Document: 515 U.S. 900115 S.Ct. 2475132 L.Ed.2d 762 Zell MILLER, et al., Appellants,v.Davida JOHNSON al. Lucious ABRAMS, Jr., Appellants, v. Davida UNITED STATES, Appellant, Nos. 94-631, 94-797, and 94-929. Supreme Court of the United States Argued April 19, 1995. Decided June 29, Syllabus * In Shaw Reno, 509 ----, 113 2816, 125 511, this articulated equal protection principles that govern a State's drawing congressional districts, noting laws explicitly distinguish between individuals on racial grounds fall within core Equal Protection Clause's prohibition against race-based decisionmaking, extends to neutral their face but unexplainable other than race, redistricting legislation is so bizarre its it race demands same strict scrutiny given state classify citizens by race. Georgia's most recent districting plan contains three majority-black districts was adopted after Justice Department refused preclear, under § 5 Voting Rights Act (Act), two earlier plans each contained only districts. Appellees, voters in new Eleventh District—which joins metropolitan black neighborhoods together with poor populace coastal areas 260 miles away challenged District ground gerrymander violation Clause as interpreted Shaw. The agreed, holding evidence State Legislature's purpose, well District's irregular borders, showed overriding predominant force determination. court assumed compliance would be compelling interest, found not narrowly tailored meet interest since did require Held: violates Clause. Pp. ____. (a) Parties alleging has assigned basis are neither confined proof regarding district's geometry makeup nor required make threshold showing bizarreness. A shape relevant Shaw's analysis because bizarreness necessary element constitutional wrong or requirement proof, may persuasive circumstantial for own sake, principles, legislature's dominant controlling rationale district lines. some exceptional cases, reapportionment highly that, face, rationally cannot understood anything an effort segregate based where bizarre, parties rely establish districting. very stereotypical assumptions forbids underlie argument general proscription decisionmaking does obtain context involves consideration. While usually implicates political calculus which various interests compete recognition, follow share single interest. Nor can used assess vote dilution claim Jewish Organizations Williamsburgh, Inc. Carey, 430 144, 97 996, 51 229, applied resuscitate argument. (b) Courts must exercise extraordinary caution adjudicating claims drawn plaintiff show, whether through demographics more direct legislative factor motivating decision place significant number without district. To showing, prove legislature subordinated traditional race-neutral including limited compactness, contiguity, respect subdivisions communities defined actual shared interests, considerations. P. (c) correct here, finding clearly erroneous. It need decided shape, standing alone, sufficient there considerable additional Legislature motivated predominant, desire create third order comply Department's preclearance demands. Court's well-supported justified rejection alternative explanations offered District. Appellants refute gerrymandering arguing complied those factors were objectives. tangible spanning hundreds called upon rescue plan. Since behind drawing, subject sustained if achieve (d) eradicating effects past discrimination, little doubt true satisfy Even Act, could provide do reasonably reading application Act. say Act's substantive requirements. ameliorative have violated unless they discriminated color violate Constitution. However, instead grounding objections discriminatory appears been driven maximization policy. utilizing majority-minority whenever possible, expanded statutory authority beyond Congress' intent 5: insure no voting-procedure changes made lead retrogression position minorities effective electoral franchise. policy also raises serious concerns implicit command engage presumptive unconstitutional brings once upheld proper Fifteenth Amendment authority, into tension Fourteenth Amendment. 864 F.Supp. 1354 (S.D.Ga.1994), affirmed remanded. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, SCALIA, THOMAS, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion. STEVENS, dissenting GINSBURG, opinion, STEVENS BREYER, joined, SOUTER, joined except Part III-B. David F. Walbert, Atlanta, GA, appellants 94-631 94-797. Drew S. Days, III, Washington, DC, appellant No. A. Lee Parks, appellees. KENNEDY Court. 1 constitutionality at issue here. 511 (1993), we held states plan, rational explanation save separate question now decide gives rise valid announced Shaw, and, so, nonetheless serve governmental 2 3 provides shall "deny any person jurisdiction laws." Const., Amdt. 14, 1. Its central mandate neutrality decisionmaking. See, e.g., Loving Virginia, 388 1, 11, 87 1817, 1823, 18 1010 (1967); McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 191-192, 85 283, 287-288, 13 222 (1964); see Brown Board Education, 347 483, 74 686, 98 L.Ed. 873 (1954). Though imperative difficult questions, basic principle straightforward: "Racial ethnic distinctions sort inherently suspect thus call exacting judicial examination. . This perception rooted our Nation's demographic history." Regents Univ. California Bakke, 438 265, 291, 2733, 2748, 57 750 (1978) (opinion Powell, J.). rule obtains regardless "the burdened benefited particular classification." Richmond J.A. Croson Co., 488 469, 494, 109 706, 722, 102 854 (1989) (plurality opinion) (citations omitted); id., 520, S.Ct., 735 (SCALIA, judgment) ("I agree O'CONNOR's conclusion all classification race"); Adarand Constructors, Pena, --- 115 2097, 2110, ---- (1995); supra, 289-291, 2747-2748 Laws classifying achieving Adarand, 2114; Croson, 722 opinion); Wygant Jackson Bd. Ed., 476 267, 274, 280, n. 6, 106 1842, 1847, 1850, 90 (1986) opinion). 4 recognized these though, cautious approach discloses, delicate task. Our began from premise "[l]aws [the Clause's] prohibition." Id., 2824. just explicit classifications, " 'unexplainable race.' 2825 (quoting Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 429 252, 266, 555, 563, 50 450 (1977)). Applying voting rights context, "redistricting race,' close give race." U.S., Heights, 563). case requires us apply enacted Georgia. B 6 1965, Attorney General designated Georgia covered 4(b) 79 Stat. 438, amended, 42 U.S.C. 1973b(b) (Act). 30 Fed.Reg. 9897 (1965); 28 CFR pt. 51, App.; City Rome States, 446 156, 161, 100 1548, 1553, 64 119 (1980). consequence, either administrative approval Columbia change "standard, practice, procedure voting" November 1964. 1973c. mechanism applies plans, see, Beer 425 130, 133, 96 1357, 1360, 47 629 (1976), proposed "not purpose will effect denying abridging right account color." "[T]he always franchise." Beer, 141, 1363. 7 Between 1980 1990, one 10 district, is, majority black. 1990 Decennial Census indicated population 6,478,216 persons, 27% whom black, entitled eleventh seat, App. 9, prompting Assembly redraw Both House Senate guidelines which, among things, single-member population, contiguous geography, nondilution minority strength, fidelity precinct lines §§ 1973, See 11-12. Only requirements met permit drafters consider ends, such maintaining integrity subdivisions, preserving existing avoiding contests incumbents. 12. 8 special session opened August 1991, submitted October 1991. Fifth Eleventh, Second, blacks comprised over 35% age population. Despite plan's increase absence discriminate voters, 1354, 1363, (SD Ga.1994), January 21, 1992. 99-107. objection letter noted concern had created "recognize" certain populations placing them 105, 105-106. 9 returned board. preclearance. second attempt Central Baldwin County increased Second Districts. again, relying proposing 120-126. One schemes relied so-called "max-black" F.Supp., 1362-1363, drafted American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) Assembly's caucus. key ACLU's "Macon/Savannah trade." dense Macon region transferred converting loss offset extending include Savannah. 1365-1366. Pointing refusal enact Macon/Savannah swap law, concluded "failed explain adequately" failure 125. seek declaratory judgment Columbia. 1366, 11. Twice spurned, set out gain 1366. Using benchmark, 1366-1367, 11 "bore signs Department's] involvement: Meriwether gouged Third attached narrowest land bridges; Effingham Chatham Counties split way Savannah extension, itself Savannah; whole 26 counties, 23 districts." 1367; Appendix (attached). 12 lost Macon, picked up Savannah, thereby connecting Atlanta County, though apart distance worlds culture. short, social, economic tells tale disparity, community. 1376-1377, 1389-1390; Plaintiff's Exh. 85, pp. 10-27 (report Timothy G. O'Rourke, Ph.D.). As appendices attest, "[t]he centered around four discrete, widely spaced urban centers absolutely nothing other, stretch across rural counties narrow swamp corridors." 1389 (footnote omitted). 14 "The approved majority-black, periphery Augusta tied sparsely populated even less bridges. Extending Atlantic, 6,784.2 square miles, splitting eight five municipalities along way." 1367 15 Almanac Politics about District: "Geographically, monstrosity, stretching plantation country center state, lightly populated, heavily links corridors Augusta, southern DeKalb County." M. Barone & Ujifusa, 356 (1994). included received 2, 6; 1367. 16 Elections 4, 1992, candidates elected Congress 1369. On 13, 1994, appellees, white District, action officials (Miller Appellants) Southern 1369, 1370. residents appellees standing. Hays, 2431, 2436, (1995). Their suit alleged Reno. three-judge convened pursuant 2284, intervened support defendant-state officials. 17 panel agreed invalid judge dissenting. Ga.1994). After sharp criticism use partisan advocates dealings of- ficials cooperation vigorous advocacy maximization, turned careful interpretation read "overriding, force" process. 1372 (emphasis Citing much creating final (in several appendages obvious putting District), 1378. proceeded scrutiny. rejecting proportional representation willing assume 1381-1382. latter, however, reason goal complying 1392-1393. notices appeal requested stay judgment, granted pending filing disposition appeals case, Miller Johnson, 512 36, 129 932 We later probable jurisdiction. 513 713, 130 620 1253. II 19 Finding "evidence racially overwhelming, practically stipulated involved," 1374; 1374-1378. take court's factual motivation. Rather, contend deliberate alone suffice They argue purposes, demonstrate failed Appellants' conception misapprehends precedent relied. 20 "analytically distinct" claim. 2830; 2828. Whereas alleges scheme purposeful device "to minimize cancel potential minorities," Mobile Bolden, 55, 66, 1490, 1499, (1980) (citing cases), disadvantaging essence separating Just not, absent justification, public parks, New Orleans Park Improvement Assn. Detiege, 358 54, 99, 46 (1958) (per curiam), buses, Gayle Browder, 352 903, 77 145, 114 (1956) golf courses, Holmes 350 879, 76 776 (1955) beaches, Mayor Council Baltimore Dawson, 877, 774 schools, Brown, recognize different idea simple one: "At heart Constitution's guarantee lies Government treat 'as individuals, "as simply components racial, religious, sexual national class." ' Metro Broadcasting, FCC, 497 547, 602, 110 2997, 3028, 111 445 (1990) (O'CONNOR, dissenting) Arizona Governing Comm. Tax Deferred Annuity Compensation Plans Norris, 463 1073, 1083, 103 3492, 3498, 1236 (1983)); cf. Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors America Jacksonville, 508 2297, 2303, 124 586 (1993) (" 'injury fact' "denial treatment ultimate inability benefit"). When assigns engages offensive demeaning assumption "think alike, prefer polls." 2827; 636, 3046 (KENNEDY, dissenting). Race-based assignments "embody stereotypes product evaluating thoughts efforts—their worth citizens—according criterion barred history Constitution." 604, 3029 (citation Powers Ohio, 499 400, 410, 1364, 1370, 411 (1991) ("Race proxy determining juror bias competence"); Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, 432, 104 1879, 1881, 80 421 (1984) ("Classifying persons according likely reflect prejudice legitimate concerns; person, dictates category"). cause society harm. Shaw: 21 classifications carry dangers. Racial gerrymandering, remedial balkanize competing factions; threatens further system longer matters—a Amendments embody, Nation continues aspire. reasons legislatures scrutiny." 2832. 22 observation consequences stereotyping meant suggest before violation. instances appearance (or, precise, combination evidence) claim, 2828, believe be. circumspect erect artificial barring accepted cases. Shape logical implication, courts applying recognized, Hunt, 861 408, 431 (EDNC 1994); Hays Louisiana, 839 1188, 1195 (WD La.1993), vacated, 2731, 853 (1994); DeWitt Wilson, 856 1409, 1413 (ED Cal.1994). reasoning compels conclusion. outside statutes when contain express when, object. 2825. rare government pattern ibid. 563), evidentiary inquiry relatively easy." 563 early Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 220 (1886), laundry ordinance administered exclude Chinese business; Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, (1960), redrawing Tuskegee, Alabama's municipal boundaries left designed blacks. presumed action, stark manifestation, Patterns discrimination conspicuous rare, predicate Cf. 14. Gomillion, "impact determinative, look evidence" (footnotes 24 redistricting. "In 'segregat[e] voters' 2826 341, 127). discloses design, "difficul[t]." Ibid. Although import 25 amici definition Underlying forbids. cases implicate view "based notion members groups ascribe 'minority views' citizens," dissenting), precise Constitution prohibits. excepted standard precepts resuscitated 229 (1977), addressed York Hasidic community explained Justices UJO construed complaint stating separated 2829. extent opinions "highly fractured decision," 2829, suggesting assignment strictest scrutiny, views ought deemed controlling. sum, clear Today's sustain challenge. 27 Federal review represents intrusion vital local functions. settled "reapportionment primarily duty responsibility State." Chapman Meier, 420 27, 95 751, 766, 766 (1975); Voinovich Quilter, 507 - 1149, 1156-1157, 122 500 (1993); Growe Emison, 1075, 1081, (1993). Electoral legislatures, discretion balance interests. suspect, 2107-2108 2748 J.)), until claimant makes allegation good faith presumed, 318-319, 2762-2763 courts, assessing sufficiency challenge sensitive complex interplay forces enter calculus. Redistricting will, example, almost aware demographics; predominates 2826; Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 442 256, 279, 99 2282, 2296, 60 870 (1979) '[D]iscriminatory purpose' implies volition awareness consequences. decisionmaker selected reaffirmed course least part 'because of,' merely 'in spite adverse effects") citation distinction being considerations make. difficulty, nature presumption accorded enactments, plaintiff's burden going Where legislation, "defeat gerrymandered lines." 2827. These inform trial. Of course, intrusive intervention realm, Rules Procedure adequacy stages litigation discovery trial proceed. Fed.Rules Civ.Proc. 12(b) (e), 26(b)(2), 56; Celotex Corp. Catrett, 477 317, 327, 2548, 2554, 91 265 (1986). view, analysis, "exceedingly obvious" demographics, bridges incorporate outlying containing nearly 80% total bring 1375; 1374-1376. comparison geometric seem considered conjunction densities, story seen becomes clearer. (attached); 133. quite compelling, determine was, assign creation Second. 1372, 29 "it became obvious," both letters rounds general, "that Department] accept abject surrender agenda." 11; 1360-1367; 564 ("historical background source"). acquiesced consequence supported testimony Linda Meggers, operator "Herschel," computer, "probably knowledgeable available Georgian redistricting," 1361, concessions. admitted 'would added portions [far southeastern extension the] present Congressional caused shift predominantly Bibb occurred response Justice's March 20th, letter.' 1377. conceded "[t]o precincts split, substantial objective increasing district." And brief concedes "[i]t undisputed Brief 30. Hence difficulty concluding "spent months demanding purely revisions spent attempting comply." record, fail how reached District; event conclude Compare Wright Rockefeller, 376 52, 56-57, 84 603, 605, (1964) (evidence presented "conflicting inferences" therefore fact drew lines"). light finding, "traditional subdivisions" 2827, refuta- tion where, objected demand "violate reasonable standards compactness contiguity." 118. statement official powerful ultimately "every [objective districting] realistically tinkering suffered fate." 1384; 8; 1375 ("While indeed many lines, Ms. Meggers data accessible her level"). 31 rescued mere recitation purported 'communities interest' District." 1389-1390. comprehensive report demonstrated political, apparent rather object maximizing obtaining actions. 1378, 1380. free makeup, provided directed toward common thread "[W]hen group live community, concentrates excludes others wholly purposes." 2826. But assumes polls," odds mandates. 1370 ("We defense stereotype law condemns"). 32 Race found, explaining attach populations. result, satisfies rigorous review. III 33 2829-2832; Wygant, 2114. There "significant discrimination." 2831. argue, remedy reason: designing 1378 ("the mind drafting current satisfying requirements"); 1366; compare 277, 1848 (under convincing implementing affirmative action), Heller Doe, 2637, 2642, 257 review, 'actually articulate time supporting classification' ") Nordlinger Hahn, 505 15, 112 2326, 2334, 120 (1992)). Whether independent remedying suggested federal antidiscrimination justify laws. 2830-2831. here statute. 34 preclear first plans. "black-maximization" 5, grant trade" therefore, safe end follow, provisions 35 contention whatever mandates issues. entity seeks race- remedies cure government's assertion required. insist strong harm remedied. 2832; 500-501, 725; 276-277, suggests blind deference executive pronouncements necessity analysis." 501, 725. skepticism 2110-2111, prohibits accepting relies determination judiciary retains obligation consequent challenges ensure actions Were adequate insulate surrendering Executive Branch role enforcing limits action. so. Nixon, 418 683, 704, 94 3090, 3105, 41 1039 (1974) (judicial power Branch); Marbury Madison, (1 Cranch) 137, 177, (1803) ("It emphatically province department what is"); Baker Carr, 369 186, 211, 82 691, 663 (1962) (Supreme "ultimate interpreter Constitution"); Cooper Aaron, 18, 78 1401, ("permanent indispensable feature system" supreme exposition Constitution"). 36 For reasons, think inappropriate engaged accord deferred Presley Etowah Comm'n, 502 491, 508-509, 820, 831, 117 (1992) cited therein, rejected agency interpretations otherwise defer raise questions. Edward J. DeBartolo Florida Gulf Coast Building Construction Trades Council, 485 568, 574-575, 108 1392, 1396-1397, 645 (1988). districting, question, J.) ("Racial suspect" Clause), should receive deference. 37 5. Wherever "ameliorative," term describe "cannot apportionment discriminates (10%) (18.18%). "ameliorative" 5's non-retrogression principle. Acknowledging much, 29; 1384-1385, proposal prohibited effect, Pleasant Grove 479 462, 107 794, 798, 93 866 (1987). justifies element. Government's position, plain briefs 105-106, 124-125 31-33, proffer nondiscriminatory submissions steps 38 insupportable. "[A]meliorative changes, short might accomplished terms representation, section Section Role Department, B. Grofman C. Davidson, Controversies Minority 56 (1992). Grove, detailed initial max-black 117-119. explanation, 1365, intent, 7. adhering possible inference "so Constitution," 1363; opinion), objection. 39 Instead appear disavows having policy, 35, seems concede impropriety, Tr. Oral Arg. 32-33, well-documented adopt followed objecting plans.* line attorneys overseeing process himself disclosed "what I specifically map shaded concentration, overlay adequately reflected strength." 1362, 4. wherever statute intended upheld. 40 preventing invidious practices "undo[ing] defeat[ing] recently won nonwhite voters." H.R.Rep. 91-397, p. (1969). 'Section practice jurisdictions staying step ahead passing soon old ones struck down. That remained private plaintiffs able proving too, discriminatory. decided, could, advantage inertia perpetrators evil victim," "freezing election procedures shown nondiscriminatory." 140, 1363 94-196, 57-58 (1975) omitted)). Based historical understanding, far removed purpose. especially reluctant raises. South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 86 803, 769 (1966), states' "extraordinary stratagem[s] contriving rules kinds sole perpetuating decrees." 335, 822 173-183, 1559-1564, belief Katzenbach federalism costs exacted circumstances mean case. presumptively Amendment, 337, 818, 823, recalled itself, still 'consist spirit constitution.' 326, 817 McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 421, 579 (1819)). resolve troubling questions today. indication far-reaching reject avoid problems 575, 1397. IV 43 uncover efforts abridge minorities' vote, importance enhancing legitimacy institutions. cleanse themselves polity opportunity office aspiration working end. assured served, carving electorates blocs. "If continue progress multiracial democracy, automatic invocation retards causes continued hurt injury." Edmonson Leesville Concrete 614, 630-631, 2077, 2088, 660 (1991). takes shortsighted unauthorized invoke statute, played decisive redressing worst forms 44 45 affirmed, remanded proceedings consistent decision. ordered. [NOTE: MATERIAL SET AT THIS POINT IS NOT DISPLAYABLE (GRAPHIC OR TABULAR MATERIAL)] 48 concurring. 49 understand adopts—"that considerations," ante, ____—to one. show disregard customary practices. Those crucial frame reference constitute governing kind. favor group; certainly favorably similar behalf groups. Indeed, driving adoption legal Application throw vast 435 presumably accordance principles. 2826, helps making extreme meaningful join djQ GINSBURG why merits erroneous law-changing breed unproductive litigation. excellent reservation. add comments respondents like Ct. legally cognizable injury. 52 crafted novel, features. First, misapplied "gerrymander," previously grotesque line-drawing maintain enhance minority's expense, condemn (whites) (African Americans). dispensed previous insistence injury identifiable litigate newly minted Neither today coherently redress. Because injury, lack standing, dismissed. 2439 (STEVENS, judgment). 53 assuming validity assert attributes them. Respondents, below, rest theory placement 'representational harms.' 2439, concept "representational harms" follows: "When obviously solely effectuate perceived group, primary represent constituency whole." attributed representational harms message sent come received—that first, candidate, second, successful candidate ignores constituents. Respondents' words, depends purports abhor: 'think polls.' Ante, ____ 2827). generalization, recognizes, "offensive demeaning." 54 instances, overwhelming margin "Racially polarized advance Thornburg Gingles, 478 30, 56-58, 2752, 2769-2770, 92 Such allows allege impaired ability elect emphasizes, 'analytically distinct' claim," 2830). instant answered analytic raises: If flow probability lose, then win respondents, harm?1 55 attempts equating imagines injuries African Americans segregation. respondents' account, "a race," ____, "segregate supra." equation, fails elucidate elusive desegregation redressed exclusion facilities reserved whites. contrast, voter, white, What contest inclusion too drawn. my dilution, conceivable equation decisions another reason. segregation frustrated diversity tolerance joining whites activities issue. serves likelihood representatives voices debates. post, (GINSBURG, "There moral equivalence perpetuate caste eradicate subordination." 2120 dissenting); 2122, integration attempted vulnerable policies bias, Allen Wright, 468 737, 3315, 556 (1984), anomalous, least. Equally distressing gerrymanders, group's power, underrepresented group. "serve segment—whether ethnic, economic, political—that occupy strength point time, disadvantage politically weak segment community." Karcher Daggett, 462 725, 748, 2653, 2668-2669, 133 (1983) concurring). favors protection. form permits promotes fair squarely Gaffney Cummings, 412 735, 2321, 298 (1973): 58 "[N]either warrant invalidate tolerable limits, undertakes, eliminate party, rough halls 754, 2332. 59 enactment enactments unfortunate intersection voting, disadvantaged struggled long hard democracy. believed treating differently today, classification. gerrymanders.2 fortiori, eligible benefit designs aid respectfully dissent. 61 BREYER join, SOUTER III-B, 62 Legislative business. generally respected competence attend issue, prevent strength. Generations rank African-Americans, surveillance. 63 Two Terms ago, took 2830. authorized "extremely irregular" apportionments, 2824, cast aside alone—in North African-Americans compose voters. Today expands role, announcing undertake searching contours "predominantly motivated" race: "strict scrutiny" triggered abandoned, "subordinated to"—given weight —race. "race-as-predominant-factor" standard, invalidates focus today's dispute, bears imprint familiar endorse upset 65 At outset, useful note points divide. slim draw weigh decisions; rule, task remain domain legislatures. ____; Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 586, 1394, 506 ("[L]egislative matter consideration ."). history, franchise enjoyed equally redress wrongs avert recurrence processes, respond complaints dilutes (1986); White Regester, 755, 2332, 314 (1973). Third, requirements, sometimes Pildes Niemi, Expressive Harms, "Bizarre Districts," Rights: Evaluating Election-District Appearances Mich.L.Rev. 496 ("compliance [Voting Act] Gingles necessarily race-conscious districting"). Finally, compulsion grouped together. ("[W]hen purposes."). 66 Therefore, lines—a dispute render invalid. offend Clause, agree, How more, divides 67 "We again said occasions: body, court." allocates States. Art. I, 2; 68 "Districting inevitably impact charged task." Weiser, 783, 795-796, 2348, 2355, 335 accommo- date myriad factors—geographic, historical, political—and arenas compromise accountability, best positioned mediate claims; adjudicate, ill equipped 69 ventured thicket secure rights—rights denied Georgia, ago. 70 ratified 1870, declares "shall declaration, generations, often honored breach; greeted near century "unremitting ingenious defiance" 309, 808, (1966). interlude suffrage enforced troops accompanied rampant violence blacks, convention 1877. convention's leader, 'fix people Negro never heard from.' McDonald Quiet Revolution (C. Davidson eds. 1994) Robert Toombs). pursuit objective, cumulative poll tax, requiring paid taxes; historian described tax "most bar ever devised." Stone, Studies Problem 355 (1908). 71 1890, "white primaries"; keeping Democratic effectively excluded life, victory tantamount election. 68-69. Early century, Governor Hoke Smith persuaded pass "Disenfranchisement 1908"; title, measure property, "good character," literacy administered, served keep voting. 69; 310, 809 (tests "specifically Negroes voting"). commentator observed years later, 'almost absolute voice elections.' R. Wardlaw, Suffrage 1867-1930, (unpublished 1932)). 72 Faced situation scarcely open self-correction—disenfranchised influence, hence muscle lobby change—the intervened. invalidated primaries, Allwright, 321 649, 757, 88 987 (1944), burdens Schnell Davis, 336 933, 749, 1093 (1949) curiam) (discriminatory tests); Lane 307 268, 872, 83 1281 (1939) (procedural hurdles); Guinn 238 347, 926, 1340 (1915) (grandfather clauses). 73 backdrop construing undertook dilute Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 617, 3272, 3275, 1012 (1982); 765, 2339; 57, 605-606, (1964). By enacting heightened involvement apportionment, fashioned General. creates dilution. (a Columbia) directions significantly reduced minorities. 1972 election, gained Member Reconstruction, 1981 district.1 easily. predecessor district—an omission due influence Joe Mack Chairman Reapportionment Committee. Wilson put 'I don't want nigger districts.' Busbee Smith, 549 501 (DC 1982). 75 Before invoked quintessentially circumstances: enforce one-person-one-vote requirement, 605-606.2 wrote cautiously, emphasizing exceptional: "[S]trict [judicial] order, declared, extremely viewed races purposes voting." "[E]xtrem[e] irregular[ity]" evident explained, setting description examination: "It approximately 160 length, wider I-85 corridor. winds snake-like fashion tobacco country, financial centers, manufacturing gobbles enough enclaves neighborhoods. Northbound southbound drivers find county, 'trade' next county. passes, cut districts; towns divided. remains intersects crossing legislator remarked "[i]f you drove down interstate car doors open, you'd kill Washington Post, Apr. 20, 1993, A4. inspired poetry: 'Ask drawn; thee.' Grofman, Would Vince Lombardi Have Been Right He Had Said: 'When Comes Redistricting, Isn't Everything, It's Thing'?, Cardozo L.Rev. 1237, 1261, (internal quotation marks omitted)." 2820-2821 (slip op., 3-4) (some citations internal problem architects' estimation, virtual Traditional aside, concluded, steering record similarly overwhelmed prominently shaping crowd factors, Carolina's delineation contrast inspected hardly "bizarre," irregular," "irrational face." 2825, 2848. Instead, design reflects (such intact) usual trades variety nonracial reasons." 1397, Ga.1994) (Edmondson, ("geometric face"). covers area eastern 6,780 average State. Defendant's 4.3 border runs 1,184 1,243-mile border, Eighth running 1,155 miles. 1396 dissenting).4 disrespect subdivisions. intact Joint 17. puts divided counties. Sixth none intact, ibid., Fourth intact. Ibid.5 Seventy-one percent track borders score worse criterion, better. 4.6 Eighty-three geographic composed above dissenting).7 notably, largely lines.8 Evidence shows went boundaries. "political reason"—to accommodate request incumbent Senator his son lived—the portion (largely white) precinct. 187, 202. corridor substantially narrowed (white) Representative. 189-190, 212-214. trimmed Garden Representative wanted city inside neighboring First 218-219. configured means possible" Port Wentworth. 172-174, 175-178, 181-183. outlier shaped techniques. Tellingly, unsettles statistically calculated list study prepared wake Mich.L.Rev., 565. C legislature, Justice, officers mind. Yet "Max-Black" advanced passed Assembly.9 ("The Max-Black degree [But] identical eye, ways. differences matters .").10 although disarmed; demanded relief instituting civil Columbia, pursuing avenue, chose controversy—a forcefully defends us. choice taking genuine. D Along attention size, recognizes appropriate principle, "respect interests." finds "fractured population." ----. ethnicity tie together, volumes social science literature documented—even divergent reason, life. stated classic immigrants: 89 "[M]any elements—history, family feeling, formal organizational life—operate life channeled bounds ". realm [ethnicity] affair. "[P]olitical emphasizes character city, balanced tickets appeals. ." N. Glazer D. Moynihan, Beyond Melting Pot 19-20 (1963). also, E. Litt, Pluralism: Ethnic (1970) ("[E]thnic play surprisingly persistent politics."); Group Politics, Preface ix (H. Bailey Katz 1969) identifications exist really giving religious minorities."). reality bonds, cities full identified Chinese, Irish, Italian, Jewish, Polish, Russian, example. Erie, Rainbow's End: Irish-Americans Dilemmas Urban Machine 1840-1985, (1988) (describing Jersey City's "Horseshoe district" "lumping city's Irish together"); Coveted Landmarks Add Twist Task, L.A. Times, Sept. 10, A1, A24 ("In San Francisco 1961, Catholic [State member] 'wanted following [Catholic] parish parishes he baptisms, weddings funerals district'. ."); Goode: Bad Indifferent, Monthly, July-August 1986, (discussing Law Loyalty— universal politics," identifying Italian wards Philadelphia," "Jewish Los Angeles district," "Polish Chicago"). reflecting felt identity ordinarily delineation. permissible impermissible orders No oversight giving—as genuine measurable mounted plausibly carried invitation me proper. derives test diverse relevance contexts distinctly unlike apportionment. ____.11 idea, says, 'the [at protection] class.' dissenting)) Strauder West 303, 307, 664 (1880) (pervading post-Civil War once-enslaved race). adopting individuals. Apportionment schemes, nature, assemble merit achievement, hiring employees engaging contractors. legislators groups—by geographical, characteristics—and "reconcile [these] groups." Davis Bandemer, 109, 147, 2797, 2818, defines reality. Until now, infirmity abandon Chinese-Americans Russian-Americans recognition dissimilarly treated. Otherwise, name protection, shut whose gave birth Clause." 2845 dissenting).12 Under approach, intensity, i.e., determined all, regime, enhances observed, "[t]here Special vigilant inspection protect voters—circumstances politics clout extract lawmaking forum. unrealized Judiciary's Carolene Products 304 153, 778, 1234 (1938) (referring "more inquiry" properly adversely affecting "discrete insular minorities"). majority, definition, encounters blockage. exert pressure legislators. numbers determiner coincide 101 operate constraints imposed Act—constraints once-subordinated citizens. leave solicitude. General, who administers herself actor. She passed, she cost venturing detriment Majority furthermore, press refuses favor. measure, modification renders perilous work Statutory realities counterforce; opens principles" arguably Genuine avoidance configurations seemed, harbor. 2827 ("[T]raditional defeat lines."). decision, litigation—under both—will conscious safe. judges large fray. enlargement unwarranted. resulted merited approbation, condemnation. Accordingly, syllabus constitutes Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 282, 287, 499. 1361 Rep. Tyrone Brooks, Floor told possible"); 23-24: Assistant answering "Yes" did, fact, Act?"); 1365-1366; ("[I]t agenda"); 1368 ("[i]t apparently occur 'recognition' while perhaps admirable, tempered considerations"); 1382-1383 (expressing doubts 'maximization' policy"); 1383, "criticize[d] propensities"). complain stigma supposedly suffer 2436; afforded kind invidious. Respect citizenry acceptance run certainty alike individual parallel fluctuates blend issues outcome emphasize few, others, dominant. facts injustices, congeries eyes law. go polls dignity protected Cousins Chicago, F.2d 830, 852 (CA7 1972) (Stevens, Johnson Miller, 1385 category, pathmarker. There, Tuskegee redrew notably dilutive effect: disenfranchised Tuskegee's 127 essential inevitable redefinition remove 400 removing voter resident. result deprive petitioners discriminatorily benefits residence including, inter alia, elections."). Districts 10,100 comes entire State, unusual Georgia: Ninth spans northern begin north middle 1980's, extended farther, southeast suburbs. 80. parts others. Seventh other. Tenth scores lowest, subdivision rates highest, percent. 3. districts—the Seventh, Ninth—rate higher Excluding Districts, range turns significance head stating: 'While level.' 1384). curious comment, demur. Yes, altogether way, disregarding Appendices A, B, depict, respectively, controversy "key" feature, plan—placing District—first figured course. directly point. (1977) (UJO), "deliberately manner" 165, White, REHNQUIST JJ.), seven participating voted uphold subjecting Five intentional diluted majority's JJ.); 179-180, 1016-1017 (Stewart, Petitioners' "violated deliberately revising 155, 1005 Brennan, Blackmun, JJ.) added). Petitioners stated: 'Our demonstrates be—and —no divide time.' 154, 1004, Petitioners, O.T. 1976, 75-104, 6) Petitioners). adhered 168, 1011 ("[W]e employing sound equality, [to] creat[e] afford sufficiently numerous residential patterns majority.") Race-conscious pursue, pursue. 1156, ("[F]ederal powers limited. Quite opposite true. .")

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