Document: 523 U.S. 666118 S.Ct. 1633140 L.Ed.2d 875 ARKANSAS EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION COMMISSION, Petitioner,v.Ralph P. FORBES. No. 96-779. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Oct. 8, 1997. Decided May 18, 1998. Syllabus * Petitioner Arkansas Educational Television Commission (AETC), a state-owned public television broadcaster, sponsored debate between major party candidates for 1992 election in Arkansas' Third Congressional District. When AETC denied request respondent Forbes, an independent candidate with little popular support, permission to participate debate, Forbes filed this suit, claiming, inter alia, that he was entitled under First Amendment. The jury made express findings Forbes' exclusion had not been influenced by political pressure or disagreement his views. District entered judgment AETC. Eighth Circuit reversed, holding forum which all ballot-qualified presumptive right access. Applying strict scrutiny, court determined AETC's assessment "political viability'' neither compelling nor narrowly tailored reason excluding him. Held: from consistent Pp. ____-____. (a) Unlike most other programs, debates are subject scrutiny Court's doctrine. Having first arisen context streets and parks, doctrine should be extended mechanical way different broadcasting. Broad rights access outside speakers would antithetical, as general rule, editorial discretion broadcasters must exercise fulfill their journalistic purpose statutory obligations. For two reasons, however, present narrow exception rule. First, unlike broadcasts, design candidates' speech. Consistent long tradition such debates, implicit representation views expressed were those candidates, its own. debate's very allow expression minimal intrusion broadcaster. Second, exceptional significance electoral process. Deliberation on positions qualifications is integral our system government, speech may have profound widespread impact when it disseminated through televised debates. Thus, special characteristics support conclusion some type. question what type answered reference precedents. (b) purposes, will suffice employ categories fora already established case law. has identified three types fora: traditional forum, created government designation, nonpublic forum. Cornelius v. NAACP Legal Defense & Ed. Fund, Inc., 473 788, 802, 105 3439, 3448-3449, 87 567. Traditional defined objective property, whether, "by fiat,'' property "devoted assembly debate.'' Perry Assn., 460 U.S., at 45, 103 954. can exclude speaker only necessary serve state interest drawn achieve interest. Cornelius, supra, 800, S.Ct., 3447-3448. Designated purposeful governmental action opening nontraditional expressive use particular class speakers. E.g., International Soc. Krishna Consciousness, Inc. Lee, 505 672, 678, 112 2701, 2705, 120 541 (ISKCON). If excludes who falls within generally available, scrutiny. 3448-449. Property designated either all. ISKCON, 678-679, 2705-2706. Access restricted if restrictions reasonable effort suppress merely because officials oppose speaker's ____. (c) parties agree Those cases demonstrate, does create no more than reserve eligibility speakers, whose members then, individuals, "obtain permission,'' 804, 3450, it. Contrary Circuit's assertion, did make available congressional seat issue. Instead, reserved participation (as opposed seat), then candidate-by-candidate determinations eligible debate. Such "selective access,'' unsupported evidence designation use, but indicates Id., 805, 3450-3451. (d) decision reasonable, viewpoint-neutral record demonstrates beyond dispute excluded viewpoint, generated appreciable There serious argument act good faith case. 93 F.3d 497, reversed. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C. O'CONNOR, SCALIA, THOMAS, BREYER, JJ., joined. STEVENS, dissenting opinion, SOUTER GINSBURG, Richard D. Marks, petitioner. Lawrence G. Wallace, Washington, DC, amicus curiae, leave Court. Kelly J. Shackelford, respondent. Justice KENNEDY 1 A broadcaster support. issue before us ownership, station constitutional obligation every We conclude that, constraints applicable Even so, broadcaster's discretion. 2 Petitioner, agency owning operating network five noncommercial stations (Arkansas Network AETN). eight appointed Governor 8-year terms removable cause. Ark.Code Ann. §§6-3-102(a)(1), (b)(1) (Supp.1997), §25-16-804(b)(1) (1996). barred any federal office, teaching positions. §6-3-102(a)(3) (Supp.1997). To insulate programming decisions pressure, employs Executive Director professional staff broad planning network's programming. also adopted Statement Principles Editorial Integrity Public Broadcasting, counsel adherence "generally accepted broadcasting industry standards, so service free financial supporters.'' App. Pet. Cert. 82a. 3 In spring 1992, began series office November elections. decided televise total scheduling one Senate each four elections Arkansas. Working close consultation Bill Simmons, Bureau Chief Associated Press, developed format allowing about 53 minutes during 1-hour questions answers candidates. Given time constraint, Simmons "decided limit strong support.'' Record, Affidavit ¶5. 4 On June 17, invited Republican Democratic seat. Two months later, after obtaining 2,000 signatures required law, see §7-7-103(c)(1) (1993), Ralph certified qualified appear ballot perennial sought, without success, number elected offices August 24, wrote requesting district, scheduled October 22, 1992. September 4, Susan Howarth request, explaining "made bona fide judgement viewers best served limiting debate'' invited. 61. 5 19, suit against AETC, seeking injunctive declaratory relief well damages. claimed both Amendment 47 U.S.C. §315, affords limited air time. requested preliminary injunction mandating inclusion Appeals Circuit. later dismissed failure claim. 6 Sitting en banc, affirmed dismissal claim, failed exhaust administrative remedies. Observing actor, held "a AETN's sponsorship AETN [had] legitimate him enough survive scrutiny.'' Foundation, 22 1423, 1428(C.A.8), cert. denied, 513 995, 115 500, 130 409 (1994), 514 1110, 1962, 131 853 (1995). Because yet answer complaint, given remanded further proceedings. 7 remand, found matter law became whether exclusion. At trial, testified lacked campaign organization, voter regarded press covering election. 8 again acknowledged "was faith'' "exactly kind routinely newspeople.'' (C.A.8 1996). asserted, nevertheless, "opened facilities group-candidates running seat.'' 504. action, held, "legally ballot'' Ibid. "compelling [a] tailored'' 504-505. 9 conflict Eleventh Chandler Georgia Telecommunications Comm'n, 917 F.2d 486 (1990), 502 816, 71, 116 45 (1991), together manifest importance case, led grant certiorari. 520 ----, 117 1243, 137 326 (1997). now reverse. II 10 since abandoned claims not, applying Appearing curiae petitioners, Solicitor General argues precedents relevance outset, instructive ask principles apply 11 open viewpoint neutrality commanded "compatible intended property.'' Assn. Local Educators' 37, 49, 948, 957, 74 794 (1983). So too requirement compatible university's funding student publications Rosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 515 819, 2510, 132 700 broadcasting, 12 Congress rejected "broadcast nonselective basis persons wishing talk issues.'' Columbia Broadcasting System, National Committee, 412 94, 105, 2080, 2088, 36 772 (1973). enjoy "widest freedom'' responsibilities. 110, 2090; FCC League Women Voters Cal., 468 364, 378, 104 3106, 3116-3117, 82 278 (1984). Among responsibilities duty schedule serves "public interest, convenience, necessity.'' §309(a). private alike permitted, indeed required, substantial selection presentation 13 As nature counsels subjecting discrimination. Programming particularly vulnerable even principled exclusions rooted sound often characterized viewpoint-based. comply choose among expressing viewpoints. "That editors-newspaper broadcast-can do abuse power doubt,'' 124, 2097; " [c]alculated risks taken order preserve higher values.'' 125, 2097. Much like university selecting commencement speaker, institution lecture series, school prescribing curriculum, facilitate viewpoints instead others. Were judiciary require, define approve, pre-established criteria access, risk implicating courts judgments left 14 exercises programming, engages activity. Cf. Turner FCC, 512 622, 636, 114 2445, 2456, 129 497 (1994) ("Through "original exercising over programs include repertoire,' cable programmers operators "see [k] communicate messages wide variety topics formats''') (quoting Los Angeles Preferred Communications, 476 488, 494, 106 2034, 2037, 90 480 (1986)). Although involve compilation third parties, nonetheless constitute communicative acts. See Hurley Irish-American Gay, Lesbian Bisexual Group Boston, 557, 570, 2338, 2345, 487 (1995) (a need "generate, original matter, item featured communication''). 15 Claims could obstruct purposes broadcasters. sweeping application context, "would oversee far day-to-day operations broadcasters' conduct, deciding individual group sufficient opportunity sufficiently aired.'' 127, 2098. "The result erosion broadcasters,'' transferring "control treatment issues licensees accountable broadcast performance individuals'' bring effect, we "exchange trustee' limitations, self-appointed commentators.'' 16 absence command [r]egimen[t] broadcasters'' manner, id., 2098-2099, disinclined doctrines own design. This say bar legislative imposition neutral rules cases, force compel 17 lend itself doctrine, here respect differed show, host partisan discussion ideas. 18 tradition, [I]t known electorate intelligently evaluate personal qualities vital choosing them day.'' CBS, 453 367, 396, 101 2813, 2830, 69 706 (1981) (internal quotation marks omitted). majority population cites primary source information, "only occasion attention large portion American focused election, information potentially offers explore policies depth forum.'' Research Service, Campaign Debates Presidential Elections, summ. (June 15, 1993). 19 discuss, many feasible unlimited Yet remains; cannot deny agrees candidate's Viewpoint discrimination ris[k],'' 2097-2098, inevitability skewing dialogue. 20 precedents, turn. III 21 argues, Under discussed cases. [T]he [has] 3449, 567 (1985). interest.'' 3448. 23 fora, contrast, action. [designated] inaction permitting discourse, intentionally discourse.'' 3449; accord, (1992) (ISKCON) (designated "property State opened activity part public''). Hence "the looked policy practice ascertain designate place traditionally 3449. Ibid.; Kokinda, 720, 726-727, 110 3115, 3119-3120, 111 571 (1990) (plurality J.). 24 Other properties restrict "as [are] view.'' 3448 25 summary, regardless government's intent. these require accommodate additional thereby creating fora. Where chosen B 26 view status extends historic confines, 680-681, 2706-2707; expansive conception adopted, see, e.g., 698-699, 3391-3392 (KENNEDY, concurring judgments), almost unfettered incompatible dictates follow. __-__. issue, 27 type, intend available,'' Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 264, 102 269, 271-272, 70 440 (1981), Accord, 3448-3449. Widmar, example, registered groups implementing expressly meeting open'' groups. 267, 273; Perry, 954-955 open''). allows selective rather district's internal mail though selected able gain explained Cornelius: 28 "In contrast board system. principal teachers granted.'' 803, 3449-3450. 29 And itself, Combined Federal (CFC) charity drive [t]he Government's ha[d] CFC "appropriate' [i.e., charitable political] voluntary agencies admission obtain local officials.'' 3450. 30 These illustrate distinction "general 3449-3450, 3450-3451, hand, creates makes certain Widmar. instance, Government agencies, individual, non-ministerial participate. 31 furthers interests. By recognizing distinction, encourage where, faced all-or-nothing choice, might That turns intent render unprotective Rather, reflects reality retains choice specified classes 32 Here, open-microphone format. assertion Appeals, just program seat). point, agency-by-agency CFC, "Such Thus 33 addition being misapplication Appeals' less speech, more. ruling F.3d, 504, severe burden upon 1988, 1996 elections, fewer appeared least State. Twentieth Century Fund Task Force Debates, Let America Decide 148 (1995); Election Commission, Elections 92, p. (1993); 96, common qualify Results, 54 Quarterly Weekly Report 3250-3257 1993 New Jersey gubernatorial further, sample mailings included written statements N.Y. Times, Sept. 11, 1993, section 1, 26, col. 5. logistical grounds alone, editor might, reason, decide "actually undermine educational value quality debates.'' Decide, 148. 34 prospect cacophony, liability, other, ""the safe course avoid controversy,' . doing diminish flow ideas.'' 656, 2466 Miami Herald Publishing Co. Tornillo, 418 241, 257, 94 2831, 2839, 41 730 (1974)). circumstance, [g]overnment-enforced inescapably "dampens vigor limits debate.''' York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 279, 84 710, 725, 686 (1964)). 35 concerns speculative. direct Nebraska canceled Nebraska's race. Lincoln Journal Star, Aug. 1996, 1A, 6. jurisprudence yielding results promote represses C give wished. O'CONNOR observed, "does mean whatever likes.'' 687, 2712. Amendment, based otherwise light property. 37 "objections opposition views.'' 23a. provides ample finding, demonstrating reasonable. "absolutely'' role 142. She (1) voters consider candidate''; (2) news organizations (3) Press national reporting plan run name night''; (4) "apparently little, any, failing report finances Secretary State's Commission''; (5) "there [was] "Forbes Congress' headquarters house.'' 126-127. himself described organization "bedlam'' media coverage "zilch.'' 91, 96. It is, short, 957 (exclusion "based status'' permissible) (emphasis original). 38 substance suggestion unpopular out mainstream. His lack platform, criterion. Indeed, premise contention mistaken. unconventional virtue personality exemplary organization. same token, platform due inept reasons. 39 Nor attempted manipulation provided powerful jury's finding anyone inside [AETC].'' 22a. candidacy, did. 40 Reversed. 42 whom GINSBURG join, dissenting. 43 "constitutional to'' sponsors. Ante, __. I challenge decision. nevertheless affirmed. official major-party seats adhere well-settled principles. ad hoc (AETC) raises precisely addressed last years, freedoms prior restraint license, narrow, objective, definite standards guide licensing authority, unconstitutional.'' Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 394 147, 150-151, 89 935, 938, 162 (1969). 44 facts, barely mentions standardless character understates ownership facilities. shall therefore add few words history regulation media, why believe officially law,1 concluded "should invited'' "not Arkansas.''2 He had, contender nomination Lieutenant 1986 1990. defeated run-off three-way race conducted 1990-just years decision-he received 46.88% statewide vote carried counties absolute majorities. Nevertheless, "strong ¶5.3 46 fact winner 50.22% Democrat 47.20%,4 showing recent primaries, divert handful votes cause defeat. correctly candidate,'' outcome comparable today privately owned network, Act5 unless used "pre-established determine [the] CFR §110.13(c) No governed refusal permit "newsworthiness''-as argued Court-or viability''-as Appeals-the facts presumably adequate him, cancellation debates.6 48 apparent flexibility purported standard suggests extent nearly limitless justifications. staff's appraisal "so subjective, arguable, susceptible variation provide secure Amendment.'' 49 actions "are fairly attributable Fourteenth licensees.'' Communication 1428 (C.A. 8), "were ordinary journalists: they employees government.'' 505. implicitly acknowledges analysis. seriously underestimates difference facilities, despite repeatedly recognized difference. 50 (1973), licensee carrier, 107-109, 2088-2090, speak, write, publish,''' 101, 2086 Red Lion 395 388, 1794, 1806, 371 (1969)). Speaking plurality, Burger imposes constraint freedom. supported noting confronted advent radio 1920's, fundamental control new medium-the countries-or alternative.'' 116, 2093.7 chose licensed regulated Government, partly enterprise, importantly unacceptable censorship propaganda. "Congress appears choices-private censorship-Government pervasive, self-serving, difficult restrain hence avoided.'' 2088.8 51 While noncommercial, exercised independence commercial networks, 1981 enacted statute forbidding subsidy engaging "editorializing.''9 Relying primarily involving entities, bare restriction invalid. Responding keeping propaganda arena'' justified restriction, 415, 3135 (STEVENS, J.), emphasized "impermissibly sweeps prohibition range wholly nothing federal, state, 395, 3125. noted considered ban applied operated constitutionality ban. 394, n. 3125, 24. 52 implicated "wholly stations'' "have involves regulate plays central democratic government. State, deference making content necessarily increases protection not. recognizes candidates.'' ibid. there review expounding tolerate agency's arbitrary based, expectation critical Governor, hold abortion death penalty. holds today.10 seems equally clear, definitions scope [o]nce lawful boundaries set.'' 829, 2517, follows, course, set meaningful challenge. dispositive concludes, contours specificity justify candidate. 55 asks reject claim entirely dimensions forum.11 demands more, effectively wields eliminate consideration voters. All editors, ante, __, arena, interests speakers.12 plan, sponsor, conduct however. chooses important limitations 56 authorized permits activities. concerning analogy censorial impose ordinance requiring parade city streets, ordinance, written, "fell squarely ambit Shuttlesworth, 938. 57 recently reaffirmed approach considering county setting amount fee. Forsyth County Nationalist Movement, 123, 2395, (1992), relying similar cases,13 breadth administrator's thusly: 58 "There articulated county's practice. administrator rely factors. explanation decision, unreviewable. Nothing prevents encouraging discouraging others fees. prohibits vesting unbridled official.'' 133, 2403 (footnotes 59 Perhaps controlling quite administrator. surely raise controlled cabined staff. Their subjective "viability'' "newsworthiness'' allowed latitude participant debate.14 Moreover, factors arguably favor justifications viability factor share wealthier candidates.15 60 fit analysis,16 denied. campaigns implicates highest order, acknowledges. management seldom replicated networks engage programming.17 "speech affairs essence self-government.'' Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 74-75, 85 209, 216, 125 (1964). "has fullest urgent office.'' Monitor Patriot Roy, 401 265, 272, 91 621, 625, (1971). Surely Constitution much takes impacts permits. 61 reasons directly AETC.18 avoiding viewpoint-based militates strongly (and to) pre-established, demand speaking exceeds supply, "ration allocate scarce resources acceptable principle.'' Rosenberger, 835, 2519. standards-i.e., "neutral principles''-for determining adjust modest fall short multiple-party request.19 benefit providing assurance select participants grounds.20 62 Like endorse position state-sponsored am convinced, imperatives motivated planned managed entities criteria. Requiring significant exposure alleviate inherent agencies-rather entities-to stage 63 Accordingly, affirm Appeals. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber Co., 200 321, 337, 282, 287, L.Ed. 499. (1992). Letter Carole Adornetto Amy Oliver Barnes dated attached Exh. Barnes. journalist working stated [a]t [to invite support] , non-party likely Presumably meant candidate, member, Oliver, represented text accompanying 2, infra. 172. §441b(a); Perot FEC, 97 553, 556 (C.A.D.C.1996), sub nom. Hagelin 1692, 819 contest relatively one, districts clear virtually chance winning Blanche Lambert's resounding victory Terry Hayes illustrates point: Lambert 69.8% compared Hays' 30.2%. R. Scammon A. McGillivray, Votes 20: Handbook Contemporary Statistics 99 (1993). Similarly, Second District, Ray Thornton, incumbent, Dennis Scott won 74.2% vote. Note raised $6,000, raised; while 133-134, 175. Interestingly, countries formerly relied moving direction deregulation entities. See, Bughin Griekspoor, Era European TV, McKinsey Q. 90, 92-93 (1997) ("Most Western Europe's lose grip market mid-1980s. Only Switzerland, Austria, Ireland continue operate monopolies Europe whole (including Eastern Europe, where remains largely controlled), market-leading doubled half decade.''); Rohwedder, Central Broadcasters Square Off, Wall Street (May 1995) ("Central government-run channels, unchallenged masters days communist control, coming increasingly aggressive attack upstart broadcasters''); Lange Woldt, Interest Experience Self-Regulation, Cardozo Arts Ent. L.J. 657, 658 ("Over ten Germany countries, weakened competition channels''). then-Secretary Commerce Herbert Hoover's statement House committee concern involvement broadcasting: ""We single person themselves censor material broadcasted public, ever placed censoring material.''' 104, 2087 Hearings H.R. 7357 Committee Merchant Marine Fisheries, 68th Cong., 1st Sess., (1924)). Amendments 1981, Pub.L. 97-35, 95 Stat. 730, amending §399 Act 1967, 90-129, 81 365, §390 et seq. rejects extreme simply she permitted Brief al. Amici Curiae ("The constrain choices state-entity Communications Act''); California ("In mere provider, actor speaker-inclusive rules''). After citing explained: reasoning simple: scheme "involves judgment, formation opinion,' Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 305, 900, 904, 1213 (1940), danger abridgment precious great' Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. Conrad, 420 546, 1239, 1244, 448 (1975).'' 131, 2402 (citations troubling chances success. 6, supra. recognized, figures fertile sources ideas programs; challenges quo into mainstream.'' Anderson Celebrezze, 780, 794, 1564, 1573, 75 547 (1983) (citing Illinois Bd. Socialist Workers Party, 173, 186, 983, 991, 230 (1979)). Lack apparently Forbes. plurality reluctance analysis changing contexts. Denver Area Consortium, 518 727, 741, 749, 2374, 2384-2385, 2389, 135 888 (1996) opinion) (" imported wholesale area carriage regulation''). observes "in programming.'' promulgated requires identify leaves unaffected. immune grounds. "speaker,'' decisions, employment actors, commands decades settled judicial challenged (1981); Ironically, page 1642 explains speakers.'' If, claims, entire "viable'' "newsworthy'' reasoning, expresses cancelled realized satisfied obligations unlikely cancel emphasizing shielding influence, confirms minimized adoption

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