Document: 437 U.S. 678 98 S.Ct. 2565 57 L.Ed.2d 522 Terrell Don HUTTO et al., Petitioners,v.Robert FINNEY al. No. 76-1660. Argued Feb. 21, 1978. Decided June 23, Rehearing Denied Jan. 15, 1979. See 439 1122, 99 1035. Syllabus After finding in respondent prison inmates' action against petitioner officials that conditions the Arkansas system constituted cruel and unusual punishment violation of Eighth Fourteenth Amendments, District Court entered a series detailed remedial orders. On appeal to Appeals, petitioners challenged two aspects relief: (1) an order placing maximum limit 30 days on confinement punitive isolation; (2) award attorney's fees be paid out Department Correction funds, based Court's had acted bad faith failing cure previously identified violations. The Appeals affirmed assessed additional fee cover services appeal. Held: 1. did not err including 30-day limitation sentences isolation as part its comprehensive remedy correct constitutional Where question before court was whether these past violations been remedied, it entitled consider severity assessing constitutionality cells, length time each inmate spent being simply one consideration among many. Pp. 685-688. 2. funds is adequately supported by faith, does violate Eleventh Amendment. served same purpose fine imposed for civil contempt, vindicated court's authority over recalcitrant litigant. There no reason distinguish from any other penalty enforce prospective injunction, Amendment's substantive protections do prevent Department's officers their official capacities, fact directed rather than constitute reversible error. 689-693. 3. Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Awards Act 1976, which provides "[i]n action" certain rights laws (including law under this brought), federal courts may prevailing parties reasonable "as costs," supports Appeals. 693-700. (a) Act's broad language primarily applies specifically passed restrain unlawful state action, well legislative history, make clear Congress, when Act, intended exercise power set aside States' immunity retroactive relief Amendment, authorize awards payable States are sued capacities. 693-694. (b) Costs have traditionally awarded without regard Amendment immunity, much too late single kind litigation cost whose recovery authorized Congress express statutory waiver immunity. 694-698. (c) neither State nor expressly named defendant, preclude Appeals' award, since although prevented respondents suing name, injunctive suit was, all practical purposes, brought State, so absent indication entity bear burden award. 699-700. 548 F.2d 740, affirmed. Garner L. Taylor, Jr., Little Rock, Ark., petitioners. Philip E. Kaplan, respondents. Mr. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court.* 1 penal punishment, United Circuit, petitioners1 funds. 740 (1977). We granted certiorari, 434 901, 295, 54 187, now affirm. 2 This began 1969; sequel earlier cases holding violated Amendments.2 Only brief summary facts necessary explain basis 3 routine ordinary convict endure were characterized "a dark evil world completely alien free world." Holt v. Sarver, 309 F.Supp. 362, 381 (ED Ark. 1970) (Holt II). That characterization amply evidence.3 punishments misconduct serious enough result cruel,4 unusual,5 unpredictable.6 It discipline known "punitive isolation" most relevant present purposes. 4 Confinement indeterminate period time. An average 4, sometimes many 10 or 11, prisoners crowded into windowless 8'x10' cells containing furniture source water toilet could only flushed outside cell. 300 825, 831-832 Ark.1969) I ). At night given mattresses spread floor. Although some suffered infectious diseases such hepatitis venereal disease, removed jumbled together morning, then returned at random evening. Id., 832. Prisoners received fewer 1,000 calories day;7 meals consisted 4-inch squares "grue," substance created mashing meat, potatoes, oleo, syrup, vegetables, eggs, seasoning paste baking mixture pan. Ibid. 5 unconstitutional, immediately impose own. Instead, "make substantial start" improving file reports progress. I, supra, 833-834. When progress proved unsatisfactory, second hearing held. found improvements, but concluded remained unconstitutional. II, F.Supp., 383. Again offered administrators opportunity devise plan own remedying violations, issued guidelines, identifying four areas change would worst evils: increasing safety, eliminating barracks sleeping arrangements, putting end trusty system. 385. ordered move rapidly became available. 6 appeal, 442 304 (CA8 1971), more hearings held 1972 1973 review Finding continuing supervision longer necessary. held, however, prior decrees remain effect noted sanctions, costs fees, if occurred. Hutto, 363 194, 217 Ark.1973) III 7 reversed decision withdraw supervisory jurisdiction, Finney Board Correction, 505 194 1974), fourth hearings. 410 251 Ark.1976). that, respects, seriously deteriorated 1973, withdrawn jurisdiction. Cummins Farm, condemned overcrowded 1970 because housed inmates, population about 1,500. 254-255. situation particularly disturbing. either misjudged become worse then. 275. twice beds cells. And inmates often violently antisocial, overcrowding led persecution weaker prisoners. "grue" diet still use, practically losing weight it. vandalized "very substantial" extent. 276. Because inadequate numbers, guards assigned frequently resorted physical violence, using nightsticks Mace efforts maintain order. left months, release depending "their attitudes appraised personnel." 8 cured. placed limits number men confined cell, required bunk, discontinued diet, sentence. gave matter expenses, made counsel $20,000.00 funds." 285. $2,500 expenses F.2d, 743. 9 * ban inflicting punishments, applicable "proscribe[s] physically barbarous punishments." Estelle Gamble, 429 97, 102, 97 285, 290, 50 251. prohibits penalties grossly disproportionate offense, Weems States, 349, 367, 544, 549, L.Ed. 793, those transgress today's " 'broad idealistic concepts dignity, civilized standards, humanity, decency.' S.Ct., quoting Jackson Bishop, 404 571, 579 1968). cell form subject scrutiny standards. Petitioners challenge proposition; they disagree with original conclusion Arkansas' prisons, punishment. Rather, portion recent forbids sentence isolation. assume always assumption misreads holding. Read entirety, makes abundantly considered vacuum. In words, "is necessarily be, duration thereof." 275.8 perfectly obvious every remove particular general unusual. If new materially different affecting prisoners, transfer prisoner's might unobjectionable within administrator. Cf. Meachum Fano, 427 215, 96 2532, 49 451. equally plain, cannot ignored deciding meets A filthy, tolerable few intolerably weeks months. 11 trial remedied. took note continued overcrowding, rampant "lack professionalism good judgment security 277 278. find error taken whole, prohibition 12 fashioning remedy, ample go beyond orders address element contributing violation. repeated opportunities fully complied orders, unnecessary. But taking long unhappy history account, justified entering insure risk compliance.9 13 interdependence producing atmosphere violence attributable, part, deep-seated nmities growing months constant daily friction.10 will help conditions.11 Moreover, presents little danger interference administration, Commissioner himself stated should ordinarily 14 days. Finally, discretion case special deference judge's years experience problem hand his recognition kind.12 Like we inclusion remedy. II Attorney General Arkansas, office has represented throughout litigation, contends prohibited He also argues incorrectly 1976. hold A. Award 15 overcome State's protection, he accuracy approved Appeals.13 Nor settled rule litigant's justify allowance party.14 merely requiring public violates 16 landmark Ex parte Young, 209 123, 28 441, 52 714 giving directly enjoin Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 94 1347, 39 662, grants monetary relief, reaffirmed principle immune relief. Aware difference between "will instances day night," id., 667, 1357, emphasized distinction immunize obligation obey costly federal-court compliance "ancillary" enforcing law. 668, 1358.15 line rigid defeats effective enforcement 17 requires application principle. exercising powers Young reduced issuing injunctions hoping compliance. Once issued, injunction enforced. Many weapons involve financial penalties. criminal contempt prosecution "resistance [the court's] lawful . order" jail term fine. 18 U.S.C. § 401 (1976 ed.). proceedings yield conditional iMine Workers, 330 258, 305, 67 677, 702, 91 884. punished fine, compensates party who won effects opponent's noncompliance. 304, 701; Gompers Bucks Stove & Range Co., 221 418, 31 492, 55 797. agency refuses adhere order, means insuring principles federalism inform doctrine surely require sending high jail.16 less intrusive properly treated ancillary case, contempt. Compensation sole motive award; setting amount fee, said effort compensate work done o case." allow "substantial" "the thereof incline act manner further protracted prisons necessary." Ibid.17 see injunction.18 Hence 19 Instead defendants "to objects order,19 useful recast language. directives comparable actual impact pausing attach significance used Court.20 Even better omit reference use 20 Petitioners, litigants pay "for appeal." direct General, faith. founded instead provisions Pub.L.No.94-559, 90 Stat. 2641, 42 1988 declares suits 1983 statutes, costs."21 21 As Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 445, 2666, 614, plenary undoubtedly itself broader. "any" laws. contains hint exception defending actions; indeed, action. See, e. g., 1983. 22 plain: "[I]t attorneys' like items costs, collected official, capacity, control, local government (whether party)." S.Rep.No.94-1011, p. (1976) (footnotes omitted), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News pp. 5908, 5913. House Report accord: "The greater resources available governments provide base can plaintiff governmental entities." H.R.Rep.No.94-1558, (1976). adds footnote that: "Of course, 11th bar awarding governments. Bitzer." n. 14. Congress' intent expressed deeds words. rejected least attempts amend awards.22 23 quarrel established supra. plain indications enough. view, must enact making liable wishes abrogate immunity.23 points refused liability absence extraordinarily explicit mandate. Employees Missouri Public Health Welfare Dept., 411 279, 93 1614, 36 251; 662. concern prelitigation conduct incurred seeking 24 imposes costs." practice goes back 1849 Court. Iowa, How. 660, 681, 861, 870; North Dakota Minnesota, 263 583, 44 208, 68 461 (collecting cases). never viewed barring awards, even individual litigants.24 Fairmont Creamery Co. 275 70, 48 72 168, squarely claim Far abrogation relied mandate entirely silent liability.25 inherent orderly administration justice litigant." 74, 99. interest orderly, expeditious "justifies [it] treating just litigant, imposing upon it" called for. 77, 100.26 25 Just treat litigant assesses definition taxable amended class apply litigants, stating intends For absurd whenever filing item, expert witness' added category costs.27 26 precedent item costs. England, solicitor client," Sprague Ticonic Nat. Bank, 307 161, 167, 59 777, 780, 83 1184, routinely taxed today, 1278. Alyeska Pipeline Service Wilderness Society, 421 240, 247 18, 95 1612, 1616, 141. America, awarded, there large common-law situations allowable include fees.28 Indeed, enacted War remains includes fixed recoverable costs.29 itself, Minnesota along costs.30 though governing statute nothing liability. immunity.31 defendant. State. actions show that. His defended began. 826. apparently awards; lawyers decided bring thereby risking another award.32 27 recognized purposes itself. generally obtained "either (1976), contrast, affected statute; continue "under traditional standard Supreme Alyeska." 7, litigated Consequently, counsel-fees accordingly 29 ordered. BRENNAN, concurring. join write separately answer POWELL. 32 agree decide U.S.C.A. (Supp.1978), authorizes States. POWELL takes unless damages requirements met. Citing ,S.Ct. 662 (1974), concludes and, accordingly, either. difficulties syllogism, striking reliance foundations seem undermined our later holdings 614 Monell New York City Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 2018, 56 611 (1978). 33 gainsaid argument "was create section officers, itself." U.S., 676-677, 1362. decided, consented waived Petty Tennessee-Missouri Bridge Comm'n, 359 275, 79 785, 804 (1959); Parden Terminal R. 377 184, 84 1207, 233 (1964); S.C (1973). Edelman, summarized follows: "question consent [our] turn question, participation [a regulated activity] [Eleventh Amendment] immunity." 672, 1360. very least, literally States." short jump proposition, 1983—which thought natural persons defendants, Monroe Pape, 365 187-191, 81 473, 484-486, 492 (1961)—was statutes lead best summed up REHNQUIST, author supra : 34 "We none plaintiffs contained authorization 1871, 1983, (1961), exclude cities municipal corporations ambit; defendant." 452, 2669. 35 stood still. Two Terms ago, first asked us relationship Amendment."1 456, 2671. sovereignty embodies, limited Amendment." (Citation omitted.) went hold: "Congress may, determining what 'appropriate legislation' private constitutionally impermissible contexts." 37 Then, 1983—a pursuant 665, 2040-2041—did intend municipalities units included whom applies." 690, 2035. alone appear vitiate vitality Fitzpatrick's explanation Edelman.2 38 central 25, ch. 71, 2, 431, provided word "person" describe suits. 688, 2027. construed seems inescapable t possible follows 1871: "[I]n acts hereafter 'person' extend applied bodies politic corporate context shows words sense ." 40 phrase "bodies corporate" now, certainly 1871 synonym "State." Maurice, F.Cas. 1211, 1216 (No. 15,747) (CC Va.1823) (Marshall, C. J.) ("The consequently body corporate"). Pfizer, Inc. Government India, 308, 584, 563 41 Given Monell, essential premise holding—that involved States," 1360—would clearly true. open kinds, notwithstanding Whether so, course await appropriate case.3 POWELL, THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, concurring dissenting part.* 43 While Parts I1 II-A opinion, subscribe Part II-B's reading permitting counsel-fee concededly "an Ante, 698. 1362, b power, consistent payment treasury." 1362 (citations omitted). 1976 (Act), ed.), sought overrule holding.2 threshold congressional sue wholly absent." 1360 (emphasis supplied). Absent authorization, grounded sufficiently alert voting Member implications legislation, undermine values inferring silence "place enormous fiscal burdens 284, 1618, 45 notes Committee Reports defeat proposed amendments indicate 694. evidence persuasive support "waiver" enactment terms designated instrumentalities." Compare 2669, Employees, 283, 284-285, 1617, 1618.3 sensitive area conflicting interests dimension, permit substitute "hesitant presume awareness," SEC Sloan, 103, 121, 1702, 1713, 148 (1978), consequences provision States.4 46 maintains (i) liability, (ii) contrasted Commerce Clause. ground justification dilution "clear statement" rule. 47 Notwithstanding limitations justification, ante, 697 27, am unwilling ignore otherwise "costs." Counsel American courts. 141 (1975); Arcambel Wiseman, Dall. 306, 613 (1796). Quite unlike sums charge intimately related mechanics litigation. therefore accept courtroom." 696 24.5 having "ancillary treasury," 1358, avoids need protections. restitutor unbudgeted disbursements satisfy stemming (as opposed post-litigation) activities. stretches rationale characterize [are] nature." purely decree, budgeting take account expenditures entailed compliance, retains flexibility implementing reduce fisc. considerations induce curtail activity triggering obligation. Here, potentially measure respect diluted stems recognizing "[w]hen 5" "it [legislative] sections embody authority," view overruling, implication, 19836—the quintessential measure—or disturbing "threshold [requirement] 1360.7 defendant," Fitzpatrick, here, meaning ascribing intention override immunity,8 dissent II-B opinion. 51 dissenting.* affirmance shown Constitution aberration light decisions recently last Term carefully defining Dayton Education Brinkman, 433 406, 2766, 53 851 (1977); Milliken Bradley, 267, 2749, 745 (1977) (Milliken several theories advances assessment taxpayers convincing Accordingly, dissent. No person feeling fail moved recitation formerly Yet fear allowed well-established bounds limiting district extent defined 280-281, 2757. "In place, equitable remedies, nature desegregation determined scope Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg Education, [supra] 402 [1], 16, [1267], 1276, 554 [(1971)]. 'the c ndition alleged offend [v. Bradley], 418 [717,] 738, [3112,] 3124, 1069 [(1974)]. Second, decree indeed nature, is, designed nearly 'to restore victims discriminatory position occupied conduct.' 746, [3112], 3128. Third, devising authorities managing affairs, Constitution." (Footnotes omitted.)1 way relates condition offensive Constitution. stripped descriptive verbiage, prophylactic rule, doubtless assure humane complying forth dispute offended Constitution, cessation practices. restricted 251, 278 today remarks ignored," 686, described becomes unconstitutional 31st day. seek justifications Certainly "restore[s] conduct." 717, 3112, 3128, (1974) grant future offenders benefits requires; plight school system, students grades receive instruction discrimination subjected grades. 281-283, petitioners' collateral eliminate conduct. E ucation, 1, 28, 1267, 1282, (1971). where justified, Dayton, 419-420, 2775; Pasadena Spangler, 424, 435-437, 2697, 2704-2705, 599 (1976); Swann, 31-32, 1283-1284. asserted despite dissimilarity contexts, mechanical—and easily enforced—method minimizing overcrowding." 688 11. fails third cited 281, extended isolation, inconsistent difficulty policing violative expansion repeatedly contumacious, case. dissatisfaction performance direction start," 833 Ark.1969), alleviating inference prepared defy specific laid down proper affairs," 2757, opposite conclusion.2 58 enjoins therefore, assuring occur future. unitary management entrusted role separate First, holds responsible Attorneys' results totally unnecessary intrusion supportable outlining 60 contest reason, occasion showing 258-259, 1622, (1975). issue treasury ancillary-effect (1974). 61 concomitant conform dictates "State officials, shape decrees, likely spend money pursue previous 1358. suggests comply validly "If compliance." 691. Court, "refuse[d] order." jealous defense operate correctional casually equated court.3 62 willfully defied conclude respondents' right sufficient acting personally recalcitrance penalize. engage speculation imposition "less intrusive" "sending jail." So Legislature already shall reimbursed judgments 1977 Ark.Gen. 543. 63 safely involved. insists, 699 32, "manifestly unfair" leave collection treasury. thus insistence "unfair" them individually rings somewhat hollow.4 equities strongly favor sta e entity) possibility old (1908), Great Northern Life Insurance Read, 322 47, 64 873, 88 1121 (1944); Ford Motor Treasury, 323 459, 65 347, 89 389 (1945); Since evidences disagreement cases, assertion "unfairness" doubtful irrelevant Likewise, inhibit fearless duties deemed desirable, legislation various similar enacted. B reasons my Brother POWELL's join, valid addition reservations lack analysis accompanying transposition explicitly agencies violating conceded Equal Protection Clause haec verba claimed infliction "incorporates" me judicially "incorporated" drafters. reverse entirety. Mr WHITE joins members Correction. 825 Talley Stephens, 683 Ark.1965), 268 Ark.1967), vacated, 571 Judge Henley 1965, Chief Eastern Arkansas. appointed Circuit 1975, specially hear Judge. evidently tried profit. 688. institution center fields hours day, six week, mule-drawn tools tending crops hand. run fields, guard automobile horseback driving on. 213 They worked sorts weather, temperature above freezing, unsuitably clothing shoes. 370. slept large, 100-man convicts, "creepers," slip crawl floor, stalking enemies. 18-month period, stabbings, occurring barracks. 830-831. Homosexual rape common uncontrolled potential dared sleep; clinging bars nearest guards' station. 377. Inmates lashed wooden-handled leather strap five feet inches wide. 687. policy whipped minor offenses until skin bloody bruised. 810-811. "Tucker telephone," hand-cranked device, administer electrical shocks parts inmate's body. 812. Most guns. 373. employed eight themselves convicts. nonconvict kept watch night. "trusties" maintained appearance toll obtain access medical treatment bribed sick call. found, "within murder impunity," trusties deadly force escapees. 374. "Accidental shootings" occurred; fired shotgun off TV. Another beat badly victim partial dentures. 689. 2,700 recommended male 50. National Academy Sciences, Recommended Dietary Allowances, Appendix (8th rev. ed. 1974). active person; mature man spends lying sitting standing consumes approximately 2,000 27. reads following 76-page unqualified solitary unconstitutional: sentencing periods unreasonable unconstitutional." .Supp., full think quite describing paragraph "segregated thing; segregated thing." original). rehabilitation requirement. agreement witness testified "that exists serves rehabilitative purpose, counterproductive." 277. say "makes worse. changed." contention aspect serve purpose. Novak Beto, 453 661, 670-671 (CA5 1971); Nadeau Helgemoe, 561 411, 415-416 (CA1 1977). legal test. Its transition description conditions. quoted passage presaged come. explained 745, primary responsibility curing "If, however '[those] affirmative obligations judicial invoked.' 554. invoked, wrongs broad, breadth remedies.' past. ongoing immediate halt. Cooperation elimination safeguard future, postpone determination evaluated. hate them, harbor hatreds employees time." early 1969, shorter 834. attendant vandalism unsanitary 369: inquiry invaded Penitentiary concerned questions addressed administrative judgment. standpoint penology forbidden affirming chiefly record enumerated [Pipeline 141]." 742 6. equity unquestioned delaying disrupting hampering 141; Christiansburg Garment EEOC, 412, 694, 648; Straub Vaisman Inc., 540 591, 598-600 (CA3 1976); cf. Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 56(g) (attorney's affidavits "in solely delay"); 37(a)(4) (motions compel discovery; recover fees). vindicates resort drastic sanctions whole caused obstinacy. First Bank Dunham, 471 712 1973). Of penalty. Toledo Scale Computing 261 399, 458, 719; Signal Delivery Service, Highway Truck Drivers, F.R.D. 318 Pa.1975). "Ancillary" indeed. Last Term, example, ordering almost $6 million defray desegregating Detroit 293, 2763 (POWELL, J., judgment). Note, Harv.L.Rev. 1875, 1892 compensatory event contemnor's disobedience. rulings programs misdeeds, saying: "That 'compensatory' operates prospectively delayed barred 2762 disregarding stands footing; powers, integral argued unexpected interfered process. prohibit moderation size adjust budget paying fee. 666 timing put issue; larger understand urge personally; remarkable individuals represent treasurer sum "this Michigan," App. Pet. Cert. O.T.1976, 76-447, 116a-117a, affirming, one-half costs" Bradley Milliken, 229, 245 (CA6 1976). B. declares: proceeding §§ 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981 Revised Statutes [42 1981-1983, 1985, 1986], title IX Law 92-318 [20 1681 seq. ed.)], proceeding, behalf enforce, charging of, Internal Revenue Code [26 VI 1964 2000d seq.], court, discretion, party, 2641. 122 Cong.Rec. 31832-31835 (amendment Sen. Helms); 32296 32396-32397 Allen). 32931 William Scott). one, pending practice, argument. declared: accordance bill date .. Richmond School Board, 416 696, 2006, 476. allowing antedate drawn strain distinction. Unlike "retroactive" restitution, injury him court. reimburses (An invariably incidental parties, 54(d), successfully pursued State.) litigating assess important well-recognized tool behavior during Rule 37(b) (costs failure discovery order); 30(g) attend deposition subpoena). defends exempt courtroom. [for costs] needed, 254 Judicial 'taxed cause Court' printing record, except emphatic printing, loses, criminal. These constitutes pro tanto defeated." 100. evenhanded pressing lower courts, widely understood foreclosing objection Skehan Trustees, 538 53, 1976) (en banc); Utah (CA10 1962); ex rel. Griffin McMann, 310 (EDNY 1970). formal requirement insures "enormous States" careful thought. Tribe, Intergovernmental Immunities Litigation, Taxation Regulation, 682, 695 costs—limited partially compensating successful expense suit—could hardly hardship Thus suggest expand concept expenses. listed 260-261, 33, 1623. Some define while others 2000a-3(b) 216(b) (1970 ed., Supp. V). 1923(a) ($100 admiralty appeals involving $5,000). Inflation nominal, undiminished force. File Clerk O.T. 1926, 725. abr gate relying dealing misplaced. backpay institutions "found [statute] citizen courts." 1618. add, moreover, statute's meaningless. Secretary Labor empowered violators, amendment covering them. 285-286, focusing liability; firmly suggestion awards. Moreover intricate regulatory scheme offering alternative methods obtaining claims rooted Art. power. 1616 (claim Fair Standards 201 seq.); 674, 1361 (underlying Security aid aged, blind, disabled, 1381-1385). pointed "[T]he embodies 5, grant, authority." League Cities Usery, 426 833, 852 17, 2465, 2474, 245. Applying doubt argue borne protect Nonetheless, Brethren alone. faith; denies proper, dissenters' protects officers. dissenters "may involved." Post, 716 (REHNQUIST, dissenting). manifestly unfair when, personal defies "exercise undue timidity." Wood Strickland, 420 321, 992, 1000, 214. noted, Virginia, 100 339, 676 (1880). questioned whether, meant follow 673-674, 30, 2027, rests proposition statement face statute. post, 705-706. tells "congressional 709 suppose meet clear-statement test, alternatively, undisclosed works REHNQUIST dissents 2584, remedies settled. extraordinary evident minimal reserved compels "basis concluding liability," "limited purposes." 54, 2035 states "prerequisite" employer" "wanting Employees," 2670, literal employers, "not suggested "[t]he changes Title VII closely paralleled Act," Baker, Federalism U.Colo.L.Rev. 139, 171 152 (1977), comparing 449 2668, 282-283, 1616-1617, availability Employment Opportunity Commission failed conciliation agreement. 1972, 86 104, 2000e-5(f)(1) V); H.R.Rep.No.92-238, 17-19 (1971); S.Rep.No.92-415, 9-11 S.Conf.Rep.No.92-681, 17-18 (1972); H.R.Conf.Rep.No.92-899, (1972), 2137. "By unenforceable contrary apparent statute, ensure[s] unmistakable, structuring process centrifugal forces greatest states' interests." Taxation, Regulation: Separation Powers Issues Controversies About Federalism, places 168 (1927), sovereign prevents "when [it is] discussion "did mention eleventh amendment. Furthermore, initiated fall amendment's 'commenced prosecuted against' states." 1890 BRENNAN's asserts undermined, sub silentio, re-examination undertaken Monell. ignores adverting (1961). "thought 701. entertained doubts "power municipalities," "believe them." 190, 191, 486. illustrates, independent appears dispense altogether, embrace today. relies politic" "Dictionary adequate rendered obsolete Act" expose century jurisprudence, damages, give point. "dissenting individual] icers alone." 32. issue, fairly embraced presented, us. below "services appeal" petitioners, 742-743 anyone. "allows (in ) 698-699, 2040 deliberately mandatory moderate approach [which left] judge, guided interpreting provisions." 214 (1975), H.R.Rep. 94-1558, 9, culpability officer observation "[i]f 698 31. Significantly, meaningless waiver. suggests, 687 halt." wide mark. "remed[y] past," "seeking halt," circumscribed text II. anything, ingenuity "bring halt" "remedying past." refrains characterizing excess punishment; position, "remedial" place reserve precautionary similarity "no majority minority" theory enforceable mechanism preventing discrimination. event, supporting 285 desire weaken resistance legitimate true ed.) leaves expected alleviate unfairness.

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