Document: 384 U.S. 855 86 S.Ct. 1840 16 L.Ed.2d 973 Raymond DENNIS, et al., Petitioners,v.UNITED STATES. No. 502. Argued April 20, 1966. Decided June Telford Taylor, New York City, for petitioners. Nathan Lewin, Washington, D.C., respondent. Mr. Justice FORTAS delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The six petitioners and eight others were indicted in United States District Court Colorado on a charge violating general conspiracy statute, 18 U.S.C. § 371 (1964 ed.).1 single-count indictment alleged fraudulently to obtain services National Labor Relations Board behalf International Union Mine, Mill Smelter Workers, by filing false affidavits purported satisfaction requirements 9(h) Act, as amended Taft-Hartley 61 Stat. 146. 2 Section 9(h), which was later repealed,2 provided that labor unions could not secure investigation employee representation or issuance complaint unless there file with so-called non-Communist each officer union its parent organization. statute required these attest is member Communist Party 'affiliated such party, he does believe in, supports any organization believes teaches, overthrow Government force illegal unconstitutional methods.' 3 Four petitioners—Dennis, Dichter, Travis Wilson—were officers union. Each have filed affidavits. Petitioners Sanderson Skinner were, at relevant times, members but officers. They are charged participation conspiracy. All be 'members affiliated Party.' 4 returned 1956. At first trial, convicted. On appeal, Appeals Tenth Circuit sustained validity indictment, reversed judgments ground prejudicial hearsay evidence had been admitted evidence. 302 F.2d 5. 5 retrial, again convicted sentenced three years' imprisonment fined $2,000. This time, affirmed. 346 10. We granted certiorari (382 915, 291, 15 231) limited questions: 6 '1. Whether states offense defraud States; 7 '2. Whether, comparative light American Communications Ass'n. v. Douds, 339 382, (70 674, 94 L.Ed. 925), Brown, 381 437, (85 1707, 14 484), Act constitutional; 8 '3. trial court erred denying petitioners' motions production, defense Court, grand jury testimony prosecution witnesses.' Essentially, Government's case that, prior 1949, opposed compliance 9(h); 1949 union, consequence discussions participated others, determined preservation Party's allegedly dominating position union's welfare itself, officials take steps Board's union; order accomplish this purpose, nominally resign from 9(h). Pursuant plan, it alleged, leadership voted comply Those who members, including four herein, Party.3 then proceeded, various dates between August February 1955, action, contended, cynical fraudulent, false. In reality, claimed, affiliations remained unaffected did domination affairs. thereafter several occasions, utilize services, privilege obtained result assertedly fraudulent acts. I. 9 discuss question, considered both Appeals,4 whether properly under 371. agree indictments broad language must scrutinized carefully defendants because possibility, inherent criminal charge, wide net may ensnare innocent well culpable. See Krulewitch States, 336 440, 445—458, 69 716, 719—725, 93 790 (concurring opinion); Bufalino, 285 408, 417—418 (C.A.2d Cir. 1960). But present we conclude proper 10 petitioners—those false—presumably substantive making statements 'matter within jurisdiction of' Board, violation 1001 ed.). essence their conduct merely individual It also concert action—the common decision activity purpose. peripheral incidental. lay core offense. entire conspiracy, affidavits, gravamen charge. conspiratorial program included, prime factors, only those themselves statements, equally interested purpose directly culpably involved scheme. sought fasten culpability upon all conspirators. charges specificity alleges culpable role 11 Nor can concluded described nature objective outside condemnation specific clause relied 'to agency thereof manner purpose.' has long established statutory confined fraud term defined law. reaches 'any impairing, obstructing, defeating lawful function department government,' Haas Henkel, 216 462, 479, 30 249, 254, 54 569, quoted Johnson, 383 169, 172, 749, 751, 681.5 also, Lutwak 344 604, 73 481, 97 593; Glasser 315 60, 66, 62 457, 463, 680; Hammerschmidt 265 182, 188, 44 511, 512, 68 968. Cf. Goldstein, Conspiracy Defraud Yale L.J. 405, 414—441, 455—458 (1959). case, petitioners, unable benefit process except submitting coldly deliberately concocted scheme; furtherance scheme, some fact submit use facilities made available them. Court's decisions foreclose argument allegations do States. 12 argue, however, cannot purposes certify whose affidavits—without regard veracity thereof. Leedom Union, 352 145, 77 154, 201, Amalgamated Meat Cutters Butcher Workmen North America 153, 159, 207. claim since action lawfully predicated truthfulness element reliance missing no defraud. true Congress, free delays would attendant testing bona fides controverted affidavits,6 relegate law responsibility dealing filings. allocation relating sanctions attached alter character legal consequences actions. beyond Congress unmistakably regarded truthful affidavits—and false—as using facilities. doubly clear expressly providing certain statutes, shall applicable respect 13 facts are, according co-conspirators without affidavits; submitted part scheme induce act; acted filed; Within meaning 371, an Still another advanced defeat indictment. involve defraud, rather, alternative commit 1001. contention Bridges 209, 1055, 1557, compels conclusion laid conspiracy-to-defraud point. turn construction question before prosecution, otherwise time-barred, revived reference Wartime Suspension Limitations 3287 applies * involving attempted against *.' certificate naturalization.7 held apply offenses. ruled, construed narrowly applied 'only where pecuniary least concerning property.' U.S., 215, S.Ct., 1059. characterized his collaborators conspired 'cloak,' sole revive stale prosecution. other hand, allegation discussed, reflects attempt prosecutorial sleight hand overcome time bar.8 events include not, make unavailable 66—67, 463—464, Manton, 107 834, 839 1939) cert. denied, 309 664, 60 590, 84 1012. conclude, therefore, II. 17 next urge set aside convictions unconstitutional. particular, they rely 85 484, bill attainder enacted 1959 replace new crime hold office substantial employment union.9 contend Brown effect overruled Assn. 70 925, ask now reconsider Douds.10 need reach attack constitutionality circumvent statute. Whatever might challenged necessity violate provisions seek relief courts here. case. here effort challenge it—a designed avoid courts, invoke jurisdiction.11 19 based sort enterprise evaded somehow defective. Ample opportunities exist country judicial protection.12 There reason consider behest means falsehood deceit challenge. teaching cases. 20 Kay 303 1, 58 468, 82 607, upheld conviction connection Home Owners' Loan 1933, passing invalid. said, 'When one undertakes cheat mislead officers, acting authority, standing assert operations constitutional sanction.' 6, 471. Kapp, 214, 205, money subsequently invalidated Agricultural Adjustment 1933. Analogous cases prosecutions perjury permitted despite elicited stating federal (United Williams, 341 58, 65—69, 71 595, 599—601, 95 747); tainted governmental misconduct Remington, 208 567, 569 1953), 347 913, 74 476, 98 1069); defendant testified having advised rights Winter, 348 204, 208—210 1965), 382 955, 429, 360, cited therein). 21 distinguish propriety very question—Communist membership affiliation—which accused answering falsely. distinction force. governing principle unconstitutionality will heard excuse voluntary, deliberate calculated course deceit. One elects self-help escape urging excused evade directed fraud. enforce claimed 22 argued dissent, see pp. 876—880, post, bears defrauding 'lawful function.' acts conspirators, Douds handed down. flouted, overlooked. loses sight appropriate inappropriate ways government thought Moreover, view assumes said 'unlawful' even though carries fresh imprimatur Such immune But, circumstances like us, circumvented falsehood, being if conspirators discovered. 23 Because invalidity find unnecessary Douds. III. 24 committed reversible error motion require production examination witnesses.13 Alternatively, camera inspection judge followed event found inconsistencies jury. 25 denied motions, direct witnesses, 'particularized need' shown. Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. 360 395, 400, 79 1237, 1241, 1323. denial error. recognized 'the power inescapable duty lift lid secrecy proceedings aid search truth,' obligation 'not (to) hesitate inspect disclose likely fair administration justice through cross-examination impeachment.' F.2d, 17. went so far express 'it safer inspected testimony.' Id., 18. witnesses thoroughly competently cross-examined numerous extra-judicial manifest inconsistency,' 'safe assume disclosed anything impeaching significance.' Ibid. 26 brief Solicitor General concedes 'there claims interest minimal oft-repeated arguments advance, suggested course.' Brief p. 51. argues motions. With latter proposition disagree, reverse. 27 'long-established policy maintains courts.' Procter & Gamble Co., 356 677, 681, 78 983, 986, 1077. And ruled when disclosure permitted, done 'discretely limitedly.' 683, 987. Accordingly, refused civil permit pretrial transcript basis discovery preparation Gamble, supra. And, supra, court's refusal witness' showing need, insisted minutes matter right, 'overwhelming' proof testimony. 28 general, confirmed Rule 6(e) Federal Rules Criminal Procedure 'preliminarily proceeding.' Socony-Vacuum Oil 310 150, 234, 811, 849, 1129, acknowledged 'after jury's functions ended, wholly ends it.' stated 'problems impeach witness, refresh recollection, test credibility *' 'cases particularized lifted discretely Glass, special should supplied defense, agreed counsel access portions 1244.14 variety circumstances, lower too, defendants.15 29 These developments entirely consonant growing realization disclosure, rather than suppression, materials ordinarily promotes justice. reflected enactment Jencks 3500 ed.), responding 353 657, 1007, 1103, makes insofar relate testimony.16 expanding body materials, otherwise, favoring analogous practice.17 Certainly context importance preserving admits persuasiveness favor fairly failed out need.' here, goes substantially minimum Court.18 record shows following circumstances: 31 1. related occurred 1948 1955. taken 1956, while relatively fresh. compare 1956 until 1963. Certainly, assay testimony, years after much fresher jury.19 32 2. witnesses. key proved exclusive involved. 33 3. concerned conversations oral meetings. largely uncorroborated. Where guilt innocence exactly what clearly entitled reasonably ascertain precise substance statements. 34 4. Two accomplices, paid informer. A third separated reasons hostility toward 35 witness earlier mistaken about significant dates. 36 inevitable risk wrongful attribution more multiple defendants. See, e.g., Under especially important assurance doors lead truth unlocked. our adversary system determining innocence, rarely justifiable storehouse fact.20 Exceptions clearest most compelling considerations. For reason, accept assume' come examined. justification relying 'assumption.' 37 reserved satisfactory measure disclosure. 1241. procedure, finds inconsistencies, adopted Courts Appeals. Second right.21 While practice useful enabling rule testimony—and disapprove purpose—it disposes matter. Trial judges ought burdened task examining sometimes voluminous event, extremely difficult able experienced pressures conducting pick witness.' 410, 1246 (dissenting opinion). realistic judgment utility material impeachment legitimate purposes, however conscientiously made, exhaust possibilities. system, enough judge. determination effectively advocate.22 judge's deciding supervise process: example, cause elimination extraneous applications protective orders unusual situations, Nation's security clearcut dangers individuals identified produced. Fed.Rule Crim.Proc. 16(e), 1966; 3500(c). 38 examine cross-examination, reverse below remand trial. ordered. 39 Reversed remanded 40 DOUGLAS, joining BLACK, joins Part III majority opinion. 41 whom DOUGLAS joins, concurring dissenting part. 42 approaching second decade natural offspring McCarthy era. I deny Grand Jury minutes. disagree holding sufficient devote my attention 'in 9(h)' attainder. flat procedural due allow tried 43 charges, compelled show conspiring committed, interfered 'lawful' 'proper' government. Had obstructed 'proper,' fatally defective accepted today state essential obstruction 'legitimate' function. 681; 968; 253, 569. right attainder, nevertheless interfere Yet nowhere points performed requiring constitute requirement section either surely false, Board. indeed strange carry means, frustrates Framers' intention never given slightest country, indirectly. Our heretofore sends citizens prison giving them chance laws foundation rest. refuses novel doctrine forms nucleus oaths ingredient seeks place jail. unlawful element, whole door. passed requires refuse us tell land open bills sent prison. solely exclusively court-made doctrine. 45 cannot, judgment, stretched support payments itself. indicted. contended prosecuted declared rejected defense. Kapp get Treasury possible people who, money. So benefits none situation Here, unconstitutional, always filed, filed. By got deprived nothing defrauded nothing. 46 Let moment similar efforts deprive bearing down State wanted impose racial religious qualifications voting Fourteenth Fifteenth Amendments register vote swearing proscribed color religion? If person flase affidavit something have? Take example. Article VI Constitution provides '* Test ever Qualification Office public Trust States.' Suppose pass candidates belong particular church candidate falsely denies church. Is conceivable him barred functions? imagine laws? ultimately rests, hardly consistent Madison's 'independent tribunals impenetrable bulwark every assumption Legislative Executive; naturally led resist encroachment stipulated declaration rights.' Annals 439 (1789). 47 repealed 504 Labor-Management Reporting Disclosure Act. 536, serve Last year 484 doing so, 'Section same effective way.' 439, n. 2, 1710. understandable brevity, feebleness unpersuasiveness crucial 504, admit contends not. amounts assertion punishment severe hard grasp harder accept. just impossible office, reached different way. receive Communists condition unions' receiving services. practical forced affidavit, prosecuted, give up office. differences relies too slight, insubstantial, vaporlike justify attainted unfit heart legislative findings elgislative fiat. distinct quick retreat successor, identical effect, am willing directly, indirectly refusing face issue now. 48 sentences say considerable regret future historians reporting justifiably draw inference whatever offense, defrauded. again, unlike Government, actually something—their freedom. jail, which, challenged, constitutionally prohibited freedom-destroying, reads: 'If two persons conspire act object $10,000 imprisoned five years, both. substituted legislation note 9, infra. successor Travis, announcement resignation. letters resignation local offices. sustaining reported Pezzati, 160 F.Supp. 787 (D.C.D.Colo.1958). issue, Dennis, (C.A.10th 1962). although statement, misrepresentation deceit.' 337 180, 185—186 (C.A.4th 1964), aff'd 681. 149—150, 156—157. counts. violations statement Nationality 1940, formerly §§ 746(a)(1) 746(a)(5) (1940 1015 1425 count thereof, suggest resorted bar. necessary bring filings (defendant Van Camp, acquitted 1949) limitations. span provable overt fall period. Grunewald 391, 396—397, 963, 969—970, 931; Fiswick 329 211, 216, 67 224, 227, 91 196; Elliott, 225 392, 400—401, 812, 815, 56 1136. Bridges—the obtain; is, enabled back immaterial Unlike Bridges, secured advantage limitations charging other. provides: '(a) No serve— '(1) officer, director, trustee, executive board body, business agent, manager, organizer, (other performing clerical custodial duties) during termination *. '(b) Any wilfully violates year, both.' Aptheker Secretary State, 378 500, 1659, 992, passports membes entered pendency raising precisely raised Probable noted November 8, companion Steelworkers 335 910, 480, January 17, 1949. commencing Despite announced May 1950 (339 674), petitioner Dennis Camp signed election agreement less weeks later, December short, chose ignore clarify flout adverse context, burdensome statutes consideration. Indeed, own successfully prevented withholding Travis' affidavit. 201. Three fourth, Mason, died interval trials. moved denied. objected examine, Since omission Mason's longer remedied, retried. request minutes, adequacy technique protecting defendant's interests. 401, 191 246, 250 251 1951), 343 907, 72 580, 96 1325 commission jury); Atlantic City Electric A. B. Chance 313 431 1963) (use private plaintiff antitrust suit testimony); 21, 3500(b) ed.) reads part: 'After called examination, shall, defendant, produce possession relates subject testified. Subsection (e) defines 'statement' Procedure, approved 28, 1966, transmitted authorize results tests, recorded (and Advisory Committee's Note thereon). anticipating broadening discovery: Cicenia La Gay, 357 1297, 1523; Peace, F.R.D. 423 (D.C.S.D.N.Y.1954); Willis, 510 (D.C.S.D.N.Y.1963); (D.C.S.D.N.Y.1965); Nolte, 359 (D.C.N.D.Cal.1965); N.J. 133, 145 A.2d (1958); People ex rel. Lemon Supreme 245 N.Y. 24, 156 N.E. 84, 52 A.L.R. 200 (1927). Among commentators Brennan, Prosecution: Sporting Event Quest Truth? 1963 Wash.U.L.Q. 279; Traynor, Ground Lost Found Discovery, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 228 (1964); Accused: Balance Advantage 1149 (1960); Note, Developments Law—Discovery, Harv.L.Rev. 940, 1051—1063 (1961). Of relevance are: Sherry, Minutes: Unreasonable Secrecy, Va.L.Rev. 668 (1962); Calkins, 63 Mich.L.Rev. 455 (1965). None traditionally non-disclosure (see Brennan's 1244) criticism traditional op. cit. 17; 'Every lawyer knows value recording dulls treacherous memory.' 667, 1013. Alford 282 687, 51 218, 75 624, ruling opportunity inquire into background witness; Andolschek, 142 503, 506 1944) (L. Hand, J.), reports—otherwise privileged—upon based; Coplon, 185 629, 636—639, A.L.R.2d 1041 1960) 342 920, 362, 688, unlawfully tape-recordings telephone conservations recordings introduced trial; Ramistella, 306 379, 118 N.E.2d 566 (1954), secret identification automobile prove stolen unwilling location mark Hernandez, 290 1961); Giampa, 83, 1961). Compare Micele, 327 222, 226—227 (C.A.7th 1964); Ogden 724, 741—742 (C.A.9th 1962); Bertucci, 333 292, 297 (C.A.3d Berry 295 192, 195 (C.A.8th Rosenberg 367, 1231, 1234, 1304; Cotter, 689, 692 1932) J.); 636—640 1950) 688.

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