Document: 482 U.S. 304 107 S.Ct. 2378 96 L.Ed.2d 250 FIRST ENGLISH EVANGELICAL LUTHERAN CHURCH OF GLENDALE, Appellant,v.COUNTY LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA. No. 85-1199. Argued Jan. 14, 1987. Decided June 9, Syllabus In 1957, appellant church purchased land on which it operated a campground, known as "Lutherglen," retreat center and recreational area for handicapped children. The is located in canyon along the banks of creek that natural drainage channel watershed area. 1978, flood destroyed Lutherglen's buildings. response to flood, appellee Los Angeles County, 1979, adopted an interim ordinance prohibiting construction or reconstruction any building structure protection included Lutherglen had stood. Shortly after was adopted, filed suit California court, alleging, inter alia, denied all use Lutherglen, seeking recover damages inverse condemnation such loss use. court granted motion strike allegation, basing its ruling Agins v. Tiburon, 24 Cal.3d 266, 157 Cal.Rptr. 372, 598 P.2d 25 (1979), aff'd other grounds, 447 255, 100 2138, 65 106 (1980), Supreme Court held landowner may not maintain based upon "regulatory" taking, compensation required until challenged regulation has been excessive action declaratory relief writ mandamus government nevertheless decided continue effect. Because alleged regulatory taking sought only damages, trial deemed allegation be irrelevant. Appeal affirmed. Held: 1. claim case improperly Just Compensation Clause Fifth Amendment does require remedy "temporary" takings—those takings are ultimately invalidated by courts properly presented this case. earlier cases, unable reach question because either regulations considered issue state did effect factual disputes yet resolved authorities might still lead conclusion no occurred. Here, assumed complaint uncompensated "taking" ordinance, relied Court's decision limited nonmonetary relief, thus isolating remedial consideration. MacDonald, Sommer & Frates Yolo 477 340, 2561, 91 285 (1986); Williamson County Regional Planning Comm'n Hamilton Bank, 473 172, 105 3108, 87 126 (1985); San Diego Gas Electric Co. Diego, 450 621, 101 1287, 67 551 (1981); Agins, distinguished. Pp. 311-313. 2. Under Clause, where "taken" property land-use regulation, time before finally determined constitutes his property. designed limit governmental interference with rights per se, but rather secure event otherwise proper amounting taking. A entitled bring result self-executing character constitutional provision respect compensation. While typical occurs when acts condemn exercise power eminent domain, doctrine predicated proposition occur without formal proceedings. "Temporary" which, here, deny property, different kind from permanent Constitution clearly requires Once determines occurred, retains whole range options already available—amendment withdrawal domain. But government's activities have worked subsequent can relieve duty provide period during effective. Invalidation payment fair value would constitutionally insufficient remedy. 314-322. Reversed remanded. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL, POWELL, SCALIA, JJ., joined. STEVENS, J., dissenting opinion, Parts I III BLACKMUN O'CONNOR, joined, post, p. 322. Michael M. Berger, Angeles, Cal., petitioner. Jack R. White, respondent. Chief Justice REHNQUIST Court. 1 who claims We disagree, conclude these circumstances Fourteenth Amendments United States period. 2 First English Evangelical Lutheran Church 21-acre parcel Middle Fork Mill Creek National Forest. owned Forest Service. Twelve acres flat land, contained dining hall, two bunkhouses, caretaker's lodge, outdoor chapel, footbridge across creek. site 3 July 1977, forest fire denuded hills upstream destroying approximately 3,860 creating serious hazard. Such flooding occurred February 9 10, storm dropped 11 inches rain watershed. runoff overflowed Creek, 4 canyon, Interim Ordinance 11,855 January 1979. provided "[a] person shall construct, reconstruct, place enlarge structure, portion is, will be, within outer boundary lines Canyon. . ." App. Juris. Statement A31. effective immediately county "required immediate preservation public health safety. Id., at A32. described areas side 5 Superior little more than month adopted. As subsequently amended, against Flood Control District. first defendants were liable under Cal.Govt. Code Ann. § 835 (West 1980)1 dangerous conditions their properties contributed Lutherglen. part claim, also "Ordinance denies [appellant] Lutherglen." 12, 49. second District tort engaging cloud seeding flooded Appellant each count moved portions alleging county's view rendered "entirely immaterial irrelevant[, with] bearing conceivable cause herein." 22. See Cal.Civ.Proc.Code 436(a) Supp.1987) ("The [s]trike out irrelevant, false, improper matter inserted pleading"). 6 supra, State Cal.3d, 275-277, Cal.Rptr., 376-78, P.2d, 29-31. court's view, maintenance allow force legislature decision, then, Based present It explained "a careful re-reading persuades even non-zoning deprives total lands, challenge way possibly mandamus." 26. irrelevant.2 7 On appeal, read one "damages 11,855. A13-A14. too rejecting action, declining appellant's invitation reevaluate light opinions (1981). found itself obligated follow "because ruled whether relief. A16. accordingly affirmed allegations concerning appellee's ordinance.3 review. 8 This appeal followed, we noted probable jurisdiction. 478 1003, 3292, 92 708 (1986). asks us hold erred Tiburon determining Amendment, made applicable through courts.4 Four times decade, similar ourselves reason another consider merits rule. Co., supra; supra. For reasons below, however, find case, facts inconsistently requirements Amendment. * Concerns finality left cases asked rule Agins. Frates, U.S., 351, 2567 (summarizing cases). concluded 263, S.Ct., 2142, 351-353, 2567-2568; 188-194, 3117-3120; 631-632, 1293-1294. Consideration those circumstances, concluded, premature. 10 posture quite different. Appellant's [it] Lutherglen," deprivation. affirming 11,855." A13-A14 (emphasis added). "the [is limited] Juris A16 disposition grounds isolates our rejection rest they false. Cf. 352-353, n. 8, 2568, (California rejected deprived beneficial property); 259, 6, 2141, (same). Nor rely theory measures never constitute sense. Instead, irrelevant solely unavailable redress taking.5 that, regardless correctness "all declared unconstitutional, then declaration seeks enforce it. pretermitted therefore squarely here.6 reject suggestion treatment question, must independently evaluate adequacy resolve question. However "cryptic"—to description—the were, them sufficient issue. occasion decide actually property7 avoid compensable establishing denial insulated State's authority enact safety regulations. See, e.g., Goldblatt Hempstead, 369 590, 82 987, 130 (1962); Hadacheck Sebastian, 239 394, 36 143, 60 L.Ed. 348 (1915); Mugler Kansas, 123 623, 273, 31 205 (1887). These questions, course, remain open remand direct today. now turn pay takings.8 II 12 begin reference language provides relevant "private [shall not] taken use, just compensation." indicates, frequently noted, prohibit private instead places condition power. 194, 3120; Hodel Virginia Surface Mining Reclamation Assn., Inc., 452 264, 297, 40, 2352, 2371, 69 Hurley Kincaid, 95, 104, 52 267, 269, 76 637 (1932); Monongahela Navigation States, 148 312, 336, 13 622, 630, 37 463 (1893); Jones, 109 513, 518, 346, 349, 27 1015 (1883). basic understanding makes clear Thus, works necessarily implicates "constitutional obligation Armstrong 364 49, 80 1563, 1569, 1554 (1960). recognized " 'the .' Clarke, 445 253, 257, 1127, 1130, 63 373 quoting P. Nichols, Eminent Domain 25.41 (3d rev. ed. 1972). BRENNAN's dissent 654-655, 1305, established least since Jacobs 290 13, 54 26, 78 142 (1933), grounded itself: 14 "The suits right That guaranteed Constitution. fact proceedings instituted asserted owners change essential nature claim. form qualify right. rested Statutory recognition necessary. promise implied imposed founded States." 16, 27. (Emphasis added.) Jacobs, moreover, stand alone, repeated Kirby Industries, Inc. 467 1, 5, 104 2187, 2191, 81 (1984); Causby, 328 256, 66 1062, 1068, 90 1206 (1946); Seaboard Air Line 261 299, 304-306, 43 354, 355-356, 664 (1923); Navigation, 327, 626.9 15 Holmes' Pennsylvania Coal Mahon, 260 393, 158, 322 (1922), "[t]he general while regulated certain extent, if goes far taking." 415, 160. entire Pumpelly Green Bay Wall. 166, 177-178, 20 557 (1872), construing Wisconsin identical said: 16 "It very curious unsatisfactory result, refrains absolute conversion real uses destroy entirely, inflict irreparable injury can, effect, subject destruction making compensation, because, narrowest sense word, use." 17 Later unhesitatingly applied principle. Kaiser Aetna 444 164, 383, 62 332 (1979); Dickinson, 331 745, 750, 1382, 1385, 1789 (1947); 18 disavowed believe truncated disallowing prior ultimate invalidation regulation. justified length concluding that: 19 "In combination, need preserving degree freedom planning function, inhibiting financial inheres remedy, persuade balance appropriate circumstances." 276-277, 378, 31. We, unmindful considerations, evaluated command elect abandon intrusion discontinue Dow, 357 17, 1039, 1046, 1109 (1958). Similarly, body acquiesce judicial ordinances effected unconstitutional property; insist abandonment land. 21 considering substantial guidance temporarily exercised though Government proceedings, observed "results alteration interest taken—from [one of] full ownership temporary occupation. measured principles normally governing temporarily. Kimball Laundry 338 1434, 93 1765 [1949]; Petty Motor 327 596, 729 [1946]; General Motors Corp., 323 373, 357, 89 311 [1945]." Each cited Dow involved appropriation World War II. Though "temporary," see 375, 598, (1946), there Government's concerned measure monetary holders entitled. 4-21, 1437-1445, (1949); 377-381, 599-601; 379-384, 360-362, (1945). 22 reflect takings, 657, 1307 (BRENNAN, dissenting) ("Nothing suggests 'takings' irrevocable"). axiomatic Amendment's "designed bar forcing some people alone bear burdens fairness justice, should borne whole." 1569. Penn Central Transportation New York City, 438 123-125, 98 2646, 2658-2659, 57 631 (1978); 325, 625. became immediately. date hearing October 1985, determined. leasehold interests shorter duration this. years substantial, burden owner extinguishing great indeed. Motors, Where results amounted 261, 1065-1066 ("It owner's loss, taker's gain, taken"). successor time, converting into one, meet demands Clause. 23 Appellee argues requiring inconsistent decisions Danforth 308 271, 231, 84 240 (1939), (1980). Danforth, contended institution enactment Act itself. He claimed passage diminished plan embodied flowage easement context paid, went say reduction increase legislation beginning completion project," "[s]uch changes incidents ownership. They cannot 'taking' sense." 285, 236. likewise city's preliminary constituted saying "[m]ere fluctuations process decisionmaking, absent extraordinary delay, 'incidents ownership.' 2143, 9. merely unexceptional valuation calculated depreciation activity chargeable government. work considerable extension invalid.10 Nothing today intended abrogate principle domain legislative function 'for Congress determine.' Hawaii Housing Authority Midkiff, 229, 240, 2321, 2329, 186 (1984), Berman Parker, 33, 75 98, 103, 99 (1954). Thus do not, Solicitor suggests, "permit behest person, Brief Amicus Curiae 26 point treat true purposes holding presented, course deal questions arise normal delays obtaining permits, zoning ordinances, variances, like us. realize undoubtedly lessen extent flexibility planners bodies municipal corporations enacting consequences flow upholding right; many provisions authorities, them. Holmes aptly 50 ago, strong desire improve enough warrant achieving cut paying change." 416, Here assume years, judgment reversed, remanded further opinion. 28 so ordered. 29 whom O'CONNOR join III, dissenting. 30 One thing certain. generate litigation. Most it, believe, unproductive. mere defend actions today's spawn significant adverse impact process. reached address answered self-imposed superficial and, way. flaws analysis merit special comment. First, unnecessarily imprudently assumes alleges Second, distorts precedents concludes allowed permanently, time. Third, incorrectly grant reverse correct own theories. Finally, errs Takings Due Process primary constraint unfair dilatory procedures 32 condemnation, alleged: 33 "16 34 "On 11, 11,855, provides: 35 'Section Canyon, vicinity Hidden Springs, shown Map ML 52, attached hereto incorporated herein fully set forth.' "17 "Lutherglen created 38 "18 39 40 request three paragraphs, consequently "taking."1 basis announced (1979). restriction file simply demand alone,2 violation Federal At most, assumed, arguendo, alleged. 41 allege Constitution,3 novel addresses. Even lack self-restraint imprudent, imperative stress enacted. No treated basis, demonstrate type program here 42 "Long ago 'all country injurious community.' Keystone Bituminous Assn. DeBenedictis, 480 470, 491-492, 1232, 1245, 94 472 (1987), 665, order protect community,4 unsafe structures, close unlawful business operations, infected trees, surely restrict access hazardous areas—for example, radioactive materials discharged, path lava erupting volcano, potentially life-threatening flood.5 When entity imposes types regulations, "burdened compensate individual pecuniary losses sustain, being permitted, noxious community." Mugler, 668-669, 300-301; generally Bituminous, 485-493, ---- - ----. legitimacy apparent face challenged.6 enacted "interim" "temporarily prohibiting" specified Board believed prohibition "urgently safety." true, presumption constitutionality applies enactments certainly challenging sort purpose justification colorable federal validity particularly invalid, pray invalidity injunction enforcement.7 indicating how interfered future contemplated planned appellant. tragic life precipitated hard understand ever expected rebuild 44 although springboard discussion discrete legal issue, could precedents, sufficiently effort preserve concerned, summarily merits. 45 There dispute about "too far" 160, (1922). happens, choice: regulate whose takes. usual wholly satisfactory. Paying prerogative sovereign. Alternatively, sovereign chooses retain repeal will, virtually mitigate overall substantially slight diminution caused classified assume, always situations existence severe damage remove label. hypothetical situation what calls "temporary But, contrary implications, permanently means dispositive invalidated. 46 paid. physical held. ante, 318 (citing appropriates purpose, return premises expiration lease obviously erase Or destroys chicken farm road flying planes over removing terminating flights palliate examples consistent minimal occupations give rise compensate. Loretto Teleprompter Manhattan CATV 458 419, 102 3164, 73 868 (1982). 47 make this, well other, respects. invasions see, Loretto, adversely affects values unless major property's value. 493-502, ----; 296, 2370, 260, inquiry unique takings. Unlike invasions, relatively rare easily identifiable economic analysis, programs constantly affect countless ways, most extreme Some dividing line between everyday inconveniences long used identifying line. put it: "Government hardly go incident every law." Coal, 413, 159. distinction ignores 48 Regulations dimensional; depth, width, length. define With amount encompassed restrictions. essentially, forth obvious elements analyzed hence determine declined focus segment coal petitioners' mines, looked mining project. 137, 2665, (1978) (looking buildings). Central, error prohibited examining profitable put. 130-131, 2662; 262-263, 2142; Andrus Allard, 51, 64-67, 318, 326-327, 210 Both factors meaningful reasonable investment-based expectations 49 senseless ignore assessing conduct restriction. Williams, Smith, Siemon, Mandelker, Babcock, White River Junction Manifesto, Vt.L.Rev. 193, 215-218 (1984). agreed Justice's suggested freeze am confident dissenters bituminous companies delay operations inspection made. hand, willing show prospective cure taking—that operation afforded happen, percentage useful life. application test restriction, scope severity. 190-191, 3118-3119, (1985) (refusing long-term effects uncertain restrictions permanently). 51 relies inapposite, takings—where inapplicable.8 None controversial; occupy individual's home escape leaving declaring occupation "temporary." takings? Why reduces fraction perhaps one-third—and postpones development presumably less third? former instance, occurred; latter proclaims provided. explain irreconcilable results. attempt fit proclamation boldly announces once stand, he she invalidation. Until today, repeatedly notion diminutions automatically activate requirement held: 53 correctly contention municipality's good-faith activities, successful prosecution burdened appellants' enjoyment ability sell pendency proceeding, appellants free develop ended. Mere sense.' 236, (1939).9 Our recent approach Williamson, (1986), review opportunity obtain variance permit forward. 3119; 348-353, 2565-2568. Implicit holdings assumption deprivation adequately remedied belated approval developer's plans. Sallet, Regulatory "Takings" Compensation: Search Solution Continues, Urb.Law. 635, 653 55 reasoning suffers internal inconsistency. Although purports "normal variances like," 321, why delays" equally same "gone sustained prepared Precisely estate plans occasioned protracted terminate board's served modification litigation ends determination existing restraint far," board developer variance. takes cognizance realities. appears erect artificial taking.10 56 my taking" looking terminated.11 Litigation gives "normal" administrative procedure controversial plan.12 plaintiff prove mean rose level recognizes adopt overburdensome allowing ordering afford 319; 362-363, 4, 2573, (WHITE, dissenting); 1306, (1981) dissenting). difference remedies assume. invalidates Legislative Executive Branch proceed scheme. prevent difference, therefore, happen inertia. Many scholars debated respective alternative approaches separation-of-powers concerns,13 concern considers appropriate. competent wishes implications routinely uses.14 58 problem invalidating objectionable becomes Appeal's stating aspect well, done refused contain precedent. 59 seriously errs, 'taken' property." Ante, 306 307. Perhaps discerns practice decisions, reversing procedural dismissal entirely endorses. Indeed, sure both requested regulating courts, relief" challenges 277, statement interpreted ways. exhaust equitable asserting damages. reading, postponement consideration separate proceeding ended, violate indicate award taking.15 rigid recovery few meritorious litigant contains explaining him adequate complies legitimate. Since implicated, California's somewhat "overbroad" permitting party complain complaints call 61 event, speculating Despite rule, rightful criminal steadfastly adhered defendant her collaterally attacking conviction supported sovereignty several having judges issues developed records. Rose Lundy, 455 509, 1198, 71 379 States' controlling exploring ramifications deference judiciary. 194-197, 3120-3122. And avoiding anything informed counsels trying forestalled know is. short, adhere granting confronting net pursue demanding procedures.16 permitted circumvent omitting prayer complaint. insisting much possible foisting unwilling purchaser. apparently agrees proposition. radical IV 64 possibility planning, forms unfairly deprive citizen manner best serve interests. "regulatory permissible protects motivated, conducted, decisionmaking. Violation safeguards mandated U.S.C. 1983, persuaded fairly conducted compensable, except unusual circumstances. contrary, convinced important orderly, amply justifies inevitable by-product democratic recently wrote: employ administration enforcement kinds impose utopian cost position completely vindicated. presume boards, school advance performing official duties, recognize often become controversies lose. costly harmful citizen, characterizing 205, 3127 (opinion concurring judgment). policy fear, reaching. Cautious local officials later action. Much enacted,17 Were Constitution, ignored. loose cannon fires unattached aim better valor hand igniting explosion touch off. respectfully dissent. Section establishes "for defendants' pleadings seeding. 1980), plaintiff's evidence, nonsuit behalf defendants, dismissing lower orders limiting proceeded trial, action—based strict liability tort. reversed maintained condemnation. apart particular discussed text, pending resolution jurisdiction "final judgmen[t] decre[e]" meaning 1257. think characterized "in highest [in had], survive outcome state-court proceedings." Cox Broadcasting Corp. Cohn, 420 469, 480, 95 1029, 1038, (1975). infra, ----, distinct law operation. "nor compensation," Chicago, B. Q.R. 166 226, 581, 979 (1897). urged dictum, Martino Santa Clara Valley Water District, 703 F.2d 1141, 1147 (CA9 1983) ("extended dictum"). dictum. A14-A15, Aptos Seascape Cruz, 138 Cal.App.3d 484, 493, 188 191, 195 (1982) ("[I]t intend [of taking] dictum cases"). Whether treating concern. "seek doing so" ripe 3120, (1985). met requirement. Having unavailable. 197, 3122. raised conclusions below. 1981 reproduced A32-A33, erect, move onto, alter, modify, reconstruct boundaries district [a]ccessory buildings structures impede water, including sewer, gas, electrical, water systems, approved engineer .; [a]utomobile parking facilities incidental lawfully use; [and] [f]lood-control chief District." 22.44.220. addition raises going appellate certiorari 1257, failed law. invoked argued "recent Constitutional [v. (1979) ]." Opposition Appellee's Second Motion Dismiss A13. Appeal, applying dismiss violated deficiencies issues. raised. Life Ins. Cohen, 234 123, 134, 874, 877, 1245 (1914). succeeded bringing preserved A14-A22, decision. Accordingly, passed below draw statute state. 1257(2). doubt [a] state" Erznoznik City Jacksonville, 422 207, 3, 2268, 2272, 125 construed denying providing revise here. (1982); (1980); (1978). By failure upheld here—just compensation—and terms urges prohibitory combined immunity, limitation act, provision. think, refute argument force, furnish money government." 14. arising various jurisdictional settings, dictates 655, 21, 1305-1306, dissenting), 748, 1384, (1947). Comm'n, contrary. There, "no denied." 13. statement, addressed establish occurring denied. Though, law, illegitimate refuses pay, earlier, (1984) (Where physically occupies 'inverse condemnation' Government"). explanation reads follows: "However rereading way: 25, plaintiffs 'open space' maximum five minimum dwelling units plaintiffs' acres. demurrer causes sustained, entered. dismissal, finding 'deprive property,' (Agins, 25), 'unconstitutionally interfere impermissibly decrease value' (ibid.). said 'mandamus [was] circumstances.' (Ibid.)." A14. familiar [is] cross-petition respondent support favor decision." McGoldrick Compagnie Generale, 309 430, 434, 670, 672, 849 (1940), citing American Railway Express 265 425, 435, 560, 563, 68 1087 (1924); Dandridge 397 471, 475-476, 1153, 1156-57, 491 (1970). settled bound (much assumption) states Staub Baxley, 355 313, 280, 302 (1958); Bank Guthrie Center Anderson, 269 341, 135, 70 295 (1926). Especially context, details significant, drain resources forward indication occurred." Pace Resources, Shrewsbury Township, 808 1023, 1026 (CA3), cert. denied, 906, 2482, 375 (1987). (1987) (coal mine subsidence); (1962) (rock quarry excavation); Miller Schoene, 276 272, 246, 72 568 (1928) (infectious tree disease); (1915) (emissions factory); (1887) (intoxicating liquors); 145, 2670, (REHNQUIST, forbidden safety, health, welfare others"). conclusion. 492, 22, 1246, justifications individuals 491, 20, 20. Cherokee Nation Oklahoma, 700, 1487, 704 adds thesis. reaffirmed traditional exercises assert navigational servitude "take" "from lawful riparian subject." 704, 1490. Plater, Issue Natural Setting: Floodlines Police Power, Tex.L.Rev. 201 (1974); F. Bosselman, D. Callies, J. Banta, Taking 147-155 (1973). take notice ordinance. provides, part: "ORDINANCE NO. "An construction, reconstruction, placement enlargement delineated urgency thereof Supervisors ordain "Section 4. Studies Department connection Engineer specific comprehensive plain management Mapping evaluation data progressed designated. Development encroach limits incompatible anticipated If amendment, amendment Article Chapter 1494. "By foregoing urgently thereof." 31-32. doubtful 1257(2) "(2) drawn ground repugnant treaties laws validity." jurisdiction, pursuant 1257(3). (1958), "entered possession began laying pipe tract." 19, 1043. (1949), Army laundry plant company, delivery equipment." 1436. acquired occupied tenants ordered vacate. (1945), leased building. feeble tautological "unexceptional 320 themselves directly condemn, ordinarily themselves, fortiori, not. associated terminates authorized delay" depends, suppose, unexplained rationale distinction. "[T]he says, intends, does." Hughes Washington, 389 290, 298, 88 438, 443, 530 (1967) (Stewart, concurring). stopped judicial, opposed decree, required. forum up resort processes claims. Land Use Takings: Issue, Hastings Const. L.Q. 233-234 Berger Kanner, Thoughts Manifesto: Reply "Gang Five's" Views Property, Loyola (LA) L.Rev. 685, 704-712 Comment, Invalidation: Availability Damages Remedy Challenging Regulations, UCLA 711, 725-726 reason, parties' amici's conflicting (1932), intrusive invalidation, choosing (invalidation compensation) dealing all. Subsequent shed habeas corpus prisoner exhausted Woods Nierstheimer, 211, 216, 996, 999, 1177 Ex parte Hawk, 321 114, 116-117, 448, 449-450, 572 (1944). equal answer "[a]fter all, policeman planner?" 661, 1309, To with, objective rules assess Irving, 481 713-714, 2076, 668 (1987); 65, 326, 123-124, 2658-2659. How better? confusing open-ended standardless are. commentator concluded: chaotic especially likely availability induce stay back invisible dare cross." Johnson, Invalid Land-Use Ga.L.Rev. 559, 594 Problem Municipal Liability Zoning Regulation, Cath.U.L.Rev. 465, Charles Diamond, N.Y.2d 331-332, 392 N.Y.S.2d 594, 604, 360 N.E.2d 1295, 1305 (1977); Allen Honolulu, Haw. 432, 439, 571 328, (1977). Another critical police missed civil liability; officers enjoy immunity good faith. Harlow Fitzgerald, 457 800, 2727, 396 Davis Scherer, 468 183, 3012, 139 Moreover, municipalities officers' routine errors. Monell Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 2018, 611 afraid "policy custom"

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