Document: 501 U.S. 775 111 S.Ct. 2578 115 L.Ed.2d 686 Edgar BLATCHFORD, Commissioner, Department of Community and Regional Affairs Alaska, Petitioner,v.NATIVE VILLAGE OF NOATAK AND CIRCLE VILLAGE. No. 89-1782. Argued Feb. 19, 1991. Decided June 24, Syllabus Respondents, Alaska Native villages, brought suit against petitioner, a state official, seeking an order requiring payment to them money allegedly owed under revenue-sharing statute. The District Court dismissed the as violating Eleventh Amendment. Appeals reversed, first on ground that 28 U.S.C. § 1362 constituted congressional abrogation Amendment immunity, then, upon reconsideration, had no immunity suits by Indian tribes. Held: 1. bars tribes States without their consent. Respondents' argument traditional principles sovereign restrict only individuals, not other sovereigns, was rejected in Monaco v. Mississippi, 292 313, 322-323, 54 745, 747-748, 78 L.Ed. 1282. Nor is there merit respondents' contention consented "plan convention." See ibid. Just with regard foreign see id., at 330, S.Ct., 751, compelling evidence Founders thought waived when they adopted Constitution. Although are some respects more like States—which may sue each other, South Dakota North Carolina, 192 286, 318, 24 269, 275-276, 48 448 than it mutuality concession makes States' surrender from sister plausible. There such tribes, which have been held repeatedly enjoy States. Oklahoma Tax Commission Citizen Band Potawatomi Tribe Okla., 498 ----, 905, 911, 112 1112. Pp. 779-782. 2. Section 1362—which grants district courts original jurisdiction hear "all civil actions, any tribe . ., wherein matter controversy arises under" federal law—does operate void Amendment's bar tribes' 782-788. (a) Assuming doubtful proposition Federal Government's exemption can be delegated, does embody general delegation authority, United Minnesota, 270 181, 195, 46 298, 301, 70 539, behalf. Moe Confederated Salish Kootenai Tribes, 425 463, 96 1634, 96—which revoked Injunction Act's denial court access persons injunctive relief taxation—equated tribal access, did purport do so generally, nor basis "delegation" theory, respect constitutional (as opposed merely statutory) constraints. 783-786. (b) abrogate immunity. It satisfy standard for set forth Dellmuth Muth, 491 223, 227-228, 109 2397, 2399-2400, 105 since reflect "unmistakably clear" intent made plain "in language statute." sufficiently clear statement less stringent Parden Terminal Railway Alabama Docks Dept., 377 184, 84 1207, 12 233, case (unlike ) already decided time 1362's enactment 1966. That neither mentioned premised consensual waiver)—and indeed even acknowledge possibility until 1976, Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 2666, 49 614. 786-788. 3. claim must considered initially remand. P. 788. 896 F.2d 1157 (CA 9 1990), reversed remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. BLACKMUN, filed dissenting opinion, MARSHALL STEVENS, Rex E. Lee, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Lawrence A. Aschenbrenner, Anchorage, respondents. Justice SCALIA Court. 1 We asked once again mark boundaries court. Ninth Circuit found extend seeks review determination. 2 * In 1980, enacted statute provided annual payments $25,000 "Native village government" located community state-chartered municipal corporation. Stat.Ann. 29.89.050 (1984). State's attorney believed unconstitutional. his view, governments were "racially exclusive groups" or organizations" whose status turned exclusively racial ancestry members; therefore, believed, funding these groups would violate equal protection clause Alaska's Acting general's advice, Commissioner (petitioner here), enlarged program include all unincorporated communities, whether administered not. Shortly thereafter, legislature increased match its scope. Funding, however, never reached full allocated community. 3 repealed 1985, 1985 Sess. Laws, ch. 90, replaced one matched expanded Commissioner. same year, respondents this suit, challenging Commissioner's action grounds, pay received program. granted injunction preserve sufficient funds 1986 fiscal but then Village Noatak Hoffman, 872 1384 (1989) (later withdrawn), (1989). certiorari. 37, 14 (1990). II 4 provides follows: 5 "The Judicial power shall construed law equity, commenced prosecuted Citizens another State, Subjects Foreign State." 6 Despite narrowness terms, Hans Louisiana, 134 1, 10 504, 33 842 (1890), we understood stand much what says, presupposition our structure confirms: entered system sovereignty intact; judicial authority Article III limited sovereignty, Welch Texas Dept. Highways Public Transportation, 483 468, 472, 107 2941, 2945, 97 389 (1987) (opinion Powell, J.); Employees Missouri Health Welfare, 411 279, 290-294, 93 1614, 1620-1622, 36 251 (1973) (Marshall, concurring result); State will therefore subject unless has either expressly Port Authority Trans-Hudson Corp. Feeney, 494 110 1868, 1875, 264 (1990); Welch, supra, U.S., 474, 2946 J); Atascadero Hospital Scanlon, 473 234, 238, 3142, 3145, 87 171 (1985); Pennhurst School Halderman, 465 89, 99, 104 900, 907, 79 67 7 Respondents ask us revisit Hans; instead argue presumed apply sovereigns And if did, contend, consider points turn. 8 arguing submit, first, restricts individuals recognized, (1991), sovereigns. conception nature finds support both apparent understanding Founders, dicta own opinions.1 But whatever reach meaning early statements, notion 1282 (1934). embraces, begin. Monaco, Principality come into possession Mississippi bonds, sued recover amounts due those bonds. defended grounds Amendment, among others. Had Court's, otherwise grant controversies "between States." did. "Manifestly, cannot rest mere literal application words III, assume letter exhausts restrictions non-consenting Behind provisions postulates limit control. postulate Union, still possessing attributes immune suits, consent, save where 'surrender plan convention.' Federalist, 81." 748 (footnote omitted). 11 Our assumption extends inherent convention either. Because perceived "no said waiver consent Union run favor State," concluded states pursue inquiry present case, thus confront second contention: also here compact.2 hitherto particular litigants two contexts: States, 275, (1904), Texas, 143 621, 488, 285 (1892). Kansas 204 331, 342, 27 388, 391, 51 510 (1907); Jackson, Supreme Sovereign Immunity, 98 Yale L.J. 79-80 (1988), nor, again, Monaco. 13 true respects: are, example, domestic. relevant difference between domesticity, role within former, latter, implicit. What plausible concession. Tribe, absurd suggest surrendered parties. could benefit believe that, operates 1362, bar. They press very different arguments, 15 539 (1926), standing behalf guardians rights, "the qualification she States," purpose. Relying decision (1976), read Government back themselves. Hence, suggest, because face limitation, 16 band governing body duly recognized Secretary Interior, Constitution, laws, treaties 17 striking about most unremarkable similarity number federal-question claims. Compare it, 1331(a) existed enacted: 18 actions exceeds sum value $10,000 interest costs, (1964 ed.). 19 Considering text context enactment, might well conclude sole purpose eliminate jurisdictional minimum "arising claims Tribes 1331, amount greater $10,000; appears text, below minimum. Such reading, moreover, title Act 1362: "To amend Code permit maintain purposes." 80 Stat. 880. 20 Moe, something title's "other purposes"—an implication "a tribe's litigate [federal question cases] least broad suing trustee," 473, 1641 (emphasis added). "respect" issue obtaining taxation. Act, 1341, denied States; saying equated "at respects," 1641, certain 1642. now urge us, effect, limitation utterly—for impossible imagine extreme replication ability point allowing unconsented This vast expansion Moe. Congress itself created—committing tax-injunction comity. Absent statute, taxes constitutionally enjoined. Will Michigan Police, 58, 71, n. 10, 2304, 2311, 45 (1989).3 obstacle contrast, creation A willingness former way bespeaks especially "certain respects" explicitly announced. 21 Moreover, discuss Part III-B, cases require Congress' exercise exists, exercised unmistakable clarity. To avoid difficulty, assert represents rather doubt, begin with, delegated—even limits permissibility propose) sue. "inherent convention," States—at instance control responsible officers—is anyone whom select; person's person himself. 22 event, assuming theoretically possible, reason ever contemplated strange notion. Even regarded related 3, nevertheless "delegation." mention word, contains slightest suggestion analysis. say "§ suggests section accorded treatment similar behalf," 1642, remotely imply delegation—only equivalence treatment. theory entirely creature invention. B 23 Finally, recognize legislative statement. As 181 (1989), temper acknowledged powers concern essential component structure, applied simple test: 'Congress secured making intention unmistakably statute.' " Id., 2400. 25 agree petitioner noted, specific courts, contends 1331 suffices questions.4 26 argument, "clear statement" Dellmuth, 233 (1964), existing "abrogation" Parden, subjected liability "every" common carrier interstate commerce, after statute's chose become commerce. 187-188, 1210-1211. Similarly, argue, tribe" should constitute expression contrary, maintain, mid-1970's, long rule drawn question. 231, 2402. sake (though means accept) relatively obscure mind backdrop legislation. aware Parden's minimal clarity requirement, nothing lead presume requirement abrogation. Its entering field economic activity federally regulated, impliedly "consent[s]" bound regulation terms regulated parties, "waiv[ing]" 186, 1210. Not 1976 (10 years passage 1362) immunity—under Fourteenth 614 (1976). Thus, given gives intended subtle 1362. At enacted, novel (not questionable) course conceivably it. current effect immunity.5 IV damages, seek relief, address point, leave court's initial consideration 29 judgment remanded further proceedings consistent opinion. 30 ordered. 31 STEVENS join, dissenting. 32 today holds precludes American vindicate rights resolves through reliance doctrine I accept, construction pertinent flawed, dissent. previously stated, 302, 3177, (1985) (dissenting opinion), implicated one, State. my outside State/citizen State/alien diversity suits.* Put way, "[t]here simply principle mandated policy excluding court." Atascadero, 259, 3156 (Brennan, dissenting). 34 substantial historical analysis supports view exhaustively detailed, 258-302, 3155-3178 joined MARSHALL, dissenting); & Transp. 497, 2958, Pennsylvania Gas Co., 23, 2273, 2286, (STEVENS, concurring); 140-159, 929-939, (1984) Brennan, dissenting), repeat here. bears emphasis, need compounded error progeny extending entities, "Citizens 35 possessed abrogated when, 1966, 880, majority rejects holding authorize Ante, 786. accepted validity so-called "clear-statement rule" remain expressed Brennan four "special rules statutory drafting justified (nor justifiable) efforts determine genuine Congress. [T]he special designed hurdles keep disfavored out courts." 254, 3153. accept clear-statement times serve mechanism discerning intent, surely reject Court's attempt give cast, rule, bottom, tool other. So be, judiciary redraw enactments; regulate sphere activity, best done instance. majority's method accomplishing task. perception casually alter "balance power" 242, 3147. intrusion unusual use caution determining expanded, 243, 3147, erected plan. 37 Whatever determination matters concerning affairs; governmental operations, always weighed heavily Government. Indeed, "[t]he plenary deal problems Indians implicitly Constitution itself." Morton Mancari, 417 535, 551-552, 94 2474, 2483, 41 290 (1974). 38 Illustrative generally inapplicable affairs, absent See, e.g., Worcester Georgia, Pet. 515, (1832). Chief Marshall explained 39 "is distinct community, occupying territory, accurately described, laws [the State] force, citizens right enter, assent [tribes] themselves, conformity treaties, acts congress. whole intercourse nation, is, vested government 561. 40 undeniable regulating activities borders, despite federalism, largely displaced pertaining Americans. Indians, Wall. 737, 667 (1867) (finding lands partial assimilation white society); Kagama, 118 375, 1109, 228 (1886) (sustaining prosecution Americans Major Crimes Act). displacement regarding affairs geographic "Indian country," Antoine 420 194, 95 944, 43 129 (1975) (holding inhibit police over non-Indian land legislation ratifying agreement tribe), regulations directly infringe self-government. McClanahan Arizona Comm'n, 164, 179-180, 1257, 1266-1267, (1973). area, playing subsidiary role. spheres susceptible "according settled committed Union," Pet., 561, concerned, presumptions underlying itself, place interpreting statutes 42 Employing tools interpretation, intended, damages provides: (Emphasis added.) 44 notes, correctly, broader 1331(a), enacted. 784. preceding discussion clear, area page history worth volume logic." New York Trust Co. Eisner, 256 345, 349, 506, 507, 65 963 (1921). latter reveals reach. Prior dependent enforce encroachment. (1926). arrangement derived historic trust relationship F. Cohen, Handbook Law 308 (2d ed. 1982). interests, Government, course, unrestrained citing part larger national "self-determination" peoples. M. Price R. Clinton, 86-91 1983). Consistent policy, "Congress used particularly situations suffered conflict unable unwilling bring trustee Indians." San Carlos Apache 463 545, 560, 103 3201, 3210 77 837 (1983). words, sought dependence vindication courts. 47 light purpose, enjoin collection pursuant although private litigant. Construing identified "that arising 'under treaties' trustee." 1641. behalf, Heckman 224 413, 424, 56 820 (1912), similarly empowered litigation bestowed includes damages. "involving issues identical those" raised acting H.R.Rep. 2040, 89th Cong., 2d Sess., (1966) (House Report). prospective range Fundamentally, institutional responsibility Republic's founding. Cherokee Nation 17, (1831). frank acknowledgment often lacks resources political adequately fulfill responsibility. Given admission, lightly defend interests. Rather, reasoned interpretation authorization necessary fully hardly requires explication monetary remedies afford relief. Providing whereby assured attorneys," House Report, 2-3, necessarily entails redress violated. 50 resisting conclusion, asserts while "willingness latter." 785. premise conclusion. Congress, appropriate legislation, just repeal prior enactments. doctrine, rooted notions federalism Fair Assessment Real Estate Assn., Inc. McNary, 454 100, 103, 102 177, 179, 271 (1981), cited therein. parallels, find expansive provide convey actions," added), "Finally, construing 'admittedly ambiguous' Board Comm'rs Seber, [318 705, 713, 63 920, 925, 1094 (1943) ], guided 'eminently sound vital canon,' Northern Cheyenne Hollowbreast, 649, 655 7, [96 1793, 1797 274] 'statutes passed liberally construed, expressions being resolved Indians.' Pacific Fisheries 248 78, 89 [39 40, 42, 138] (1918)." Bryan Itasca County, 426 373, 392, 2102, 2112, 710 Unlike ill-conceived interpretive recently canon dates earliest Nation's history. 582; 737 (1867); Choate Trapp, 665, 675, 565, 569, 941 (1912). unique Const., Art. I, 8, cl. 3; 2, time-honored construction, linguistic contortion actions" encompass guardian. 52 Having court, "tribe[s] band[s]" purposes alleged cause action. Accordingly, affirm Appeals. respectfully dissent reversal judgment. Alexander Hamilton said, "It amendable individual consent." Federalist 81, pp. 548-549 (J. Cooke 1961) added deleted). James Madison Virginia Convention ("It call court"), J. Elliot, Debates Several Conventions Adoption 533 1863) ("[A]n proceed obtain state, though he state.") 555-556 645, 493, (1892), adverted distinction explicitly, describing having "proceeded 'it amenable consent,' 645-646, 493-494, concluding suability violence sovereignty." 646, 494. alluded President Washington Cornplanter Seneca Nation: "Here, security remainder your lands. No person, purchase lands, public treaty, "If you complaint [a purchaser], make satisfactory proof thereof, open redress, persons." Papers, Affairs, Vol. p. 142 denying disadvantage relation asking favorable others enjoy. officers official capacity, name. Fiske, 18, 27, 21, 145 (1933). plaintiffs named Montana defendant, officers, eliminated 1341 well. think Since objected issue. asserting state's defense post, minority repeated mistake Chisolm Dall. 419, 440 (1793), 434-450 (Iredell, occasioned itself. fact suffice show defenses claim. wholly distinct. waive does, certainly minority's returns Sisyphus, beginning 200-year struggle. enable overcome express qualify "tribes" reads: Amdt. 11.

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