Document: 414 U.S. 218 94 S.Ct. 467 38 L.Ed.2d 427 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Willie ROBINSON, Jr. No. 72—936. Argued Oct. 9, 1973. Decided Dec. 11, Syllabus Having, as a result of previous check respondent's operator's permit, probable cause to arrest respondent for driving while his license was revoked, police officer made full-custody such offense. In accordance with prescribed procedures, the search person, in course which he found coat pocket cigarette package containing heroin. The heroin admitted into evidence at District Court trial, resulted conviction drug Appeals reversed on ground that had been obtained violation Fourth Amendment. Held: case lawful custodial full person is not only an exception warrant requirement Amendment, but also 'reasonable' under Pp. 224—237. (a) A incident valid limited frisk suspect's outer clothing and removal weapons arresting may, frisk, reasonably believe ascertain suspect has possession, absence fruits or further particular crime does narrow standards applicable search. Terry v. Ohio, 392 1, 88 1868, 20 889 distinguished. 227 229; 234—235. (b) based reasonable intrusion Amendment requires no additional justification, probability situation would fact be upon person; whether there present one reasons supporting authority need litigated each case. 235. (c) Since here gave rise search, it immaterial did fear armed. P. 236—237. 153 U.S.App.D.C. 114, 471 F.2d 1082, reversed. Allan A. Tuttle, Raleigh, N.C., petitioner. Joseph V. Gartlan, Jr., Washington, D.C., respondent. Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 Respondent Robinson convicted United States Columbia possession facilitation concealment 26 U.S.C. § 4704(a) (1964 ed.), 21 174 ed.). He sentenced concurrent terms imprisonment these offenses. On appeal Circuit, court first remanded evidentiary hearing concerning scope occurred time arrest. 145 46, 447 1215 (1971). findings conclusions law adverse respondent, again appealed. This en banc judgment conviction, holding introduced against violated Constitution. 1082 (1972). We granted certiorari, 410 982, 93 1500, 36 177 (1973), set argument together Gustafson Florida, 260, 488, 456, decided today. 2 April 23, 1968, approximately 11 p.m., Officer Richard Jenks, 15-year veteran Metropolitan Police Department, observed 1965 Cadillac near intersection 8th C Streets, N.E., Columbia. investigation following permit four days earlier, determined reason operating motor vehicle after revocation permit. offense defined by statute carries mandatory minimum jail term, fine, both. D.C.Code Ann. 40—302(d) (1967). 3 Jenks signaled stop automobile, did, all three occupants emerged from car. At point informed 'operating obtaining misrepresentation.' It assumed Appeals, conceded here, effected fullcustody arrest.1 4 procedures department instructions,2 then began explained subsequent 'face-to-face' 'placed (his) hands (the respondent), my righ-hand left breast like this (demonstrating) proceeded pat him down thus (with right hand).' During patdown, felt object heavy wearing, testified 'couldn't tell what was' actually size it.' reached pulled out object, turned 'crumpled up package.' still know package: 5 'As I could feel objects couldn't they were. . knew weren't cigarettes.' 6 opened pack 14 gelatin capsules white powder thought be, later analysis proved continued completion, feeling around waist trouser legs, examining remaining pockets. seized trial 7 plurality judges written Judge Wright, concurring Chief Bazelon, dissenting Wilkey, concurred judges, careful comprehensive treatment who validly arrested taken custody. conclude conducted offend limits imposed we therefore reverse Appeals. 8 * well settled traditional general historically formulated two distinct propositions. may arrestee virtue second area within control arrestee. 9 Examination Court's decisions shows propositions have treated quite differently. validity regarded its enunciation, remained virtually unchallenged until proposition, likewise principle, subject differing interpretations extent searched. 10 Because rule requiring exclusion enunciated Weeks States, 232 383, 34 341, 58 L.Ed. 652 (1914), understandable search-and-seizure developed since time. Weeks, clear recognition arrest: 'What case? Before answering inquiry specifically, process state not. assertion part Government, always recognized English American law, accused when legally discover seize evidences crime. uniformly maintained many cases. Bishop Criminal Procedure, 211; Wharton, Crim.Plead. Practice, ed., 60; Dillon O'Brien Davis, 16 Cox C.C. 245.' Id., 392, 344. 12 Agnello 269 20, 46 4, 70 (1925), years repeats categorical 13 'The without contemporaneously persons lawfully committing place where order find things connected means committed, other effect escape custody, doubted.' 30, 5. Throughout series cases addressed proposition relating arrest—the permissible beyond cover—no doubt expressed unqualified E.g., Carroll 267 132, 45 280, 69 543 (1925); Marron 275 192, 48 74, 72 231 (1927); Go-Bart Co. 282 344, 51 153, 75 374 (1931); Lefkowitz, 285 452, 52 420, 76 877 (1932); Harris 331 145, 67 1098, 91 1399 (1947); Trupiano 334 699, 68 1229, 92 1663 (1948); Rabinowitz, 339 56, 430, 653 (1950); Preston 376 364, 84 881, 777 (1964); Chimel California, 395 752, 89 2034, 23 685 (1969). Chimel, overruled Rabinowitz arrest, given arrestee: 15 'When made, remove any latter might seek use resist escape. Otherwise, officer's safety endangered, itself frustrated. addition, entirely arrestee's prevent destruction.' U.S., 762—763, 2040. Three decision supra, upheld defendant charge, Adams Williams, 407 143, 1921, 32 612 (1972), saying: 17 'Under circumstances surrounding Williams' gun Sgt. Connolly, charge supported cause, car lawful' 149, 1925. 18 Last Term Cupp Murphy, 412 291, 295, 2000, 2003, 900 reaffirmed statement 19 Thus broadly stated rule, it, repeatedly affirmed nearly 60 ago. statements speak simply requirement, affirmative clearly imply searches meet Amendment's reasonableness. II case, even places purpose taking ordinarily proceed fully prisoner. must, instead, conduct possession. While recognizing (1968), dealt 'frisk' investigative less than principles should carried over probable-cause one's revoked. arrestee, held justified. involve 'protective frisk' approved cause. 21—22, 24—25, 1879—1880, 1881—1882. explicitly 'distinction purpose, character, between weapons.' 22 former, although justified acknowledged necessity protect assault concealed weapon, 367 (84 883, 777) (1964), grounds, ibid., can relatively extensive exploration person. however, strictly circumscribed exigencies justify initiation. Warden Hayden, 387 294, 310 (87 1642, 1652, 782) (1967) (Mr. Fortas, concurring). must necessary discovery used harm others nearby, realistically characterized something 'full' though remains serious intrusion. '. An wholly different kind individual freedom weapons, interests designed serve are different. initial stage criminal prosecution. intended vindicate society's interest having laws obeyed, inevitably accompanied future interference individual's movement, ultimately follows. protective hand, constitutes brief, far inconsiderable, sancity person.' 25—26, S.Ct., 1882 (footnote omitted). 24 Terry, therefore, affords basis carry limitations placed stop-and-frisk 25 relied language Peters New York, 40, 66, 1889, 1904, 917 companion Terry. There because him, went say: '(T)he obviously 'by escape, destruction crime.' (1964). Moreover, purposes. Lasky engage unrestrained thorough-going examination personal effects.' 67, 1905. 27 is, course, possible read sentence quotation imposing novel limitation established doctrine forth sentence. Harlan result: 28 source confusion 'Officer (392 S.Ct.), Peters, entitled make very assume merely factual observation. As matter, agree 77, 1909 29 do unexplained unelaborated impose far-reaching quoted approval 764, 2040, preceded exposition 763, either considered light previously discussed Court, sort fashioned III 30 Virtually affirming existence dicta. not, foreclosed stare decisis history practice see qualifications were Framers prior Weeks. Unfortunately authorities exist sparse. Such common-law treatises Blackstone's Commentaries Holmes' Common Law silent subject. Pollock Maitland, their History Law, describe 'rough rude' before Edward I, address F. & ,582 (2d ed. 1909). 31 issue apparently courts O'Brien, 245 (Exch. Ireland, 1887), cited Baron Palles said: 'But State charged being brought due necessarily extends, preservation material guilt innocence, custody trial. His value if powerless abstraction evidence, more empty form. But production cannot how enforced otherwise capture.' 250. 33 Spalding Preston, Vt. (1848), represents early country arrested. Closson Morrison, 47 N.H. 482 (1867), statement: '(W)e think whom crime, deadly weapon revolver, dirk, knife, sword cane, slung shot, club, commission offence prisoner arrested, threats violence towards made. regard own officer, public safety, sufficient about prisoner, found, hold them discharged, properly disposed of. 16. 35 'So money articles value, which, procure obtain tools, implements, man frequently should, seizures; proper, harmless so doing, acts good faith, security prisoner.' 484—485. Similarly, Holker Hennessey, 141 Mo. 527, 42 S.W. 1090 (1897), Supreme Missouri 37 'Generally speaking, statute, take property except afford charged, identifying criminal, helpful making escape.' 539, S.W., 1093. Then Associate Cardozo York summarized understanding historical words: 39 basic principle this: Search unlawful seizure body trespass, grounds yet unknown accusation (citation becomes discovered, act subjecting physical dominion. 40 distinction seem subtle, truth founded shrewd appreciation necessities government. strain immunity human nature rebels honoring conduct. peace empowered disarm. If disarm, lest concealed. lawful, retains finds People Chiagles, 237 N.Y. 193, 197, 142 N.E. 583, 584 (1923). 41 earlier sketchy, tend support broad successive rather restrictive applied scarcity doubtless exclusionary adopted Iowa; settled.3 possibility fruits.4 Concluding conditions laid Quite apart types searches, governed other, disagree 43 justification rests much disarm preserve Abel 362 217, 80 683, 668 (1960). traditionally governing commuted stricter 44 Nor inclined, seems us speculative judgment, qualify breadth assumption licenses revoked likely possess dangerous those crimes.5 scarcely open danger greater extended exposure follows transporting station fleeting contact resulting typical Terry-type stop. adequate treating arrests alike purposes justification. distinctions, our fundamental disagreement arises suggestion long line dating back glean England, case-by-case adjudication. determination quick ad hoc require broken instance step depend decide suspect. Amendment; establishes IV heroin, law. through, partook none extreme patently abusive characteristics violate Due Process Clause Fourteenth Rochin 342 165, 205, 96 183 (1952). gives search,6 moment indicate subjective himself armed.7 Having come crumpled cigarettes, inspect it; inspection revealed capsules, 'fruits, instrumentalities, contraband' probative 154—155, 1103—1104; 299, 307, 87 1646, 1650 (1967); 1924. Reversed. JUSTICE POWELL, concurring.* 49 Although join opinions write briefly emphasize me essential premise decisions. 50 safeguards "the people secure persons, houses, papers, effects, unreasonable seizures...." These areas individuals's life entertains legitimate expectations privacy. subjected significant privacy Under view power guarded subordinated overriding governmental concern. No exists frustrate enforcement some independent justifies narrowly twin rationales seizing disarming arrestee.1 protected constitutional guarantee legitimately abated arrest.2 MARSHALL, DOUGLAS BRENNAN join, dissenting. Certain jurisprudence years. Perhaps most Butler, speaking unanimous (1931): 'There formula Each facts circumstances.' 357, 158. recently held: warrantless preeminently question concrete context case.' Sibron 59, 1901, (1968). And intensive, times painstaking, characteristic bespeaks 'jealous maintaining integrity rights.' Mapp 643, 647, 81 1684, 1687, 1081 (1961). See 393, (1914). 53 majority turns principles, 'the arrest' regardless 'there arrest.' Ante, 357. majority's approach marked departure tradition adjudication reasonableness seizures continue '(t)he scheme meaningful assured enforcing detached, neutral scrutiny judge evaluate 21, 1880, reasoning odds respectfully dissent. 54 19, stopped driven 9th U N.W., Columbia, called 'routine spot check.' time, examined temporary automobile registration card, Selective Service classification card. permitted go way, pursued discrepancy noted '1938' date birth '1927' traffic records showed issued Willie Robinson, born 1927, subsequently 1938. pictures application same man—the routine 19. investigated matter fashion, provision Motor Vehicle Code operate during period 55 Four later, duty patrol car, partner saw vehicle. They behind From indications record, immediately complied alongside curb, officers parking his. 56 got walked toward Both started asked card and, shown 57 normal procedure conducting 'have spread-eagle wall nature.' Jenks' words, 'I almost every depends man's substantial height weight advantage offense, chose instead face face, contrast practice. both chest begin down. overcoat. pocket. record indicate, indication kind.1 Nonetheless, took out. crumpledup package. 59 With now hands, inside appear believe, sort. nevertheless looked inside, thereby finding Jackson, writing Johnson 333 10, 13—14, 367, 369, 436 (1948), explained: 61 often grasped zealous officers, denies usual inferences men draw evidence. Its protection consists drawn detached magistrate judged engaged competitive enterprise ferreting When yield judicial policeman government agent.' 62 Coolidge Hampshire, 403 443, 449, 2022, 2029, 564 overruling 'quick judgment' inconsistent function Amendment—to ensure judgments review judiciary. 63 vast cases, required conducted. Katz 389 347, 356 507, 514, 576 33, 6, (1925). Constitution deliberate, impartial interposed citizen police. .' Wong Sun 371 471, 481—482, 83 407, 414, 441 (1963). 64 doubt, 'a few specifically well-delineated exceptions.' 514; including moving vehicle, certain exigent circumstances, 298—299, 1645—1646, 782 McDonald 335 451, 454—455, 191, 192—193, supra; invoked preclude role judiciary, delimit exceptions requirement. lightly dispensed with, burden seeking (an) exemption (from requirement) show .." 762, 2039, quoting Jeffers, 48, 51, 93, 95, (1951). Exceptions talismans precluding whenever invoked, 461, 2035, 'jealously carefully drawn.' Jones 357 493, 499, 78 1253, 1257, 1514 (1958). 65 Carrying mandate delineating proper search-incident-to-arrest consideration apply 2039—2040; Yet majority, focusing great emphasis instructed examine everything in-custody ante, 221 n. 2. mode expolicitly rejected urged principal constitutionality authorized question. declined, viewed 'as abstract unproductive exercise' laying words next 'in effort determine sense compatible.' 1901. 'Our inquiry,' concluded, 'would furthered attempt pronounce statute. confine underlie convictions.' 62, 1902. 66 suggests unprecedented Nothing truth, One Commentaries, Maitland precedent Indeed, mass decades century, somewhat puzzling looks sources guidance presented case: regulation. several federal courts, that, absent special cnduct Barnes State, Wis.2d 116, 130 N.W.2d 264 example, brake-light violation. Rather citation, driver driver's conducted, shining flashlight overcoat pocket, disclosing small quantity marihuana papers. Wisconsin unreasonable. expressly offender distinguished summons, look flashlight. 'We conceive,' said, 'that aspect weapons. reject state's contention search.' 126, N.W.2d, 269. Curtis, 290 Minn. 429, 190 631 (1971), defective tail-lights illegal turn. house searched putting squad outside Robinson's 'detected was. knife.' 632. 'Neither concern safety. testimony suspected activity aware propensities part.' 431, 633. Nevertheless marihuana. Minnesota unlawful. 'concern injuries loss experienced face-to-face confrontations offenders,' 436—437, 636, citing Shelton Md.App. 394, 399, 239 A.2d 610, 613 Of import Oregon O'Neal, 251 Or. 163, 444 P.2d 951 (1968) (en banc). Here defendant's rear plate. produce license, produced another expired earlier. seat 'One wallet give officer. papers them. unfolded piece paper half-smoked marijuana fell out.' 164—165, P.2d, 952. Again, deprive potential 71 nothing officers' 'patted down' placing remember event, difficult believed contained weapon.' 166, 953. Marsh, N.Y.2d 98, 281 N.Y.S.2d 789, 228 N.E.2d 783 Superior Los Angeles County, Cal.3d 186, 101 Cal.Rptr. 837, 496 1205 (1972); Quintana, Ariz. 267, (1962) banc); Zeigler, 358 Mich. 355, 100 456 Tenth Circuit complete agreement prevailing condemns automobiles violations.' Humphrey, 409 1055, 1058 Amador-Gonzalez 391 308, 315 (CA5 1968) (Wisdom, J.). 73 Accordingly, disingenuous precedents 'tend case.'2 232—233. disquieting, say least, once admit '(v)irtually dicta' concede 'further practice' helpful, superficial, totally inaccurate misleading. 74 avoid issues misguided doomed fail practical application. aware, powers strong ones, abuse. Although, regulations in- custoday jurisdictions offenses citation discretionary lacking warrant, will pretext See, e.g., supra. suggest impugn police, purely or, rather, searching 'An evidence.' 467, 424, (1932). 500, 1257; 226 230, 690 692, (1960); 82, 442, (1950) (Frankfurter, J., dissenting). Cf. 767—768, 2042—2043. states '(a) search.'3 assertion—not surprisingly, none. rigid all-or-nothing model regulation (for) obscures utility scope, initiation, action past inception intolerable intensity scope.' 17—18, 1878. determining 'unreasonable' dual one—whether inception, related place.' 19—20, 1879. 77 divides phases: patdown pocket; opening crumpled-up raised lawfulness unanimously incustody 79 '(I)t expect transportation stationhouse measures insure unarmed. acting bounds authority, makes possession.' 130, 1098 (1972) omitted; original). B respect sustained modeled 'of patting instruments assault.' 65, 1904. 1884. appears Government below exceeded since, pockets unless weapon. U.S.App.D.C., 121, F.2d, 1089 ALI Model Pre-Arraignment Procedure 110.2(4) (Proposed Official Draft 1972). 1904.4 82 gun. fact, really thoughts way testified, just him. didn't looking for. him.' effecting offender, fuller pursuant underlying rationale initially whose similar indicates, functions: destruction. 234; contend destruction, for, charged. then, rationale, identical said there, sole confined guns, knives, clubs, hidden officer.' 29, violator identical, same. conclusion disputed challenged violator. 85 problem approach, ignores differences Some permitting thorough Terry; narrower, recognized. 86 obvious difference contexts relates dealing possesses anyone street, 'he armed individual. 27, 1883. rapist robber certainly true equal force involved dangerous. attempted evade quickly bringing producing documents requested. fashion violent. lesser distinctions opposite. noted, crucial feature distinguishing "is likelihood armed, increased armed." Cal.3d, 214, Cal.Rptr., 857, 1225 (Wright, C.J., concurring) (emphasis involves momentary encounter suspect, in-custory close proximity longer happens opportunity situation. prolonged able extricate undetected pin razor blade. threatened restraint liberty questioning, resort force. Thus, senses context; ways, need. Balancing competing considerations process, easy analytical guideposts. factors easily quantified weighed other. protecting—the free unnecessarily intrusive invasions unnecessary risks performance duties—are deserving attention themselves tip balance direction. 90 below, solve balancing equation important note, available empirical supports relies statistics indicating percentage murders occurs stops. confirm Terry—that 'American criminals hae violence, year killed duty, thousands wounded.' 1881. recognized, deaths portion inflicted guns knives.' 24, killings caused type frisk.5 statistics, fails recognize included separate effects assume, arguendo, consistent authorize inside. To More importantly, impossible hands. Opening package, Even 'since risk prisoner's eliminated.'6 150, 1118 (Wilkey, suggested, worthy protection. Chimel. suggested entered petitioner's invasion stemming accompanying entire inconsequential. answered: why, movement place, intrusions automatically allowed despite require.' 766—767, 12, 2042. 95 preserves ..' interfere standing alone, confer house. Hence, mere itself, invading effects. argues constitutionally 'expectation privacy' interior pack. wonders businessman Would blade somewhere wallet, contents, item carefully? Or suppose lawyer sealed envelope tear sure contain clandestine weapon—perhaps blade? 758, 2037. consonant needs whatsoever letter contains, precinct station?7 97 one, characterize instrusions negligible incidents itself. principled hypothetical posed reasoned functions 766, 2041. 98 view, 'search affirm suppressed presentation various proceedings Counsel stressed narcotics convictions, through records, checking discrepancies birthdates confronted occasion. argued sought warrant. denied motive, accepted Government's version question, accepting unconstitutional. 120 3, 1088 3. 2, infra. leave day questions arise these. original remand standard Department. Sergeant Dennis C. Donaldson, Department Training Division instructor, arrest,' transport facility booking,' trained 'field search': 'Q. you perform filed situation? 'A. (Sgt. Donaldson). Basically, field completely collar, underneath dollar, waistband trousers, cuffs, socks shoes. Those ask What instructions feels garment? anything exactly is. 'THE COURT: That last it? WITNESS: done thing pat-down search? squeezing don't instruct further. believes out? Yes, sir.' Donaldson 'contents pockets' initiated '(p)rimarily, officer's) secondly, thirdly, arrests, instructed, provide, revocation, 'areas arrestee's) immediate contains fruits, contraband revocation.' provide offenses, shall summary violator, booking. D.C. General Order 1959 (Apr. 1959). determinative T. Taylor, Two Studies Constitutional Interpretation 44—45 Taylor 'is little premises old institution itself.' 28. reported nor legal literature taken, ever England end nineteenth century (and) short shrift.' 29. Where exists, recognizes 'warrantless incident' exception.' 127, 1095. 'reasonable (evidentiary) intrusion' simultaneously Ibid. least questionable statistical data assaults arrests. flows attendant proximity, stress, uncertainty, study concludes 30% shootings occur stops automobile. Bristow, Shootings—A Tactical Evaluation, J.Crim.L.C. P.S. (1963), 148, 1924, brief notes Uniform Crime Reports, prepared Federal Bureau Investigation, Brief 23. reports January—March 1973, murdered; stop,' i.e., notice allow proceed. reach concedes (Officer Jenks) motivated imminent 34. (Robinson). removing unsure cigarettes. applies 71-1669, post, p. 260. Ninth aptly Charles 278 386, 388-389 "Power essence arrest; separated. curtail refrain impinging sanctity enumerated ignore duties devolve authorities. Custody asserted whatever party apprehension. Once dominion inspections deemed unlawful, dictates number manner perpetration." (Citation omitted.) Gustafson, petitioner self-evident Robinson. undertaken collateral objectives. us. suppression hearing, derringer asked, cost 'whether lump night him?' answered 'does same' 'harder,' 'larger,' '(m)uch suspicious.' dip common selective. Leigh Cole, 329 (Oxford 1853), civil plaintiff, lawyer, road superintendent After plaintiff house, constable direction, tobacco box instructing jury, learned stated: 'With himself, conduct, prudent mischief commit breach peace; wrong drunk disorderly, correct submit degradation searched, 332. reference expression on-the-street policy effectively controlled court-imposed standards. controlling myriad daily situations policemen citizens confront street.' 1875. concluded '(n)o comprehend protean variety street encounter, retain responsibility guard trenches objective requires. identified, condemned judiciary excluded trials.' 15, 1876. position testified: 'If officer) further.' Reports Investigation 234 5, 112 nationwide 1972. these, 108 firearms. bomb dissent argued, justifiable measure. blade, live bullets, alerted thoroughly increase.' Bazelon indicated render meaningless searches. Were accept logic, (1969), thoroughly, arguably increased. station. alternative theory booked detention, introduction inventory removed anyway, goes, reasons. First, Mills, 156, 472 1231 banc), booking jail. petty bailable, stipulated offenders advised post unable refuse so. 160—161, 1235—1236. event possibly never place. Second, become confinement, doubtful contents. preventing served claim personnel stole property. claims involving entailed contents 'an opportunity, accorded someone bathhouse locker use, 'check' belongings envelope, perhaps executing waiver releasing responsibility.' 164 1239 11. oral administratively inconvenient told tha contained. Mere administrative inconvenience, rights. 768, 2043. imagine inconvenience task necessitate whatsoever. handed onto

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