Document: 501 U.S. 957 111 S.Ct. 2680 115 L.Ed.2d 836 Ronald Allen HARMELIN, Petitionerv.MICHIGAN. No. 89-7272. Argued Nov. 5, 1990. Decided June 27, 1991. Syllabus Petitioner Harmelin was convicted under Michigan law of possessing more than 650 grams cocaine and sentenced to a mandatory term life in prison without possibility parole. The State Court Appeals affirmed, rejecting his argument that the sentence "cruel unusual" within meaning Eighth Amendment. He claims here is cruel unusual because it "significantly disproportionate" crime he committed, sentencing judge statutorily required impose it, taking into account particularized circumstances criminal. Held: judgment affirmed. 176 Mich.App. 524, 440 N.W.2d 75, Justice SCALIA delivered opinion with respect Part V, concluding Harmelin's claim unconstitutional nature, allowing sentencer no opportunity consider "mitigating factors," has support Amendment's text history. Severe, penalties may be cruel, but they are not constitutional sense, having been employed various forms throughout Nation's Although finds some so-called "individualized capital-sentencing doctrine" this Court's death penalty jurisprudence, see, e.g., Woodson v. North Carolina, 428 280, 96 2978, 49 944, doctrine extended outside capital context qualitative differences between all other penalties, id., at 303-305, S.Ct., 2991-2992. Pp. 994-996. SCALIA, joined by THE CHIEF JUSTICE, concluded Parts I, II, III, IV Amendment contains proportionality guarantee, cannot considered unconstitutionally disproportional. 962-994. (a) For crimes concededly classified classifiable as felonies—i.e., punishable significant terms imprisonment state penitentiary—the length actually imposed purely matter legislative prerogative. Rummel Estelle, 445 263, 274, 100 1133, 1139, 63 382. Solem Helm, 463 277, 103 3001, 77 637, which decreed "general principle proportionality," 288, 3009, used criterion for its application three-factor test had explicitly rejected Rummel, supra, 281-282, n. 1143, Hutto Davis, 454 370, 373-374, 102 703, 705-706, 70 556, wrong should overruled. 962-965. (b) Solem, U.S., 285, 3007, correctly discerned prohibition derived from "cruell unusall Punishments" provision English Declaration Rights 1689, § conclusion latter embodied right free disproportionate punishments refuted Declaration's enactment contemporaneous understanding guarantee. guarantee directed arbitrary use power King's Bench particular cases illegality, rather disproportionality, thereby imposed. 966-975. (c) That Americans who adopted intended Cruel Unusual Punishments Clause check on ability Legislature authorize modes punishment—i.e., methods punishment regularly or customarily employed—rather against sentences demonstrated available evidence contemporary understanding, including adoption, debates ratifying conventions First Congress, early commentary judicial decisions. It particularly telling those framed approved Federal Constitution chose include explicit Constitutions contained. 975-985. (d) There adequate textual historical standards enable judges determine whether first two factors found relevant—the inherent gravity defendant's offense similarly grave offenses jurisdictions—fail lack an objective standard gravity. Since, statutes have enacted different times places demonstrate, there enormous variation what serious, invitation their own subjective values. Moreover, although third factor—the character States same crime—can applied clarity ease, irrelevant Traditional notions federalism entitle treat like situations differently light local needs, concerns, social conditions. 985-990. (e) 20th-century jurisprudence remained entirely accord proposition requirement, departed extent suggests. While Weems United States, 217 349, 30 544, 54 L.Ed. 793—which cited 287, 3008, "leading case" did contain language suggesting mere disproportionality might make unusual, 366-367, 549, also contained statements indicating unique issue unknown Anglo-American tradition, 377, 553. hard view announcing given produce decision implementing such either lower federal courts six decades. This opinion, Coker Georgia, 433 584, 592, 97 2861, 2866, 53 982, case. line authority treated generalized aspect law, since review one several respects "death different," requiring protections nowhere else provides. 990-994. KENNEDY, O'CONNOR SOUTER, concluded: 1. decisions recognize encompasses narrow applies noncapital sentences. See, 371, 550, 793; 271-274, 11, 11; 374, 3, 705, 556; 3001. these totally clear consistent, close analysis yields common principles give content uses limits review. First, fixing specific involves substantial penological that, general matter, properly province legislature, reviewing grant deference determinations. Second, variety legitimate schemes based theories retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation, does mandate adoption any scheme. Third, marked divergences both prescribed inevitable, often beneficial, result structure, differing attitudes perceptions conditions yield different, yet rational, conclusions regarding appropriate crimes. Fourth, informed maximum possible, relative concerning length, opposed type, resulted few successful challenges context. Finally, require strict sentence, forbids only extreme grossly crime. 996-1001. 2. In foregoing principles, violate Clause. parole second most severe permitted cocaine. His suggestion nonviolent victimless false point absurdity. Studies demonstrate threat illegal drugs, cocaine, pose society violence, crime, displacement. amount possessed potential 32,500 65,000 doses, could reason conclude possession large momentous enough warrant deterrence retribution Given severity need conduct comparative jurisdictions. indicate rare case threshold comparison committed leads inference gross see 293-300, 3011-3015; Weems, 377-381, 553-555, usual where arises, 281, 1143. 1001-1005. J., announced REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, JJ., joined, IV, joined. filed concurring part judgment, WHITE, dissenting BLACKMUN, STEVENS, MARSHALL, opinion. Carla J. Johnson, petitioner. Richard Thompson, respondent. JUSTICE joins. 1 672 parole.1 initially reversed conviction supporting obtained violation Constitution. 75 (1989). On petition rehearing, vacated prior affirmed petitioner's Id., 535, N.W.2d, 80. Supreme denied leave appeal, 434 Mich. 863 (1990), we granted certiorari. 495 ----, 110 2559, 109 742 (1990). 2 reasons. committed. 3 * A. 4 Amendment, virtue Fourteenth Robinson California, 370 660, 82 1417, 8 758 (1962), provides: "Excessive bail shall required, nor excessive fines imposed, inflicted." 382 (1980), held constitute punishment" recidivist statute, upon defendant convicted, successively, fraudulent credit card obtain $80 worth goods services, passing forged $28.36, obtaining $120.75 pretenses. We said "one argue fear contradiction felonies, is, penitentiary, prerogative." 1139. specifically asserted dissent, 295, 1150 (Powell, J.), established weighing three factors: (1) compared penalty, (2) jurisdiction similar crimes, (3) jurisdictions offense. 27. A footnote however, said: "This say would come play example mentioned . if legislature made overtime parking felony imprisonment." 11. 5 Two years later, 556 (1982), challenge 40 fine $20,000 distribution approximately nine ounces marijuana. thought so our per curiam Fourth Circuit, sustaining challenge, "could viewed ignored, consciously unconsciously, hierarchy court system," tolerated "unless wish anarchy prevail," 374-375, 706. And again discussed dissent.2 See 2, However, whereas "have exceedingly rare," 272, 1138 (discussing solitary 793 (1910), explained involving "unique nature," 1139), Davis misdescribed " 'successful .' 'exceedingly rare,' 705 (emphasis added), inserted reference description "overtime parking" footnote, 3. imperceptibly (but, event, ominously) expanded: "not [saying] play" fanciful example, became "not[ing] play, added). combination expanded plus "exceedingly rare" "should be" successful. Indeed, positively invited inference, were incompatible sharp reversal Circuit's finding marijuana therefore unconstitutional. 6 year half after uttered last word subject date. 637 (1983), set aside disproportionate, parole, South Dakota recividist statute successive included convictions third-degree burglary, money pretenses, grand larceny, third-offense driving while intoxicated, writing "no account" intent defraud. account, longer involved case," exemplifying "deeply rooted frequently repeated common-law jurisprudence," 284, 3006, Bill "in later Amendment," "recognized almost century," 286, 3007. recent "recognitions" footnotes 3008. As statement felonies prerogative," 1139: according really important words passage 'one argue,' 14, 14 added ). "The [in ] merely recognized possible. To makes here, find meritless." 289, 14. (Of course argue," Court.") Having exists, Davis. 291-292, 3010. Those cases, said, "indicated [that] factor will dispositive 291, 17, 3010—though expressly, approvingly, quite correctly, described "disapproved each [the] 373, 7 apparent above discussion 5-to-4 eight ago scarcely expression well accepted law. long recognized, course, stare decisis less rigid precedents, Payne Tennessee, --- 2597, 2610, ----; Smith Allwright, 321 649, 665, 10, 64 757, 765, 88 987 (1944); Mitchell W.T. Grant Co., 416 600, 627-628, 94 1895, 1909-1910, 406 (1974) concurring); Burnet Coronado Oil & Gas 285 393, 406-408, 52 443, 447-448, 76 815 (1932) (Brandeis, dissenting), think especially true precedent tension Accordingly, addressed anew, greater detail, question guarantee—with attention background (which pages, 284-286, 3006-3007) before end 19th century all). examination simply wrong; B principally unusuall incorporated, language, doubt antecedent text. (This document promulgated February Rights, Wm. Mary, Sess. ch. December 1689. Sources Our Liberties 222-223 (R. Perry Cooper eds. 1959); L. Schwoerer, 279, 295-298 (1981).) 1791, five prohibited punishments," Del. 16 (1776); Md. Art. XXII Mass. XXVI (1780); N.C. X N.H. XXXIII (1784), "cruel" punishments, Pa.Const., IX, 13 (1790); S.C.Const., (1790). new tracked Virginia's Va. 9 (1776), closely followed provision. fact, entire taken verbatim provided "[t]hat Baile ought Fines cruell Perhaps 1791 understood precisely Englishmen 1689 did—though discuss seems unlikely. Or perhaps colonists meant incorporate reference, whatever been. suggested something this, arguing claimed "all rights subjects," "their convincing proof provide least protection," Thus, original relevant, enactment, insofar display "rights subjects" designed vindicate. 10 observed, 284-285, 3006-3007, familiar time drafted. Magna Carta "[a] man fined small offence, except proportion measure offense; great offence magnitude saving freehold. ." 20 (translated Liberties, 15). When supplemented method punishment, apparently sentencing. Hodges Humkin, Bulst. 139, 140, 80 Eng.Rep. 1015, 1016 (K.B.1615) (Croke, J.) ("[I]mprisonment always quality offence"). Despite familiarity, drafters prohibit "disproportionate" "excessive" punishments. Instead, unusuall." assumed, analysis, other. not: can "cruel," (as requires) "unusual." error assumption confirmed 11 Most historians agree prompted abuses attributed infamous Lord Chief Jeffreys during Stuart reign James II. 93; W. Blackstone, Commentaries *372. They do agree, abuses. Ingraham Wright, 430 651, 664-665, 1401, 1408-1409, 51 711 (1977); Furman 408 238, 317-319, 92 2726, 2766-2767, 33 346 (1972) (MARSHALL, concurring). best known presiding over "Bloody Assizes" following Duke Monmouth's abortive rebellion 1685; special Commission led tried, executed hundreds suspected insurgents. Some popular outrage proceedings. E.g., 236, 103; Note, What Is Punishment, 24 Harv.L.Rev. 54, 55, (1910); Story, 1896 (1833).3 12 But vicious treason Bloody Assizes (drawing quartering, burning women felons, beheading, disembowling, etc.) period—indeed, authorized many afterwards. Granucci, "Nor Inflicted:" Original Meaning, 57 Calif.L.Rev. 839, 855-856 (1969); *369-370. recently argued, suggests, Jeffreys' management provision, exercised administering justice Bench, when punishing notorious perjurer. 855-860; 92-93. Accord, Stephen, History Criminal Law England 490 (1883); Chitty, 712 (5th Am. ed. 1847). widely accused "inventing" enemies, statute. Letter Gentleman Brussels, giving people's revolt (Windsor Dec. 1688), p. 93 207 (1981). preamble sort indictment II calls mind preface Independence, referred Whereas late King Assistance diverse Evill Councellors Judges Ministers imployed him endeavour subvert extirpate Protestant Religion, Lawes Kingdome. 15 "By Prosecutions Matters Causes cognizable onely Parlyament Arbitrary Illegall Courses. 17 18 "[E]xcessive hath beene Persons Criminall Cases elude Benefit Liberty Subjects. 19 "And illegall inflicted. 21 22 "All utterly directly contrary knowne Statutes Freedome Realme." (1689). 23 recorded interpretation clause confirms focus activities, illegality 1685 Titus Oates, cleric whose accusations caused execution prominent Catholics allegedly organizing "Popish Plot" overthrow Charles 1679, tried perjury. Oates' "bearing witness another, express premeditated design take away life, innocent person condemned executed" had, time, species murder, punished death. *196. At sentencing, complained lamented "a proportionable scarce now stands, inflicted him." Second Trial Oates,10 How. St. Tr. 1227, 1314 (K.B. 1685). stand way, however. met, and, Jeffreys, unanimous agreement "crimes nature left discretion court, far extend member." Ibid. Another taunted Oates "we care you," 1316. then pay "1000 marks Indictment," "stript [his] Canonical Habits," pillory annually certain specified places, May whipped "the hangman" "from Aldgate Newgate," Newgate Tyburn," imprisoned life. judges, believed, scourged death." T. Macaulay, 204 (1899) (hereinafter Macaulay). D. Ogg, Reigns William III 154-155 (1984). die, Four months petitioned House Lords illegal. Macaulay 138-141. "Not single peer ventured affirm legal; much about odious appellant" judgment. 140-141. minority dissented, sheds clause: "1st, [T]he being Temporal Court, 25 Judgment, Clerk, should, Perjuries, divested canonical priestly Habit .; Matter wholly out Power, belonging Ecclesiastical Courts only. 26 "2dly, [S]aid Judgments barbarous, inhuman, unchristian; Precedent whipping committing Prison Life, Crime Perjury; him. 27 28 "4thly, [T]his Encouragement Allowance barbarous hereafter, unless Judgment reversed. 29 "5thly, [T]hat ancient Practice, erroneous, "6thly, Because 31 Twelfth Bail aflicted." Journals 367 (May 31, 1689), quoted 1325. 32 cause aroused Commons, members proceeded pass bill annul sentence. "free conference" ultimately convened representatives Commons attempted persuade reverse position. 143-145. Though attempt successful, Commons' report conference (among others) particular, general. "[T]he hoped, That, 34 [of Rights] presented Majesties accepting Crown (wherein Lordships complaining Reign; asserting Right People subjected Punishments; Prejudice kind wise drawn Consequence, Example); lately renewed agreed to; seen Nature put Necessity sending up reversing them; Declarations useless, pernicious Consequence People, if, soon after, Meaning Declarations. 35 "That Regard Judgments, amongst others, made; must insist illegal, ill Example future Ages. 36 37 seemed plain, 38 surely 'That Clerk Habits; continue Life.' 39 perpetual Imprisonment Case, it. "It Example, Englishman exposed Pillory, Year, Life. dangerous 41 Freeman manner, as, Probability, Death. 42 43 avowed, Bench; declared; met; unanimously agreed, Subject prosecuted Common Misdemeanor, Discretion inflict Punishment pleased, extending Member.' 44 Pretence discretionary observable how Cases, Offences, inflicting ignominious Punishments, worse Death itself Man sense Honour Shame. Journal 247 (Aug. 1689) 45 discussions, prologue Declaration, objectionable disproportionate,4 "out [the Judges'] Power," "contrary practice," "Precedents" "express warrant," "unusual," "illegal," "Pretence Power." (observing deserved, unjustified law). phrase unusuall" interchangeable illegal." words, "illegall prologue, 9, thing body. (Justice MARSHALL's concurrence 318, 2766, observes earlier draft body "illegal" change "appears inadvertent." 1847) (describing prohibiting illegal" punishments).) legal world restricting determined (or Crown's judges), "illegall" "unusuall" identical practical purposes. Not statute; Departures lawful 489-490 710 requirement "unusuall"—that "usage" (Lat. "usus") "precedent"—was primarily pronouncing remain bounds tradition. 710-712; 1409 (English aimed "judges acting beyond authority"); Calif.L.Rev., 859; Cf. Commentaries, *371-*373. 46 sum, unlikely forbid even likelihood traditional privileges Englishmen" apart happened scholars believe contend reflected practice—nor they. 847.5 For, observed 2984, 944 (1976), 200 458, 471-472 (until 1826, mayhem petty death). By 1830 class narrowed "only" attempts murder poisoning, stabbing, shooting etc.; poison procure abortion, sodomy, rape, statutory classes forgery. 473-474. notable reform, Stephen once mention Cruell Unusuall Clause, though certainly aware 489-490. Likewise, suitability Blackstone Declaration. *9-*19. C 47 Unless accepts notion blind incorporation, ultimate punishments" Even assumes Founders knew precise antecedent, 860-865, direct transplant soil American constitutionalism impossible. system, Hudson Goodwin, Cranch 32, 259 (1812), Legislature. re Kemmler, 136 436, 446-447, 930, 933, 519 (1890). 48 Wrenched context, actions "unusual" hardly mean law." continued continues today) "such [does not] occu[r] ordinary Webster's 1828 edition, "[s]uch [not] use," 2d International. According terms, then, forbidding Stanford Kentucky, 492 361, 378, 2969, 2979, 106 306 (1989) (plurality opinion); disables authorizing "modes" specifically, employed. Louisiana ex rel. Francis Resweber, 329 459, 464, 67 376, 91 422 (1947) 933. Collins, F.Cas. (No. 14,836) 545 (CC R.I.1854) (Curtis, J.). bears construction, however—and crucial resolution present case—that "cruelty unusualness" solely ("Is punishment?") unlawful drugs?"). form guarantee.6 arguments seem us conclusive. 50 all, describe vague oblique way saying accustomed directly. "proportionality" novelty (though little entailed). 1778, Virginia narrowly comprehensive "Bill Proportioning introduced Thomas Jefferson. (H. Tucker 1803) efforts reform); Writings Jefferson 218-239 (A. Lipscomb 1903). Proportionality provisions constitutions. (1776) (punishments proportionate crimes"); XL (1778) (same); Pt. 1, XVIII (1784) ("all proportioned framed, proposed, ratified provisions,7 replicate them. Both New Hampshire Constitution, ratification Ohio contain, separate provisions, ("cruel unusual," Hampshire's case) offence." Arts. XVIII, (1784). Const., VIII, §§ 13, (1802).8 Secondly, peculiar refer cruelty unusualness question, government never defined offenses, defining peculiarly national ones. Finally conclusively, proceed discuss, fact understanding.9 received proposal Rights. exists Floor Congress proposed "confirm[s] punishment." 842 Schwartz, Analysis Compelling Case Rummell, 71 J.Crim.L. Criminology 378-382 (1980); Welling Hipfner, Unusual?: Capital Canada, U. Toronto L.J. 61 (1976). January 1788 Massachusetts Convention, objection raised "nowhere restrained inventing unheard-of annexing them crimes; [it], racks gibbets mild instruments [its] discipline." Elliot, Debates (2d 1854) 55 Patrick Henry decried absence rights, stating: 56 "What says [Virginia] Rights?—'that inflicted.' "In business legislation, your loose restriction imposing fines, demanding bail, These declaration rights. distinguished ancestors? admit tortures, 447. 58 persuasive means, Marsh Chambers, 783, 788-790, 3330, 3334-3335, 1019 (1983); Carroll 267 132, 150-152, 69 543 (1925); cf. McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, 401-402, 579 (1819), belie proportionality. Shortly Penal Code. Stat. 112-119 then-extant Constitution's didactically "[n]o legislature"—that attuned proportionality—"will afix theft, forgery like, treason," Jefferson's Crimes death; counterfeiting public securities forfeiture property labor, "run[ning] sea-vessel laden board thereof" treble damages victim labor. 220-222, 229-231 1903) (footnote omitted). proposing ignored teachings. securities, [a] ship vessel, merchandise value fifty dollars," treason, high seas penalty: hanging. 114. books devoid indication anyone newly disproportionality. Tully, 16,545) 226 Mass.1812) (Story JJ.) (Force thereof element "run[n]ing vessel"). 59 sentences, indicates outlaw punishment. One commentator wrote: 60 improved spirit age, tolerate rack stake, horrid torture, devised human ingenuity gratification fiendish passion." Bayard, Brief Exposition 154 1840). commentator, explaining (in somewhat convoluted fashion) "spirit" Excessive Clauses forbade imprisonments, went add: 62 "Under [Eighth] amendment infliction prohibited. laws countries, profess behind enlightened nations earth civilization refinement, furnish sufficient reasons prohibition. Breaking wheel, flaying alive, rending assunder horses, horrible tortures inquisition, maiming, mutilating scourging death, alien humane constitution." B. Oliver, An Citizen 186 (1832). Chancellor Kent, paragraph "ought confined atrocious character," suggest proportionality—even very begins universally condemned." 10-11 (1827). Story say: Amendment] unecessary government, department authorize, justify conduct. was, admonition departments warn violent proceedings, place reigns Stuarts." (1833). 65 Many outlawed punishment: constitutions (1802); Ind. 15-16 (1816); Me. (1819); R.I. (1842); W.Va. (1861); Ga. 16, (1868). 66 meant, constructions counterparts. (perhaps earliest) construction illustrative. Barker Johns. *457 (N.Y.Sup.Ct.1823), aff'd, Cow. 686 (N.Y.1824) defendant, challenging another duel, disenfranchised. Spencer assumed violated irrelevant. disenfranchisement citizen," "is punishment; consequence altogether offences." *459. Throughout century, interpreting expansive wording (i.e., unusual") proscribe Aldridge Commonwealth, 447 (1824), General occasion interpret ancestor 966. stripes 68 "As ninth section denouncing bearing control Legislative ad libitum adequacy applicable heads hearts land ancestors, loudly declaimed wanton practised countries; effectually exclude these, Legislature, moment excitement, tempted disgrace Code introduction Va., 449-450 original). Accord Commonwealth Hitchings, 482, 486 (1855); Garcia Territory, N.M. 415, 417-419 (1869); Whitten 297, 301 (1872); Cummins 142, 143-144, N.W. 305 (1879); Williams, Mo. 310, 312-313 White, Kan. 514, 520-521, P. 33, 34-35 (1890); Morris, 634, 638, 591, 592 Hobbs State, 133 404, 408-410, N.E. 1019, 1020-1021 (1893); Hogan, 202, 218, 572, 575 (1900); also, Hun. 546, 549-550 (1881). appears universal.10 case, dictum, fullfledged principle, intervene shock sentiment reasonable people." Becker, S.D. 29, 41, 1018, 1022 (1892). proscribing VI, (1889). (again dictum) "so 'shock people' unusual." Jackson F. 473, 488 (CA9 1900); Territory Ketchum, 718, 723, 169, 171 (1901). chose, reason, noting, good choice—a reinforces necessity overruling Solem. relatively guidelines practices lend analysis. Neither ever crafting "disproportionate," examples indicate, dispositions so—because attitudes, criminal epidemics, fears, prevailing penology. absolutes; imagine rational person, place, accept. easy decide, occur.11 real function evaluate assemblage men proportionate—and not. real-world enterprise, inadequate becomes imposition clear, think, consideration relevant determination: offense, jurisdiction, 290-291, factor: Of harm beings, everywhere regarded equation. serious point, judging enacted, variation—even across generations ruled punishes sodomy severely assault battery, compare Mass.Gen.Laws 272:34 (1988) ("not twenty years" sodomy) 265:13A battery); all. Louisiana, assaults weapon faces removes shopping basket area grounds store authorization." La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:37; 14:68.1 (West 1986). battery results "protracted obvious disfigurement" merits "for years," 14:34.1, theft livestock oilfield seismograph, 14:67.1, 14:67.8. seven $1,000 "cut[ting] off ear ears, cut[ting] disabl[ing] tongue, put[ting] eye, limb member intention maim disfigure," dollars." Act Apr. 30, 1790, 8, 113-115. citizens today's sanctions "assault wounding" prison, U.S.C. 113(d), unauthorized reproduction "Smokey Bear" name 711, offering barter migratory bird 707(b), purloining "key suited lock Post Office Department" years, 1704. right, so. 72 difficulty assessing case: acknowledges "grossly excessive" distribute, (1982). "grave" possess quantity drugs—thereby facilitating distribution, subjecting holder temptation raising others distribute depends socially threatening believes drug be. Would "mere possession" heavy weaponry? If not, possible dissemination drugs weapons. Who no? Members we, know situation streets Detroit. 73 fails reason. "similarly grave" comparing comparable. Or, differently: happens judicially receive significantly dis follows harsher unconstitutional, share judges' grave. identified, necessarily comparable, justifications difference. deterrent effect certainty, difficult detect substantially higher penalties. Grave deterred normally once-in-a-lifetime otherwise law-abiding profit rehabilitation. Whether occur, extent, depends, weight accords eminently judgment). speak intelligently "proportionality," rehabilitation weight. inherently retributive concept, perfect talionic 228-229 ("[W]hoever disfigure maimed disfigured sort"). 74 Solem—the crime—it acknowledged ease. conceivable relevance entitled stern disapproval act punish mildest fortiori undoubted criminalize choose reward—punishing, killing endangered wild animals bounty. disproportion that? "Absent constitutionally uniformity inimical federalism, bear distinction treating offenders State." 282, Diversity policy, means raison d'etre system. needs concerns induce simple minor Wyo.Stat. 35-7-1031(c) (6 months); W.Va.Code 60A-4-401(c) months), nothing requires follow suit. ratchet, whereby temporary consensus leniency fixes permanent maximum, disabling altered beliefs responding changed neither disbursing officer making entries sums book Philippine cadena temporal. Spanish Code, called incarceration 'hard painful labor' chains fastened wrists ankles times. Several "accessor[ies]" superadded, disqualification holding position trust, subjection "[government] surveillance" "civil interdiction," consisted deprivation 'the parental authority, guardianship property, participation family council [, etc.]' 364, 548. McKenna, himself temporal "Cruel Punishment." Holmes, dissented.) holding, reasoning based, above. former, McKenna "No circumstance degradation omitted. pain chain night day. labor exact measure. pressed pain." 549. latter: 78 fellow legislation. Let remember genius ours. excess accompanies imprisonment. character." 79 Other portions itself, unusual: "Such amaze precept graduated offense." 81 inhibition Clause] directed, 'but greatly disproportioned charged.' 551, quoting O'Neil Vermont, 144 323, 339-340, 693, 699, 450 (1892) (Field, dissenting). Since theory, opinions represent bars 'barbaric' 'excessive' relation committed," 982 (1977), punishmen[t]," "more Anglo-Saxon 274-275, pudding eating, proportionality, courts, Graham West Virginia, 224 616, 583, 917 (1912), instance, evaluated (and rejected) horse petitioner relied case.12 Badders 240 391, 367, 706 (1916). 83 Opinions appeals equally principle. Weems. Bailey 284 126 (CA7 1922); Tincher F.2d 18, (CA4 1926). Others echo variants dictum 1018 (1892), interfere "manifestly "ordinarily Sansone Zerbst, 670, (CA10 1934); 451, 453 1934).13 until Circuit begin performing Hart Coiner, 483 1973). Page 462 932, 935 (CA3 1972). Rener Beto, 20, (CA5 1971); Anthony 331 687, 693 1964). 84 unqualifiedly applying issued 185 adopted.14 rape adult woman. Enmund Florida, 458 782, 3368, 1140 violates participant inquiry participant's kill. generalizable accurate explanation, reassert Turner Murray, 476 28, 36-37, 1683, 1688-1689, 90 (1986); Eddings Oklahoma, 455 104, 869, (1982); 117, 878 (O'CONNOR, Beck Alabama, 625, 2382, 392 (1980). there, further. V 85 addition alleged argues severity, mitigating convictions. contends create scheme range hearing mitigation aggravation. 86 history noted earlier, abounded States—both founding century. 289-290, 2984. contention, "mandatory." Chapman 500 ---- - 1919, 1928-1929, (1991). 87 Petitioner's "required mitigation" claim, death-penalty jurisprudence. individualized determination "appropriate" disproportionate." supra; Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 98 2954, 973 (1978); Hitchcock Dugger, 481 107 1821, 95 347 (1987). asks doctrine," Sumner Shuman, 66, 73, 2716, 2721, (1987), doctrine." refuse creating clarifying repeatedly comparable difference 110-112, 874-875; 117-118, 602-605, 2963-2965; 2991-2992; 1138. 89 differs degree kind. total irrevocability. rejection convict basic purpose justice. unique, finally, absolute renunciation concept humanity." 306, 2760 (Stewart, law; severe. forecloses "flexible techniques" reducing Lockett, 605, 2965 (Burger, C.J.) opinion), foreclose them, possibilities retroactive reduction executive clemency. moreover, negligible imprisonment—for eligibility lengthy 65-year-old man. greatest, basis Affirmed. whom SOUTER join, I concur write my approach SCALIA's. Regardless dissent argument, ante, 966-985, post, 1009-1011, counsels adherence existed years. consistent respects, reconciled, uphold interpreted 'greatly disproportioned' 340, contexts. Its extensive cases. forbidden strike down actual lacked Tison Arizona, 137, 1676, 127 existence rule refused imprisonment, recidivism underlying felonies. inapplicable 40-year discussing (1983). disagreed apply invalidate 3004, Finney, 437 678, 685, 2565, 2570, 522 (1978) (dicta); 667, 1410, (1977) (dicta). contours unclear. types. pronouncement furthermore, appeared twice stated, thus overrule 303, 3017, 32. tensions, 99 substantive "properly legislatures, courts." 275-276, 1140. Determinations purposes acts implicate enduring questions respecting sanctity individual, order. moral political offenders] provokes intemperate emotions, deeply conflicting interests, intractable disagreements." Garland, Modern Society efficacy system assessed absent objectives penal responsibility fundamental choices lies legislature. Gore 357 386, 1280, 1285, 1405 (1958) ("Whatever views entertained futility, policy"). "[r]eviewing broad legislatures determining types crimes." 290, 3009. 1139 (acknowledging "reluctance legislatively mandated imprisonment"); 379, 554 ("The primary, exercises fortified presumptions legality, interfered lightly, conception wisdom propriety"). theory. guided varied times." 2605, ----. systems accorded weights goals Compare Mistretta 363-366, 647, 650-652, 714 (1989), Williams York, 337 241, 248, 1079, 1083, 1337 (1949). competing varying degrees ascendancy decline beginning Republic. Grayson, 45-47, 2613-2614, 582 (1978). 101 structure. 3010, ("[t]he system" wide sentences"). "Our recognizes independent articulate societal norms through McCleskey Zant, 499 1454, 1469, 113 517 embody assumptions, interstate imperfect enterprise. 294-295, 3012 (comparison "troubling" area"). assuming philosophies, render disproportionate. "[O]ur 'is people fundamentally views.' Absent Lochner 198 45, 76, 539, 547, 937 (1905) (Holmes, (1912). fourth work 'objective extent.' Coker, 2866 opinion). type differentiate fashion highly system." 275, fashion, '[t]he punishment,' 1138, 2760, (opinion Stewart, frequent 294, easiest sentences] punishment"). contrast, distinguish ("It 25-year generally 15-year decide former not") se constitutional," '[o]utside [are] rare.' All principles—the primacy schemes, factors—inform final one: Rather, 3016. 550 (Eighth prohibits "greatly disproportioned" sentences); 271, (same). 104 With considerations necessary examine challenged aspects sentence: operation. 105 uttering passive commit.' 296, (citation "involved violence person," "viewed among offenses." conviction, minor." 296-297, 3013. contrasted "minor" "very offenses" heroin dealing," stated suggests [a providing parole] fourth-time dealers criminals." 299, 26, 3014, 26. (over 1.5 pounds) pure doses. Washton, Cocaine Addiction: Treatment, Recovery, Relapse Prevention From standpoint, falls category minor, Possession, use, represents greatest problems affecting health welfare population." Treasury Employees Von Raab, 489 656, 668, 1384, 1392, 685 victimless, echoed 1022-1023, contrary, threatened society. Quite effects individual consumes relate ways: user commit drug-induced changes physiological functions, cognitive ability, mood; order buy drugs; occur culture. Goldstein, Drugs Violent Crime, Pathways Violence 24-36 (N. Weiner, M. Wolfgang eds., 1989). possibilities, nexus violence. 16-48. examples, percent sample males arrested 1989 homicide tested positive drugs. National Institute Justice, Drug Use Forecasting Annual Report (June 1990). statistics assault, robbery, weapons arrests percent, respectively. Detroit, 1988, male arrestees female 1988 (Mar.1990). Fifty-one seventy-one females 7. estimated homicides Detroit drug-related, cocaine-related. Department Health Human Services, Epidemiologic Trends Abuse (Dec.1990). 108 facts reports detailing epidemic country establish Michigan's correct just abstract sense. posed cocaine—in displacement—is Mendenhall, 446 561, 1870, 1880, 497 (1980) judgment) ("Few population, young, concern escalating controlled substances"); Florida Royer, 460 491, 513, 1319, 1332, 229 (1983) (BLACKMUN, dissenting) Terrebonne Butler, 848 500, 504 1988) (en banc). brings boundaries upheld attack years' Here, Similarly, kill, disproportionate," 15, 15. 12, 1150, ("A professional seller addictive bodily commits assault"). amici necessary. analyzing harshness penalty," announce three-part test. case." 17. ibid. ("[N]o identify Amendment"). hand, constitutionality Consistent rarely engage 3009 "it helpful criminals jurisdiction," "courts useful commission jurisdictions." 291-92, 3010 inquiries. 112 better reading intra- inter-jurisdictional analyses invalidated performed 298-300, 3013-3015; 553-554. attacks, analyses. "[e]ven assume stringent Rummel's 'grossly disproportionate' proper role validate initial "eviscerate[s]" "abandon[s]" factors, charges, 1020, takes full dissent. rise Nation performed. 114 attacks nature. hold official circumstances. precedents proposition, presents exception adopt us. demonstrates reject Ante, comports well. offender liable mandatory, 6, 3005-3006, 6. "lesser "d[id] legislature's judgment," court's selection top range. "has define discretion," 1929, Republic, schemes. 363, 650; 45-46, 2613-2614; Ex Parte 242 72, 129 jurist, collective consequence, citizenry. one, circumstance. 116 offer wisdom. Mandatory criticized depriving exercise remorse acknowledgment guilt, extenuating facts, compelling departure maximum. unreviewed perception applied, imperiled discernible reactions judge. debate illustrates outset, resolve. 117 establishes amounts mixtures containing substances. Possession substances schedule imprisonment; 225 minimum years; Mich.Comp.Laws Ann. 333.7401 (Supp.1990-1991). Sentencing depart amounts, exceeding grams, "if record so." 333.7401(4); 333.7403(3). revived sudden surprising way; rather, calibrated care, clarity, deliberation address problem. provides notice consequences attach wholesale force law—deterrence. fair, so, sentencer's complexity obscures sanction resulting learns 118 mechanisms Prosecutorial clemency afterwards avert unjust Here prosecutor chosen seek 672.5 undiluted trappings trafficker, cigarettes, four brass straws, spoon, percodan tablets, tablets Phendimetrazine Tartrate, Motorola beeper, plastic bags coded book, $3500 cash. 119 120 unforgiving troubling officer. Reasonable minds differ scheme, bold experiment succeed. accounts pickpockets Tyburn hangings reminder law's force, chance success dangers flowing surpass bounds. manner Ice Co. Liebmann, 262, 311, 747 reasons, 121 BLACKMUN STEVENS dissenting. 122 "[e]xcessive concludes guarantee." 965. "was wrong" otherwise, asserts "narrow," 996, Solem's reduced one. due respect, 123 restraint excessiveness Nor unreasonable or, generally, convicted. Benjamin 981, Amendment: 124 laid constitution, imprisoning But, demand exposes concerned, it; paying default only, seem, constitution. Thus imprison, supposed, restrained, imprison unrestricted it? regulations subject, absurd inconsiderable consequently framers 185-186 125 concedes construction. 976. claiming construed weak. restraint, clearly—as plain-talking expressed themselves suppose, Fifth Due Process searches seizures). impossible label Government, track living regimes benchmarks unusualness. Furthermore, deprive day indicated drafted "chose contained." 985. accept issue, strong proving affirmative component. Had reach reasonably plain-speaking Americans, confidence voted favor Amendment? Surely, subsequent answer question.1 128 1910, stated: 130 131 clause] 548-549, 699-700, dissenting.) 132 tradition—"It legislation," 553—was detract which, Gregg 153, 171-172, 2909, 2924, 859 holding. courts; status addiction, 1420-1421. plurality Gregg, 173, 2925, proscription evolving "involve[d] unnecessary paid" crime." Under test, Following barbaric excessive, i.e., "(1) measurable contribution acceptable hence purposeless needless suffering; grounds, murder. ground too 134 undeniable component, evident none impermissible. extreme, nonfelony 135 says—"the guarantee," 965, holdings declarations survive. Later 994, backtracks indeed proportional involve fallback leaves legislators. Any however severe, petty, restricts Rummel. ignores generality pronouncements explain why others. explanation SCALIA's view, punishment—a mode punishment—would completely barred Yet true. more, scope limitations Trop Dulles, 356 86, 100-101, 590, 597-598, 630 Browning-Ferris Industries Inc. Kelco Disposal, Inc., 257, 264, 4, 2914, 219 "this 'not "barbarous" 18th century,' instead 'in flexible dynamic manner.' 369, 2974, 171, 2924 Powell, JJ.). doing, borne McKenna's "[t]ime works changes, Therefore vital capable wider mischief gave birth. constitutions." Browning-Ferris, 273, 2919 (quoting 137 "evolving decency mark progress maturing society." Trop, 101, 598. Stanford, Trop. evaluating looked conceptions decency, modern whole" "evolved," focused Justices," "objective extent," tripartite forth 138 Contrary suggestion, 985-986, worked practice. appear numerous appellate handful declared unconstitutional.2 baldly substituted values "capable sensitivity autonomy."3 1156 approach, affords "substantial trial criminals," omitted), failing muster. instances abandon 139 discretion, abandonment quote preceding 976, automatically "legal" "usual" above, meaning. "[w]renched 'unusual' 'contrary law,' "[t]here 975 ,976. custom," passed "customary" either. antithesis Marbury Madison, (1803), "[i]t emphatically duty is," 177, removed assess bodies obligation congressional enactments. scrutinized enactments unduly invading prerogative States. scrutiny justification abrogation principles. 140 lurk mechanism addressing examples"—perhaps Rummel—"that accept," reassurance occur." 985-986. cold comfort indeed, deciding arise. 141 indicated, addresses inconsistent application. downgraded calculus, rest quicksand. 142 seeks deliver swift KENNEDY prefers eviscerate leaving empty shell. proffers contradicted 143 identified major 3009-3010; 3010; jurisdictions," maintains sentence," disproportionality." 1004,1005. "[b]ut possible." concedes, 1005, integral Numerous development judgments, international juries made." Enmund, 788, 3372. 369-371, 2974-2975; Kemp, 300, 1756, 1771, 262 145 380-381, 554-555, disparity 102-103, 598-599, surveyed citizenship wartime desertion sought "guidance country's acceptability woman," 593, "[t]he current rape," weigh[ed] heavily side suitable 596, 2868. reviewed participates occurs. 797, 3376. comparisons essential assessment punishment's 146 KENNEDY's futile. prong discrete factors—the expected interaction elements committed." 1005. Were assessment, was—or not—disproportionate, "subjective [judges]," shunned. "our citing support. 1001. 147 "[f]or problem ordering, line-drawing. Decisions kind, troubling, area. constantly draw lines contexts." 148 line-drawing Sixth speedy jury look drawn." 3012. sentence's "public sentence." 2866. 149 limiting remains case's Application reveals muster consequently, 150 Petitioner, first-time offender, 333.7403(2)(a)(i) knowingly intentionally possesses narcotics, "[w]hich mixture substance guilty life." No purity conviction. eligible 791.233b[1](b), 791.234(4). related 333.7401(2)(a)(i), mandates someone "manufacture[s], deliver[s], possess[es] manufacture deliver," narcotic mixture.4 room 'stem traffic' 'drug dealers.' Respondent 7, Mich.House 4190 1977 1978). 151 penalty. 292, crime," 3013, 152 "by exhaustive," 3011, society," things culpability offender," requisite offender's motive 292-293, 3010-3011. 153 harsh Mere drugs—even quantity—is warrant, mandate, Unlike persons affects ripple lost productivity, problems, possession, 660-667, 1417-1420, proportionate, tailored personal guilt. S., 801, 3378. focusing subsidiary collateral indisputably unlike flow misuse other, legal, considering alcohol society, stressed seriously dispute drunken States' interest eradicating it," Police Sitz, 496 2481, 2485, 412 "cannot excuse scrupulous principles," Grady Corbin, 2084, 2095, 548 driver traffic arising accident cannot, Double Jeopardy subsequently victim. program vehicle checkpoints drivers brief intrusion motorists 2485. checkpoint influence creates risk indirectly, possessed. inconceivable rationally penalize quantities tangential traced issue. "Unfortunately, evils narcotics easily threats liberties attractive shortcuts suppress blot quickly unpopular conduct." 396 398, 427, 642, 658, 610 (1970) (Black, advocates here. 155 "absolute magnitude" exceptionally serious. lesser odd latter. 293, 3011. prove weighs grams. mens rea parallel presence reaches manufacture, delivery, either, undermines State's dealers.5 "[i]ntent inferred accused," Abrego, 176, 181, 249 345, jury, Kirchoff, 641, 647-649, 254 793, 796-797 (1977). addition, usually pecuniary exist possession. 293-294, offenders, petitioner, recidivists. Consequently, 156 additional conceded prosecute deliver, prudent win prosecution." Oral Arg. 30-31. avoid prosecuting statute.6 same, succeeded guilt charges. 157 jurisdiction." Michigan; harshest available. reserved crimes: first-degree 750.316 (1991); narcotics; narcotics. others—such second-degree 750.317; 750.520b; armed 750.529—do carry discretion. than, 3014. 158 examines imposes nearly remaining Alabama ten kilograms Ala.Code 13A-12-231(2)(d) (Supp.1990). prison. 13A-12-231(2)(b).7 Guidelines, enhancements, barely exceed Guidelines Manual, 2D1.1 [petitioner] 3015. previously 2975. 2868; Ford Wainwright, 477 399, 408, 2595, 2601, 335 (1986). 159 muster.8 Appeals. 160 161 WHITE's adhere 231, 2973, (1976) "[b]ecause uniqueness 188, 2932 JJ.,), 498 768, 769, 787 (1991) denial certiorari). proscribed proscribed, restricted central conclusion, 1012-1015, requirement. WHITE notes, done mandating 162 joins, 163 wholeheartedly comment appropriate. 164 diluted undiluted, convinced Stewart characterized "unique" "its Nevertheless, characteristic regain freedom. purport serve rehabilitative function, "criminal society's outweighs reform perpetrator." 307, 2761. Serious irrational every incorrigible. 165 struck lightning 309, 2762. capricious. pointed out, 1026-1027. period shorter. belongs unattainable. satisfies meaningful unusual. 166 respectfully Comp. Laws (Supp.1990-1991) "any 2] substance"; 333.7214(a)(iv) defines substance. Section 791.234(4) offense"; 791.233b[1](b) "major offense" inter alia, 333.7403. Specifically, rejected, four-factor Hart, 140-143. interpretation, quoting, did, sources. 3007 236). perjuries deaths innocents. Granucci 859, (1969). "sufferings, trifling 137. 203-204. 1011-1012, (if any) concerned 844-847. agrees outlaws goes suggest, component Post, 1011. Surely extraordinary restrictions democratic self-government contains. task meanings reasonably" bear, policy standpoint pleases best. strive select "reasonable" plausible burden "proving component," ibid.; favor. affirmatively restriction, process. Printed collections Founders, Federalist 24, 159, (C. Rossiter 1961) Hamilton); 47, pp. 304-307 (J. Madison) (comparing States). detailed genre, read: offence. affix treason; undistinguishing exerted offences; forget themselves, flagrant compunction lightest dye: multitude sanguinary impolitic unjust. exterminate, mankind." copied Hampshire. Framers "excessive fines" asserts, sake "disproportionate fines"), 1009. impress logic opposite. punishments) superfluous. parts (the Amendment) assumed. Walton 3047, 511 (1990) careful protection punishments? Does other? uniquely deterrence. Imprisonment, corporal cost money; source revenue. scrutinize governmental action stands benefit. Trust York Jersey, 431 25-26, 1505, 1519-1520, 294 330, 350-351, 432, 435, 912 (1935). (We incentive abuse "punitive damages" "fines" Browning Ferris 271-276, 2918-2921, (1989)). placing Conn. (1818) (prohibiting only); LIX (1777) Driver, 423 (1878), Garvey Whitaker, La. 527, So. 457 (1896) contrary. applying, (curiously above) sanctioned county jail established. Carolina jeopardy," prisoner "been County aggravated." N.C., 425, 426-427. mode, penalty's clause. Blake, 608, 611, S.E. 1080, 1081-1082 (1911). Garvey, defendants trespassing property. city ordinance days, defendants' one-hour forty-minute occupation counts, "each embracing one-half minutes immediately consecutively," La., 533, So., 459. "considering continuing one," fair "mak[e] 1018. oppose "parade horribles" argumentation, Scalia, Assorted Canards Contemporary Legal Analysis, W.Res.L.Rev. 581, 590-593 (1989-1990); strength certitude evil represented imagined parade, probability parade materialize. discussed, everything intensely undesirable—which fallacy, (implicitly permitting slavery); Monaghan, Perfect N.Y.U.L.Rev. 353 likely unless, become arguably good, deter critical—at probably disagree today. Frankfurter reminded us, process Constitutional adjudication thrive conjuring happen devising doctrines sufficiently detail cover remotest contingency." 326 314, (1946). Takings taxation" tax income subsistence level. decided Graham, obviously was. 1141, reacted ways. Justices majority "may fairly still open concerned." 726, 745, 582, 588 (1921). Georgia Fishing, Di-Chem, 419 601, 616-619, 719, 727-729, 751 (1975) Indiana (1893). Kistler 190 149, 158, 625 stating "an interesting review" Carolina's "similar provision," fixed excessive." 90-day "addicted narcotics." cite rests 'crime' cold," 1421. 966, have, labors much, 974-975. scholar, covering shows first, second, reiteration penalties." 860 Englishmen, text, disagree. parties Clowers So.2d 762 (Miss.1988) (holding reduce fifteen check); Ashley 538 1181 (Miss.1989) (reaching burgled home get $4.00 grocer food eaten store); Gilham, App.3d 549 N.E.2d 555 (1988). Naovarath Nev. 525, 779 P.2d adolescent killed robbed molested forced expend undue resources respondent disposed challenge. Sullivan, 895 1030, 1031-1032 (CA5), cert. denied, 207, 168 (1990); Benefield, 889 1061, 1063-1065 (CA11 1989); Savage, 888 528 1989), 2567, 750 Elbert, 15-16, 480 A.2d 854, 862 (1984) (Souter, below diverge. Young Miller, 883 1276 (CA6 pending, 89-6960 (Jan. harsh, trafficking 1284-1285. relevance. 1008, phone gun presentence circumstantial distribute. None information, prosecution defense counsel information report. 10. likewise inappropriate characteristics "Trafficking cannabis, etc.," "[a]ny sells, manufactures, delivers, state, constructive of" 13A-12-231(1) vary depending necessitates heretofore

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