §1-40-121(2). §1-40-121(1). revealed information. affirms expressing validity information, serves impermissibly targets 18-19. I, reverse 81 incidental manner. mandatory every "revea[l] [are] record[s] ... [, are] speaks," 13-14. characteristic virtually indistinguishable lessens chilling speech). anything, former tending viewed incremental insubstantial 82 insignificant so advances government combating providing Valeo. 1, 67, curiam) Government sources provide responsive," corruption," detect violations limitations"). matter, effectively combats valuable public. tend discourage improper conduct, "[a] armed better able detect" wrongdoing. `Publicity justly commended remedy social industrial diseases. Sunlight disinfectants; electric efficient policeman.' L. Brandeis, People's Money (1933)). "[I]n States, half century compulsory publicity accounts cornerstone legal Publicity advocated automatic regulator, self-discipline contenders arming information." H. Alexander & B. Haggerty, Act: After Decade Reform (1981). `[T]otal disclosure' `essential cornerstone' effective finance reform, 39, "fundamental system," Alexander, Financing Politics: Money, 164 (4th ed. 1992). 83 benefits disclosure, election, contributed candidates, contributors, 60-84, protects speaker spend amplify 44-59. contributors Government. 62-64 1971); 135 ("All fifty except [South Wyoming] pre- post-election expenditures"). first 1910, early recipients expenditures. 61. assists intelligent knowing choices helps combat fraud. 84 equally applicable context encouraging truthful self-disciplined. 67. enabling timely basis abusive fraudulent generally, facts useful weighing options. Members deciding discover it, provided. Knowing them. knows statements proposal. records press public, 44, "contemporaneous circulation," 3d 1105 1997), accessible "masses papers 1004. 85 preceding manner, asked subsequent forces motivating "is peak ; [this] influences brought light." 82. disseminated press, uniquely until needed. §1-40-111(2) ("Any invalid"). public's restricted "greater [of circulators] masses compared reports." sure, But, contrary assumption, 18, targeted occasional documented 197-198 retired FBI agent Theodore P. Rosack); 102, 104-116 An officer activity, 150-151 161 Davidson); Rosack) investigation implicated). respondent examining witness, "volunteer organizations, self-policing there's much likelihood fraud... Paid perhaps different." 208-209. 87 outweigh legitimate, previously substantial. 68. even scrutiny required, requirements. invalidates vitally threatens enforceability concur dissent Va. §3; Cal. Elec. Code Ann. §201 (West Special Pamphlet 1996); Ind. §3-8-5-14 Mass. Gen. Laws Ann., 53, §9 1998); Nev. §293.180 §655:28 (1996); §40:45-8 1991); §163-323 (Supp. Okla. Stat., Tit. 26, §5-111 Rehnquist, 90 91 92 93 95 dissenting. 96 today designed local decided out-of-state constitutionally actually themselves, wide-reaching implication dissent. Ballot central Progressive movement's agenda reform 20th century, limiting wealthy restoring Croly, Democracy 236-237, 248-249, 254-255 (Transaction Steele Commager, Mind 338 (1950); Persily, Peculiar Geography Direct Democracy, Mich. Pol'y However, years, influenced employ firms doing nationwide business. Lowenstein Stern, Circulators, Hastings Const. Q. 175, 176 (1989); Broder, Battle, Washington Apr. 1998, pp. A1, A6; Slind-Flor, Result: Litigation Propositions, Journal, Nov. 16, A8. strikes restore initial influence in-state ironic Amendment, attempt own (rather dropouts) what 98 decrease reduce 9-10. dealt appeared order inherently chaotic processes. 433 (1992); Today's opinion, runs afoul highly abstract mechanical diminishing squarely holds sphinx-like residents. 99 1-40-112(1) "[n]o obviously intended getting ultimately -- envision this, unfortunate dicta appeal million registering older citizen precinct immediately §1-2-101 mirrors elections, delegates assemblies §1-4-602(5), nominated §1-4-601(4)(a). 100 fails "implicates expression." Ante, Surely true invalidate Refusing newspapers watch television "First implications," mean university hire teach "today's media." wish (and relied Court) twofold (fn25) participate protest, convicted punishment. apparently mastermind litigation, argued "It's my representative organs doing." 223. And affiliated "Colorado Initiative," legalize marijuana great folks refused gain help 57. Thus, instead effort dropouts dealers activity. argues effect. harder administer subset fulfilled registration, committed felony disqualified franchise. perform background felons. wished easier resident, "voter eligible." (fn26) 102 adequately eligible" means. circulating" (Colorado, case), then necessarily follows quarrel holding. On hand, "any territories." run examine whatever criteria Georgia Guam, Peoria Puerto Rico. 103 polls. conscious grounds reject complain idea lost nonetheless passes "laugh test." 104 implications stark interpretation diminishes ostensibly circumscribed scope, whole host historically general. silent reading unable (bracketing original) 105 May foreigners carry reach? 422-423. seem longer ballots, either. plus explicitly electors,(fn27 residents.(fn28 serious jeopardy. find instructive, notes, §1-4-905 disagree, Appeals' invalidation each. Important counterparts. disagree analysis because, law, "name, expression, Foundation piece Since whole. They sufficiently IV. 108 reasoning nomination Thomas, 109 110 111 112 113 114 considering "severe burdens" association, "lesser burdens," restrictions. depart now-settled approach. view, evaluated Judged standard, majority violates Amendments, accordingly 116 course, regulate conducted fashion. (1992). often restrict associational rights. tie hands seeking assure operated equitably efficiently." 433. Consequently, (although recently) framework assessing constitutionality, laws. interest; lesser trigger review, typically enough 358-359; 434; 788-790 117 Predictability area important, unfortunately bright line separating burdens. always legislation Burson Freeman, 191, 198 (1992) (Tennessee literature feet entrance polling place); Brown Hartlage, 456 45, 53-54 (1982) (Kentucky's promises); 786 (Massachusetts certain entities affecting votes). 118 considered Against Rent Control/Coalition Fair Housing Berkeley, 454 290 (1981), committees formed oppose 294. 119 issue, ordinarily determining severely speech. suggested resort severe/lesser mechanics 345; Eu San Francisco County Democratic Central Comm., 489 214, 222-223 (1989) (first California's endorsements bodies applying scrutiny). suspect little difference plainly burden." predict, am sure coherent distinction between culled Connecticut's "associational Party members." Tashjian Republican Conn., 479 208, 217 (1986). treated dictating composition parties, term chair, chair rotate northern southern California "burden[ed] members," Eu, 231. 724 (1974), denying position independent affiliation year "substantially" associate. 729, 736.(fn29) Norman Reed, 502 279 (1992), Illinois' use establishing nominating new parties' construed Supreme tailored. 288-290, Minnesota's appearing party's 363. likewise imposed, most, limited" association. 437. "lesser" burdens, ought serving 122 §1-40-112(2), content disclose, message, unpaid. category apply proposals. (candidate requirements). Content-based Boos Barry, 485 312, 321 perpetrate plainly, responsible committing not. event, demonstrating real, conjectural, problem. Turner Broadcasting System, FCC, 512 622, 664 (1994); Comm. 518 604, 647 (1996) part).(fn30) B 123 §1-40-112(1), fashion concluded 421-422. speakers. reduction reach, garner reason revisit conclusion. aim secure guards efforts free discussions concern.(fn31) 124 defends ensures permits (fn32) assumed, ensuring clear, decided, points 8-9, achieved (fn33) C 125 concluded, (CA 955, additionally burdensome expense too attenuated constitute burden" "compelled itself, seriously infringe privacy guaranteed Amendment." 1971 encroached "strict 66. here, "essential purpose" 44. claims complete picture 17, demonstrated. 128 contends from, deterring avoiding 66-67. considerations. 791-792 ("[T]he democracy entrusted responsibility judging relative conflicting arguments... [I]f danger arguments [one source], contemplated Framers Amendment"); Control, 296-298. conduct initiative." Similarly, think, least, behind stage. 129 stands decisions, filed. required.(fn34) brief assume, voted upon, compelling. receives voting. although purported scrutiny, formulation forgiving traditional understanding standard. "substantial relation," 64, "substantial" (fn35) (The dilute Buckley's "substantially interests." 17.) relaxed inconsistent whenever "severely adhere 131 reasoning, Footnotes 132 1096-1097 134 §1-2-101(1)(b). 1-40-108(1) 1-40-106 1-40-107 136 1-40-112(2) `VOLUNTEER `PAID 137 1-40-111(2)." §1-40-102(6). 138 1-40-111(2) 139 1-40-121 state... 140 3d, `ensure 1099-1100 2d 1388-1389 142 §§1-40-111, 1-40-130 143 `severe 144 §1-4-905(1) §1-1-104(16) 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 Orr suit give element constitutional, unnecessary point absurdity respondents' minority argument. 157 dismisses "diminished," noting identifies eliminated, curious relies strike preserve contain duplicated affidavits. Cf., Part ante. 158 Ariz. §16-315 §8106(b)(4) Conn. §9-410 D. §1-1312(b)(2) Idaho §§34-626, 34-1807 Ill. Comp. §§5/7-10, 5/8-8, 5/10-4 Kan. §25-205(d) (1993); §168.544c(3) Mo. §115.325(2) Neb. §32-630 Y. §§6-132, 6-140, 6-204, 6-206 (McKinney §3503.06 Pa. Cons. §2869 §17-23-12 §12-1-3 (1995); §24.2-521 W. §3-5-23 Wis. §8.40 Wyo. §22-5-304 Ga. §§21-2-132(g)(3)(A), 21-2-170(d)(1) (1993 160 permissible, compelling" device chose "an essential overall mechanism." 736. correct 15-16, declined payer, alone. §1-40-112(2) entirety, 1005 full. 162 There anecdotal briefs discuss depth. Voter Outreach, amicus curiae according largest drives describes prospective "brief." Amicus gives typical conversation: "Here, this. [tick off Governor] Pete Wilson." sophistication Comm'n 640 ("Even pure unadorned process"). 163 §1-2-101(1)(b), Whatever merit Justice, mention passing 165 problem entire 1005, 1096. 166 seemed expenditure rules though strictly scrutinize both. Republican, 640,

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