Document: 442 U.S. 256 99 S.Ct. 2282 60 L.Ed.2d 870 PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATOR OF MASSACHUSETTS et al., Appellants,v.Helen B. FEENEY. No. 78-233. Argued Feb. 26, 1979. Decided June 5, Syllabus During her 12-year tenure as a state employee, appellee, who is not veteran, had passed number of open competitive civil service examinations for better jobs, but because Massachusetts' veterans' preference statute, she was ranked in each instance below male veterans achieved lower test scores than appellee. Under the all qualify positions must be considered appointment ahead any qualifying nonveterans. The statutory preference, which available to "any person, or female, including nurse," honorably discharged from United States Armed Forces after at least 90 days active service, one day during "wartime," operates overwhelmingly advantage males. Appellee brought an action Federal District Court, alleging that absolute-preference formula established Massachusetts statute inevitably exclude women consideration best jobs and thus discriminates against violation Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. A three-judge court declared unconstitutional enjoined its operation, finding while goals were legitimate been enacted purpose discriminating women, exclusionary impact upon so severe require State further through more limited form preference. On earlier appeal, this Court vacated judgment remanded case light intervening decision Washington v. Davis, 426 229, 96 2040, 48 597, held neutral law does violate solely it results racially disproportionate that, instead, traced discriminate on basis race. Upon remand, reaffirmed original judgment, concluding hiring inherently nonneutral favors class have traditionally excluded, consequences employment opportunities too inevitable "unintended." Held: Massachusetts, granting absolute lifetime veterans, has discriminated Pp. 271-281. (a) Classifications based gender bear close substantial relationship important governmental objectives. Although public constitutional right wide discretion framing employee qualifications, overtly covertly designed prefer males over females would exceedingly persuasive justification withstand challenge under Clause. 271-273. (b) When gender-neutral face challenged ground effects are disproportionably adverse, twofold inquiry appropriate. first question whether classification indeed sense gender-based. If itself, covert overt, gender, second adverse effect reflects invidious gender-based discrimination. Pp.273-274. (c) Here, appellee's concession Court's pretext discrimination clearly correct. Apart facts definition "veterans" always consistently defined veteran status way inclusive served military, can plausibly, even rationally, explained only classification. Significant numbers nonveterans men, well female—are placed disadvantage. distinction made by is, seems be, quite simply between nonveterans, men women. 274-275 (d) Appellee's contention "inherently nonneutral" "gender-biased" reserved federal military policy primarily wholly odds with central offered women; nor reconciled assumption both appellee could sustained, since degree makes no difference. 276-278. (e) While disingenuous say legislation unintended, they volitional foreseeable, nevertheless "discriminatory purpose" implies intent volition awareness consequences; maker selected particular course part "because of," merely "in spite identifiable group. totality legislative actions establishing extending considered, remains what purports be: either sex sex, 278-280. (f) permanent preferences subject objection give square deal, Amendment "cannot refuge ill-advised . laws." Columbia Brooke, 214 138, 150, 29 560, 563, 53 L.Ed. 941. edge granted may reflect unwise policy, failed demonstrate sex. 280-281. D.C., 451 F.Supp. 143, reversed remanded. Thomas R. Kiley, Boston, Mass., appellants. Richard P. Ward, Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion Court. 1 This presents constitutionality Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., ch. 31, § 23, 23,1 2 Helen Feeney veteran. She pursuant 42 U.S.C. 1983, unconstitutionally denies them equal protection laws.2 agreed, judge dissenting. Anthony 415 485 (Mass.1976).3 3 found afforded devastating worthy reasoned nonetheless Finding modest readily accommodate State's interest aiding operation.4 4 appeal taken Attorney General Massachusetts,5 our 597. Feeney, 434 884, 98 252, 54 169. Davis impact; instead U.S., 238-244, S.Ct., 2046-2050. 5 concurring again dissenting, concluded Accordingly, judgment. 143. appealed 28 1253, probable jurisdiction noted. 439 891, 247, 58 236. 6 * A. 7 Government virtually grant some sort veterans.6 loosely termed "absolute lifetime" among most generous.7 It applies classified constitute approximately 60% State. "wartime."8 Persons deemed otherwise qualified job exercise time many times wish.9 8 Civil fall into two general categories, labor official. For official proofs concerned, mechanics uncomplicated. All applicants take examinations. Grades gives weight objective training experience. Candidates pass then order their respective "eligible list." Chapter requires, however, disabled surviving spouses parents ranked—in scores—above other candidates.10 9 Rank eligible list availability sole factors determine candidates position. agency vacancy, requisitions "certified eligibles" personnel division. formulas prescribed rules, small top appropriate list, three if there certified. appointing required choose these candidates.11 guarantee will appointed, obvious achieve passing well-nigh advantage. B 10 lived Dracut, life. entered work force 1948, next 14 years worked variety private sector. system 1963, having competed successfully position Senior Clerk Stenographer Defense Agency. There four years. In 1967, promoted Funds Personnel Coordinator same agency. agency, job, eliminated 1975. 11 Ms. took several did well, receiving 1971 highest score examination Board Dental Examiners, 1973 third Administrative Assistant mental health center. Her high scores, win place certified list. Because sixth behind five Examiner certified, scoring eventually appointed. examination, 12 whom scores. Following took, name similarly those grades. Feeney's securing government wane. Having eclipsed competition futile. 1975, shortly defense abolished, commenced litigation. C 13 jurisdictions, justified measure reward sacrifice ease transition civilian life, encourage patriotic attract loyal well-disciplined people occupations.12 See, e. g., Hutcheson Director Service, 361 Mass. 480, 281 N.E.2d (1972). dates back 1884, when State, legislation, gave War qualifications 1884 Acts, 320, (sixth). tie-breaking provision blossomed truly 1895, exempted merit selection requirements. 1895 501, 2. response non-veteran, violative provisions guaranteeing should "common good" prohibiting hereditary titles. Brown Russell, 166 14, 43 N.E. 1005 (1896). current origins 1896 meet standards enunciated Russell. That qualified.13 closely divided Supreme Judicial advisory issued year, embodied such valid. Opinion Justices, 589, 44 625 1919, extended cover World I, provide priority eligibility, contrast hiring.14 See Corliss Service Comm'rs, 242 61, 136 356 (1922). Mayor Lynn Commissioner 269 410, 414, 169 502, 503-504 (1929), adhering views expressed opinion, sustained challenge. 15 Since repeatedly amended persons subsequent wars, undeclared. 1943 194; 1949 642, (World II); 1954 627 (Korea); 1968 531, (Vietnam).15 substantially settled 1919. preference—even modified 1919 never universally popular. Over subjected repeated legal challenges, see supra (collecting cases), criticism reform groups, see, Report Committee Public Initiative Bill Relative Veterans' Preference, S.No. 279 (1926); Special Commission Administration 37-43 (June 15, 1967), and, 1926, referendum majority 51.9%. id., 38. present apparently simple sex.16 D 16 term language. 517, ("a person" Army Navy), amendments followed pattern, ("any person ."); 627, nurse"). Women units wartime, then, entitled benefit addition, amendment "wartime service," unofficial auxiliary women's units. 194.17 17 adopted 1896, veterans.18 covered veterans. Most beyond middle age, relatively few actively competing employment.19 Thus, group slight.20 18 Notwithstanding apparent attempts include possible within scope today benefits class. attributable statutes, regulations, policies restricted enlist Forces,21 largely fact draft. generally Binkin Bach 4-21. 19 litigation commenced, 98% male; 1.8% female. And one-quarter population decade 1963 participating system, 47,005 new appointments service. Forty-three percent hired 57% men. Of 54% status. large unspecified percentage female appointees serving paying applied.22 50 sample lists record case, displaced whose lower. 20 At outset appellants conceded "many competed" "resulted greater proportion eligibles being consideration. severe. lies heart claim. II 21 22 power Bd. Retirement Murgia, 427 307, 314, 2562, 2567, 49 520. laws classify, affect certain groups unevenly, though itself treats differently members described law. basic rationally based, uneven ordinarily concern. New York City Transit Authority Beazer, 440 568, 1355, 59 587; Jefferson Hackney, 406 535, 548, 92 1724, 1732, 32 285. Cf. James Valtierra, 402 137, 91 1331, 678. calculus effects, manner reverberates society, judicial responsibility. Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 1153, 25 491; San Antonio School Dist. Rodriguez, 411 1, 93 1278, 36 16. assessing challenge, called validity Barrett Indiana, 229 29-30, 33 692, 693, 57 1050; Railway Express Agency York, 336 106, 69 463, 533. independent stake, Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 89 1322, 600 "reason infer antipathy," Vance Bradley, 93, 97, 939, 943, 171, presumed "even improvident decisions rectified democratic process ." Ibid. 23 Certain classifications, themselves supply reason antipathy. Race paradigm. racial classification, regardless purported motivation, presumptively invalid upheld extraordinary justification. Education, 347 483, 74 686, 873; McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 85 283, 222. rule ostensibly Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 30 220; Guinn States, 238 347, 35 926, 1340; cf. Lane Wilson, 307 268, 872, 83 1281; Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110. But, clear 597 Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 97 555, 450, disproportionately minority, discriminatory purpose. unlike race, touchstone pervasive often subtle Caban Mohammed, 441 380, 398, 1760, 1771, 297 (STEWART, J., dissenting). recent cases teach classifications objectives, Craig Boren, 190, 197, 451, settings unconstitutional. Reed Reed, 404 71, 251, 225; Frontiero Richardson, 677, 1764, 583; Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 95 1225, 514; supra; Califano Goldfarb, 430 199, 1021, 51 270; Orr Orr, 1102, 306; supra. right, supra, precedents dictate 24 recognize disparate historically victim discrimination, still work. But signaled departure guarantees laws, results. job-related white proportionately Negroes, showing establishment formulation test. zoning board tended perpetuate segregated housing patterns, since, apart effect, board's shown nothing application constitutionally policy. Those principles apply involving alleged inquiry, provides "important starting point," 266, 564, purposeful "the condition offends Constitution." Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg 16, 1267, 1276, 554. 26 background precedent we consider merits before us. III 27 establishes considered. face. also acknowledged per se invalid, findings relevant here: first, serves purposes; second, drawn plausibly ground, signal real neutral. 242, 2049; 564. answer excludes significant preferred Indeed, ground. Veteran uniquely male. nonveteran To contrary, nonveterans—male Too affected permit inference preferring Moreover, implicitly found, purposes surest explanation impact. Just alone unmask 220, others, notwithstanding impact—the noninvidious cannot missed. one. dispositive question, has, measure, shaped legislation. As points view distinguish rules issue cases. nature said demonstrably gender-biased concerns claimed unintended. contends factors, coupled little relevance actual performance, suffice prove establish violation. 31 presumes favoring intentionally incorporated panoply sex-based assertedly prevented handful becoming serious difficulties argument. First, Second, limiting sustained. Taken together, fatal. extent enabled achieve, every extreme, gender-biased. offering historical practices, make Invidious become less accomplished lesser magnitude.23 Discriminatory amenable calibration. factor influenced choice not. conclusion originally subsequently giving necessarily compels intended "veterans." Given finding, logic suggests was, describing "gender-biased," restate impact, intent. sure, unusual involves design prefers such. opposed written purport define characteristic. confers specifically group—perceived particularly deserving—a headstart. disputed, legitimate. gender-based, worthy, analyzed casts burden enlistment Services Schlesinger Ballard, 419 498, 572, 610. history trial case. 34 ultimate argument rests presumption, common criminal law, intends natural foreseeable his voluntary actions. stated Court: "Conceding goal here absolve legislature means chosen freeze out sought wish harm cutting-off concomitant scheme—as proposition tails up, heads down. Where law's inevitable, meaningfully unintended?" F.Supp., 151. rhetorical negative obvious, "intentional." So, necessarily, follow decision. seriously argued Legislature unaware foreseeable. "Discriminatory purpose," consequences. Jewish Organizations Carey, 144, 179, 996, 1016, (concurring opinion).24 decisionmaker, legislature, group.25 Yet, demonstrates devised re-enacted accomplish collateral keeping stereotypic predefined Service. 37 shows very broad veteran.26 focal point adopted—so appears record—out perceived need help older veterans.27 2049, IV 38 represent awkward—and, argue, unfair—exception widely shared prevail government. After war, without opposition. peacetime, come viewed quarters undemocratic unwise.28 Absolute preferences, troubled demonstrates, deal. 39 reversed, proceedings consistent opinion. 40 ordered. 41 STEVENS, WHITE joins, concurring. I concur confess am sure difference questions posed ante, 274. inclined believe However phrased, me provided disadvantaged (1,867,000) sufficiently large—and (2,954,000)—to refute claim MARSHALL, BRENNAN acknowledging circumstances, inferred n. 25, concludes here. agree. my evinces scheme bears objective, scrutiny 45 "prime objective" individuals prior Commonwealth, 485, 497 (Mass.1976). 145 (Mass.1978). analysis, factual determination "necessarily 'veterans.' law." Ante, 277. find neither compelling. 46 seeks not, matter sense, possibility disadvantage another. Individuals lawmakers frequently act reasons. recognized 265, 450 (1977), "[r]arely administrative body operating mandate motivated single concern." Absent omniscience commonly attributed judiciary, impossible ascertain dominant given statute. McGinnis Royster, 410 263, 276-277, 1055, 1062-1063, 282 (1973); Ely, Legislative Motivation Constitutional Law, 79 Yale L.J. 1205, 1214 (1970). critical illicit primary but-for cause decision, rather appreciable role shaping enactment. "proof motivating deference longer justified." 265-266, 563 (emphasis added). 47 reliable evidence subjective intentions seldom obtainable, resort unavoidable. Beer 425 130, 148-149, 4, 1357, 1367, 629 (1976) (MARSHALL, dissenting); Palmer 403 217, 224-225, 1940, 1944-1945, 438 (1971); O'Brien, 391 367, 383-384, 88 1673, 1682-1683, 672 (1968). discern underlying facially policies, therefore degree, inevitability, foreseeability alternatives reasonably available. Monroe Commissioners, 459, 1700, 1705, 733 (1968); Goss 373 683, 688-689, 1405, 1408-1409, 632 (1963); 110 (1960); Griffin Illinois, 351 12, 11, 76 585, 590 100 891 (1956). Albemarle Paper Co. Moody, 422 405, 425, 2362, 2375, 280 (1975). instant undisputed. Any grade exam nonveteran, practical matter, supplants determinant upper level appointments. 488-489. 2% rendered desirable almost exclusively prerogative. 151 (Campbell, concurring). recognized, consequence follows foreseeably, inexorably, long severely participation military.1 form, anything application. inescapably reserves major sector "an already which, fact, male." disproportionate, rest considerations played scheme. Castaneda Partida, 482, 1272, 498 (1977); 241, 2048, (1976); Alexander Louisiana, 405 625, 632, 1221, 1226, 536 (1972); Brest, Thompson : An Approach Problem Unconstitutional Motive, Sup.Ct.Rev. 95, 123. Clearly, Commonwealth's patent appreciation equally evident desire mitigate respect occupations. Until 1971, implementing regulations operation "especially calling women." 5. 6; 2; 1945 725, 2(e); 1965 53; 266 nn. 13, 14. practice, exemption, created hierarchy, occupying low-grade clerical secretarial holding responsible remunerative positions. 488; 148 9. 70 years, Commonwealth maintained, integral exemption relegating occupations filled Such perpetuates precisely kind archaic assumptions about roles previously invalid. 306 (1979); 210-211, 1028-1029, 270 Stanton Stanton, 421 7, 1373, 1377, 688 (1975); 645, 1231, 514 Particularly range assist veterans,2 restricts thought gender-neutral. 2375. contrary—that "nothing record" "collateral Service," —displays singularly myopic below.3 52 survive Clause, statutes reflecting related achievement Webster, 313, 316-317, 1192, 1194-1195, 360 456, 76, 254, 225 (1971). Appellants advance interests support system: (1) assisting readjustment life; (2) encouraging enlistment; (3) rewarding country. Brief 24. unquestionably legitimate, "mere recitation benign, compensatory insulate scrutiny. 648, 1233. sufficient objectives effectuate them. With interest, facilitating status, plainly overinclusive. Trimble Gordon, 762, 770-772, 1459, 1465-1466, Jimenez Weinberger, 417 628, 637, 94 2496, 2502, 363 (1974). By conferring allows invoke repeatedly, regard date discharge. currently enjoying recently assistance.4 Nor asserted plausible re-enactments, retroactively specified period. 265-267. "actual induce enlistment, hardly suited end. 317, 1195; unwilling assume effort prove, obtaining ex post facto significantly residents. influence presumed, grossly overinclusive bestows drafted volunteered. 55 Finally, "adequately justify salient features" system. 202-203, 459. 281, 1113. visits hardship unless " 'carefully tuned alternative considerations.' 772, 1466. 392-393, 1768-1769, Mathews Lucas, 495, 2755, 651 (1976). purposes. example, maintained Government, 2, duration, excluding employment, can, does, afford assistance various ways, tax abatements, educational subsidies, special programs needy 59, Fifth (West Supp.1979); 69, §§ 7B chs. 115, 115A 1969 Supp.1978). Unlike similar benefits, costs distributed across taxpaying generally, exacts price discrete discrimination,5 who, circumstances totally control, [had] chance class." F.Supp ., 499. 1,supra. 56 unqualified precludes fraction available, permissible. affirm below. text 10, infra. recodified January 1979, 1978 393, now 1979). Citations indicated, codification commenced. No Title VII Rights Act 1964, 2000e seq. Section 712 Act, 2000e-11, "[n]othing contained subchapter shall construed repeal modify Federal, territorial local creating rights veterans." parties evidently assumed consolidated Carol Anthony, lawyer efforts obtain Counsel frustrated 23. attorney 1975 134, Anthony's claims accordingly moot 495. stay pending passage interim suspending final replacing 1976 200, codified Mass.Gen.Law officers named defendants. certification permits this, 66, 345, 224, answered affirmative. 359, 366 1262 (1977). comprehensive 1944. Preference 1944, Stat. 387. engaged preferential War. Res. Mar. 3, 1865, 27, 571 (hiring veterans). House Affairs, Provision Benefits Veterans, Historical Analysis Major Legislation, 1862-1954, 84th Cong., 1st Sess., 258-265 (Comm.Print 1955). surveys late 19th century, Laws, Digests Laws Regarding Rights, Benefits, Privileges Veterans Their Dependents, 91st Sess. (1969); Fleming & Shanor, Preferences Employment: Gender Discrimination?, Emory forms vary widely. examinations, usually disabled. 6, 17, (citing statutes). offer preferences. Id., like extend positional Id. 13. N.J.Stat.Ann. 11:27-4 1976); S.D.Comp.Laws Ann. 3-3-1 (1974); Utah Code 34-30-11 (1953); Wash.Rev.Code 41.04.010, 73.16.010 Gen.Laws Forty-third 1976), supplies "veteran," reads pertinent part: 'Veteran' mean nurse, last discharge release wartime herein, honorable conditions army, navy, marine corps, coast guard, air ninety awarded Purple Heart, cl. 43, campaign badges Congressional Medal Honor "Wartime service" performed "Spanish veteran," "World "Korean "Vietnam member "WAAC." 1976). Each terms specify period definitions, entire September May ibid. "WAAC" follows: woman corps unit enabling serve with, to, armed forces veteran." formerly imposed residency requirement, (eligibility conditioned domicile induction years' State). invalidated Stevens Campbell, 332 102, 105 (D.C.Mass.1971). August Bronstein, 369 190 (S.D.N.Y.1974) (upholding, inter alia, nondurational requirement statute), summarily aff'd, 901, 2596, 208. full: "The names following order:— "(1) Disabled standing; section twenty-three [the widow widowed mother killed died service-connected disability incurred remarried] (4) standing. receipt requisition, according method rules. retained persons, 1977 dependents' "surviving spouses," parents." 815. requires authority file statement reasons selected. rationale essentially standardized. Koelfgen Jackson, 355 243 (D.C.Minn.1972), 976, 1502, 173; Rios Dillman, 499 F.2d 329 (CA5 1974); Mitchell Cohen, 333 411, 68 518, 522 774. Blumberg, De Facto Jure Sex Discrimination Clause: Reconsideration Employment, Buffalo L.Rev. collection early cases, Annot., 161 A.L.R. 494 (1946). "be proviso stated: "But herein prevent standing, above applicants," "upon requisition especially "women's requisitions" revisions, 219, single-sex approval Against Discrimination, 221. requiring agencies hire added 1922. 1922 463. applied (1972) (suit arguing arbitrary facts). replaced retention. presenting challenges Ballou Department 75 N.J. 365, 382 A.2d 1118 (1978) (sustaining Jersey preference); Feinerman Jones, 252 (M.D.Pa.1973) Pennsylvania Branch Du Bois, 418 1128 (N.D.Ill.1976) Illinois Wisconsin Nat. Organization Wisconsin, 978 (W.D.Wis.1976) preference). provision, creation Women's Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), 21, infra, 8, Small combat war 20th century involved, unofficially disguised M. S. Bach, Military (1977) (hereinafter Bach). Among known Molly Pitcher (Revolutionary War), Deborah Sampson Lucy Brewer (War 1812). Passing "George Baker," gunner U.S.S. Constitution ("Old Ironsides") distinguished herself naval battles 1812. J. Laffin, Battle 116-122 (1967). 1887, average age 50. Third Annual (1887). difficult enforce, "prefer younger men." valid 1. 2,804 positions: 2,031 veterans; 773 647 525 122 Thirteenth Nurse Corps, Congress 1901, full rank until 4-21; Treadwell, (Dept. 1954) Treadwell). proposals doctors, telephone operators, clerks, rejected Department. Navy, interpreted own broadly Yeoman F's Marine F's. About 13,000 rank, working jobs. These admitted 10. Official massive needs II. Bach; Treadwell. (WAAC)—the predecessor (WAC) 1942, months later WAVES (Women Accepted Voluntary Emergency Service). 7. Not after, Reserve Coast Guard (SPAR) established. Some 350,000 services; 800 Airforce Pilots (WASPS). care, administration, communications; employed airplane mechanics, parachute riggers, gunnery instructors, traffic controllers, like. authorizations temporary. Integration 62 services basis. regular However, quotas enlist, 357, 360-361 (no total enlisted strength), eligibility requirements stringent career limited. 11-12. 1950's 1960's, constituted 1% force. quota lifted, 1(9)(E), 375, 3209(b), 1970's restrictive concerning modified. Bach. 1972, strength. risen 4.6%. former requisitions," operated protect types indicates unchanged 1971. class, included ensure outlaw pre-existing practice explicitly authorized Rule XIX.3, Law Rules Regulations Commissioners (1884) ("In request certification, regulation, call certified; disregarded certification"). endorsed practice. materials indicate, excluded. Report, 20, 19, irrelevant might lessen argues, effectiveness helping "neutral" sense. Proof rely outlined 397. practical. What entity "up to" plain avoid. Often called, different context, situation." Cramer 325 32-33, 65 918, 934, 1441 (Jackson, J.). inevitability bearing existence Certainly, strong desired drawn. inquiry—made Constitution—an tool, synonym proof. When, here, unavoidable when, affirmatively opposite, fails ripen suggested exception compete dependents laced "old notions" proper sexes. 514. suggestion belied history, 267-271, account recognition contribution Nation's efforts. Hearings Oversight Subcommittee Post Office Committee, 95th Comptroller General, Conflicting Policies: Apportionment vs. Employment Opportunity (Sept. 29, 1977). 490, 495-499 (Mass.1976); 145, addition Forces, physical aptitude, parental consent, attainment. Bach); Note, Military, 82 1533, 1539 (1973). 1970's, precluded married dependent children. 490; App. 85; Exs. 98, 99, 103, 104. Sex-based restrictions advancement diminished incentives enlist. 10-17; Beans, 67 Mil.L.Rev. 59-83 508, 577, 610 (1976), related, incorporates fitness employment. 498-499. Only comparable Massachusetts. Other do foreclose 14; 261 7; (statement Alan Chairman, Commission). disadvantages (STEVENS, concurring), 47% compared 0.8% 83. disparity, indicia noted 284-285, denied dispositive, faced barriers achieving confronted information males, 64 (67%) 1960. 150-151, 169-170. 689 1772 583 Kahn Shevin, 416 351, 353-354, 1734, 1736-1737, 189 Bureau Census, Current Population Reports, 107, Money Income Poverty Status Families States: (Advance Report) (Table 7)

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