Document: 425 U.S. 682 96 S.Ct. 1854 48 L.Ed.2d 301 ALFRED DUNHILL OF LONDON, INC., Petitioner,v.The REPUBLIC CUBA et al. No. 73-1288. Argued Dec. 10, 1974. Reargued Jan. 19, 1976. Decided May 24, Syllabus After the "intervention" (nationalization) by Cuba in 1960 of business and assets five leading cigar manufacturers, former owners (most whom had fled to United States) brought actions against petitioner two other importers for, Inter alia, purchase price cigars that been shipped from seized Cuban plants. Following conclusion related litigation, "interventors" (those named possess occupy businesses, one whom, Cuba, are respondents herein) were allowed join those actions, which consolidated for trial. Both interventors asserted their right sums due three postintervention shipments. As date intervention owed various amounts preintervention shipments, they later paid interventors, who mistakenly believed entitled collect accounts receivable. The also claimed title demanded payment these accounts. District Court, acknowledging under "act state" doctrine reaffirmed Banco Nacional de v. Sabbatino, 376 398, 84 923, 11 804, it give effect confiscation insofar as purported take property Cubans held could all unpaid but further receivable, situs was with importer-debtors; owners, rather than importers, even though latter already them interventors. then recover payments way setoff or counterclaim. countered contention any repayment obligation a quasi-contractual debt whose refusal pay an act state not subject question American courts. Court rejected interventors' claim on grounds deemed situated States nothing occurred qualifying recognition state. accordingly set off mistaken shipments purchases. Since petitioner's exceeded it, awarded judgment full amount its claim, smaller would be deducted. Appeals, while agreeing respects, repay counsel's repudiation constituted Nevertheless, relying First Nat. City Bank 406 759, 92 1808,2 466, court enforcement importers' counterclaims barred up limits respective claims affirmative extent debt. In this respect Court's reversed, giving rise petition certiorari case. Held : There is record case revealing return them. Pp. 690-695. (a) If contentions, including state, accounts, represented properly courts below, escape upon basis second involving funds them, burden proving act. P. 691. (b) does constitute indicate governmental, opposed merely commercial, authority refusal. "Gul Djemal", 264 90, 44 244, 68 L.Ed. 574. 691-694. (c) statement during trial Government denied liability refused make no proof statute, decree, order, resolution offered evidence indicating obligations general herein involved. 694-695. 485 F.2d 1355, reversed. Vict S. Friedman, New York City, petitioner; Peter D. Ehrenhaft, Washington, D.C., brief. Antonin Scalia, Cleveland, Ohio, States, amicus curiae, special leave Court; Solicitor Gen. Robert H. Bork, Asst. Atty. Rex E. Lee, Deputy Keith A. Jones Bruno Ristau, Victor Rabinowitz, respondents; Michael Krinsky Dorian Bowman, briefs reargument; brief original argument. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court.* 1 issue whether failure Alfred Dunhill London, Inc. (Dunhill), sold certain expropriated businesses precluding respondents. 2 * involved factual legal context litigation arises fully out case, Menendez Faver, Coe & Gregg, Inc., 345 F.Supp. 527 (SDNY 1972), closely litigatn, F. Palicio y Compania, S.A. Brush, 256 481 1966), aff'd, 375 1011 (CA2), cert. denied, 389 830, 88 95, 19 (1967). For present purposes, following recitation will suffice. 1960, confiscated manufacturers Havana cigars. These companies, corporations partnerships, organized law. Virtually nationals. None American. companies large quantities customers countries, where principal Dunhill, Saks Co. (Saks), Faber, (Faber). possession operate concerns. Interventors continued ship foreign purchasers, importers. 3 This began when most trademark infringement plants bore trademarks property. supra,1 interventors2 Republic allod intervene some $700,000 shipments: $582,588.86; $92,949.70; Saks, $24,250. It developed intervention, totaling $477,200 prior intervention: $322,000; $148,600; $6,600. subsequent assumption receivable intervened businesses. 4 Based 804 (1964), supra, here, required nationals located within Cuba. made after intervention. contrary reached owing at time Because government confiscations without compensation because Iraq Bank, 353 47 (CA2 1965), 382 1027, 86 648, 15 540 (1966), importer-debtors, seizures did reach entitl belief discharging trade debts ordinary course business. 5 fore error set-off Although position sales ruled "had receive retain such payments,"3 additional ground obligation, if any, having honor our reasons. First, obligated more hence remained unaffected confiscatory Government. Second, view, qualified state: 6 "(T)here formal decree application otherwise. . Here, counsel trial, repayment. invoked jurisdiction order pursue post-intervention hard conceive how, can elevated status Any considered anything else." F.Supp., 545. 7 Faber satisfied completely set-off. But last we arrive $148,000 $93,000 whole, asked granted deducted entered it. 8 Co., 1355 1973), agreed gave sums. But, Appeals view repudiate conduct sufficiently official "(I)n absence acting scope agents government, embodied decree."4 Id., 1371. went hold 1808, 32 466 (1972), said bar reversed respect, action filed Dunhill. granting petition, 416 981, 94 2382, 40 758 (1974), requested parties address questions,5 first being Dunhill's unjust-enrichment honored argued twice Court. We have now concluded reveals monies Accordingly reverse Appeals. II 9 purposes virtue that, despite arguments contrary, based do disturb conclusions.6 nevertheless observed "ignored" demands "fail(ed) demand (which confirmed government's trial)." funds" courts.7 F.2d, 1369, cannot agree. 10 adjudicated defenses rejected, claiming prove Concededly, declined over funds; necessarily assert what outset theirs accounts.8 Neither demonstrate addition commercial businesses,o bills invested sovereign part incurred Indeed, difficult believe power selectively refuse legitimate arising operation enterprises. Djemal," 574 (1924), supplier libeled caused arrest Gul Djemal, steamship owned operated Turkish Government, effort supplies services performed ship. ship's master, "a duly commissioned officer Navy," 94-95, S.Ct., 246, appeared immunity, assertion defeated court's jurisdiction. A direct appeal taken master's immunity insufficient his mere representation master furnished assuming he represent capacities.9 Here there reason suppose governmental Djemal possessed authority. commit difference unimportant. both ces, party exercise power. both, only shown 12 thus disagree followed "were government" respondents' establishing defense. Nor consider Underhill Hernandez, 168 250, 18 83, 42 456 (1897), heavily relied require conclusion.10 Oetjen Central Leather 246 297, 38 309, 62 726 (1918), Ricaud Metal 304, 312, 733 apparently facts sufficient public powers draw before us now. found, nonpayment repayment." restated adds littleif anything, No itself repudiated class thereof matter determined confiscate III 13 assume belonging creditors funds, persuaded concept should extended include purely instrumentalities. Our cases yet gone so far, decline expand necessary affirm 14 Distinguishing between acts states hand private novel approach. stated through Chief Marshall long ago Planters' Georgia, Wheat. 904, 907, 244 (1824): "It is, think, sound principle, becomes partner trading company, divests itself, far concerns transactions character, takes citizen. Instead communicating company privileges prerogatives, descends level associates character belongs associates, transacted." 16 Cf. Sloan Shipyards Fleet Corp., 258 549, 567-568, 386, 388, 66 762, 768 (1922). same tradition, South Carolina 199 437, 26 110, 50 261 (1905), drew line tax historically recognized functions State engaged kind theretofore pursued enterprise. Similarly, Ohio Helvering, 292 360, 369, 54 725, 726, 78 1307, 1310 (1934), said: "If chooses go into buying selling commodities, may conceded Federal Constitution concerned; performance function When enters market place seeking Quasi sovereignty Pro tanto, trader ." familiar "there constitutional 326 572, 579, 310, 313, 90 326, 332 (1946). See Parden Terminal R. 377 184, 189-190, 1207, 1211, 233, 238 (1964); California Taylor, 553, 564, 77 1037, 1043, 1034, 1041 (1957); California, 297 175, 183, 56 421, 423, 80 567, 572 (1936). 17 Amicus General, drawn defining outer repudiations beyond Attached Appendix letter November 26, 1975, Department State, speaking Legal Adviser agrees General and, specifically, declares "we raises involves commercial,11 public, nature."12 major underpinning policy foreclosing adjudications legality own soil might embarrass Executive Branch relations. U.S., 427-428, 431-433, 939-940, 941-942, L.Ed.2d, 823, 825-826. presently expressed views relations sense compelled recognize governments avoid embarrassing conflicts Branch. On reasons turn, fear embarrassment conflict me likely ensue immunized years by, 1952, evidenced (the Tate letter) attached opinion, abandoned absolute theory embraced restrictive causes state's proprietary actions. has since confirms: 20 "Moreover, adhered activities immunity. Implicit determination impede relations, consistent international law immunity." 21 Repudiation cannot, approach treated state; were, governments, repudiating adjudication, enjoy extend prevailing immuni principles country. undermine supporting assure engaging sovereignties rights whenever possible. 22 ordered vessel country absent suggestion although merchant ships otherwise, Berizzi Bros. S.S. Pesaro, 271 562, 46 611, 70 1088 (1926), severely diminished Ex parte Peru, 318 578, 63 793, 87 1014 (1943), Mexico Hoffman, 324 30, 65 530, 89 729 (1945). unanimously Mexican decision rested fact possession, declared, 35-36, 532: 23 "Every judicial exercising relinquishing government. Hence guiding principle determining surrender cases, executive arm affairs. 'In department follows political branch, antagonistic jurisdiction.' 106 209, 251, 27 171; 588, 799, 1020. 24 therefore deny seen fit all, allow new recognize. seizure friendly regarded affront dignity affect accepted rule substantive governing accept follow shall immune. sanctioned equally securing protection national interests nations." (Footnote omitted.) 25 footnote expressly questioned holding,13 concurring Justices effectively overruled case.14 time, said, adopted declining dealings governments. increasing number community;15 consenting sued connection suits vessels; enormous increase sovereigns become essential practice enable persons doing courts." Infra, 714. years, lower concluded, light decisions changed environment, longer correctly law; transactions. Victory Transport, Comisaria 336 354 1964), 381 934, 85 1763, 698 (1965); Petrol Shipping Corp. Kingdom Greece, 360 103 (CA 2), 385 931, 291, 213 (1966); Premier Embassy Algeria, 507 1971); Ocean Transport Ivory Coast, 269 703 (ED La. 1967); ADM Milling Bolivia, Civ. Action 75-946 (DC Aug. 8, 1975); Et Ve Balik Kurumu B. N. Int'l Sales Misc.2d 299, 204 N.Y.S.2d 971 (1960); Harris Advtg., 127 So.2d 687 (Fla.Ct.App. 1961). fair say "restrictive theory" appears generally ALI, Restatement (Second), Foreign Relations Law § 69 (1965). 28 Participation increased substantially recent years. International Economic Report President (1975). potential injury businessmen ultimately system participants correspondingly. noted above, countries recently Of equal importance subjecting presents much risk affronting attempt pass acts.16 capacities, peculiar sovereigns. Instead, exercised citizens. Subjecting rules apply citizens unlikely touch very sharply "national nerves." Moreover, noted: 29 "(T)he greater degree codification consensus concerning particular area law, appropriate judiciary render regarding focus circumstances sensitive task inconsistent interest justice." 428, 940, 823. 30 430 n. 34, 941, 824. little exercises Governmental powers, military expropriations, borders affecting aliens. However, discernible emerged regard market.17 approacho suggests established applied states. 31 course, pleaded case; cavil otherwise enter judgments. Nothing calls led adopt defense effective given label "Act State" "sovereign immunity."18 describing past "precludes inquiring validity Public committed territory." 401, 926, 808 (emphasis added), applies "acts done authority." 252, 84, L.Ed., 457 added). operations. Cuba's profit, Reversed. APPENDIX TO OPINION THE COURT 33 Adviser, 34 35 1975. DEAR MR. SOLICITOR GENERAL: 36 Supreme writ certiorari, 73-1288, discuss holding reconsidered. 37 believes Sabbatino Case reconsidered matters requests conveyed presented curiae filing urged brief, nature. 39 event, however, reaches reconsidered, considerations called attention: decided 1964, occasions adjudications. remand, Hickenlooper Amendment, U.S.C. 2370(e)(2), "that States." Farr, 272 836, 837 (S.D.N.Y.), aff'd. 383 166 (C.A. 390 956, 1038, 1151. Having note Execive Branch's position, district Farr Amendment violated customary 838. 41 National informed adjudication counterclaim relationship existing occurred, relief limited claim.1 Relying precedent Bernstein V. Nederlandsche Amerikaanshe, Etc., 210 advised need Nazi confiscations, "in like cases." Signicantly, Cases each opened U. review merits alleged Thus, least case-by-case basis, trend pronouncements mirrored countries. Apart cited White 440 1, 946, several reviewed law.2 English derives, British abstain reviewing law.3 determined, jurisdictions serious consequences concerned. 43 similar Bernstein, Bank. decide adjudicate found accordance relevant. Department's experience provides support presumption relevant policy. overrule thereafter anticipate States. 45 Sincerely, MONROE LEIGH. COURT* 1952. MY ATTORNEY consideration suit defendant consent changed. types cases. obvious your I point briefly influenced decision. 49 study existence conflicting concepts widely firmly established. According classical consent, respondent another sovereign. newer (jure imperii) gestionis). agreement proponents theories, supported practice, real (diplomatic perhaps consular excepted) disposition deceased person beneficiary. virtually Commonwealth, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, probably Poland. 51 Brazil, Chile, China, Hungary, Japan, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal old anterior development base conclusion. 52 Netherlands, Sweden, Argentina less clear coming either theory. constant references distinction result intention open possible occasion itself. 53 evident Netherlands started applicable German courts, period hesitation end nineteenth century theory, 1921 yield pressure justify change. growth different today. 55 always Belgium Italy. turn Egypt Switzerland. addition, France, Austria, traditionally supporters 20's embrace Rumania, possibly Denmark appear Furthermore, still school influential writers favoring writers, civil factor leanings significant shaping common prevails 57 ten thirteen classified above ratified Brussels Convention 1926 vessels waived. Convention, announced followed, vessels. Keeping mind played field noteworthy (Brazil, Germany, Poland, Portugal, Sweden) relinquished treaty important 58 exception except Soviet Union satellites acceptance evidences authorities aware deficiencies ready obviously motivate adhering rigidity persuasive change contract tort Finally, feels widespread makes hereafter grant 59 realized shift control felt plea so. indications feel branch charged responsibility 60 Department, representing adequately advise you thereon. 61 Sincerely yours, Secretary State: JACK TATE Acting STEVENS, concurring. Parts agree entry favor 64 POWELL, often delineate, write reaffirm my involve acts, duty deference branches requires abstention. 775-776, 1817, 487 (1972) (concurring judgment): "Unless interfere delicate conducted branches, conclude federal hear this." 67 Just saw requiring abstention see none here. foresee MARSHALL, BRENNAN, STEWART, BLACKMUN join, dissenting. commits sit territory.1 Under realistic inteentors' retention recovery rest invalidity conduct. judgment. September 15, "intervened," nationalized, Cuban-owned received $148,600 worth paid. February 1961, took delivery 481, 486-490 Aff'd, Cert. sub nom. Brush quite correct, firms (1964). 71 $148,600. And throughout respondents, insisted nationalize firms. held, here York, apply, attempted ineffective. 527, 536-540 1972); 1364-1365 1973). separate today denies,3 presentation initial sole contention, For, recognized, wholly Cuba.4 72 sounds quasi-contract; arises, observed, contractual receipt, appropriation, apart therefore, doubt applies. 73 discrete, overt Rather, retained money ignored return. declines reflecting arrived explaining part: 74 "No her she (Dunhill other) importers." Ante, 695. 75 understand suggest, triggered "statute, resolution" presence demonstrated While true form legislative step formalized measure, see, e. g., 403-405, 7, 927-928, 809-810 Eastern Petroleum Asiatic 279 1939), bause means. not, doctrine, practical one, applicable. plaintiff sought detention Venezuela revolutionary forces' him passport Ciudad Bolivar, "must ruling paramount force fact." At 457. illustrations present. goods purchased sellers generals Constitutionalist Carranza forces plaintiffs. Generals, Villa Pereyra respectively, intermediate purchasers furtherance revolution, came defendant-assignees. must viewed action, war, agent subjected scrutiny sovereign's 76 manner, active, passive, Had come accidentally hides replevied Oetjen, instead seizing simply refusedhe plaintiff's different. report reveals, plaintiff, detention, challenged Hernandez' passport. That issued "affirmative" fatal, then, claim. refrain bank's dishonoring exemption certificates, redemption suspended Currency Stablization Fund, French N.Y.2d 46, 295 433, 452, 242 N.E.2d 704, 717, (1968). wrote, "was defendant's perform; currency regulations, product justification refusal."5 dispute constitutes reflect finds Refusal repay, suggests, seize unwilling "to infer discriminatory Unid companies." 692 8. 79 indicated, been, be, Counsel again oral argument Court: "(U)nder accepting, expropriating, seizing, nationalizing, whatever words want, money, pursuant regulation, look nor court. 81 "Now, am talking about extraterritorial territorial effect, namely, appropriation got down concerned 15th. happened October 1st, 15th 8th December 12th, down. government." Tr. 854-856; Brief Respondents Reply Curiae 3; Oral Rearg. 38. 82 confirms once "pursuant to" would, eyes court, place.6 suggest hesitant nationals, known intent owners. Speaking behalf client, "refusal acquiesce (to Dunhill) imposed court." 5.7 83 above-quoted statements themselves authoritative representations clients, serve confirm undertaken power.8 advances confiscate" issue, 695, inapplicable "purely commercial" nature confiscation. prompted observations suggested rationale broad "commercial act" whether, circumstances, appropriate. suffice State. letter,9 suffer general, or, indeed, rely specifically Department; six Members (hereinafter Citibank ), disapproved finally so-called minimizing significance 773, 1815, (Douglas, J., result); Ibid. (Powell, judgment); 776-777, (Brennan, dissenting). Whether confined single extending disputes, role Judiciary Branch.10 B concluding nations, relies "private," capacity. country, doctrine. true, litigant's invocation doctrines related, differ fundamentally operation. Sovereign accords status. By contrast, exempts process Equally nation tells "concerns law." 438, 945, 829.11 "unambiguous controlling principles" 824, commands territory accorded presumptive validity. " 'although shares states,' serves policies entirely independent rule." Citibank, 795, 1826, 497. dissenting), quoting 829. mandated text Constitution, 'constitutional' underpinnings." 938, 821. basic relationships separation powers. competency dissimilar institutions implement kinds formulated expresses strong Judicial engagement passing hinder country's pursuit goals community nations whole sphere." Ibid.12 Brennan reflects notion "political question" cognizable included, summarized, "the rules, unavailability standards agreement, sensitivity issues concerns, alone remedy harmed." 788, 1823, 494; 427-437, 939-945, 823-828. 91 lawsuit, just mentioned; designed responsive underlying Whatever exceptions ought transferred automatically, doctrine.13 C wisdom attempting articulation confines variety situations presenting questions complexity considerations, eschewed inflexible carving odds careful Sabbatino. 93 discern precise contemplated WHITE.14 final analysis, unnecessary every apply.15 covers unresponsive. background nationalization, manufacturers. decree. indistinguishable remainder manufacturers' reflected purpose exert effectuate ongoing manufacturing belonged What program expropriating parcel businesses.16 95 applicability controlled "There few seems divided limitation expropriate aliens." citizens17 renders lack apparent 785, 1821, 492 unless value materially affects issues, guided observation Sabbatino: imagine embarking touches sensitively ideological members 430, 825. (footnote omitted). 97 Regardless, principles, some, most, characterized commercial," 98 ordinarily preclude proceed nonetheless secure 99 recapitulation spite During months made. 100 stems nine firms, restrain anyone else manufactured bearing mark, received. names enjoin owners' pursuing firms' names, substitute attorneys suits. preliminary sue Sub 101 ($477,000) ($700,000). 1972). Alone among ($148,000) ($93,000). directed "affirmative judgment" favor.18 102 interpreted uphold recovery. exceeds group. litigating suing Petitioner bank nationalized. responded collateral loan $10 million instrumentality excess proceeds sale, counterclaimed damages resulting expropriation opinions, bare majority prosecution counterclaim, recoverable National. 104 addressed cover situation.19 Brennan's dissent sufficient, fortiori, excessive putting aside, denying affirmed. 105 An situation precisely voluntarily own, extrajudicially canceling pro unsettled unadorned sovereign, doctrine.20 offends interference degree, founded naked counterclaim.21 contends, affected fortuity exceeding lesser sum judgments suffers fatal flaws. 107 merged; economy.22 substituted plaintiffs originally importer; transaction importer. lose identities consolidation.23 allowing exceed total happen capricious indeed. suitable consolidation court,24 outcomes. 108 event execution owe prohibited Assets Control Regulations, CFR pt. 515 (1975), promulgated Treasury Office Trading With Enemy Act, App. 5. regulations prohibit, authorized Secretary, interest, indirect, levy judgment, attachment, execution, administrative order."25 scheme frozen Stes preserve fund ultimate, orderly satisfaction diplomatic alternatives unavailing. 794, 497 policy, authorize creditor execute frozen" regulations.26 benefit future negotiations direct.27 To mark departure avoiding channels Nation deals others, speculative prospect obtaining preference claimants future. IV 109 conclusion, relating payments. Part joined CHIEF JUSTICE, REHNQUIST. buyers permitted continue. Brush. Prior intervening interventor-respondent Pinera replaced suit. convenience' sake refer tobacco discussing lawsuit interventor's lawsuit. disagreed show actually assertedly repaid pesos. holdings. Assistance Act precluded invoking correctness litigation. argue questions: "1. Can unjust enrichment honored, state? "2. so, created, net balance codefendants, arise case?" restored calendar reargument, 422 1005, 2624, 668 directed: "In argument: Should reconsidered?" 73-1287, challenging, successfully $477,000 propriety permitting set-off, conditional cross-petition 73-1289, challenging Today petitions, 991, 2201, 815. traditional formulation (1897): bound independence territory. Redress grievances obtained means availed themselves." Their entitlement derived I. e., All tangible points closing purport Factual occurred. Indeed "counsel's in-court 'no position,' 16, "The lawyer anything." cross-examine oath. automatically matured transformed account intangible asset, unwilling, proof, intended companies. vigorously raised "(a)ll divest ownership." 4-5. intend quotes remark third contended below state." Once again, incorrect admitted because, Supra, 691, never more, inadequate establish obligation. Anne, 435, Sao Vicente, 260 151, 179, enough consul, Representative matters, duties, adequate presume thereto. Navy, performing naval duty, serving Not functioning capacity commerce He inferred (Emphasis added.) 577. commander successful city Underhill. Upon inquire "(t)he complained afterwards succeeded 254, 85, 458. dissent, refusing asserts businesses; wrong. arose Conduct Cuba'a profit. conventional expropriations Ab initio inside borders. continuing buy knew 1367-1368 arisen buyer overpays commonplace commerce. such, prevent "transaction occurrence state," inferentially likewise unavailable method alternative position. overruling resolve either. "This salutary 1088, service, considered. "Since find it." 533. Frankfurter, Black, submission largely steadily lost had. Compare Thomas Jefferson, 1825, 358, Genesee (1852) How. 443, 1058. strongly conferences, Pesaro Lord Maugham Compania Naviera Vascongado Cristina (1938) A.C. 485, 521-523. growth, particularly 'ordinary merchandising' activity Western Maid, 257 419, 432, 159, 160, 299. Thus put matter: 'Half Governments seldom embarked ships, infrequently destined uses, hospital vessels, supply surveying exploring vessel. doubtless privilege war State-owned Great War, continue acute. Is acquire tramp steamer compete shippers ship-owners markets world? Doing if, want skill captain crew, damage country? permit proceedings enforce salvage rendered, great risk, country?' C. 521-522. short, disclaim relation however 'the relations,' Congress, explicitly proper Thereby placed lies. constrained best discharge regular processes." 40-42, 535-536, 738. Austria: Collision Government-Owned Motor Car (Austria) Case, (1961) L.Rep. (Sup.Ct.). Belgium: "Socobel" Greek (1951) (Trib.Civ. Brussels). Canada: Penthouse Studios, Venezuela, (1970) D.L.R.3d 686 (Quebec Ct.App., 1969). England: Thai-Europe Tapioca Service Pakistan, (1975) W.L.R. 1485 (C.A.). Philippine Admiral Wallem Shipping, (1976) E.R. (P.C.). Egypt: Federated People's Yugoslavia Kafr El-Zayat Cotton 225 (Civ.Trib. Alexandria). France: Administration des Chemins Fer Iraniens Societe Levant Express Revue Generale Droit 883 (Sup.Ct.1969). Germany: Claim Empire Iran (1963) (Fed.Const.Ct.). Greece: Papaevangelou (Athens Instance Ct., Apr. 23, 1960). Hong Kong: Midland Investment Ltd. Communications, (1956) H.K.L., Rep. 42, 234 (S.Ct.). Italy: Soc. A., Il Foro Italiano I, 1405 (Sup.Ct., en banc, Mar. 13, 1963). Pakistan: Gammon-Layton U.S.A., P.L.D. 1965 (W.P.) Karachi 425. Philippines: Carried Lumber America (Ct.App. Manila, Sept. 1974). Yugoslavia: Zarko Trade Fairs, Commerce (Dist.Ct. Zagreb, June 1966). 823 doctrine: aspects nerves others; implications weaker exclusivity branches." Schmitthoff, Unification Harmonisation Means Standard Contracts Conditions, Comp.L.Q. 551, 563-564 Lowenfeld, Private 1-2 (1975); Gal, Commercial Nations Trade, Corn.Int'l L.J. 55, (1972); Trammer, Systems Countries Planned Economy, Sources (Schmitthoff ed. 1964) Schmitthoff); Knapp, Function, Organization Activities Corporations European Socialist Countries, Schmitthoff 52; Goldstajn, Conventions Escaping Application Municipal 103; T. Ionasco Nestor, Limits Party Autonomy 167; Introduction, ix. distinct conferring "exemption status" "merely (telling) case." Post, 725-726, 726. described jurisdictional terms choice-of-law terms; results gainsaid, balancing primarily Branch, affronts compare 532-533, 735 (sovereign immunity), 937, 820, (act state), party, justice raw sovereignty, consequent trade. merchants courts" outweighs problem Was decided, 566, 93d Cong., 1st Sess., 1607(1); Restatement, 70(2)(b). transaction, pose difficulties. See, Matter Minera El Teniente, Materials 251 (Superior Ct. Hamburg, 1973) (a violates substantial contact Germany); Braden Copper Le Groupement d'Importation Metaux, 187 (Ct. Extended Jurisdiction Paris, 1972) (rejecting marketed copper); Compagnie Francaise Credit Banque Consorts Atard, Clunet, J. du Int'l, (1971), p. (France: Cour d'Appel Amiens, 1970) (foreign decrees France prompt, compensation); Foncier d'Algerie Tunisie Narbonne, (1969), 912 Cou(r) Cassation, 1969) (acts equitable determined); Obe(r)ster Gerichtshof (Austrian Court), 1965, Osterr. Juristenzeitung 204, (1967), 941 (an property); Assurantie Maatschappij Nederlande van 1845 Escomptobank, (D.Ct. Hague, 1962) violation law). Vizcaya Don Alfonso Borbon (1935) K. 140, L. 284; Re Helbert Wagg Ltd., Ch. 323, 346; Lauterpacht, Oppenheim's Law, 267-268 (8th 1955). Peru Peruvian Guano (1887) 489 Dreyfus Brothers (1888) 348, laws annulling preceding government; cf. Buttes Gas Oil Hammer W. 425, 434-435. Dept. Bull. 984-985 (1952). classic 416, 816 456, Actually designated interventor convenience, interventors." Payment collecting banks previously acted (including well (former) making Cuba." 542. findings sustained 1367-1368. quoted Judge Hopkins, N.Y.2d, 66, N.E.2d, subscribed Fuld, held: breach contract, complains, resulted from, constitutes, 53, 709. observed: wrong (in nationalized receivable). representative hardly amounted 'a taking government.' (Banco 428 (84 823.)" 18. acknowledges ineffectiveness reaching emphasizes concludes remains unclear exist. referred herein, remove intentions. Espanola Navegacion Maritima Navemar, 303 68, 667 (1938), contrary. admiralty owner Spanish possession. Ambassador claimant produced "affidavit Consul suggesting Spain, attachment Republic, appropriating use, Government." 70, 670. allegations conclusive" 75, 671, ever (of vessel) crew 72, 434, 671. settled 532, lingering dispelled doubt, point, inapposite. response Navemar statement, 8: ambassador, lawyer, anything. litigation." unlike significant. appellation "Bernstein letter" Nederlandsche-Amerikaansche, 1954). time. O.T.1963, 16. Falk, Role Domestic Courts Order 96-102 Henkin, Today: Recollections Tranquility, Col.J.Transnat'l 178-180, 187-188 "distribution Government," allocates competence manner promotes Status Society 403-442 (1970); 64-138 contribution provide consider. noting, invalidation agreement." impartial. 434-435, 943, 826-27. "highly conjectural," 826, "progress toward goal (is) served maintaining intact doctrine." 828. commentator proposed discarding (except activity), retaining nonreviewability 139-145, 164-169 contours based, unclear. 354, 359-360 1964); Immunity Sovereigns Proposed Legislation, N.Y.U.J.Int'l Pol. 473, 477 (1973); Problem Jurisdictional Immunities Brit.Y.B. 220, 222-226 (1951). "more market" "exercises powers," finding Quite label, WHITE'S characterization commercial." run-of-the-mill evidently debts. Supplemental 15-17. preintervention-shipment citizens, discriminatory. $148,000. Citibank's approval 73-1287. yields further, 348 356, (1955), availability defense, commercial. initially briefed argued, distinguish simple covered (that) 764, 1812. provided contained qualifications applied, claim." 442 537 1971). Citibank. noted, minimal "(C)onsolidation convenience economy administration, merge cause, parties, another." Johnson Manhattan 289 479, 496-497, 721, 727-28, 1331, 1345 (1933) Wright Miller, Practice Procedure pp. 254-256 (1971). pending four tried. 26. Title 515.201(b) prohibits transfers "involve (Cuba), thereof, (July 1963) whatsoever, indirect." "Transfer" defined mean purpose, intent, "create, surrender, release, transfer, alter, directly indirectly, right, remedy, power, privilege, property," 515.310. Property 515.311. Discharge prohibited. corresponded Director Control, stating: "Dunhill assumed secured attach importer helpful understanding speaking, license judgment-creditor regulations. confirming licensing letters Respondents, Execution act, appropriate, justifies behind permits unfairness shown, fairness disposition, freezing

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