Document: 384 U.S. 808 86 S.Ct. 1800 16 L.Ed.2d 944 The CITY OF GREENWOOD, MISSISSIPPI, Petitioner,v.Willie PEACOCK et al. Willie al., Petitioners, v. MISSISSIPPI. Nos. 471, 649. Argued April 26, 1966. Decided June 20, [Syllabus from pages 808-809 intentionally omitted] Hardy Lott, Greenwood, Miss., for petitioner in No. 471 and respondent Benjamin E. Smith, New Orleans, La., respondents petitioners Louis F. Claiborne, Washington, D.C., United States, as amicus curiae, by special leave of Court. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered the opinion 1 These consolidated cases, sequels to State Georgia Rachel, 780, 1783, 925, involve prosecutions on various state criminal charges against 29 people who were allegedly engaged spring summer 1964 civil rights activity Leflore County, Mississippi. In first case, 14 individuals charged with obstructing public streets City Greenwood violation Mississippi law.1 They filed petitions remove their cases States District Court Northern under 28 U.S.C. § 1443 (1964 ed).2 Alleging that they members a group drive encourage Negro voter registration stated denied or could not enforce courts laws providing equal citizens being prosecuted acts done color authority Constitution 42 1971 seq. ed.).3 Additionally, removal alleged statute which was unconstitutionally vague its face, it applied conduct, application part policy racial discrimination fostered Greenwood. sustained motion remand city police court trial. Appeals Fifth Circuit reversed, holding 'a good claim 1443(1) is allegations has been prior trial so deprive an accused his arrest charge effected reasons discrimination.' Peacock 347 F.2d 679, 684. Accordingly, remanded hearing truth defendants' allegations. At same time, rejected contentions 1443(2), subsection available only those have acted official quasi-official capacity federal law can therefore be said 'color authority' within meaning provision.4 2 second 15 affiliated arrested at different times July August offenses ordinances Greenwood.5 defendants essentially identical Court, denying had any conduct prohibited valid stating arrests 'sole purpose effect harassing Petitioners punishing them deterring exercise constitutionally protected right protest conditions segregation' As grounds removal, specifically invoked §§ 1443(1)6 1443(2).7 held improperly removed per curiam finding issues 'identical with' determined reversed 1443(1). Weathers 986. 3 We granted certiorari consider important questions raised parties concerning scope statute. 382 971, 532, 464.8 we deal here congressional power, but statutory construction. I. 4 individual contend that, quite apart 1443(1), are entitled authorizes action prosecution 'any act derived * *.' core contention constitutional provisions conferred upon perform State. reject this argument, because concluded history (2) demonstrates convincingly officers persons assisting such performance duties.9 5 progenitor 1443(2) Civil Rights Act 1866, Stat. 27. Insofar relevant here, section all 'commenced officer, military, other person, imprisonment, trespasses, wrongs committed virtue establishing Bureau relief Freedmen Refugees, amendatory thereof (Emphasis added.) 6 phrase 'officer person' characterizing 1866 carried forward without change through successive revisions until 1948, when revisers, disavowing substantive change, eliminated entirely.10 definition present form appropriately read light more expansive language statute's ancestor. See Madruga Superior 346 556, 560, n. 12, 74 298, 300, 98 l.Ed. 290; Fourco Glass Co. Transmirra Products Corp., 353 222, 227—228, 77 787, 790—791, 786. 7 context original enactment points squarely conclusion 'or meant acting association military mentioned immediately preceding words That interpretation stems obvious contrast between next portion statute, predecessor Act. dichotomy these correlative persisted even though, accept petitioners' contentions, two phrases would fact almost entirely co-extensive. 8 It clear 'other formula intended reference certain categories described enforcement provisions, 4—7, 28—29. Section both agents Freedmen's Bureau,11 among others, duty enforcing such, required institute proceedings violations Act.12 By provision Act, 'agents' Freedman's legislation persons,' if 'officers,' based activities Act.13 now 1989 ed.), authorized commissioners appoint 'one suitable persons' execute warrants process issued commissioners.14 'suitable were, turn, 'to summon call aid bystanders posse comitatus proper county.'15 provided penalties obstructed person execution warrant act, lawfully him them,' rescued attempted rescue prisoners 'from custody persons, assisting.'16 Finally, 1991 awarded fee five dollars each 'person process'—i.e., 5. Thus, replete references obviously relating positive Act.17 9 derivation 'For act' confirms limited them. substituted 1948 'for imprisonment trespasses wrongs.' Like provision, specifying grounded had, minor changes, since introduction Act—' wrongs'—is pre-eminently enforcement. themselves denote very sorts officers, seeking broad guarantees likely courts. Second put it, "Arrest wrongs,' precisely probable them; speaking 'done from' specified reads far readily some sort than whose enforced People York Galamison, 342 255, 262. 10 taken directly Habeas Corpus Suspension 1863, 12 755, President suspend writ habeas corpus precluded liability making search, seizure, arrest, order during rebellion.18 1863 suits 'against made, committed, omitted done, time rebellion, exercised Congress.' 756. Mayor Cooper, Wall. 247, 18 L.Ed. 851; Phillips Gaines, 131 U.S.App. clxix. Since no private individuals, concerned solely protection duties.19 Congress expanded availability enacting 'denied cannot enforce' clause repeated verbatim Act20 clearly them.21 11 For reasons, hold confers privilege affirmatively executing duties rights.22 case before us 1443(2). II. come, then, raises 1783 decided today, trespass petition alleging exclusively peaceful accommodation establishments covered 1964, 201 seq., 78 243, 2000a ed.). itself, construed Hamm Rock Hill, 379 306, 310, 85 384, 388, 13 uniquely Rachel may 'not subject prosecutions,' inevitably (the) rights,' merely brought defend prosecution. however, different. place, include qualify 'equal rights.' First Amendment free expression, example, heavily relied petitions, arising rights' great charter American freedom, precious personal liberty protects undoubtedly comprehended concept 'civil Cf. Hague C.I.O., 307 496, 531 59 954, 83 1423 (separate Stone, J.). But phrase, our review legislative makes clear, does Amendment.23 A precise limitations matter need pursue conclusion, proceed premise least statutes referred 1981, do definition.24 fundamental made alleging: (1) Negroes helping assert laws, completely innocent them, will unable obtain fair court. basic difference thus apparent. specific pre-emptive law—ss 201(a) 203(c) 2000a(a) 2000a—2(c) supra—that, alleged, gave them: remain property restaurant proprietor after ordered leave, despite offense further should attempt prosecute conduct. absolute 'violate' explicit terms impunity petition, make answer conceded 'violation' deny 'in State.' differs significant respects. First, citizens—on advocates, Negroes, anybody else—to obstruct street, contribute delinquency minor, automobile license, bite policeman. Second, immunity charges.25 To sustain mark complete departure allow State,' well consistent line Court's decisions Strauder West Virginia, 100 303, 25 664, Commonwealth Kentucky Powers, 1, 26 387, 50 633.26 Those stand one proposition: enough support allege show defendant's illegally corruptly administrative officials advance trial, defendant false, particular motives bringing corrupt, find guilty he innocent, manner courts' rights. require permit judges brethren judiciary Under vindication left except rare situations where predicted reason operation pervasive supra; 664. What moment suggest denial guaranteed law. If, allege, baseless race, then there outrageous rights, powerless redress most remedy traditional emphasized Virginia Rives, 313, 667, 633—vindication claims direct vindicated reviewing what happened Rives-Powers decisions, unauthorized, convictions overturned trials.27 countless reviewed over years—cases like Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 87, 211, 176, name random Term. 'Cases convicted way expeditiously questions.' England Louisiana Board Medical Examiners, 375 411, 434, 84 461, 475, 440 (Douglas, J., concurring). 17 many remedies claimed extraordinary circumstances petitions. If street itself Amendment, injunction Dombrowski Pfister, 380 479, 1116, 22. go absence evidence set aside due Thompson Louisville, 362 199, 80 624, 654. denials uncorrected State, freely Fay Noia, 372 391, 822, 837. unfair deficient fact-finding process, too, corrected Townsend Sain, 293, 745, 770. Other sanctions, criminal, violate 1983 ed.) respond damages well.28 Monroe Pape, 365 167, 81 473, 492. And Term 241 imposes punishment up years prison, conspire citizen 'free enjoyment secured States' 'causing means false reports acts.'29 Guest, 383 756, 1170, 1177, 239. 19 question whether civilly criminally liable question, precisely, Unless disregarded previous repudiated, must case. traced course historic background called interpret. narrow presented teaching circumstances, 'substitutes crime.' 315, 300. 20 necessarily approve adopt reasoning every opinions construing 633. decline repudiate out blind adherence principle stare decisis, independent consideration determined, expressed correct operate work wholesale dislocation relationship administration 21 worth contemplating result strained urged prevail. fiscal year 1963 kinds entire Nation; 43. 22, 1965, just end year. year, 1,079 alone.30 phenomenal increase drop bucket reasonably expected future. prevail State—on dollar misdemeanor first-degree murder—would removable race31 him, On remand, hearing, amount preliminary motivations defendant, quality judge whom innocence guilt. might, course, located hundreds miles away place brought. This followed either full court, order. Every appealable and, affirmed there, reviewable eventually affirmed, witnesses still available, finally months might also 22 doubt Congress, chose, provide exactly system. assume power tried courts, jurisdiction shared.32 fully establish involving another.33 23 regime propose, questions. Fourth practical involved: 'If try originally cognizable govern, prosecute, sentenced institution *?' Baines Danville, 357 768—769. surely added inquiry how new personnel cope vastly increased caseload produced. 24 catalog feel extreme prominent issues, obviously, questions: Has practice trials courts—with ultimate Court—been failure revolutionized? Will responsibility area promoted encouraged responsibility? postulate grave point changes long-settled century-old Fully aware established given series declined proposals amend law.34 All did orders appealable, invite contemporary judicial unchanged 1443. accepted invitation considered provisions. Having so, justify Accordingly judgment reversed. ordered. 27 Judgment DOUGLAS, THE CHIEF JUSTICE, BRENNAN FORTAS concur, dissenting. seek workers Some Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee getting registered voters. streets. Council Federated Organizations aims achieve integration into political economic life while peacefully picketing, assault battery interfering officer. Others illegal motor vehicles, contributing parading permit. disturbing peace inciting riot. 30 sought motions parcel Mississippi's segregation. wholly sole exercising (347 679; 986) sufficient hearings required. 31 I agree result. show, designed beginning afford local passions prejudices pretrial removal; supports mandates Appeals. 32 Federal Courts created (1 73) designated few heads (§ 9) 11) concurrent others exclusive. jurisdiction—later enlarged—were largely benefit plaintiffs. There concern rivalries, jealousies, animosities necessary appropriate creation dual system 33 Lack trust reflected Thus Madison said: 34 '* constitution satisfy trusted laws. true, safe organs jurisdiction; dependent Legislatures, throw back embarrassments characterized former situation. Connecticut Judges appointed annually Legislature last resort cases.' Ann.Cong. 813. 35 Though classes diversity 11, 78) manifestation feeling. Chief Marshall Bank Deveaux, Cranch 61, 38: 36 'The department introduced impressions, views, too apparent perceived all. However true be, tribunals states administer justice impartially nation, description, less entertains apprehensions subject, views indulgence possible fears suitors, national decision controversies aliens citizen, states.' 37 see Martin Hunter's Lessee, Wheat. 304, 347, 97. 38 alternative—the India took—was let arbiters Supreme choice functioned throughout history. 1789, issue steadily (see Hart & Wechsler, System 727—733 (1953)) particularly general 'federal question' 1875. 470. 39 While custodians asserted plaintiffs, haven restricted well. refer Judiciary 79, permitted ground citizenship. start partial parity 40 greatly enlarged passage Act,1 provided: 41 district respective districts, shall have, several cognizance crimes offences also, concurrently circuit causes, affecting locality act; suit prosecution, commenced cause whatsoever prescribed 'Act regulating cases,' approved March three, eighteen hundred sixty-three, thereof. *' With coming War became plain instruments destruction harassment seen demonstrated flow way. minorities repression espouse equality. Jehovah's Witnesses parts country likewise felt brunt majoritarian control administration. Before labor union organizers. Orientals. setting considered. 43 passed responded main concerns: forum often indispensable effective action.2 guarantee turns ordinarily contested fact. therefore, academic value areas unless facts objectively found. Secondly, swift imperative survive slowly strangled long, drawn-out, costly, cumbersome feared delays perilous vicissitudes litigation onerous burdens poor indigent usually unpopular causes—these threaten engulf guarantees. construed. 44 critical words, concerned, tribunals' which, recent version statute,3 thereof.'4 45 difficult discern ascribes meanings 'is denied' 'cannot used my view, essential aspects distinguished. deprivation anticipated frustration subsequent majority discusees, variety.5 dealt, unequal jury selection. speculation not, future, discharge obligation follow 'law land.' Whatever correctness clause, whatever A. 46 'disorderly conduct' statutes, 'breach peace' ordinances. instrument suppress promotion know sometimes club workers.6 Senator Dodd floor manager restored appeal remanding 901, 266, 1447(d) ed.)) stated:7 47 'I think communities hostility efforts use intimidation, ought section.' 48 examples numerous. face discriminatorily.8 under, say, privileged law.9 Third unwarranted worker intimidate asserting rights,10 discourage promotion. initiated prosecutors purpose, unconstitutional contrary, arise arresting charging process.' 49 conclusion. ways read, leads clause. Judge Sobeloff dissenting Cir., 778, paraphrased following ways: 51 'Removal permissible by: 52 '(i) denied(,) enforce(,) *. 53 '(ii) State(,) 54 latter construction taken, time—before, during, reading keeping spirit sweeping: 55 Negro's actions aggrieved party court; filing or, already removing forum.' Id., 781. 56 Yet restrictively, constitute offending machinery implicated actual issuance summons, commitment prisoner, accepting information indictment. Initiation proceeding punish assertion 'denied' Prosecution federally act. cost great. Restraint present; post bonds hire lawyer considerable; gantlet entail unsympathetic adverse fact-findings unreviewable. presence unresolved hang head years. 57 early May 1961 Freedom Rides. Thomas 252 Miss. 527, 160 So.2d 657; Farmer 161 159; Knight 248 850, 521. More another pass reached convictions.11 Mississippi, 524, 1327, 265 (1965). 58 Continuance initiation one, chilling NAACP Button, 371 415, 433, 328, 338, 405, respecting '(t)he threat sanctions deter potently sanctions.' context, 'By permitting determination invalidity regard permissibility regulation effect, avoided freedom expression await outcome protracted litigation. Moreover, thought improbability successful derive unaffected prospects success failure.' 487, 1121, enjoin close kin. allowed, equivalent plea bar protect right. threshold question—whether right—is resolvable remove. noted, substance granted, stage, misuse out. O'Campo Hardisty, 262 621; De Busk Harvin, 212 143. transfer type appear 1447(c) meanwhile serves protective function. Filing removes automatically stays 1446(e) confined, must, awaiting prisoner custody, 1446(f) enlarge bail. 60 holds whether, constitutes Inexplicably, cases. voting, seems me overlook statutes. first, 1981 (the referred), provides: 61 'All security enjoyed white citizens, punishment, pains, penalties, taxes, licenses, exactions kind, other.' 62 other, 11(b) Voting 79 443, 1973i(b) ed., Supp. I), 63 'No otherwise, intimidate, threaten, coerce, coerce voting attempting vote, urging aiding vote sections beyond debate citizens.'12 B. 64 Defendants tried, This, unlike rests prediction future courts; admittedly falls doctrine. reconsider cases.13 Unlike majority, believe extent limit instances inability springs compelling forbidden discrimination, followed.14 resulted, think, misreading 1866. 65 Lane said:15 66 single propose give States. Why necessity passing law? Simply fear provision.' 67 Trumbull, Chairman managed bill floor, view. He discriminated 'should custom prevails statute-law discriminating him.' Cong.Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 1759. 68 existence said, authorize fail adequately Ibid. 69 Black Codes target Vagrancy another—laws reduce men slaves slightest magnitude' (Id., 1123), declare 'vagrants homes employment' retain real servitude.' 1151. 70 requires decide allegation (that fairly rights) true.16 demonstrate persuaded indeed good-faith effort apply paramount pertaining merits. 71 Such occur unusual generally conscientiously land. sure, occasion view ultimately announced. honest differences recalcitrance contemplates. exceptional realized considerable damage harbored toward render meet responsibilities. directed 72 Execution mandate calls sensitivity judges; delicacy task refusal it. am confident care claims. lightly shirk responsibilities, appeared convincing true. Amsterdam, Criminal Prosecutions Affecting Federally Guaranteed Rights: Removal Jurisdiction Abort Trial, 113 U.Pa.L.Rev. 793, 854—863, 911—912 requirement basis 'firm prediction' consequence revision 1874 silently deleted post-trial way, legitimate interests federalism Rives respected emasculating III. 73 takes comfort numerous remedies, corpus, prosecutions. note alternative conferred. extension enacted 1867 Thirty-ninth body consider. 385. involved Price, 1152, 267, 239, 1870. 27; 141, 144. 1871. 13. inference drawn coordinate passed, citizens. Rather take array instruction rhetorical implementation answered Tennessee Davis, 257, 271—272, 648, day Rives: 75 imaginary difficulties incongruities supposed trying indictment offence dignity real, Congress. unreal. neither sect. 643, nor re-enactment, mode procedure prescribed, (that) yet sufficiently obvious. appliances needed difficulty administering State's foreign cases; long keep assigned powers adequate anomaly prosecuting offenders government, grows division government State; is, sovereignty matters. When understood (and be), strange arises defence law, own according forms proceeding.' IV. 76 plainly restraint. aggravate wrong suffer risk allowing improper desires, extended period pending promptly dismiss fear. Defeats giving narrow, cramped may, persevere, live enough, patience funds carry burden undertook off backs persecuted minority violating paragraph 2296.5 Code Cum.Supp.), Laws 1960, c. 244, 'It unlawful wilfully free, convenient normal sidewalk, highway, alley, road, passageway impeding, hindering, stifling, retarding restraining traffic thereon, misdemeanor, conviction thereof, punished fine ($500.00) confinement county jail exceeding six (6) months, imprisonment.' 'Civil 'Any prosecutions, embracing wherein pending: '(1) Against thereof; '(2) refusing inconsistent law.' (164 1783. speech, assembly fourteenth Amendments Constitution, additional Equal Protection, Due Process, Privileges Immunities Clauses Fourteenth Amendment. 1971(a)(1) otherwise qualified election Territory, district, county, city, parish, township, school municipality, territorial subdivision, allowed elections, distinction color, condition servitude; constitution, custom, usage, authority, contrary notwithstanding.' 1971(b) otehr choose I). capacity.' 686 (C.A.5th Cir.). reaching strongly Clarksdale Gertge, 237 F.Supp. 213 (D.C.N.D.Miss.). adopted 771—772. Circuits refused grant comparable 255 (C.A.2d Cir.); Chester Anderson, 823 (C.A.3d Arkansas Howard, 218 626 (D.C.E.D.Ark.). variously assault, officer duty, peace, creating disturbance riot, permit, biting operating vehicle license tags, reckless driving, profanity vulgar language. prejudiced race declared segregated courtroom, attorneys addressed names, excluded juries, participate gained office elections negro voters excluded. Territory contracts, sue, parties, evidence, challenges Appeals' 1443(1); 649 challenge court's never century law's enactment. appeals recently unanimously advanced petitioners. See, addition Circuit, cases: 756 (C.A.4th 4, supra. Rev.Stat. 641 (1874); Judicial 1911, 231, 31, 1096; (1926 ed.); (1952 Although modified respects, including elimination person,' reviser's simply 'Changes phraseology.' H.R.Rep.No. 308, 80th p. A134. development Appendix 3, 1865, 507, Department, rebellion thereafter, assist refugees freedmen rebel food, shelter, clothing. direction commissioner consent Senate. loyal acres lands abandoned acquired confiscation sale. 'shall 508. continued 16, 200, 173. addition, amended 1865 'appoint agents, clerks, assistants bureau.' enlisted detailed service 174. Further, 'the bureau co-operate benevolent associations freedmen, teachers, duly accredited lease buildings purposes education whenever shall, teachers instruction; furnish schools.' 176. established, ordinary interrupted obligations 9, Act), secured. 176—177. 6, 1868, 83, 'Sec. 4. enacted, hereby, specially required, expense imprisoned, bailed, circuit) offence.' 28. authorization attorneys, marshals, deputy marshals expedite superior number legislation. 815, Acts. confiscated marshal refuse receive tendered, diligently same, fined sum thousand dollars, veto Johnson. Because President, 5, severe recalcitrant marshals. ensured servers appointment re Upchurch, 25, (C.C.E.D.N.C.). better enable faithfully efficiently, conformity requirements hereby empowered, counties respectively, appoint, writing, hands, lawful duties; aforesaid land naval forces militia, charged, insure faithful observance prohibits slavery, run executed anywhere issued.' Davis South Carolina, 107 597, 600, 636, 639, 574. aspect draws threefold distinction: (probably 5), 'lawfully assisting' three categories. appears contemplated literally thousands little appearance authority.' 760 No proposition includes together Revised Statutes 1874, whereas applicable 643. Prior relevant, revenue encompass officers. 1442(a)(1) office' removed. many, all, presently 1442(a)(1). overlap reflects separate historical evolution Indeed, redundancy itself. Revision Code, Law Contemp.Prob. 216, 221, (1948). limitation analogous Long instituted actions. characteristically defining removal. Customs 1815, primordial 'aiding Feb. 8, 198. 94, 233. Force 1833, language, focused possibility deputies faced prospect defending titles 2, 57, desired knew Jan. 1869, 267 (Habeas carriers losses caused Union forces). 81, 46. extending proceedings, Senate floor. 37th 3d 538. debates e.g., id., 535 (remarks Clark); 537—538 Cowan). Although, Revenue 13, 184, 67, 171, expressly 'acting (revenue) officer,' drew characterization supra, 17. 'title' included inertia led Reconstruction qualification later Compare February 28, 1871, 438 ('title' statute). Philadelphia Collector, 720, 614; Assessors Osbornes, 567, 748. 'arrest wrongs' easily describing range disallowed ejectment heir Confederate seized Confiscation 17, 1862, 589. sold auction, subsequently vested man named Bigelow, Strong unanimous stated, specification (in 5) imprisonments justifies ejusdem generis, nature previously specified.' Bigelow Forrest, 339, 348—349, 696. law,' relevance House Representatives amendment reporting bill, Representative Wilson, chairman bill) account laws.' Cong. Globe, 1367. ante, 788 792, 1788—1790. 266—268 7, 793—794, 804—805, 1790—1791, 1796—1797, explicitly provides 'punish privilege' accommodations None contains provision. 667; Neal Delaware, 103 370, 567; Bush Kentucky, 110, 625, 354; Gibson 162 565, 904, 1075; Smith 592, 900, 1082; Murray Louisiana, 163 101, 990, 87; Williams 170 213, 583, 1012; Dubuclet 550, 504; Schmidt Cobb, 119 286, 1373, 321. 797 1793 354. 'Every who, ordinance, regulation, subjects, causes subjected, privileges, immunities injured equity, redress.' 'Conspiracy injure, oppress, having same; disguise premises another, intent prevent hinder secured— 'They $5,000 imprisoned ten years, both.' imposed 242 'Deprivation 'Whoever, willfully subjects inhabitant punishments, alien, $1,000 267. Annual Report Director Administrative Office 214, 216 788, 1788, 8. could, Caucasian race. Romero International Terminal Operating Co., 358 354, 359—380; 389—412, 468, 473—484, 489—500, 368 Brennan). 348—350, 97; Moses Taylor, 428—430, 397; 251—254, Railway Whitton's Adm'r, 270, 287—290, 571; 262—271, 648; 310—312, bills enlarging example: S. 2923, 3170, H.R. 12807, 12818, 12845, 13500, 13941, 14112, 14113, 14770, 14775, 14836 (89th 2d. Sess.). 903 7702, 88th emerge Representatives. 1787, 7. handful interim. 198 (removal customs acts); 633 laws), officers—civil military—for authority). Madison, establishment prevailed, debates: '(U)nless inferior dispersed republic multiplied oppressive degree; besides, remedy. verdicts, tribunals, obtained biased directions judge, undirected jury? purpose. An establishment, commensurate essential. executive mere trunk body, arms legs move.' Elliot's Debates 159 (1876). His victory 'destroyed ability sabotage systems.' Brant, James (1950). 416—417, 465, 440. reach citizens,' complain (with exception pure claims) coverage. 1971, ed. I) (statutes Congress' assure access regardless 'race, servitude,' U.S.Const. XV); (guaranteeing subjected 'punishment, (or) exactions' suffered 'white citizens'); 2000a, 2000a—2 (discussed supra). meaningful between, Protection Clause, reiterated terms. unnecessary, settle question. highly questionable propositions restricting encompasses. Strictly speaking, clauses. retrospect, tolerance exclusion jury. (as opposed legislative) infraction inhibitions, final commenced.' U.S., 319. Fairly applies Edwards 229, 680, 697; Henry 376 776, 1042, (per curiam); Cox 536, 559, 453, 476, 487; 110 Cong.Rec. 6955 (1964). Administration violates Clause racially discriminatory (Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 220) prefers proponents ideas (Niemotko Maryland, 340 268, 272, 325, 327, 95 267; 553—558, 463—466; 580—581, 469—470 (Black, concurring)). Both standards combine demonstrators. 300; authorities cited, Various crime interfere I); 203 infra, 847—848 12. (Rives Powers) rather inception charge. dealt systematic turn goes heart indicated instance expand 697 (1963) (nearly reversal convictions); Fields 44, 149, (three half (1964) (more four convictions). wrongful prosecution: (b) sections), (c) sections).' distinguish 'authorized' enter accommodation. judgment, assuring rather, innumerable community daily interference. Revisers eliminating irrelevant Even majority's denial' shown denial. 804, 1796. irrationality predicated facially known then-Senator Humphrey, it: '(T)he problem unconstitutional; applied, bound old decisions. Enactment provision) appellate opportunity reexamine question.' 6551 Similar invitations overrule uttered (110 6955—6956) Congressman Kastenmeier 2770) reinstate litigants brutal luxury appeal, inevitable affirmance. doctrine none clear. dispenses statement permits showing relief. explains reliance warranted justified whole sweep doctrine, fatal 602. result, cites 1965. unaware figure incidents guidance, aided votes 1964. Opponents warned dilatory tactics disruptions processes—state federal—which result; virtually opposition proposed amendment. H.R.Rep. 914, 59, 111—112 (minority reports); 2769—2784 (passim) (House); 13468, 13879 (Senate). Proposals delete decisively rejected, 118—76 (id., 2784) occasions, 51—31 13468) 66—25 13879).

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