Document: 473 U.S. 402 105 S.Ct. 3232 87 L.Ed.2d 290 Yolanda AGUILAR, et al., Appellantsv.Betty-Louise FELTON al. SECRETARY, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, Appellant, v. Betty-Louise CHANCELLOR the BOARD EDUCATION CITY NEW YORK, Nos. 84-237 to 84-239. Argued Dec. 5, 1984. Decided July 1, 1985. Syllabus New York City uses federal funds received under Title I program of Elementary and Secondary Education Act 1965 pay salaries public school employees who teach in parochial schools city. That authorized financial assistance local educational institutions meet needs educationally deprived children from low-income families. The city makes teacher assignments, teachers are supervised by field personnel monitor classes. Appellee taxpayers brought an action Federal District Court, alleging that administered violates Establishment Clause First Amendment, seeking injunctive relief. Court granted appellants' motion for summary judgment based on evidentiary record another case involved identical challenge city's program, which constitutionality was upheld. Appeals reversed. Held: City, is similar a number respects held unconstitutional today School Grand Rapids Ball, 373, 3216, 267, Clause. Although here could be argued distinguishable ground has adopted system monitoring religious content publicly funded classes schools, supervision would at best assist preventing being used, intentionally or unwittingly, inculcate beliefs surrounding school. And would, any event, inevitably result excessive entanglement church state. Even where state aid does not have primary effect advancing religion, provision such may nevertheless violate owing interaction administration aid. Here, scope duration City's require permanent pervasive presence sectarian receiving This infringes precisely those values root prohibition entanglement. Moreover, systems must work together resolving various administrative matters problems, necessitates frequent contacts between regular remedial teachers. Pp. 408-414. 739 F.2d 48 (CA2 1984), affirmed. Sol. Gen. Rex E. Lee, Washington, D.C., appellants. Stanley Geller, appellees. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 schools. In this companion we determine whether practice Amendment. 2 * A. 3 issue case, originally enacted as 1965,1 authorizes Secretary distribute appropriated accordance with programs proposed agencies approved agencies. 20 U.S.C. § 3805(a).2 "To extent consistent district agency enrolled private elementary secondary shall make provisions including special services arrangements . can participate." 3806(a).3 also following statutory requirements: deprived, 3804(a),4 reside areas comprising high concentration families, 3805(b),5 supplement, supplant, exist absent funding I. 3807(b).6 4 Since 1966, provided instructional students premises Of eligible receive 1981-1982, 13.2% were group, 84% affiliated Roman Catholic Archdiocese Diocese Brooklyn 8% Hebrew day With respect atmosphere these concluded "the picture emerges considerations play key role selection teachers, its substantial purpose inculcation values." 48, 68 1984). 5 conducted include reading, reading skills, mathematics, English second language, guidance services. These carried out (teachers, counselors, psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers) volunteered amount time each professional spends determined particular students. 6 Bureau Nonpublic Reimbursement instructors personnel, attempt least one unannounced visit per month. supervisors, turn, report coordinators, occasional supervisory visits professionals directed avoid involvement activities within bar materials their classrooms. All material equipment used supplied Government only programs. solely responsible Additionally, informed contact should kept minimum. Finally, administrators required clear classrooms all symbols. B 7 1978, six commenced Eastern York, taxpayers, appellees today's sought enjoin further distribution involving instruction Initially outcome National Coalition Public Religious Liberty Harris, 489 F.Supp. 1248 (SDNY 1980) (PEARL), program. When PEARL affirmed ibid., dismissed appeal want jurisdiction, 449 808, 101 55, 66 11 (1980), present renewed. upon developed PEARL. A unanimous panel Second Circuit reversed, holding 8 "[t]he Clause, it been interpreted Supreme Funds Schools Marburger, 358 29 (D.N.J.1973), aff'd mem., 417 961, 94 3163, 41 1134 (1974); Meek Pittenger, 421 349, 95 1753, 44 217 (1975) (particularly Part V, pp. 367-72); Wolman Walter, 433 229, 97 2593, 53 714 (1977), constitutes insurmountable barrier use send other into carry instruction, otherwise, provide clinical sort here." F.2d, 49-50. 9 We postponed probable jurisdiction. 469 878, 241, 83 180 (1984). conclude jurisdiction properly lie.7 Treating papers petition writ certiorari, see 28 2103, grant now affirm below. II 10 two enhancement operated District, expense located leased challenged very examined Ball. both cases, composed exclusively buildings. overwhelming participating religiously affiliated. but supplies necessary operation cases told they sole control system. Appellants distinguish unlike At best, But argument fails because established results state, concern distinct addressed effects doctrine. nonetheless nature 12 principle become too closely entangled rooted concerns. becomes enmeshed given denomination significance, freedom belief adherents suffers, even when governmental underlying largely secular. addition, limited intrusion sacred matters. "[T]he Amendment rests premise religion government achieve lofty aims if left free respective sphere." McCollum Board Education, 333 203, 212, 461, 465, 92 649 (1948). 13 Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 91 2105, 745 (1971), ensure conveying messages constitute state: 14 "A comprehensive, discriminating, continuing surveillance will restrictions obeyed otherwise respected. Unlike book, cannot inspected once so intent his her personal subjective acceptance limitations imposed prophylactic involve enduring church." Id., 619, S.Ct., 2114. 15 Similarly, (1975), invalidated offered, inter alia, guidance, testing, therapeutic performed 352-353, 1756-1757. As Lemon, observed though comprehensive might conceivably prevent having lead 16 "The strictly nonideological role, [in ], necessarily give rise constitutionally intolerable degree Id. [403 U.S.], 619 [91 2114]. same Pennsylvania 'certain,' be, do advance mission church-related serve. 29, 40-41, aff'd, 961 [94 1134]." U.S., 370, 1765. 17 Roemer Maryland Works Board, 426 736, 96 2337, 49 (1976), sustained higher learning. State allowed grants nonsectarian purpose. upheld " 'pervasively sectarian,' id., 758-759, 2350-2351, therefore unnecessary end. holding, identified "what crucial nonentangling program: ability identify subsidize separate secular functions school, without on-the-site inspections diversion purposes." 765, 2353. Tilton Richardson, 672, 2091, 790 one-time ongoing required. See Hunt McNair, 413 734, 93 2863, 37 923 (1973). 18 recognized, far different colleges Roemer, Hunt, Tilton. 68-70. colleges, found "pervasively sectarian," many had 'as values' Committee & Nyquist, 756, 768, 2955, 2963, 948 (1973), quoting 350 655, 663 1972). our invalidating much like rested "performing important education integral part dominant dedicated advancement constantly maintained." Meek, supra, 371, 1766. court below "well characterization." 70.8 back church, attendance exercises, begin schoolday class period prayer, preference admission members sponsoring denominations. 70. here, vast majority aided general parish. Ibid. 19 critical elements proscribed thus case. First, noted above, pervasively environment. Second, form inspection absence message. Compare 2114, Tilton, 688, 2100, short, authorities Agents inspect regularly, alert subtle overt matter Cf. 2114 ("What appear some essential good citizenship well others border religion"). obey agents determinations what "religious symbol" off limits classroom. preservation endure whose guard against infiltration thought. 21 cooperation maintain entangles still way interests heart Administrative related schedules, classroom problems arise implementation requests additional services, dissemination information regarding Furthermore, "frequent (or professionals), side reports individual student needs, encountered, achieved." 65. 22 long recognized objective prevent, possible, either [church state] precincts other." 614, 2112. 465. "[s]eparation context mean contact," Walz Tax Comm'n, 397 664, 676, 90 1409, 1415, 25 697 (1970), detailed close produce "a kind day-to-day relationship policy neutrality seeks minimize." 674, 1414. numerous judgments made controversial, yet deep significance controlling judgments, dangers political divisiveness along lines increase. time, inspectors prowling halls auditing surely raises more than imagined specter 'secularization creed.' 650, 2129 (opinion BRENNAN, J.). III 23 Despite well-intentioned efforts taken remains flawed aid, institution constitutional principles implicate—that neither nor promote hinder faith generally through benefits benefits. 24 Affirmed. [For dissenting WHITE, post, p. 400.] 26 POWELL, concurring. 27 concur Court's opinions write emphasize reasons why precedents us invalidate concededly "done little, any, detectable harm." 72 previously schools: 'Parochial quite apart purpose, alternative millions young Americans; often afford wholesome competition schools; States relieve substantially tax burden incident schools.' Mueller Allen, 463 388, 401-402, 103 3062, 3067, 77 721 (1983) (quoting 262, 2613, (1977) (POWELL, J., concurring part, part)). has, moreover, legitimate interest facilitating highest quality boundaries, whatever parents chosen them." 2613. Regrettably, however, survive scrutiny cases. 30 agree violated there great risk true ante, ----. beneficial appears accomplishing goal supplementing children, elaborate structure, participation purposes serious Our '[t]he certain, Religion Clauses, subsidized religion.' 1766, (emphasis added) (1971)). teaching subjects Judge Friendly, writing Appeals, agreed assessment He correctly structure active extensive provided, and, "under succeeded fostering religion." 66. 31 compounded stemming here. suggest point history plans establishment religion. There likewise small chance significant denominational over democratic processes. 263, 2613 part). Nonetheless, considerable strife propriety direct proper allocation resources. repeatedly likelihood whenever extended groups among them gain, maintain, increase support government. E.g., 796-797, 2977-2978, (1973); 623, 2116. large varied populations, assured politics enter decision increasing pressure real perceived needs. Thus, proposal extend alone likely spark disagreement nonrecipient groups, fear needed diverted them. potentially leads "that life that, teaches us, apt frequently strain breaking point." 694, 1424, (1970) Harlan, discuss length, 413, potential strong reason invalid grounds. 32 "effects" prong test supra.* discussed thoroughly 392-397, 3227-3230, programs, type amounts subsidy relieving duty supplemental require. "indirect incidental [the] institutions" suggested Nyquist scrutiny. 775, 2966. Rather, directly assuming schools' function, "inevitably schools," 779-780, 2968-2969, provides taught. goes 'hand hand' existence. 366, 1763 657, 2133 J.)). Because predominantly "inescapably activity." 1763. 33 recognize difficult dilemma governments placed prongs test. decisions extending tread extremely narrow line certain "principal effect" 612, 2111, avoiding never foreclosed possibility types valid 393, 3065-3066. evenhanded areas. ibid. (tax deductions expenses); 392 236, 88 1923, 1060 (1968) (provision textbooks); Everson 330 67 504, L.Ed. 711 (1947) (reimbursements bus fare school). read precluding indirect cited, available equally nonpublic defect indicated schools—resulting forbidden If, example, Congress fashion administered, purposes, presented question. 34 join 35 Chief BURGER, dissenting. 36 Under guise protecting Americans evils Established Church 18th century earlier times, deny countless schoolchildren desperately covers needing help learning process. "remedial reading" portion reaches suffer dyslexia, disease known diagnose treat. Many training need, simply desire attend What disconcerting about reached face human cost entailed decision, threat liberty posed share WHITE's obsession criteria led "contrary long-range country," 400, 3249. wrote Wallace Jaffree, 472 38, 89, 2479, 2507, 86 (1985) (dissenting opinion), "our responsibility apply tidy formulas rote; statute step toward establishing designed generation growing up able effectively remotely steps direction. It borders paranoia perceive Archbishop Canterbury Bishop Rome lurking behind just vital Nation's textbooks, (1968), transportation (1947), nursing 38 On merits dissent stated my (1975). unavoidable, eliminate futile undesirable. Douglas, Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 312, 679, 683, 954 (1952), stated: 39 say every separation State. Otherwise aliens other—hostile, suspicious, unfriendly." 40 demonstrate how occasioned presents striking down words "has done notion denying neutral act protect no logic, experience, history. Rather showing boasts of, exhibits nothing less hostility church-sponsored 42 REHNQUIST, 43 91, 2507-2508, 29. takes advantage "Catch-22" paradox own creation, Wallace, 109-110, 2517 (REHNQUIST, dissenting), whereby itself cause strikes nondiscriminatory prohibit sorely assistance; indeed traveled afield concerns prompted adoption rely gossamer abstractions law obviously meets entirely need. reverse. O'CONNOR, whom REHNQUIST joins Parts III, 45 Today affirms offer disadvantaged "only [is] afforded site school." 64 theory, enunciated V 367-373, 1764-1767, set foot bring classes, unduly entangle theory abstract, validly applied 19-year-old greatly exaggerates inculcating thereby demonstrates flaws condemns benign uphold Congress' 46 (1985), Thornton Caldor, Inc., 703, 2914, 557 litigation adheres three-part 612-613, (1971). To test, legislative principal advances inhibits progeny, furthering unconstitutional. principle. According defective improper effect, rather third test: allegedly fosters disagree analysis entanglement, question utility standard most Before discussing worthwhile explore greater depth opinion. 47 it. poor academic performance cycle poverty. S.Rep. No. 146, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., (1965), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1965, 1446, 1450. break providing enjoy monopoly Wheeler Barrera, 402, 405-406, 2274, 2277-2278, 159 (1974). §§ 2740(a), 3806(a). permitted "not normally school" "contribute particularly meeting children." 12, 1457. CFR 200.73 (1984) (Department regulations implementing except After reviewing text history, serves aiding needy regardless App. Juris. Statement 84-238, 56a, incorporating findings 1248, 1258 (PEARL ). did dispute finding, party contends endorse Indeed, means reach students—such nearest after during hours—were unsuccessful. PEARL, 1255. acknowledged, "could reasonably regarded [Title premises] effective Act." 49. Whether looks implementation, undeniably animated discussion perfunctory program's scheme asserts identifies three ways impermissible "state-paid instructors, influenced work, subtly overtly indoctrinate tenets expense." "state-provided buildings threatens convey message public." Third, taking subjects." Ante, ---- - While addressing overlooks City. 50 One need delve deeply understand belabor abstract theories explaining on-premises possibly dissolve experience 1980: 51 "New fourteen years. evidence includes: background I; in-depth description program; review rules enforced; testimony affidavits officials, officers, administrators, establishes feared materialized presumption 'religious mission' advanced premises—is supported facts case." 1265. 52 years single instructor "subtly overtly" attempted "indoctrinate Rapids, ----, 3230. Common sense suggests plausible explanation unblemished record. educators follow instructions They unlikely teach, carefully several week students.* light ample record, observer hardly view endorsing contrary, actual intended Congress: impoverished helped overcome deficits, improving scores, boost struggle obtain thorough opportunities flow 54 arguably litigation, then, subsidizing tenuous, directive 3807(b). vigorously enforced requirement supplement supplant Bennett Kentucky Dept. Ed., 470 656, 1544, 84 590 (1985); Jersey, 632, 1555, 572 (1985). 55 assume duplicated offered I, delineation seriously flawed. barred 244-248, 2603-2605, prohibited survived setting property Yet course offerings portable next door Unless wrongly decided, lie offerings. 56 Recognizing weakness claim relies holds peripatetic grounds undue (1) environment; (2) assure religion; (3) scheduling problems; (4) ----; (concurring 57 acknowledge, finds precedents. 369, 1765, asserted "on professionalism counselors functioning posture teacher," stated, intertwine doctrine instruction. occurring 370-372, 1765-1766. creates divisive conflict Meek's reaffirmed Terms later. 58 accord appropriate deference commanded stare decisis discern logical analysis. demonstrated thoughtful dissents pointed temporarily occupied classroom, divisiveness. 385, 1773 C.J.); 387, 1774 Experience force arguments Meek. intuitively obvious tend disobey commence proselytizing merely correct asserting "remains professional, full-time employee unaccustomed bringing Given indoctrination thousands past decades, acknowledge exaggerated. 59 Just exaggerated, manage risk. instructive. enable proselytizing? officials prepared careful warning mission, study observe 50-51. rules, accountable officials; selecting participate class, administer tests determining eligibility, engage team cooperative sure introduce teaching. compliance supervisor coordinator, employees, teacher's 53. 60 concludes agree. occurs differ significantly receives, location POWELL reasoning always schoolteacher location. 44-45, n. 23, 2484, 23. remained confident usefulness adequate caused institutional 61 reliance unpersuasive. little proposition admirable ignited controversy litigation. 403-404, 11, 3071-3072, (1983), cautioned "elusive inquiry" confined category Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 687, 104 1355, 1366, 79 604 (1984), went further, suggesting focus character activity divisiveness, entanglement." 62 adhere doubts expressed Lynch. curious base interpretation Constitution speculation phenomenon parties create prosecuting lawsuit. My reservations come encompass aspects well. out, inconsistencies ascribed insistence virtue 2517-2518. For permit preclude buses trips, trips Wolman, 254, 2608. extent, anomalous "attributable 'entanglement' prong." Choper, Clauses Amendment: Reconciling Conflict, U.Pitt.L.Rev. 673, 681 (1980). 63 Pervasive remain relevant deciding alleged resources ends themselves serve statute. requires organizations cooperate whole range giving impression endorses 110, J.) (noting impose myriad curriculum, attendance, certification, fire, safety schools). If lacks Today's ruling spell end children. Children attending Impoverished continue benefit schools—possibly edge property. lose cities economically logistically feasible facilities adjacent subset significant, includes 20,000 uncounted elsewhere country. 65 tragic. deprives offers meaningful success life, untenable (most faiths students) start walked across threshold reject Pittenger based. eyes fact almost disadvantages attempting Their praiseworthy eroded threaten contrary respectfully dissent. Stat. 2153, codified 2701 seq. Section provided: "In recognition families impact concentrations hereby declares United (as forth parts subchapter) serving expand improve (including preschool programs) contribute Effective October 1982, superseded Chapter Consolidation Improvement 1981, 464, 3801 (current analogue 2701). concerning virtually 2740 (former provision) 3806 provision). sake convenience, adopt usage refer "Title I." provides: subchapter fiscal year file application describes projects years, agency." 2731 analogue). (1974), assignment employed hours mandated comparable to, 420-421, 2284-2285. Therefore, permit, require, on-site reaching conclusion interpretation, explicitly "we intimate program." 426, 2287. authority before today. "Each payments acquisition necessary, construction facilities) described subsection (a) section described— "(1)(A) ." practical, level funds, non-Federal sources pupils assisted subchapter, sources. order outside plan pursuant 1252. An 1252, interlocutory final ("i.e., section, terms, infringed freedoms circumstances case") whole. Christian Echoes Ministry, 404 561, 563-565, 663, 664-666, 716 (1972). appealed judgment, appeals appellants minimize confusion. See, e.g., Kulko California Superior 436 84, 90, 4, 98 1690, 1696, 132 (1978). sectarianism differs bearing below, noted: "It in, black neighborhoods, proportions non-Catholic relatively low; token, high. enforcement rest medians. risks applies. incredible, aver, all, abandoned 'the existence.' 70 2129, (1971) Nothing construed violated. 794, 2976, infirmity structured. undisputed 78% week. Almost three-quarters affiliation in.

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