Document: 415 U.S. 361 94 S.Ct. 1160 39 L.Ed.2d 389 Donald E. JOHNSON, Administrator of Veterans' Affairs, et al., Appellants,v.William Robert ROBISON, etc. No. 72—1297. Argued Dec. 11, 1973. Decided March 4, 1974. Syllabus Appellee, who had been exempted from military service as a Class I—O conscientious objector but performed required alternative civilian service, after being denied educational benefits under the Readjustment Benefits Act 1966, brought this class action for declaratory judgment that provisions making him and his ineligible such violated First Amendment's guarantee religious freedom Fifth equal protection laws. After denying appellants' motion to dismiss lack jurisdiction because 38 U.S.C. § 211(a), which prohibits judicial review decisions Affairs on any question law or fact laws administered by Administration providing veterans' benefits, District Court rejected appellee's Amendment claim sustained claim. Held: 1. Section 211(a) does not extend actions challenging constitutionality legislation is aimed at prohibiting only those arising in administration statute hence inapplicable action, neither text nor its legislative history showing contrary intent. Pp. 366—374. 2. The challenged sections do create an arbitrary classification violation right 374—383. (a) quantitative qualitative distinctions between disruption caused service—military involving six-year commitment far greater loss personal freedom, two-year obligation no requirement leave life—form rational basis Congress' limiting veterans means helping them readjust life. 378 382. (b) statutory also bears relationship Act's objective more attractive. P. 3. violate free exercise religion. Gillette v. United States, 401 437, 91 828, 28 168. 383—386. withholding appellee involves incidental burden, if burden all, upon their 385. Appellee were included beneficiaries, design interfere with religion, include would rationally promote purposes. (c) Government's substantial interest raising supporting armies, Art. I, 8, 'a kind weight' clearly sufficient sustain legislation. 385—386. 352 F.Supp. 848, reversed. Gerald Norton, Washington, D.C., appellants. Michael David Rosenberg, appellee. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 A draftee accorded status completing performance service1 qualify 1652(a)(1) 'veteran . served active duty' (defined 101(21) 'full-time duty Armed Forces'), therefore 'eligible veteran' entitled 1661(a) provided 1966.2 Appellants, reason, application assistance Robison, filed he satisfactorily completed two years Peter Bent Brigham Hospital, Boston. Robison thereafter commenced action3 States Massachusetts, seeking §§ 101(21), 1652(a)(1), 1661(a), read together, laws.4 Appellants moved ground, among others, lacked Administrator.5 motion, and, merits, claim, entered declaring 'that defining entitlement are unconstitutional 'active respect chapter 34 Title 38, Code, 1651 1697, conferring Educational Assistance, reason said deny plaintiff members due process Constitution States. .' 862 (1973).6 We postponed consideration light hearing set case oral argument 72—700, Hernandez Administration, 391, 1177, 412. 411 981, 93 2267, 36 957 (1973).7 hold, agreement Court, subject matter was properly denied. On we agree without merit disagree reverse 2 * consider first contention bars federal courts deciding Such construction would, course, raise serious questions concerning 211(a),8 'it cardinal principle will ascertain whether fairly possible (constitutional) question(s) may be avoided.' Thirty-seven Photographs, 402 363, 369, 1400, 1404, 822 (1971). 3 Plainly, explicit provision constitutional claims. That section provides 'the shall final conclusive court have power decision ..' (Emphasis added.) prohibitions appear arise veterans. 'under' made interpretation particular facts, Appellee's challenge Administrator, rather Congress objectors service. Thus, stated: 'The presented these proceedings Constitution, whose validity challenged.' F.Supp., 853. 4 This supported administrative practice Administration. 'When faced problem construction, shows great deference given officers agency charged administration.' Udall Tallman, 380 1, 16, 85 792, 801, 13 61 (1965). Board Appeals expressly disclaimed authority decide Appeal Sly, C—27 593 725 (May 10, 1972). There Board, objector, held '(t)his reach issue pertinent within Board.' Sly thus accepts follows '(a)djudication congressional enactments has generally thought beyond agencies. See Public Utilities Comm'n 355 534, 539, (78 446, 450, 470) (1958); Engineers Service Co. SEC, 78 U.S.App.D.C. 199, 215—216, 138 F.2d 936, 952—953 (1943), dismissed moot, 332 788, (68 96, 92 L.Ed. 370).' Oestereich Selective 393 233, 242, 89 414, 419, 21 (1968) (Harlan, J., concurring result); see Jaffe, Judicial Review: Question Law, 69 Harv.L.Rev. 239, 271—275 (1955). 5 Nor accompanying 1970 amendment demonstrate intention bar even questions. No-review clauses similar part since 1933.9 While precursor no-review almost nonexistent,10 letter written 1952 connection revision clause Subcommittee House Committee comprehensively explained policies necessitating identified primary purposes: (1) insure claims expensive time-consuming litigation,11 (2) technical complex determinations applications policy connected adequately uniformly made.12 6 indicates nothing than intent preserve Before amendment, payments (certain) law(s) Administration' (emphasis added), (1964 ed.), 71 Stat. 92. In series decisions, e.g., Wellman Whittier, 104 6, 259 163 Thompson Gleason, 115 201, 317 901 (1962); Tracy 126 415, 379 469 (1967), Columbia Circuit interpreted term 'claim' limitation consequence subsequent original grant barred. 7 perceived threat dual purposes clause. First, lead inevitable increase litigation consequent burdens Report, stated '(s)ince case—and result suits constantly increasing numbers plaintiffs resumption terminated benefits.' H.R.Rep.No.91—1166, p. 10 (1970), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 1970, 3730. same concern over rising number cases expressed Committee: 8 Wellman, Thompson, followed other Federal circuits throughout country. 9 Nevertheless, soon decision, nature mandamus benefits. As 353 type circuit. scope it based so broad could well afford millions terminating reducing many types might predecessor agencies ago.' Id., 21, 24, 3740. 11 Second, concerned involve day-to-day determination policy. Report states already response 12 'involve large variety matters—a 1930's termination widow's pension then extant, her open notorious adulterous cohabitation; invalid marriage veteran; severance veteran's disability compensation; reduction compensation lessened (and) (Filipino) widows World War II servicemen restoration death raised presumption remarriage evidence gathered through field examination. Notwithstanding 1962 endorsement Administration's (sic) rule, most (the Filipino widows) resulted judgments adverse Government.' voiced concerns, stating seems obvious several hundred can—and undoubtedly will—subject nearly every aspect our benefit review, including rating related regulations, Administrator's various adjudication procedures.' Letter 23—24, 3742. 14 enacted overrule Circuit, thereby restore vitality Nothing whatever clauses, suggests preclude cognizance challenges obviously contravene clause, they cannot expected volume, considerations conclude, 'fairly possible' reasonable scant 'clear convincing' before construed restrict access review. Abbott Laboratories Gardner, 387 136, 141, 87 1507, 1511, 18 681 (1967). 15 Turning that, class, determining whether, draftees serve country Forces, registrants perform objectors,13 analysis proceeds although individual's 'does treat different classes persons ways(;) (it denies) legislate treatment placed into criteria wholly unrelated statute. 'must reasonable, arbitrary, must rest some ground difference having fair relation object legislation, all similarly circumstanced treated alike.' Royster Guano Virginia, 253 412, (40 560, 64 989) (1920).' Reed Reed, 404 71, 75—76, 251, 253, 30 225 (1971).14 16 Unlike state statutes come us, responsibly revealed express objectives claimed: 17 hereby declares education program created purpose enhancing attractive Forces extending higher qualified deserving young otherwise able education, (3) vocational readjustment restoring lost opportunities men women careers interrupted impeded January 31, 1955, (4) aiding attaining normally aspired obtained country.' Legislation further plainly 'to support Armies.' Our task narrowed there least one justifying 19 reasoned (2), basically variations single theme reflecting 'eliminate gaps did not.' 858. Therefore, '(t)he exclusion eligibility (appellee) justified suffer veterans, situated statute's purpose. believe groups. Like alternate exposed uncertainties draft law. They too burdened time unsatisfied adversely affected employment potential; forced, law, (forgo) immediately entering training education; deprived, during opportunity obtain pursue rewarding goals.' 858—859. 20 error rationale broadly reflected (3), 1651. wording sections, conjunction attendant history, makes clear enacting 1966 primarily not,' compensate causes lives. words, aim assist 'readjust' Indeed, appellants argue, Brief n. 18, very name statute—the Act—emphasizes need readjusting life.' Of merely labeling beneficiaries Services rationalize discrimination against if, fact, lives latter equally disrupted readjustment. Richardson Belcher, 78, 83, 254, 258, 231 found performers share characteristic respective 'inability economic pursue.' 859. But finding similarity ignores common shared nonbeneficiaries alike, invalidate when characteristics peculiar group explain recognized significant differences exist performers, particularly provide These 'afford framework,' McGinnis Royster, 410 263, 271, 1055, 1060, 35 282 (1973). 22 quantitatively performing obligated work years. hand, commitment. limited years, veteran remains Active Reserve Standby release duty. additional emphasized 'Compulsory requirements' Senate states: hardships cold war still aggravated compulsory Government imposed August 9, 1955. is, sharp contrast traditional ends discharge More importantly, however, impedes full participation civil life, which, turn, again exposes unfair competition contemporaries. post-Korean drills activities quite enables contemporaries, comparison, make gains toward enjoyment fruits enterprise society. (F)or wish devote goals, constitutes supplementary burden.' S.Rep.No.269, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., 23 disruptions suffered qualitatively different. Military careers. Uprooted becomes establishment, discipline potentially hazardous acutely aware disabilities special 24 incompatibility traditions national temperament, lightly citizenry. Only war, imminent unfriendly powers, creates conditions, values society, justify extraordinary deviation enterprise, individualistic way When, now, forces conflicts sense equity expects find less half ever compelled period Establishment. 25 'Action redress inequities situation ling overdue. beset problems identical previous GI bills addressed. fathers elder brothers, lose competitive directly consequence, valuable ranging advantages worthwhile job possibilities profitable business ventures. addition, completion confront difficulties transition 26 major conditions falls youths called extended tours It troubled parts world, subjecting themselves mental physical hazards family detriments normal who, separation far, behind age service.' 3, 6—7, (1965) added). 27 H.R.Rep.No.1258, 2d (1966), 1888.15 reliance highlighted inclusion I—A—O objectors, noncombatant roles, Act.16 distinctions, Congress, form life; life 29 1651, 'enhancing States.' By enlistees alike. concedes, 28, promoted enlist. But, argues, induced concludes, scheme fails circumstanced. groups are, To sure, draftee, definition, incentive existence help induce registrant either volunteer seek lower classification.17 Furthermore, once drafted, palatable reduce draftee's unwillingness soldier. bases refusal deeply beliefs, assume him. case, promotes legitimate governmental purpose, addition not, say invidiously discriminatory.18 III 31 Finally, argues erred holding abridge (appellee's) religion,' 860. He contends denial interferes religion price pay adherence beliefs. 168 32 There, petitioners, wars, argued 6(j) 1967, 50 App. 456(j), limits exemption conscientiously 'participation form' supplied), infringed rights Free Exercise Clause requiring abandon beliefs participate what deemed unjust go jail. acknowledged 33 'governmental regulation such,' Sherbert Verner, 374 398, (83 1790, 1793, 965) (1963), interference dissemination ideas. Fowler Rhode Island, 345 67 (73 S.Ct.526, 97 828) (1953); Follett McCormick, 321 573 (64 717, 88 938) (1944); Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105 (63 870, 1292) (1943). misuse secular programs impede observance religions discriminate religions, though characterized indirect.' Braunfeld Brown, 366 U.S., (599), 607 (81 1144, 1148, 563) (opinion Warren, C.J.). And neutral prohibitory regulatory aims, condemn certain clashing imperatives conscience, justifiable terms valid aims.' 462, 842. clear, '(o)ur farthest proposition stance opposition relieves colliding fixed democratic government.' '(Rather,) (may be) strictly interests 461, S.Ct., Finding procuring manpower necessary purposes, pursuant (congressional) armies (,) 8,' weight impact conscription wars,' id., 842, Clause. present require choice comparable petitioners Gillette. religion—if, indeed, exists all.19 Part II, supra, demonstrates, powers advance neutral, personnel Gillette, religion—the value Act—is order magnitude infringement Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 214, 1526, 1532, (1972). Reversed. 37 DOUGLAS, dissenting. my dissent applicable Braunfield 599, 81 563, I view Pennsylvania's Sunday closing applied Sabbatarians, 561, 575, 577, 1218, 1225, 1226. State penalty Sabbatarian keeping shop day Sabbath Christian majority; seemed me exact impermissible Sabbatarian's unable continue stay capital investment. 611, 1150. Girouard 328 61, 66 826, 90 1084, held, overruling Schwimmer, 279 644, 49 448, 73 889, words oath prescribed naturalization—'(will) defend America enemies, foreign domestic'—should bearing arms, room defense Nation times peril scruples shouldering arms. said: effort indivisible; prevent killing patriots traits handicaps assignment duties fighting front. Each utmost contribution according capacity. role convictions attachment willingness utmost.' 64—65, 827. 40 Closer point 83 965, where Seventh Day Adventist unemployment she Saturday, faith. disqualification saying: 'Here apparent appellant's declared ineligibility derives solely pressure unmistakable. ruling choose following precepts forfeiting abandoning accept work, hand. Governmental imposition puts fine appellant Saturday worship.' 404, 1794. 41 'compelling' State's one's liberty manner. 406—408, 1795—1796. 42 15, Wisconsin's school attendance Amish children gravely impair 43 places lesser 'order magnitude'1 upheld past cases, maintained. 44 true; yet man apparent. bill 'help follow plan adopted never Forces.' 5. 1890. Full available occupants safe desk jobs thousands home whom rigors 'war' 'totally disruptive,' use phrase. provided, overseas lived community worked nine until five file clerk base attended college courses off-duty hours. No condition attached program. Senator Yarborough said,2 accrue overseas, 'educational progress opportunity' '(have) impaired just damaging fashion distant shores. Their needs comrades abroad.' 45 line drawn draftees. get whatsoever. demeaning arms suggest, does, susceptible compromise protected. urge forgo gain monetary advantage certainly spiritually weak. test Girouard. deal people unwavering. Those die stake constitutionally penalized exaction penalties Where crosses forbidden line.3 'coercive effects,' another phrase, irrelevant. Government, Bill Rights, place anyone asserting scruples. nub why below should affirmed. 456(j) exempts 'who, belief,' opposed 'war form.' CFR 1622.14 (1971) directed local Boards '(i)n classified I—A found, belief, both combatant armed forces.' Further, 1660.1—.12 (1972) authorized contributing maintenance health, safety, interest. 101 provides, part: '(21) means— '(A) full-time training.' provides: (A) 180 days occurred discharged released therefrom dishonorable (B) date service-connected disability.' 'Except subsection second sentence subsection, each eligible one-half months (or equivalent thereof part-time assistance) month fraction If satisfy obligation, assistance).' amount money varies pursued dependents has. For example, enrolled graduate degree receives $298 per month. 1682(a), amended Vietnam Era Assistance 1972, 102, 86 1075. rules certification Fed.R.Civ.P. 23, warranted, selective 'alternate service' medical 851. Although contains forbid 'so unjustifiable violative process." Schneider Rusk, 377 163, 168, 84 1187, 1190, 218 (1964); Frontiero Richardson, 677, 680 5, 1764, 1767, 583 (1973); Shapiro 394 618, 641—642, 1322, 1335, 600 (1969); Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 74 693, 98 884 (1954). Equal Protection Fourteenth Amendment, inconsistent Amendment. 81, 257, '(a) October 17, 1940, except 775, 784, matters title, survivors official otherwise.' paragraph therefrom, considered 'eligible' receive extent duty'; c. 38. 862. result, Court's invoked 1331, 1337, 1343, 1361. appealed 1252 'Any party appeal Supreme interlocutory judgment, decree suit, proceeding agencies, officer employee thereof, employee, party.' grounds dismissal: complaint failed relief granted, exhaust remedies. Compare Ex parte McCardle, Wall. 506, 264 (1869); Sheldon Sill, How. 441, 1147 (1850), Martin Hunter's Lessee, Wheat. 304, (1816); St. Joseph Stock Yards 298 84, 56 720, 740, 80 1033 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring). Hart, Power Limit Jurisdiction Courts An Dialectic, 1362 (1953). Economy 1933, 48 provided: 'All rendered title decision.' 1940 amended, 54 1197, expand application: 'Notwithstanding decisions.' When finally consolidated 1957, 211, 92, left substantially unaltered: '(D)ecisions discussion 1933 Senate, 'gives now has.' 77 Cong.Rec. 254 (1933). received little discussion. However, George remarked clause: '(T)he confirms accepted belief conviction, pension, (or) gratuity, courts. much restatement believed question.' 13383 (1940). debate 'is desirable uniformity accordance liberal governing Administration.' 13491. attending 1957 uninstructive, indicating change consolidation. H.R.Rep.No.279, 85th (1957); S.Rep.No.332, (1957). Davis, Benefits, Review, Constitutional Problems 'Positive' Ind.L.J. 181, 188—189 Comment, Review Recovery 118 U.Pa.L.Rev. 288, 291—292 (1969). 'There added expense courts, defending suits.' Hearing H.R. 360, 478, 2442 6777 82d 1963 (1952). 'In wide medical, legal, study expert examiners considerable experience, readily standardization. Among determined length character origin disabilities, schedules, multiplicity phenomena intercurrently established norms peculiarities case. appropriate regarded apt subjects purely procedure. Due complexity made, uniformity. uniform principles done system coordination central office centralized Appeals.' Hearing, 1962—1963. enhance attractiveness Health National Oceanic Atmospheric commissioned services. 1652(a)(3). Officers services usually specialists fields science possess high expertise. 21.11, 21.25—.31, 21.41—.42 (1972); 883a—883b. argue services, accords protection. strict scrutiny compelling justification demonstrated fundamental suspect contention. Unquestionably, right. hold III, infra, occasion apply standard stricter rational-basis test. With contention, indicia suspectedness lacking 'immutable accident birth,' 686, 1770, 'saddled subjected purposeful unequal treatment, relegated position political powerlessness command majoritarian process,' San Antonio Independent School Rodriguez, 1278, 1298, observed: 'Congress, carve out training, Macintosh, 1931, 283 605, 624, 51 570, 75 1302; 1971, 457, 461 nevertheless so. Perhaps relects simply trained duty; plausible reflects individual conscience. 633, 570 ((Hughes,) C.J., dissenting). Given solicitous regard manifested seem presumptuous 'suspect classification' theory, underlying affects discrete insular minorities, fades processes broken down.' 855. Testimony statements proposed reflect consciousness sacrifices Yarborough, chairman subcommittee author Act, introduced we, nation, recognize extreme unique extracted 'Their performed, back removed years.' Hearings S. Labor Welfare, testimony Mondale designed reward battle risks ran, catching up intended do.' 152. inducted assigned defined classifications listed 1622.1—1623.2 violates because, vital product vindictive harsh policy' 'purpose punish adhering beliefs.' 20, 51. unconstitutional, '(f)or conception 'equal laws' anything, mean bare desire harm politically unpopular constitute interest.' Dept. Agriculture Moreno, 413 528, 2821, 2826, 782 cited to, own research discovered, reference merit. exempting well-recognized bestowed relative permitting civilians. arguably viewed attempt equalize objector's Clark, Guidelines Clause, 327, 349 'First, felt, immediately, Sherbert, prospective Secondly, produce positive injury sort effected payments. Considering factors, doubts tends performer dictates conscience.' Provide Post-Korean Veterans 2899. irrelevant validly excluded objectors. Here can penalize conscience concedes Moreover, relied religiously 451, 837, 'incidental burdens' 'strictly relate impacts questioned,' excludes conceded religious-based objections war; imposes 'incidental.' here approaching Gillette—the danger objection fairly, citizens conclude 'those chosen unfairly capriciously (resulting in) mood bitterness cynicism (that) corrode willing citizen's heart 460, 841. financial invidious assert joining shoulder

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