Document: 412 U.S. 94 93 S.Ct. 2080 36 L.Ed.2d 772 COLUMBIA BROADCASTING SYSTEM, INC., Petitioner,v.DEMOCRATIC NATIONAL COMMITTEE. FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION et al., Petitioners, v. BUSINESS EXECUTIVES' MOVE FOR VIETNAM PEACE al. POST-NEWSWEEK STATIONS, CAPITAL AREA, Petitioner, PEACE. AMERICAN COMPANIES, DEMOCRATIC Nos. 71—863 to 71—866. Argued Oct. 16, 1972. Decided May 29, 1973. Syllabus The Democratic National Committee requested a declaratory ruling from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) that Act or First Amendment precluded licensee having general policy of refusing sell time 'responsible entities' present their views on public issues. Business Executives' Move for Vietnam Peace filed complaint with FCC, alleging broadcaster had violated by it broadcast spot announcements expressing group's conflict and station's coverage antiwar did not meet requirements Fairness Doctrine. FCC rejected Doctrine challenge ruled was prohibited accept paid editorial advertisements individuals organizations like respondents. Court Appeals reversed, holding 'a flat ban issue is in violation Amendment, at least when other sorts are accepted,' remanded causes develop regulations governing which, how many, would be aired. Held: Neither nor requires broadcasters advertisements. Pp. 101—114, 121—170. 146 U.S.App.D.C. 181, 450 F.2d 642, reversed. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion respect Parts I, II, IV, finding that: 1 1. basic criterion use frequencies right informed; manner which this interest best served dispositive respondents' statutory contentions. 101—114. 2 (a) In evaluating claims, great weight must afforded decisions Congress experience FCC. 101—103. 3 (b) has consistently efforts impose 'common carrier' access all persons wishing speak out Instead, reposed regulatory authority evolved require broadcaster's important issues adequate fairly reflect differing viewpoints; thus, no private individual group command facilities. 103—114. 4 2. 'public interest' standard Act, incorporates principles, does 121—131. 5 justified concluding marketplace 'ideas experiences' ordering advertising time. There substantial risk such system monopolized those who could pay costs, effective operation itself undermined, accountability now rests diluted. 121—125. 6 difficult problems involved implementing an absolute inevitably implicate case-by-case determination should heard when, thus enlarging involvement Government broadcasting operations. properly take into account fact listeners viewers constitute kind 'captive audience' degree journalistic discretion remain broadcasters. 126 130. 7 THE CHIEF JUSTICE joined STEWART REHNQUIST, concluded, Part III, licensee's refusal advertisement 'governmental action' purposes. neither 'partner' action complained engaged 'symbiotic relationship' licensee. 114—121. 8 Under vested deciding its obligations as trustee.' 114—117. 9 against accepting compatible obligation provide balanced treatment controversial questions. 118—121. 10 (c) fostered advertisements; merely declined acceptance because subject matter within area discretion. P. 118. 11 Solicitor Gen. Erwin N. Griswold F.C.C., others. 12 Ernest W. Jennes, Washington, D.C., Post-Newsweek Stations, Capital Area, Inc. 13 J. Roger Wollenberg, Columbia Broadcasting System, 14 Joseph A. Califano, Jr., Committee. 15 Thomas R. Asher, Peace. 16 Vernon L. Wilkinson, American Companies, 17 (Parts IV) together (Part III), REHNQUIST joined. 18 We granted writs certiorari these cases consider whether selling groups they violates 1934, 48 Stat. 1064, amended, 47 U.S.C. § 151 seq., Amendment. 19 two orders announced same day, Communications, commission meets his full fair required Committee, 25 F.C.C.2d 216; Peace, 242. A divided reversed Commission, fixed Amendment; court procedures guidelines administering access. For 642 (1971). 20 complainants actions (DNC) (BEM), national organization businessmen opposed United States conflict. January 1970, BEM charging radio station WTOP refused series one-minute Vietnam. WTOP, common but all, broadcasters, followed wished expound took position since presented questions, including conflict, also submitted evidence showing aired critics our numerous occasions. challenged fairness WTOP's criticism policy, support claim. 21 Four months later, DNC request ruling: 22 'That under Constitution may not, refuse responsible entities, DNC, solicitation funds comment issues.' 23 claimed intended purchase television stations networks order Party solicit funds. Unlike BEM, object policies any particular prior 'experiences make clear will encounter considerable difficulty—if total frustration efforts—in carrying plans event decline requested.' cited Red Lion Co. 395 367, 89 1794, 371 (1969), establishing limited constitutional airwaves. 24 separate opinions, claims 'responsible' have without regard complied viewed one major significance scheme relating electronic media, going 'to heart developed country . ..' 221. After reviewing legislative history provisions itself, Commission's inherent access, demands DNC. BEM's claim failing air held members BEM; pointed made only 'general allegation' unfairness adequately rebutted charge affidavit. did, however, uphold DNC's statute recognized political parties purpose soliciting noted accorded special consideration parties, see 315(a), both feasible appropriate short space generally allotted advertisements.1 26 majority accepted.' U.S.App.D.C., 185, F.2d, 646. Recognizing scarce resource inherently unavailable nevertheless concluded mandated 'abridgeable' reasoned airing commercial constitutes unconstitutional discrimination. either proposed accepted broadcasters; rather, 'reasonable determining many 'editorial advertisements' put air.' Ibid. 27 Judge McGowan dissented; view, compel undertake task assigned majority: 28 'It presently advance public's know devoting amount presentation importance, striking balance always redress reference doctrine. Failure do so puts continuation license risk—a sanction tremendous potency, increasing pressure employ. 29 'This has, wisely provided alternative ownership communications This approach never been thought than permissible limits choice.' 205, 666. 30 court's decision overrule remand development implementation 'constitutional straitjacket' highly complex far-reaching issue. 31 * White's makes media pose unique traditional free speech case. physical limitation. Broadcast resource; portioned among applicants. All possess financial resources desire communicate cannot satisfactorily accommodated. spoke reality Lion, we said 'it idle posit unabridgeable comparable every speak, write, publish.' Id., 388, S.Ct., 1806. 32 Because utilize valuable resource, there unusual values. discussed length application media. analyzing broadcasters' component rules freedom expression, '(n)o monopolize frequency; deny 'the 'is denial speech." 389, Although protection Paramount Pictures, Inc., 334 131, 166, 68 915, 933, 92 L.Ed. 1260 (1948), '(i)t listeners, paramount. It receive suitable social, political, esthetic, moral, ideas experiences crucial here. That constitutionally abridged FCC.' supra, 390, 33 Balancing various interests what serves informed delicacy difficulty. process necessarily undertaken framework over course past half century. For, during time, chosen agency established delicately regulation serve concerned. rendered more industry dynamic terms technological change; solutions decade ago now, acceptable today well outmoded years hence. 34 Thus, respondents, afford Commission. Professor Chafee aptly observed: 35 'Once get away bare words (First) construe part creates government performing several very tasks. interpreted cripple regular work government. interstate foreign commerce, come modern age include job parceling entrusted Therefore, free-speech problem considered satisfactory performance value open discussion. weigh heavily scale still given ample scope job.' Z. Chafee, Mass 640—641 (1947). 37 judgment Legislative Branch ignored undervalued simply segment constituency casts umbrella say 'defer' question, hesitate invoke determine fulfilled sensitivity expression. point is, face hard questions few easy answers careful attention branches addressed problem. before confronting specific legal cases, turn examination administrative last II 38 occasions recounted origins regulation. See, e.g., 375—386, 1798—1805; States, 319 190, 210—217, 63 997, 1006—1010, 87 1344 (1943); Sanders Brothers Radio Station, 309 470, 474, 60 693, 697, 84 869 (1940); Pottsville Co., 134, 137—138, 437, 438—439, 656 (1940). passage 1927, 44 1162, marked chaos. unregulated burgeoning new 1920's resulted intolerable situation demanding congressional action: 39 quickly became apparent constituted whose regulated rationalized Government. Without control, medium little cacaphony competing voices, none clearly predictably heard.' 376, 1799. 40 But, once regulation, confronted dilemma: strike proper between control. Cf. Farmers Educational Co-op. Union America, North Dakota Division WDAY, 360 525, 528, 79 1302, 1304, 1407 (1959). 41 One earliest most frequently quoted statements dilemma Herbert Hoover, he Secretary Commerce. While Department making exploratory attempts deal infant early 1920's, testified House Committee: 42 'We can allow single person place themselves where censor material shall broadcasted public, I believe ever placed censoring material.' Hearings H.R. 7357 Merchant Marine Fisheries, 68th Cong., 1st Sess., (1924). 43 statement foreshadowed 'tightrope' aspects Congress, courts struggled since. appears choices—private official censorship—Government censorship pervasive, self-serving, restrain hence avoided. model scheme, U.S., 137, 438, reveals discussion chose leave broad specifically dealt with—and firmly rejected—the argument facilities nonselective basis talk about Some Congress—those were ultimately strenuously objected power reject applications service. H.R.Rep.No.404, 69th (minority report). They regarded exercise 'private ship,' controlled treating ulilities.2 provision came closest imposing unlimited bill reported Senate Interstate emerged contained following provision: 45 '(I)f permit used candidate candidates office, question affecting discrimination station, matters deemed carrier commerce: Provided, broadcast.' 67 Cong.Rec. 12503 (1926) (emphasis added). 46 When floor, principal architect Senator Dill, offered amendment eliminate restrict office. Dill explained need amendment: 'When recall purely voluntary, listener-in pays nothing it, gives building up reputation, seemed unwise hampering control being compelled anything everything him long price paid.' 12502. Senators sensitive legislating 'equal opportunities' stated: 49 '('Public questions') term probably whatsoever side demand time; Iowa mentions candidates, namely, give discussion, discussed.' 12504. 50 adopted Dill's amendment. finally enacted, 1170, later re-enacted 315(a) 1934,3 after another proposal imposed microphones certain issues.4 prolonged 3(h), provides insofar engaged, carrier.'5 51 Other 1934 evince preserve values journalism insure fulfillment obligations. renewable three-year licenses broadcasters6 promulgate licenses,7 consistent convenience, interest, necessity,' 326 52 'Nothing chapter understood construed signals transmitted condition promulgated interfere means communication.' 326. 53 From seems widest Only found outweigh asserted Act. License renewal proceedings, listening heard, See Office Communication Church Christ 123 328, 359 994 (1966), 138 112, 425 543 (1969). 54 Subsequent developments illustrate evolved. Of light Congress' issues, 'Fairness Doctrine,' gradually spanning federal media.8 Formulated interest,' doctrine imposes affirmative responsibilities broadcaster: importance viewpoints. 377, fulfilling obligations, opposing if sponsor unavailable, Cullman P & F Reg. 895 (1963), initiate programming else seeks so. John Dempsey, 615 (1950); 378, 1800. 55 Since physically impossible viewpoints, broadcaster. broadcaster, therefore, allowed significant fulfill obligations,9 although bounded designed assure furthered. instant described boundaries follows: 56 'The rule off ends beliefs. As trustee, representative community voices listeners. some partisan. excluding partisan presenting bland, inoffensive run counter 'profound commitment debate uninhibited, robust, wide-open.' New York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 270 (84 710, 686) (1964); 392 (n. 18) (89 (1969) F.C.C.2d, 222—223. 57 providing viewing information importance.10 principle underlying responsibility informed, rather Government, member own Report Editorializing Licensees, F.C.C. 1246, 1249 (1949). Consistent philosophy, facilities.11 Dowie Crittenden, 499 (1969); Margaret Scherbina, 141 Boalt Hall Student Assn., 612 Madalyn Murray, 647 (1965); State Central California, 833 (1968); Corp., 208 (1935). yet seen fit alter amended occasions12 proposals access.13 58 With background mind, next proceed governmental violative III 59 'Congress law abridging speech, press' restraint action, persons. Public Utilities Comm'n Pollak, 343 451, 461, 72 813, 820, 96 1068 (1952). previously here purposes review presents novel implications. Jaffe, Editorial Responsibility Broadcaster: Reflections Fair ness Access, 85 Harv.L.Rev. 768, 782—787 (1972). instrumentalities purposes, relying thesis, familiar contexts, licensees domain 'proxies' "fiduciaries' people.' 191, 652. These characterizations validity resolve restraints.14 61 dealing line conduct defined formula unrelated exercises authority. alleged cautious analysis quality relationship acts question. 'Only sifting facts weighing circumstances nonobvious attributed true significance.' Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 722, 81 856, 860, (1961). 62 encompasses here, kept mind vital communication. swiftly become factor dissemination information. More 7,000 licensed perform function. To large extent share printed role keeping people informed. seen, advent century ago, faced fundamental choice medium—the countries—or alternative. Long impact potential realized, opted suggests influenced attitudes toward enterprise, maintain licensees, far necessary role. historic aversion led enact explicitly prohibits interfering frequencies. pointedly refrained divesting selection voices; 3(h) stands firm treated carriers, obliged whatever tendered public. Both manifest intention measure independence licensee.15 64 slowly, trustee' charged duty impartially informing audience. structure essence 'overseer,' initial primary fairness, balance, objectivity 'overseer' ultimate arbiter guardian 'free agent' call delicate balancing interests. maintenance called regulators walk written successor, 65 tensions emerge compare newspaper privately owned economic factors: first, sufficient number readers advertisers—to success; and, second, integrity editors publishers. exercised newspaper. might prefer entrepreneur duties, oversee censoring. something difficulty Act—a function calling flexibility capacity adjust readjust mechanism changing needs. 66 case intimately related Congress. examined abstract proposition, context help press us idea ads 'like' ads, expressly based 10- 60-second ill-suited intelligible intelligent issues; comprehensive form. Obviously evaluation priorities newsworthiness. Moreover, here; fell emphasized 'there thwarting sale 226. reasoning, nearly precedent, events, decide met. reach read preclude situations re-examine determination; least, sphere left licensee, profiting invidious proxy. Compare Moose Lodge No. 107 Irvis, 407 163, 174—177, 1965, 1972 1973, 627 (1972), 723—724, 860—861. instance permitted failed prohibit acts. 69 Our conclusion altered inconsistent interest. (1952), trigger protections record involving approval utility. Though District bus company install receives buses authorized plenary intervention affairs pursuant authorization investigated approved standards. 462, 820. 70 Here, pervasive transportation Pollak. important, noted, affirmatively indicated restrictions overall standard. Pollak suggestion worthy carrier's exercising content forced passengers. distinction, perhaps, concerned utility derives (1948). 71 Were spell broadcasts processes escape scrutiny. sweeping concept go practical effect undermine unmistakable maintain—no task—essentially broadly accountable agent, posture chart workable 'middle course' quest essential desired profoundly, anomaglous hold, name promoting guarantees day-to-day restraints urged contradiction. Journalistic ways lost rigid limitations impsoes Application standards antithetical ideal vigorous, challenging Every already totality 73 private, independent journalism, slowly cautiously nurtured adjudication. co-exist reading action. Nor exist needs swift developments. therefore conclude McIntire William Penn 597, 601 (CA3 1945), cert. denied, 327 779, 530, 90 1007 (1946); Massachusetts Universalist Convention Hildreth Rogers 183 497 (CA1 1950); Post Payton, 323 F.Supp. 799, 803 (E.D.N.Y.1971). IV 74 remains or, whether, assuming reason resolving guided 'venerable construction execution unless compelling indications wrong 381, 1802. Whether 'compelling indications' error answered reasoning embodied Many policies, clear, drawn itself; invites principles. expression discuss constantly foremost concern. broadcasting, available communication admonition Alexander Meiklejohn '(w)hat everyone worth saying said' peculiarly appropriate. Political Freedom 75 At outset reiterate earlier language compels different reached again variety forms rejection taken mean rights circumstances. Rather, experiment conditions require. case, decided undesirable effects respondents benefits. due matters. 76 scarcely weighted favor financially affluent, wealth. 392, 1807. Even first-come-first-served system, dissenting Commissioner cases,16 affluent prevail others, frequently. danger, acknowledged, 203, 664, persuasion. 77 solved applying Doctrine, doctrine, advertising. If necessary, shades advertisement, discussed. premise Appeals' opportunity self-initiated speech—would meaning first instance.17 78 applied advertising, danger jeopardized. minimize hardship comply fully view expressed advertisement; indeed, suggested much brief. result further erosion brodcasters transfer not. longer 'paramount' but, subordinate whim especially since, decision, largely rejecting trivial insignificant covered 196 n. 36, 197, 657 658. suspended alleviate problems, suggest appropriate, arises abandoned gained. regime objective seriously threatened. Appeals's speaker judge' ought hear indeed judge merits her views. tradition contrary. better worse, editing for; material. broadcast—can abuse beyond doubt, provided. Calculated risks higher presence new; authors Bill Rights evils remedy spirit moderation sense civility—on guaranteed freedoms 80 reasonable periodic frequencies, are. historically appropriately allocation concentrated diffused many. assurance answerable fails legitimate No attaches individual, qualifications using facility abundant view. agree 'robust, wide-open' exchange limitations, self-appointed commentators. discounted difficulties stressing mandating 'modest reform,' requiring broadcasers 202, 663. 'outside limit sell' "reasonable regulations' prevent domination viewpoints.' 663, 664. apply suffered harm, 'Commission adjustments.' objections raised express repeatedly 'confidence' ability overcome difficulties, implement 82 By minimizing grips critical Amendment—the enlargement Fowler Rhode Island, 345 67, 526, 97 828 (1953); Niemotko Maryland, 340 268, 325, 95 267, 280 (1951). sort requests heard—a programming. permits surveillance, 216—219, 1009—1011, Government's carefully circumscribed itself.18 83 commanded supervised right-of-access Appeals, operations conduct, viewpoint sufficiently Regimenting too radical therapy ailment complain of. indicates sustained good-faith effort informed.19 tend draw continuing when. Indeed, likelihood principles relaxed advertisements.20 sacrifice speculative gain warranted, avoid result.21 entitled real audience.' 463, 821; Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 448, 513 'captive' nature cast audience 1924, Commerce Hoover remarked Fourth Conference listener option reader publications has—to ignore interested—and resent invasion set.'22 society, acute. recent upholding regarding cigarette Bazelon, writing unanimous ubiquitous commercial: 86 'Written messages communicated read, act. messages, contrast, 'in omnipresent radio, breathes citizen leading jingle heart. Similarly, ordinary habitual watcher commercials leaving room, channel, doing calculate subliminal propaganda, even listened to, reasonably greater word.' Banzhaf 132 14, 33, 405 1082, 1100—1101 (1968), 396 842, 50, answer tolerate live counterparts. 88 rationale impermissibly discriminates while relied state-supported school newspapers transit companies advertisements.23 attempted analogize protected permitting areas. Cox Louisiana, 379 536, 453, 471 theme 'invidious discrimination' echoed briefs Court. Respondents rely Grayned City Rockford, 408 104, 2294, 222 Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 92, 2286, 212 city ordinances 'peaceful picketing labor dispute,' 93, 2288, demonstrations streets sidewalks 150 feet school. Those guidance, mandate forum sought licensees. short, 'discrimination' whom, allows judgments inadequate held, 'conforms paternalistic bureaucrats 'important,' 'fully' cover them, format, style coverage.' 195, 656. would, according majority, deficiency. premised notion involves 'special mode expression' content, unlike prepared edited advertiser. 'may opportunities enliven enrich information.' identifiable, entity licensee—to speakers cost. 91 preside 'paternalistic' regime. admittedly brought perfect high-quality events lie diluting responsibility. stressed that, 'present (its) listeners,' 'excluding 222. neglects losing license. Conceivably future date Commission—or broadcasters—may devise practicable desirable. proceedings cable increased systems markets 'shall specially designated, noncommercial channel first-come, nondiscriminatory basis. minimal equipment production channel.' Fed.Reg. 3289, 76.251(a)(4). present, conducting wide ranging study effectiveness done improve Notice Inquiry Docket 19260, 26, 11825. Among things, attempt method outside doctrine.' 33. intend discard Fairness, time.24 inquiry score hearings way. perceived activities period search achieve pending step process. freeze holding. Commercial Lines, Louisville N.R. 571, 590—593, 2105, 2115—2117, 1289 (1968). Reversed. 98 STEWART, concurring. 99 join Court's opinion, my closely DOUGLAS concurring judgment. 100 controls upon press.1 Private surely press. 1260. Yet dissenters agree, broadcasters—in 'values.' appellate accomplished strange convolution simple device along path eventually lead proposition 'are' then gone. moment 'values' frightening specter. 101 blush appeal seeking analogies areas otherwise hold tantamount action.2 evolution 'state Fourteenth analogy.3 Another 1068, publicly activate review. applicable essentially forums. Amalgamated Food Employees Logan Valley Plaza, 391 308, 1601, 603; Marsh Alabama, 501, 276, 265; cf. Lloyd Corp. Tanner, 551, 2219, 131. 102 us, admit solution analogizing press, Amendment.4 Before woodenly quasi-public racial discrimination, industries 'company towns,' look 103 enacted responding then-evident regulate Not chose, scarcity sure road chaos.5 selected hybrid. (succeeded Commission), periods. 307(d). though companies. 104 Scarcity meant limited, apparatus obtaining service (the licensee's) broadcasts.' 475, 869. then, electromagnetic engineering sake clear. included Writing defense chain Frankfurter said: 'These (of Act), individually aggregate, empowered technical impediments 'larger interest." 217, 1010, 1344. 105 Over extensive, pro tanto, rightly wrongly tolerable personal-attack, editorial-reply, fair-coverage-of-controversial-issue requirements.6 371, despite 106 'Where substantially want allocate, publish. '. others medium. But whole retain collective paramount.' 108 programming, 1082. And liberalized standing licensing proceedings. 994. 109 Throughout freedoms, limits. Quite apart legislation Section 153(h), carriers. carriers §§ 201, 202. 201 provides, pertinent part, 110 '(a) wire furnish therefor 202 111 unlawful unjust unreasonable charges, practices, classifications, regulations, facilities, services connection service, directly indirectly, device, undue preference advantage person, class persons, locality, locality prejudice disadvantage.' 112 'freedom speech': 113 114 whole, establishes standard, have, quite additional provide, 115 so-called them conflicting importance. agreed program outer tolerability. conditional, requirement, saw fit. equated raises serious me extraordinarily odd 116 argues, argue, somewhat differently, positions arrived somehow 'competing values.' speak? silence 'responsible?' 117 protects interference; confers analogous Government.7 strip rights. obligated grant citizens air, 'time, manner.' 98, 2291, 212; 554, 464, 471; Poulos Hampshire, 395, 760, 1105; 312 569, 762, 1049. If, dissent analogy forums8—that purposes—then precisely status forums—a Amendment.9 118 produce wholly inimical rights, odds decisions10 approving provisions.11 wrote, 119 120 understand primarily argument—that operate supports Appeals. Brethren So, Brother BLACKMUN, affect outcome case.' Post, 148. conflated cases. styled 'First decision' interpreting Amendment' little.' 188, 649. 121 find disagree coextensive. requirement foster speech. things example, aspect Government.12 122 substance superfluous. statute. theory proves much, emphasis proscription interference communication,' nullity. really operating points out, prevented 'fairness' grounds 'enough.' functions enjoy different. starting .' 124 doubt attempting follow erred messages. Contrary today, seller goods someone 'seeking war, peace, pollution, suffering poor denied speak.' 200. indication thousands uniform turning down 'controversial' 'editorial' station. three networks, turned Committee's told most, type variation reflects diversity competition flow predicated management.13 125 them. certainly forcing diverse contrary presented—there misunderstood paucity arguments limiting broadcasting. daily newspapers.14 ingenuity argue mail subsidies antitrust immunity.15 newspapers, too, pages comers. 127 Perhaps overstate logic 'balancing' 'limited' dissident 'responsible.' perhaps community. close results grossly Amendment's guarantee liberty print chooses chooses, intrusive thumb 128 profoundly trust exaggerated, dangers beset lose sight march forth blind pursuit 129 wrote faith indispensable society. believed fragile bureaucracy accomplish. History times confirmed wisdom choice. 130 persuaded then-existing state art. Rightly wrongly, 'abridgeable.' nonexistent. equipoise, rest alone, anything, this: choose bureaucratic fiat, freedom. 131 WHITE, concur opinion. 133 always, often, arguable, strongly so, implicated myself, stated. confer buy raise positions. said, with, compliance. ads; could, instead, programs, sources. cases; recognize revisions policy. ruled, member, 134 am ready conclude, aside lack proscriptions. assuming, arguendo, reverse Given constitutionality recognition programs compliance 135 whom POWELL joins, 136 determines 'whether, required' 'by Amendment.' Ante, 121. concludes froze 'continuing licensees' holding.' 132. demonstrates refrain it. 137 DOUGLAS, reversing below, reasons. 139 My TV stand magazines. philosophy result, fear Madison Jefferson intrusion relevant publications. founded spectre lawless faction foist good people. popular 140 ground democracy, grown, temperate one. aren't halfway stages. Aristophanes saw, democracy conferred second-raters third-raters, whereupon else, first-raters fourth-raters, moves glee try dislodge It's messy politicians can't democracy.' Stewart, Epstein, News Nowhere: Television Book World, Washington March 25, pp. 4—5. course, outlets litigation. 142 creation Corporation Broadcasting, Board Directors appointed President advice consent Senate. 396. 223 560 nationwide June 30, Annual Report. nonprofit 396(b) 'an establishment Government.' Yet, creature management hands named Senate, why 'press' word Corporation, owns manages prestigious Times, Sacramento Bee. owner manager pick news items desired. enforce 'law' Politics, ideological slants, rightist leftist tendencies play design programs. Markel, Will TV?, Mar. 13, p. 57; Shales, WGBH—TV: An Ultimatum Against 'improper' White Influence, Apr. 27, E2. specifically, down. 143 Governmental evidenced supervision activities. 45. actions, duties Garner 368 157, 183—185, 248, 261—263, 207 (concurring); Lombard 373 281, 1122, 1129, 338 179, 1974, (dissenting). Harlan Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 1138, 1144, 256. accepted. agency, thesis Brennan inexorably follow. Broadcasting. bound disseminate arm unable 'abridge' sectors 144 fail treat differently newspapers. surprise publishers newly created bureau hereafter 'guidelines' ride herd publishing business current made. 1970 Congressman Farbstein introduced bill,1 circulation published population 25,000 separately importance' giving requirement. 145 I. Emerson, scholar, stated '(A)ny solve broader monopoly 'newsworthy' watchful eyes petty officials, likely shows achieving diversity.' System Expression 671 (1970). 147 sturdy fashioned shocked field Nation reserved individuals, spectrum represent. Bejamin Franklin, Founders business, graphic form assumed implicit publisher columns 148 controversialists, Franklin disagreed, declaring stagecoach, seats everyone; pamphlets distribution, fill paper altercations.'2 F. Mott, Journalism (3d ed. 1962). 149 powerful exert influence Government.3 exerted powerful—and thought—a harmful mind. Jefferson, knew base obnoxious be, dreamed interfering. evils.4 'I deplore putrid passed, malignity, vulgarity, mendacious write ordures rapidly depraving taste. however evil remedy, depends lost.' 152 field. suppress fact, censor, choice, carries day. recently Harry Kalven, Jr.: 153 insufficiently noticed contemplates vigorous self-help opponents doctrines, ideas, flourish survive endure hostile criticism. paradox suppression parcel big dictates keep area, singularly effective. 154 'Free, robust government, officers, democratic dialectic—of belief,' quote Brandeis, through discussion.' reciprocally criticize implications coercion. discussant press's performance. critic threat often wills voice needed; champion 155 struck, avowedly, enthusiastically, one-sided. motives defend critics.' Center Magazine, 3, 36—37 (May/June 1973). 156 built predecessor participate respect, head camel inside tent enables administration toy sordid benevolent ends. 1973—as years—there clamoring emit console groups. charges mass slanted, partisan, 157 cry protest gone McCarthy prime, hand papers containing names 205 'Communists' (R. Feuerlicht, Joe McCarthyism (1972)), dozen stood citizen's protection. That, saddle backs extreme silly ideas. 158 true, believe, radio. nauseating mediocrity. show dazzling brilliance Leonard Bernstein; bring humanistic influences faraway home. 159 tip direction figure character disrepute. magazines segments TV, magazines—whether excellence mediocrity—are Government—acting disciplines lawyers. criminal doctors engineers. agencies save practices involve Conspicuous Associated Press 1, 1416, 2013 enforcement laws news-gathering 160 collating, dispensing, enforcing, subtly otherwise, set Beliefs, change, clamor controls, protests 161 Fourteenth. level 'watered down' vigor Roth 354 476, 502—503, 1318—1319, 1498 (Harlan, J., concurring). So far, minority Malloy Hogan, 378 10, 1489, 1494, 653. irrelevant parts Rights, Government.5 absolute. Its 162 guarantee, can, changed organs receive. Such restructuring judicial fiat 'no' abridges complete.6 Alien Sedition Acts, 566, 570, 596, passed plainly unconstitutional, believed. 'libels, falsehood, defamation, equally heresy false religion, withheld cognizance tribunals. act 14th July, 1798, 'An Addition Punishment Crimes States," abridge law, altogether void, force.' Elliot's Debates 541 (1876). 164 Writings 214 (Memorial 1904); id., 116; 43—44). 165 Acts life, returned witnessed slow encroachment represented Licensing reasons; wavelengths interfering7 each other. 1805. encourage multitude way, viz.: preventing monopolistic channels.8 censorship9 screening goes grain 166 Broadcating 226, 1014, 1344, 'Unlike modes all. characteristic, why, regulation.' 167 uniqueness problems. realistic likewise Small 'underground' appear disappear; weekly institution. virtually competitor enter exigencies era. magazines, select few. Who folly think combat Denver plant becoming competitor? redefinition terms.10 carte blanche empower may, acting 'some' 'abridging' 168 Powerful arguments, summarized appraised T. Expression, cc. XVII XVIII (1970), revamping reconditioning system. aligned quo. implicates educational bland conformist pressures sources, boilerplate display diversities ideologies culture world Buckminster Fuller 'communized' 169 What 21st old-fashioned guideline; fast announces days calm eras strife abide until adopted. means, conventional methods disseminating news, laissez-faire sanctions. 170 momentous ones. mined millions merchandise, across same, loading publish, discussions stories murders, scandal, slanderous touching lives servants recourse 686. Johnson dissent. He 171 'Although procedural forums someone—a moderator, radio-television licensee—applies speaker, viewpoint, less (or all) position, exists outright possible. them.' 216, 232. 172 prospect putting appalling one, struggle Separation powers device. judiciary another. anathema books, art, music, unhappiness circles impotence let curbing channels interference, opening technology develops. censorship. 173 airspace heritage parks domain. Lovell Griffin, 303 444, 450—453, 666, 668—669, 949; Hague CIO, 307 496, 515—516, 954, 963—964, 1423. Hyde Park, reflected press; devices. 174 Licenses are, restricted while, nonreviewable, renewals others.11 175 today's endorsing sanctions agreeable traditions nations known press12 countries constitution prohibitions Indeed argued instituted 'non-public' inquiry13 cablecaster "obscene, indecent profane language' of' 1464. 176 April fined Sonderling operates WGLD Oak Illinois, allowing 'obscene' conversations telephone 'talk show.' 1498; Named 'John Cleland's Memoirs Woman Pleasure' Massachusetts, 383 413, 975, Ginzburg 942, 31, supplying criteria corporation $2,000 1464, reads, 'Whoever utters obscene, indecent, $10,000 imprisoned years, both.' 177 dissented, prefers sit omniscient board, allegedly capable hear'; bars pall entire industry' 'fear loss profitable licenses.' 'chilling effect' 'enormous proportions' reaches 'all expression.' 178 ourselves inroads obscenity examples. inching victim reduces timid submissive echoes dominant emerges election. affair proud bear faint likeness former days. 179 learn bureau. surprise. retrogressive steps witnessed. 180 ominous publication Pentagon Papers narrow margin actually succeeded brief history. 403 713, 2140, 822. 181 Black gave 'serve governed, governors' (id., 717, 2143) disregarded. 182 abolished forever censure secrets inform unrestrained effectively expose deception paramount deceiving sending distant lands die fevers shot shell.' greatly undermined requiring, pain contempt, reporter disclose sources comes investigative reporting. Branzburg Hayes, 665, 2646, 626. Boston Globe reports:14 184 'In Grand Juries investigate anti-war subpoena, secret, court, lot leverage than, old Un-American Activities Committee.' 185 reporters jail, weapon states, itself.'15 186 stamp 'secret' 'top secret' Environmental Protection Agency Mink, 410 73, 827, 119. shambles Information tune Rules Evidence sent Proposed Rule 509(b) provides: 187 privilege secret information, rule.' 188 act,16 secrecy curtailed. code sedulously Government; protect newsmen. omits mention newsmen confidential 189 growing message overtones 190 specter surveillance executive power. again, opposition, right. 191 Experience shown trusted weal hands. fate jeopardized.17 'no law' clear; rulings ban; confined lest broadcasting—now media—be subdue minorities submissively executive's motions good. 192 Mills 384 214, 1434, 484, prosecution editor publishing, statute, election day urging voters vote existing replace mayor-council Court, speaking Black, saying: 193 '(T)he antidote abuses officials elected serve. Suppression praise agents contend muzzles Framers thoughtfully deliberately society free. Alabama Corrupt Practices penalties editorials silences conceive obvious flagrant abridgment press.' 219, 1437. 194 test radio.18 195 Walter Lippman Coolidge's relevancy. Coolidge, "declared good-will, understanding moderation; disapproved conquest, aggression, exploitation; pleaded patriotic denounced bigoted nationalism, order, property, sovereignty international law. catalog virtues complete except virtue. humble realization God endowed Calvin Coolidge infallible concrete exactly right, just, patriotic. Did possibility continue lecture way oppose unpatriotic, blindly him. reduce utter triviality." Luskin, Lippman, Liberty, 197 appetite oversight markedly Coolidge. 198 BRENNAN, MARSHALL concurs, dissenting. 199 Commission,1 absolutely effect, attack presentations advertise products 'non-controversial' matters, relegating formats documentaries, panel shows, tightly holds policy—including issues—is 307(d), 309(a).2 violate noteworthy reaching insufficient involvement' promulgation commands On contrary, JUSTICE, inapplicable 'substance' jajority purport 'decide' disposition renders subsequent 'substantive' mere dictum. 200 stake concerns people's engage perceive exclusionary upheld inhibit, further, 270, 721, 686 (1964). affirm face, directed Nevertheless, '(c)onduct formally 'private' entwined impregnated (governmental) action.' Evans Newton, 382 296, 299, 486, 488, (1966). formalistic 'private-public' dichotomy functional considerations concerning in, of, enterprise. (Government) (1961); 172, 1971, complexity inquiry, '(t)his 'impossible task' formulating test' instances governmental. Reitman Mulkey, 387 369, 278, 1627, 1632, 830 (1967); Kotch River Port Pilot Comm'rs, 330 552, 556, 910, 912, 1093 mean, offers guidance inquiry. previous focused myriad indicia action,' industry.3 recognized, characteristics reveal extraordinary government—a others.' 651. airwaves, governmentally preferred combine orbit imperatives. 203 outset, natural resource—the spectrum4—that And, temporary terminable periods, 'ownership' States. 301 301, 204 (Act) transmission; channels, thereof, periods authority, create terms, conditions, element enterprise indicium involvement.' ownership' proscriptions restaurant leasing State.5 building, 'has power, property prestige behind the' restaurant. 725, 862. entirety, '(t)he insinuated interdependence restaurant) joint participant activity. Ibid.; 172—173, 175, 1972; Turner Memphis, 369 350, 805, 762 (1962); Kissinger Tansit 274 438 (S.D.N.Y.1967); Farmer Moses, 232 (S.D.N.Y.1964). 206 second direct dependence 'right' alone 'radio possible overcrowd spectrum.' 1806, Ed.2d (1969).6 'existing attained position,' market pressures7 'because selection. 400. 'quasi-monopolistic' advantages enjoyed 'are fruit (then Judge) Burger himself exclusive domain; accepts franchise burdened enforceable obligations.' 337, 994, 1003 lines, 'when scales, becomes akin, respects, Goernment itself.' Ass'n Douds, 339 382, 401, 674, 685, 925 see, 462 8, extensive industry. 'Court held' whatever.' 173, 1971. confronted, elaborate industry.8 automatic, continuing, pervasive.9 '(a)lmost business—almost oher business—is consideration. nexus broadcaster-petitioners vigorously recognizes inextricably linked ban. point, '(i)f jeopardized.' 124. maintains ante, 130—131.10 propositions, 209 solely indirect Executives 242 (1970); 216 doing, Commission—and Government—has unequivocally imprimatur settled acquiescence 210 McCabe Atchison, S.F.R. 235 151, 69, (1914) rail types cars white passengers offering equal blacks. dismissal affirmed, permissive nature, invalid blacks 'acting law.' 162, 70. 'nothing considering discriminate 379, 1633. '(o)ur doubt' agencies, approving, authorizing, encouraging, supporting performed Constitution, 'constitutes illegal subsequently occur.' Adickes S. Kress 398 144, 1598, 1626, (1970) (opinion Brennan, J.); supra; Hunter Erickson, 393 385, 557, 616 (1966); Robinson Florida, 153, 1693, 771 (1963); Peterson Greenville, 244, 1119, supra. 211 Finally, identical company, franchised Columbia, subjected constraints company. noting 'operates Congress,' 'upon (challenged policy), ordered investigation formal hearings, dismissed safety, comfort convenience impaired thereby.' 213 176, 1972—1973. strains valiantly distinguish proverbial 'distinctions difference.' 'under Congress.' received 'protests' consideration, 'dismissed' complaints necessity' 'impaired' stronger concerns, incidental activity entities—communication. 215 confluence action'—including airwaves,11 policy—I position' participation Amendment.12 'affected hardly doubted 386, 1804. (1948); Free Speech 545—546 (1941). Recognition end potentially 217 Holmes sounded Nation. good,' declared, trade ideas,' truth Abrams 250 616, 630, 17, 22, 1173 (1919) (dissenting opinion); Whitney California 357, 375—376, 641, 648, 1095 (1927) (Brandeis, concurring); Gitlow York, 268 652, 672—673, 625, 632, 1138 (1925) (Holmes, dissenting). testifies wideopen,'13 'rests assumption antagonistic welfare 1425, (1945). responsive peaceful change effected.' Terminiello Chicago, 337 4, 894, 895, 1131 (1949); Thornhill 310 88, 102, 736, 744, Palko Connecticut, 302 319, 326—327, 149, 152—153, 288 (1937). 218 declared 1807.14 uninhibited prevail, countenance monopolization market, licensee,' 219 strong reception views—presented manner—on traditionally 'uninhibited, fostering ideas' readily apparently conceding legitimacy upholds because, satisfy agree. 220 originated provision,15 cases.16 essence, twofold licensees: (1) adequate,17 (2) viewpoints.18 discretion, 'reasonably faith,'19 covered, allocated, spokesman appear, format.'20 'non-broadcaster' air-waves importance.21 discussions, interviews, documentaries. almost viewpoints presentation, speak. doctrinal framework, insufficient—in practice—to entitled. 221 matter, reliance 'adequate' overestimates ability—or willingness—of 'widest sources.'22 Jaffe self-censorship controversy safely can.'23 maximizing audience, profits, naive expect controversiality Stated simply, angry customers communications, 'bad business' espouse—or espouse—the heterodox controversial. established—or moderated—views world's 'marketplace ideas.'24 sole misconceives underestimates receiving advocates interposition middlemen. 'appropriate.' retention initiative belief illuminated collision genuine advocates. accompanied exclusively 'journalistic discretion' surrogate spokesmen sides separation advocate diminish Lion:25 224 'Nor enough adversaries teachers, offer refutations. justice contact able them; earnest, utmost 225 honestly forthrightly apprised imperative concern 226 'their' airwaves appearances individual's dependent format itself. relegation minimize, maximize speaker's 227 adequacy 'newsworthy.' unperceived opinions. 'representative issues' importance.26 definition, tends perpetuate 'views voices' established, exposure novel, unorthodox, unrepresentative prevailing opinion.27 228 permits, requires, 'importance' warrant regard. Thus ABC considers 'scandalous' 'crackpot,'28 CBS exclude opinions 'insignificant'29 'trivial.'30 NBC bar strays 'beyond bounds normally taste,'31 subjects 'slight, parochial inappropriate.'32 229 genius wish. 'supervised ordained discussion' Amendment,33 'presupposes conclusions gathered tongues, authoritative selection.'34 context, outlet (media) facilities,' unavailability shackle secure sources." 266, 718. 230 Doctrine's commendable tool complementary availability attain "free (that) prepare citizens." Grosjean 297 233, 250, 449, 660 (1936). 231 consider, self-expression. Toward General Theory 4—7 (1666); '(S)peech self-government,' Garrison 64, 74—75, 209, (1964), safeguard debate, persuade Collins, 516, 315, 430 (1945); NAACP Button, 415, 429—430, 335—337, (1963). anonymity care assuring 'self-fulfillment expression) individual.' 96, 2290, surrogate, feel destinies. considerations, concede, assume, abstract. forum—whether park, schoolroom, town meeting hall, soapbox, frequency. absence communication, ring hollow indeed. embodies, censorship, Ltd. 559, 2224, (1972); Tinker Des Moines Independent Community School District, 503, 733, 731 Local 590 603 Brown 719, 637 Edwards South Carolina, 372 229, 680, 697 Kunz 290, 312, (1951); 265 Jamison Texas, 318 669, Schneider State, 308 147, 146, (1939); 1423 (1939). 233 'forums' importance.35 streets, parks, libraries, dedicated commercial, musical, otherwise—is spectrum, adoption divert use. 563, 2226; 320, 1609. 234 assistance efficient devised.36 prime source information,'37 'technology supplants atomized, relatively informal cohesion 386 15, 'full heyday pamphleteering, soapbox orator leafleteer obsolete. dominance denies practically meaningless. Regrettably, today. effectuation wideopen' determined justifiably impair assertedly overriding 'his' frequency.38 analysis, demands. 'absolutist' disregards citizens, ignores teachings supported historical 236 Prior remembered, entirely sector,39 had, press—that 'anyone transmit.'40 dramatically 1927 frequency occupied several. confusion everybody nobody 212, 1008, (1943). soon 'apparent reconcile uses setting radio.41 allocated applicants denying 375—377, 1798 1800, 1805; 210—214, 1006—1009. 237 overcrowding justifies imposition ceiling stations42 'idle publish,'43 dictate nonlicensees brushed entirely. competed successfully 400, 1812. return 'preferred status,' views44 embrace snuff 387, 1805 country, 238 'as refused. exclusion fellow citizens.' 239 sound voiced four justify devised. 240 say, exist, weighed time—air regularly relinquish themselves,45 opened 241 Viewed particularly offensive 'commercial' advertisers seek peddle operates, brand beer, soap, toothpaste, deodorant direct, personal, instantaneous message, words, selects, choosing. similar beneficence corporate 'trustee' place, manner' regulations,46 '(s)elective exclusions 2290 added); Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 394 935, 267 Saia 558, 1148, 1574 differential principle.47 irony, favored reverses priorities. enjoys Breard Alexandria, 341 622, 920, 1233 Valentine Chrestensen, 316 52, 1262 (1942). 243 self-fulfillment central liberty. technology, supervision' prevail. 244 apocalypse justification fears derive assumption, airways. reality, difference crucial, misconception distorts invalidation conceivably entail. 245 Specifically, hypothesizes difficulty: might, adjustments wealthy; adversely doctrine; (3) concerns. realities. knowing extent, any, materialize. hypothetical inevitable insurmountable confidence sudden strikingly propositions 246 247 sold donation However, competent places arduous evading strict mentioned.' 515, 518 248 1945. intervening complexities dearth feared Canby, Right Persuade: Access Television, U.C.L.A.L.Rev. 723, 754—757 Malone Reluctant Dragon: End Suppressing Controversial Ideas?, U.Mich.J.L.Reform 193, 252 269 Westen, Twentieth-Century Soapbox: Purchase Time, Va.L.Rev. 574 (1971); Note, 689, 693—699 249 invalidating latitude48 govern wisest follow, 'if doctrines net reducing enhancing (First values), reconsider implications.' 393, 1808. ever, 'overriding' materialize, unsettle party accustomed soap beer equate right—or constitutional. saturated commercialism apathy.'49 appealed Davis, floor unacceptable: committee utilities just utilities. rates force all.' 5483 (1926). 5484. reads: 'If legally qualified office station: section. subsection candidate. Appearance any— '(1) bona fide newscast, '(2) interview, '(3) documentary (if appearance documentary), '(4) on-the-spot (including conventions thereto), subsection. Nothing foregoing sentence relieving newscasts, importance.' 315(a). stating opposition voted election, reply candidate, opposite questions.' 2910 Commerce, 73d 2d (1934) deleted House-Senate Conference. H.R.Conf.Rep.No.1918 3285, 49. Also bills McFadden forbidden sponsored religious, charitable, associations. 7986, Sess. committee. debates Wagner Hatfield 'reserve allocate educational, agricultural, labor, cooperative, non-profit-making associations one-fourth jurisdiction.' 8828. senator amendment, indicating crucial: 'MR. DILL. percent organizations, determine—Congress somebody else—how education, agriculture, fraternal forth. Catholics Protestants Jews.' 8843. went worked 8844. 8846. "Common 'carrier' hire, transmission energy, chapter; carrier.' 1066, 153(h). 1083, 307. 303, part: 'Except chapter, necessity shall— '(b) Prescribe class; '(r) Make prescribe carry 1959, 315 Sept. summary 375 1798—1805, Reg.2d 263 (1965). Factors following: honor considering, requesting group) request.' 1251—1252 notable 'personal attack' 'political editoralizing' Lion. '(w)hen, honesty, character, personal qualities identified person,' notify attacked respond. E.g., CFR 73.123. endorses editorial, expand television. multiple 73.131, 73.240. recently, network syndication reserving 25% nonnetwork 73.658(j), (k). dictum 515 (1945), illustrating alleged, discriminatory manner, us. Furthermore, handed articulated 1246 allegation isolated statement, working associated modified earlier, Very 312(a) authorize revoke 'for willful repeated failure amounts elective behalf candidacy.' Campaign Reform 1972, Pub. 92—225, 4. codified interpretation candidates. 534, 1307, Memorandum Second Sentence Broadcasts—Equal Subcommittee Foreign 88th H.J.Res. 247, 84—90. 3595, 80th Fulbright. His provide: '(d) Licensees representatives Representatives calendar year.' S.J.Res. 91st distinguished commentator 'stretch(es) far.' 784 'public' superficially appealing observes, 'not satisfactory.' 783. 'want ways' stresses 'elaborate industry.' 'Indeed,' suggests, 'federal pervasive.' 177. dissent, discussing objects covering 'broadcasters 187. 230, 234—235 (Johnson, inconsistency 'submarket rate system' normal cost 695—696 criticized, justifiably, raising 'incredible problems.' Ac- 1251—1252. (1973). principled favoring organized individuals. Reprinted Control, Lee Regents Colleges, 306 1097 (W.D.Wis.1969), aff'd, 441 1257 (CA7 1971); Zucker Panitz, 299 (S.D.N.Y.1969); Transit Hillside Church, Tacoma, Wash., Wash.2d 63, 455 P.2d 350 Wirta Alameda-Contra Costa Cal.2d 51, Cal.Rptr. 430, 434 982 (1967). announcement expanded mandate. Further 3383. stayed withdrew notice continued originally planned. Order 798, 4980. U.S.Const., Amdt. Railway Employees' Hanson, 351 225, 714, 1112; 1068; 265. 'Conduct 373. Earlier, 45, located parking garage racially 371; 1006—1008, personal-attack editorial-reply 73.123, 73.300, 73.598, 73.679. reflecting divergent 515; 258; Applicability Handling Issues Importance, 10415. expense met obtained source. 615. restrained controlling 728—729, 2148—2149, 822 (Stewart, Emerson written, precludes agents.' 700 frequency.' 193. 'access' argument: agent trustee allocation. Hence own, Supra, 7, schedule judgment, values, procedurally substantively 1344; 869; None disagreement Moore 627, relevant, This, 1068. statutory, Lion: public; rested inception discussed, fairly; acknowledged preclusive knowingly preserved FCC's efforts, editorializing congressionally delegated authority.' uniformity diversity, thought, plan campaign. addition were, 509 VHF stations, UHF 4,280 2,111 FM stations. owners, policies.' 1,792 Ayer Directory Publications VIII Newspapers periodicals subsidy second-class postage rates, immunity Newspaper Preservation 1801 seq. 18927, 153(h) 'To decisionmaking overestimate meaningless reform. How 'accountable' anti-Vietnam policy? Require letters war? grave stated, fantastically inadequate. grave. Tribune, NBC, ABC, formation, Johnson's re-election, Nixon's withdraw troops Vietnam, billion dollar bond issue, defeat Carswell Haynsworth, Supreme segregation reapportionment prayer decisions. implication country—except proponents theory—are unthinking automatons manipulated interests, conflicts, prejudices maddening. hysterical overestimation underestimation public.' 786—787 Democracy 150—151 (Padover 1939). Barron Mayor Baltimore, Pet. 243, 672. Britain, contempt comments Toledo 402, 560, 1186. changed. Bridges 314 252, 192. habeas corpus, man trial unfair trial. Sheppard Maxwell, 333, 1507, 600. venue local atmosphere prejudice. Rideau 1417, 1162 body lessened, connected situation, high equitable classes affected. reasons your centered body, commission, granting radio.' S.Rep. 772, 3. constraint past, obviating predicted 400 advances Smith, Wired Brandy-wine-Main Line Radio, 305, 362—365, 473 73—76 (Bazelon, Currently, covers globe. Brazil pervasive. Feb. 11: censors' rules, issued vast strictly discuss. practice, whims suspicions censors. 'General successor Emilio Garrastazu Me dici, campaigns decree sensational hurt image Brazil. 'Others discredit housing program, playing assaults banks credit establishments, tension Roman Catholic state, agitation union student circles, publicity Communist personalities nations. Criticism governors 'exaltation immorality' homosexuality, prostitution drugs barred. Minister September, bans interviews relaxation regime, Brazil, general.' existence preferential mailing privileges rates. recognizes, subsidy. Postal Reorganization Rate fix levels Fischer reports increase (127%) death unpredictable publications.' Easy Chair, Harper's Magazine (May giants suffer estimated 10,000 small existence. 30. Review, Human Events, Nation, Republic. rich reporting promote protect. McGee, Chairman Civil Service survival Regardless economic, social espouse, contribute nation's personally convinced distributing postal willing pay.' 32. benefits reduced exemption. 358—359, 69—70, 'WXUR devoted religious philosophy; stirring purchased Faith Theological Seminary propagate Philadelphia area. interview call-in range lend rendering requirements, removed WXUR air. deprived innumerable dispute lightly, unpopular disruptive be.' (Footnotes omitted.) Eastern European World War criterion, pretty huge (Communist) nation. easiest target, input 'prime time' filled tapes meetings, speeches, tedious accounts achievement workers. Morgan, Obedience East Europe, 19, A14. 73—331, 8301 (Mar.27, People's Need Know, Series, Jan. 21—27, reprinted Globe, 12. 13. Evidence—and amendments Procedure Criminal (which Nov. 20, Dec. 18, 1972)—will approves. 9. Bickel spurned 'total agnosticism' 'who knows, false, good, noxious wholesome.' Government: Adversaries Absolutes, Issue (May—June attributes Holmes. partial 'good counsels wholesome mistrust evanescent, narrow, factional patent 'truth' underlay monetary burdens criticized reply, damage libel, respecting impose. onerous struck down: bookseller examine contents shop, Smith 361 215, (1959): magazine advertisers, Manual Enterprises, Day, 370 478, 492 493, 1432, 1439—1440, 639 (1962) Harlan, addresses sponsors handbills, Talley 362 60, 559 (1960); (4) supply membership lists, Gibson Florida Investigation 539, 889, 929 Louisiana ex rel. Gremillion NAACP, 366 293, 1333, Bates Little Rock, 412, 480 Patterson, 357 1163, 1488 (1958); (5) organizational membership, Shelton Tucker, 364 479, (1960). restriction discouraged chilled association. address 'statutory' 'constitutional' attention. relies declares carriers.' misplaced. cursory carriers,' companies, suit 'would (public issues).' 12504 (Sen. Dill) ibid. Broussard); 12356 Fess). surrender purchasers; 635 shal 253—264 opinion), wherein eight Jones, Regulated Industries 1019 Levin, Spectrum Resource, Law Econ. 433 Burton, compensation property. 860—861, 174—175, arrangement represents, subsidization thereby involvement. Policy surplus property' 'integral part' scheme. 860. 303(g). relevance text notes, nn. 15—34, infra. offense transmitter 501. insulates competition. authorizes assign bands, 303(c); location, 303(d); apparatus, 303(e); establish areas, 303(h); ownership, 303(i); detailed records, 303(j); 303(l); suspend licenses, 303(m)(1); inspect 303(n); 303(p); television, 303(r); sets signals, 303(s); 307, 309; supplied 308(b); 310; revocation license, 312; 315; transmitting 318; language, Pursuant conduct. 73.17 hours operation, 73.23; 73.35; location origination, 73.30; logs maintenance, 73.111—116; billing 73.124; 73.123; 73.131—139; equipment, 73.39—50. above-cited relate AM 73.201 73.601 addition, contends 128—130. appropriateness forum, owned, protections. (1946). educator 192, 35—37, original). assertion misunderstanding extensively regulates play, Government,' effects. STEWART'S rights.' where, accommodation required, 'balancing,' result. leads note factors fiat. differences impossible, approve Pickering Education, 573, 1731, 1737, 811 218, 1436, 484 contexts 'necessarily (information).' Martin Struthers, 141, 143, 862, 863, 1313 Stanley Georgia, 564, 1243, 1247, 542 Hill, 385 374, 542, 456 381 482, 1678, 1680, 510 Lamont Postmaster General, 1493, implicitly 1959 Matter (1949), elaborated 10415 requires,' 'such Act). 303(r). Metropolitan 602 Evening 283 (1950). wish himself, announcing willingness volunteers. Mid-Florida 620 rejects volunteer 'inappropriate,' Richard G. Ruff, 838 sponsorship unavailable. 10424. Inquiry: Interest Standards 27—28 10416; 16. sharply affords 315. Nicholas Zapple, 707 (extension candidate's supporters time). confused editorializing' time,' attack,' 'right access' 1424, 773 D. Lacy, Mallamud, Licensee Fiduciary: Enforcement Discretion, 1973 Duke L.J. 89, 94—95, 98—99; 23, 26; 727 Malone, 205—211, Twentieth Century Barron, Press—A Right, 1641 Media, 636 Break Speakers: Limitations Individual Geo.Wash.L.Rev. 532 Wasteland Revisited: Modest Attack Upon Category 868, 870—875 Comment, Individual's Airwaves, Social 424, 428; Regulations: Step Towards Creation Cornell L.Rev. 294, 296 admitting perfct issues,' 'at license.' 130—131. cite instance, invoked surprising, acted reluctance abuse. 122; 725—727; 215—216; Johnson, America Renewal Process: Oklahoma Case Study, 1807, quoting Mill, Liberty McCallum 1947). explains, convey unpopular, Sit-ins testify inability (For by) bizarre unsettling technique, demonstrator hopes arrest ponder message.' Harv.L.Rev., 1647; Adderley 39, 50—51, 242, 248—249, (1966) (Douglas, Brief 52. 34. 40. Company, 10. 31. 512, 739, Press, 362, (S.D.N.Y.1943), 545, 329, (1945) (Jackson, suggestion, 'inappropriate' 'listeners audience." 127. cites streetcars Fifth listen Kovacs, ordinance forbidding trucks 'loud raucous noises,' concerned, offensiveness sounds themselves. perfectly invade 'privacy' home draws 'mere discomfort unpleasantness accompany viewpoint.' 509, 738; 117, 2304, banned approximately 95% homes contain set, average five one-half per 13721 Power (statement Dean Burch, Commission). Krock, Consent Governed H. Mendelsohn Crespi, Polls, Politics 256, 264 U.Mich.J.L. Reform, 197. H.R.Rep. 91—257, According study, 67% Americans Wyckoff, Image Candidates 13—14 Sections 73.35, 73.240, 73.636 Rules, 339, 344 (59% depend news). arguably choosing satisfied 'similar' spokesman. pre-1927 Socolow, Warner, 757 1006—1009, 5479 (Rep. White). include, 'amateur aircraft, police, defense, navigation restricts '(c)onflicting (forum) choices users uses,' neutral se unconstitutional. 2292, 574, 765, 1049 (1941); 160, 150, ironic aimed protecting furthering '(i)n constellation different.' 654. 2291; 115, 2302; 464; 398, S.Ct.760, 1105 575—576, 765—766; 150. assertion, rationalize unresponsive 38, contours implementation. sell,' regulation' placement proper,' 204—205, 665—666.

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