Document: 442 U.S. 584 99 S.Ct. 2493 61 L.Ed.2d 101 James PARHAM, Individually and as Commissioner of the Department Human Resources, et al., Appellants,v.J. R. al. No. 75-1690. Argued Dec. 6, 1977. Reargued Oct. 10, 1978. Decided June 20, 1979. Syllabus Appellees, children being treated in a Georgia state mental hospital, instituted Federal District Court class action against health officials. Appellees sought declaratory judgment that Georgia's procedures for voluntary commitment under age 18 to hospitals violated Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment, requested an injunction their future enforcement. Under statute providing admission regional hospitals, begins with application hospitalization signed by parent or guardian and, upon application, superintendent hospital is authorized admit temporarily any child "observation diagnosis." If after observation finds "evidence illness" "suitable treatment" may be admitted "for such period conditions law." statute, who has been hospitalized more than five days discharged at request guardian, superintendent, even without discharge, affirmative duty release "who recovered from his illness sufficiently improved determines patient no longer desirable." The held statutory scheme was unconstitutional because it failed protect adequately appellees' due process rights included least right notice adversary-type hearing before impartial tribunal. Held : erred holding State's admitting treatment since on record this case, medical factfinding processes are consistent constitutional guarantees. Pp. 598-621. (a) Testing challenged claim requires balancing (i) private interest will affected official action; (ii) risk erroneous deprivation through used, probable value, if any, additional substitute procedural safeguards; (iii) state's interest, including function involved fiscal administrative burdens requirement would entail. Cf. Mathews v. Eldridge, 424 319, 335, 96 893, 903, 47 18; Smith Organization Foster Families, 431 816, 848-849, 97 2094, 2112-2113, 53 14. 599-600. (b) Notwithstanding child's liberty not confined unnecessarily treatment, assuming person protectible erroneously labeled mentally ill, parents—who have traditional interests responsibility upbringing child—retain substantial, dominant, role decision, absent finding neglect abuse. However, nature decision parents do always absolute discretion institutionalize child; they retain plenary authority seek care children, subject independent judgment. Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 45 571, 69 L.Ed. 1070; Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 92 1526, 32 15; Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 64 438, 88 645; Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 43 625, 67 1042. Planned Parenthood Central Missouri Danforth, 428 52, 2831, 49 788, distinguished. 2503-2505. (c) State significant confining use costly facilities cases genuine need, imposing unnecessary obstacles discourage ill families seeking needed psychiatric assistance, allocating priority diagnosis patients soon rather time-consuming preadmission procedures. 604-606. (d) error inherent parental institutionalized great some kind inquiry should made "neutral factfinder" determine whether requirements satisfied, see Goldberg Kelly, 397 254, 271, 90 1011, 1022, 25 287; Morrissey Brewer, 408 471, 489, 2593, 2604, 33 484, probe background. decisionmaker must refuse does satisfy standards admission. need continuing reviewed periodically. 606-607. (e) require neutral factfinder law trained judicial officer; nor necessary physician conduct formal quasi-formal adversary conducted someone other physician. While decisionmaking free, nevertheless process, which includes thorough investigation followed periodic review condition identify admitted; risks significantly reduced formal, judicial-type hearing. 607-613. (f) practices, described record, comport minimum requirements. envisions careful diagnostic each hospital. "arbitrary" sense single professional "unbridled discretion" commit general unconstitutional, Court, remand, consider individual claims initial admissions particular did meet standards, also various hospitals' patients' institutional sufficient justify commitment. 613-617. (g) differences between situation where ward requests natural admission, requiring different time 617-620. 412 F.Supp. 112, reversed remanded. Douglas Lackey, Atlanta, Ga., appellants. John L. Cromartie, Jr., appellees. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented appeal what constitutionally minor whose administered specifically proceeding required prior 2 * Appellee1 J. R., plaintiff action2 based 42 U.S.C. § 1983, Middle Georgia. Appellants Director Mental Health Division Medical Officer appellee treated. Appellee 18, Ga.Code §§ 88-503.1, 88-503.2 (1975),3 Amendment 3 A three-judge convened pursuant 28 2281 (1970 ed.) 2284. After considering expert lay testimony extensive exhibits visiting two rights. Parham, 139 (1976). 4 To remedy violation, court enjoined commitments statute. It commanded appropriate expend whatever amount "reasonably necessary" provide nonhospital deemed appellant officials most those members plaintiffs' class, n. 2, supra, could less drastic, environment. F.Supp., 139. 5 all aspects Court's We noted jurisdiction, 936, 2647, 253, heard argument during 1977 Term. case then consolidated Secretary Public Welfare Institutionalized Juveniles, 640, 2523, 142, reargued 6 L., now deceased, 1970 years Regional Hospital Milledgeville, Ga. Prior had received out-patient over months. L.'s mother him indefinitely. 7 interviewed parents. He learned divorced remarried. expelled school he uncontrollable. accepted parents' representation boy extremely aggressive diagnosed having "hyperkinetic reaction childhood." 8 stepfather agreed participate family therapy son hospitalized. program, permitted go home short stays. Apparently behavior these visits erratic. several months, discontinuance program. 9 In 1972, returned furlough basis, i. e., live but found were unable control satisfaction, created stress. Within readmission State. relinquished county 1974. 10 Although employees recommended placed special foster "a warm, supported, truly couple," Family Children Services place setting. On October 24, 1975, (with R.) filed suit requesting order placing drastic environment suitable needs. 11 declared neglected removed when three months old. seven homes succession 7. 12 Immediately preceding hospitalization, outpatient center began attending so disruptive incorrigible conform normal patterns. Because abnormal behavior, R.'s seventh set removal home. agency provided complete sociomedical history addition, separate interviews team 13 determined borderline retarded, suffered "unsocialized, unanimously "benefit structured environment" "enjoy living playing boys same age." 14 progress re-examined unsuccessful efforts stay homes. L.) 15 Code 88-503.1 (1975) provides provision, "parent guardian." Upon given power If, observation, 16 discharge patients. Any guardian. 88-503.3(a) (1975). Even however, 17 published statewide regulations defining specific employ 18. Instead, hospital's responsible her facility. There substantial variation among institutions regard admitted. brief description procedures4 demonstrate variety approaches taken throughout Southwestern Thomasville, built 1966. Its adolescent program unit maximum capacity 20 beds, only there. 19 testified never previously community clinic. clinic helpful child, staff jointly evaluate proper likely date. thus admitted, weekly reviews performed its internal staff. monthly group composed people. average 1975 100 days. 21 Atlanta opened 1968. At adolescents unit. 22 affiliated nine centers agreement them "persons comprehensive every possible instance, hospitalized." criteria involuntary same. policy unless threat himself others. discloses approximately 25% referrals rejected 23 week. there utilization nonstaff professionals; considers random sample children's cases. length 161 24 Institute (GMHI) Decatur, 1965. housed 26 brought. affiliation four centers. Those refer certify "no alternative resources available within client's geographic area." For year trial except referral generally accepting hours clinic, reason treat community" deputy agrees, applicant 30 unspecified members. GMHI 346 27 Augusta 1969 clinics. December 1975. Approximately 90% first community, criterion "the needs hospitalization," approved psychiatrists. informal practice 29 physicians thereafter Savannah 1970, suit. directors 31 nonemergency basis referred psychiatrist, materials interview applicant, parents, child. weeks people juvenile judges. Thereafter, weekly. concludes ready released, committee assist placement. 127 West Columbus, 1974, organized budgetary purposes itself beds adolescents, occupied filed. 34 regarded last resort treating child"; 50% turned away 35 meetings daily discuss problem practicing psychiatrist once Depending problems, consultant 71 36 added existing structure 1970's. can accommodate 40 children. house adolescents. suit, 37 both named plaintiffs. clinics, seems higher percentage nonreferral hospitals. "admissions evaluator" "admitting physician." evaluator Ph.D. psychology, social worker, mental-health-trained nurse. psychiatrist. standard "whether From April 1974 November applicants screened noninstitutional settings. 38 All sent testing development plan. Generally, information compiled about "to continued hospitalization." 60 there, average, 456 explanation large institutions. 39 focus relevant note presently funds 50 clinics specialized new past years, oldest budget 1976 almost $150 million care. ranks 22d states per capita expenditures 15th total expenditures.5 nonetheless entire system substantive grounds. 46 "optimally cared another, restrictive, non-hospital setting available." 124-125. These "optimal" settings homes, therapeutic camps, home-care services. Governor chairmen Appropriations Committees legislature, testifying expressed confidence informed enlarging urged appellees addition available. 41 Having factual background plaintiffs, we turn examine legal bases II procedure juveniles, eight hospitals6 constitutes severe liberty. defined terms freedom bodily restraint "emotional psychic harm" caused institutionalization.7 implicated considered interest. "includes tribunal." 137. prescribed hearing, merely assisting afford making similar offered physicians. acknowledged good faith. It, relied one witnesses "some still look 'dumping ground.' " Id., 138.8 No evidence "dumping," record. 44 superintendents staffs inexactness psychiatry, coupled possibility sources used make reliable, superintendent's too arbitrary process. shifted drastically clearly analysis appears condemned "officialdom" failure, face state-funded 1973 report9 outlining "need" spent concluded causal relationship intransigence ability "flexible process" therefore ordered benefit it. III earlier day, problems coping afflicted emotional abnormalities dealt largely family. See S. Brakel & Rock, Mentally Disabled Law (1971). Sometimes aided teachers doctor. doubt able deal disturbed others especially limited means education, not. Increasingly, assistance local, public charities. Until recently, little custodial confinement persons dangerous. 5-6; Slovenko, Criminal Procedures Civil Commitment, Wayne L.Rev. 1, (1977) (hereinafter Slovenko). As knowledge concern expanded, states, substantially federal grants,10 ameliorate human tragedies seriously Ironically, expanded actions subjected increasing litigation heightened scrutiny. Courts resolve thorny attacks programs precedential guidance. balance individual, family, stake parties agree our holdings out approach claim. Assuming existence property number factors: 48 "First, second, finally, Government's entail." (1976), quoted inSmith 2111-2112, (1977). applying criteria, committed. Normally, inextricably linked obligation welfare combination concerns.11 Next, adopted Finally, how well arbitrariness disputed common adults, involvement Amendment. Addington Texas, 441 418, 425, 1804, 1809, 323 (1979); re Gault, 387 27, 87 1428, 1443, 527 (1967); Specht Patterson, 386 605, 1209, 326 (1967). recognize sometimes produces adverse consequences discovery U.S., 425-426, S.Ct., 1809. 51 This reaction, equated response resulting delinquent, criminal, possibly ibid.; 23, 1441; Paul Davis, 693, 711-712, 1155, 1165-1166, 405 "label" specialists conclude requires. injured commit. overlook source "stigmatizing" symptomatology illness. 429, 1811. Schwartz, Myers, Astrachan, Psychiatric Labeling Rehabilitation Patient, Archives General Psychiatry 329 (1974).12 pattern untreated, behavior—even nondangerous—arouses much negative becomes knowledge. needing, receiving, greater ostracism observable symptoms untreated disorder.13 52 decide effect factors might case. assume free restraints improper superintendent. next decided, observations recommendations, argue magnitude likelihood abuse subordinated extent 54 Our jurisprudence historically reflected Western civilization concepts broad consistently course; long ago notion mere creature State" contrary, asserted "have right, high duty, prepare [their children] obligations." 535, 573, 1070 (1925). 213, 1532, (1972); 166, 442, 645 (1944); 400, 627, 1042 (1923). Surely, "high duty" follow advice. law's concept rests presumption possess lacks maturity, experience, life's difficult decisions. More important, recognized bonds affection lead act best W. Blackstone, Commentaries 447; Kent, American 190. 55 many presumptions, experience reality rebut accepts starting point; incidence attests this. That "may times acting children" stated Bartley Kremens, 402 1039, 1047-1048 (ED Pa. 1975), vacated remanded, 119, 1709, 184 (1977), creates caution, hardly discard wholesale pages teach interests. Rolfe MacClintock 348-349. statist governmental supersede repugnant tradition. 56 Nonetheless, dealing physical jeopardized. 230, 1540; 442. Moreover, recently granted veto abortion. 788 urge precedents limiting viewed context abuse, us hold exacting scrutiny, adversary, pre-admission 57 Appellees' argument, sweeps broadly. Simply agreeable involves automatically transfer officer state. characterizations tonsillectomy, appendectomy, procedure. Most adolescence, simply sound judgments concerning decisions, treatment. Parents judgments. Here, instance bad faith member class. cannot result announced preference learn English public, church, school. fact balk complain refusal cosmetic surgery diminish Goldstein, Case Child Risk: Supervention Parental Autonomy, 86 Yale L.J. 645, 664-668 (1977); Bennett, Allocation Care Decisionmaking Authority: Suggested Interest Analysis, 62 Va.L.Rev. 285, 308 Neither courts equipped 58 reliance Parenthood, arguing indicates deference exercising right. basic very different; obtain hospitals; exercise confinement. 591. 59 respective prerogatives setting, permit apply. conclude, unreviewable institutionalized. They, course, physician's examination obviously need. seeks calls inpatient accomplish purpose, charged determining, authorizing prospective imposed point needed. performing voluntarily assumed mission assistance. parens patriae helping fulfilled unwilling take advantage opportunities onerous, embarrassing, contentious. surely idle speculate believe forgo state-provided contingent participation designed motives matters minuets admission.14 One factor psychiatrists, psychologists, behavioral preparing participating hearings task training fitted them. Behavioral experts courtrooms help 63 amici Association points page devote 47% direct consequence professionals diverted travel in—and wait for—what hundreds—or thousands—of year. Obviously cost come moneys legislature intended Slovenko 34-35. consideration protects reducing unduly trenching undercutting "efforts further legitimate served by" commitments. 430, 903. satisfied. 287 (1970); 484 (1972). carefully using sources, including, to, schools, agencies. Of include periodically similarly procedure.15 65 satisfied way neither inhibits decisions help. 66 thought detached trier officer. SeeGoldberg 1022; 2604. "neither judges officers better qualified psychiatrists render judgments." Roger S., Cal.3d 921, 942, 141 Cal.Rptr. 298, 311, 569 P.2d 1286, 1299 (Clark, J., dissenting). Thus, suffice, she independently deciding quasi-formal, investigative techniques. Since well-established already exist, undertake outline specificity precisely involve. mode business What left emphasize represent traditionally consulted. 68 ultimate made. Not determination effectively tools decisionmaking." Board Curators Univ. Horowitz, 435 78, 90, 98 948, 955, 124 (1978). Greenholtz Nebraska Penal Inmates, 13-14, 2100, 2106, 668; Cafeteria Restaurant Workers McElroy, 367 886, 895, 81 1743, 1748, 1230 (1961).16 questions essentially character: emotionally facts plainly resolution questions, step unanimous 1811, [a person] turns meaning interpreted psychologists." 70 acknowledge fallibility diagnosis, O'Connor Donaldson, 422 563, 584, 95 2486, 2498, 396 (concurring opinion), accept shortcomings avoided shifting specialist science untrained judge nonspecialist medical-psychiatric decision. Common scholarly opinions suggest supposed protections appropriateness illusory real. Albers, Pasewark, Meyer, Involuntary Hospitalization Testimony: Fallibility Doctrine Immaculate Perception, Cap.U.L.Rev. 11, (1976).17 Another formalized, lies danger poses intrusion into parent-child relationship. Pitting adversaries often odds thing sure standpoint; wholly matter contest ascertain motivation 72 inquire contribute successful long-range patient. exacerbate tensions exist usually play while release, serious confrontation adversely affect subsequent return difficult. unfortunate results critical seem occur testify. intimate relationships distress adult impact certainly greater.18 73 suggested detect instances "guilty railroading asylums" "voluntary sanction disapprov[e]." Ellis, Volunteering Children: Commitment Minors Institutions, Calif.L.Rev. 840, 850-851 (1974). 133; Brief 38. Curiously, "dump" inevitably conceal deceive elementary early cause disturbance unlikely, inconceivable, abandon normal, healthy thrust institution discrete leaving trail circumstances. Evidence conflicts emerge either secondary sources. unrealistic skilled eliciting responses, sorting medically facts, sensing motivational nuances deceived surrounding disturbance.19 Surely lay, law-trained, professional. 74 By expressing suggesting free. occasion, initially mislead diagnose needing negligence overabundance caution. affords rational predicate states.20 "[P]rocedural rules shaped truthfinding applied generality cases, rare exceptions." 344, 907. general, earlier, condition, issue remains us, 75 amicus United States explains, 7-8: 76 "[I]n employed . .. 77 "That recommendations brings facility [and] attempts communicate .." 78 Focusing primarily saw absence mechanism unaccountably discretion." 136. But extravagant analysis, if, indeed, exercises discretion. 79 typical problem—in short, "something wrong." They respond ways, contact occurs bring examined psychologist 80 often, encouraged, required, insight problem. instances, care, persists, local examines child—privately instances. records Based information, obtained, makes met, refused. 82 admits suited independent, group. part, frequent weekly, none therapy.21 83 procedures, totally give assurance optimally bears repeating "procedural truth-finding 84 find physicians, other's conclusions validity oblivious indifferent welfare—or incompetent. note, contrary; "impressed conscientious, dedicated who, equally psychologists workers, faithfully ." 138. 85 rebuts suggestion briefs administrators actually detached" pressure places program; support charge Such found, individually;22 lend themselves class-action remedies. voluminous whole supports conclusion acted fashion State, programs, examining, diagnosing, Through hiring well-staffed well-equipped and—as found—conscientious implement beneficent purposes. satisfies se adequate, opinion. original complaint alleged adequate claimed violation. Similarly, determining called contests release. findings present reduce necessary. Whether remand. issue. IV 89 discussion Part directed Some wards differs varies somewhat state, parent, commitment, situations knows thoroughly cares deeply. Unlike presumed guide action, *447; *190, stems 24A-101 Contrary dissent, custody acts differently questioned Nor challenge mounted us. attempted reasons unrelated Indeed, receive 91 Once faith, perspective acceptable justifying soundness reasonable anything, light written custody. beginning diagnosis. interviewing reviewing files, 590. 93 loco parentis respect allow speak subject, restrictions governing declare 94 ward's inquiry, deeply reliability remain 428-429, friends continuous corrected." "lost shuffle." indication prolonged difficulty him. protection so, done it, decided remand,23 alive. V important remember purpose substantively procedurally screen assure resists complex view rights, divert central objective administering aggravating situation, erect barriers aid Accordingly, reversed, remanded proceedings Reversed STEWART, concurring centuries canon children.1 So imbedded traditions principle Constitution compel 1042; 1070.2 ironic contrast, said Constitutionrequires disregard established principle. I agree. "massive curtailment liberty," Humphrey Cady, 504, 509, 1048, 1052, 394. involved, 396, person's stigma attached hospital.3 loss liberty, latter invokes 102 committed following section Code: 103 "Authority patients— 104 "(a) age, older, therefor, whom legally adjudged incompetent show detained 105 Clearly, adults chosen thereby deprived violation Just clearly, think, behalf invoked 106 recognizes party another situations: "legally incompetent" present. First, presumptively incapable himself. And interests.4 guardians, presumptions grounded statutes nobody 49-201 (1978).5 embodiment long-established principles law. 107 ignore society. compelled intervene intervention. answered negative.6 108 law, constantly deprive life itself. Yet decides major perceive 109 realize, parent's far appendectomy contrary my belief, difference rises level difference, checks embodied discussed, ante, 613-617, sufficient. 110 sure, rebuttable one, actuated unselfish motive presumes. unfit stripped laws children.7 111 easy Issues involving issues face, disguised definition minority, invoking violated. say area compels believe, tolerate intervention State.8 cry compelled. 112 concur 113 BRENNAN, MARSHALL STEVENS join, part dissenting part. 114 juveniles impacts protected accomplished mandate interpreting clause preconfinement wish hospitalize disagree, pretermit postadmission juveniles. frequency properly deferred, affirmed now. disagree fails accord parentis. 115 Rights Committed Institutions 116 necessarily entails 394 (1972), affects "fundamental rights." Baxstrom Herold, 383 107, 113, 760, 764, 620 (1966). Persons incarcerated friends, community. unnatural surroundings detailed strangers. intrusive which, unwarranted, violate integrity. modalities forced administration psychotropic medication1 aversive conditioning,2 convulsive therapy,3 psychosurgery.4 Furthermore, recognizes, 600, stigmatized sick release.5 117 considerations, clear "is 580, 2496, (BURGER, C. concurring). See, e. g., McNeil Director, Patuxent Institution, 407 245, 2083, 719 (1972) (defective delinquent expiration prison term); (1967) (sex offender criminal conviction); Chaloner Sherman, 242 455, 461, 136, 137, 427 (1917) (incompetence inquiry). voluntary, knowing, intelligent waiver, facing entitled full fair necessity satisfaction accorded "be counsel, opportunity heard, confronted [them], cross-examine, offer [their] own." 610, 1212. 118 govern "Constitutional mature magically attains state-defined majority. Breed Jones, 421 519, 1779, (1975); Goss Lopez, 419 565, 729, 725 Tinker Des Moines School Dist., 393 503, 733, 731 (1969); (1967)." 74, 2843, 119 argued adults. tragic involved. Children, periods adults.6 childhood particularly vulnerable life7 formative bear scars rest lives.8 provision satisfactory financial commitment9 forthcoming.10 Decisions lower chronicled inadequacies New York Assn. Retarded Rockefeller, 357 752, 756 (EDNY 1973) (conditions Willowbrook "inhumane," "failure safety [the] children," personnel shortage, "poor" "hazardous" conditions); Wyatt Stickney, 344 387, 391 (MD Ala.1972), aff'd sub nom. Aderholt, 503 F.2d 1305 (CA5 1974) ("grossly substandard" Partlow "hazardous deplorable institution's operation.").11 120 chances circumstances fraught uncertainties. 2498 uncertainties aggravated when, practice, stress connection become acquainted patient.12 economic doctor frustrating accurate pathology.13 121 compounded tend err side caution dispositions beneficial.14 National 36% below St. Elizabeths hospitalization.15 relevance study Commission Youth half forms used. Cited 122 Ga.1976). Their A. 123 this, denies behest rationalizes theory waive confined, contends, really argument. society, "Parents martyrs themselves. identical circumstances, reached choice themselves." 170, 444, (1944). authorize abused children16 that, inter alia, curtail alienate property,17 withhold treatment,18 deny exposure ideas experiences later autonomous adults.19 125 jurisprudence. Notions autonomy stand invariable assertion States, example, minor's secure abortion attaining consent personal disputes fracture autonomy. 75, 2844. 126 governed rule Danforth. wrongful incarceration, intrusion, stigmatization significance dispute here characterized routine child-rearing ongoing Danforth potential whereas break resulted surrender institution. view, ousted advocate. Additional considerations counsel allowing unfettered cause. interests, applicable context. Numerous studies reveal dislocation condition.20 well-meaning lack expertise relative advantages disadvantages opposed explored, therefore, conclusively intelligent. respectfully suggest, ignores blindly waiving B 128 mean obliged manner involuntarily demands flexible carries practical implications legitimately account. precede militate favor postponement mandatory hearings. 129 prospect deter attention Second, delay impossible form immediate juncture involve challenges authority, judgment, veracity, pitting advocate This, turn, traumatize eventual 130 postpone period, short-term appropriate. 131 reasonably principles. 613-616. invalidated aspect mandated error. C 132 entirety. hearings, dispense altogether. stake, 'at meaningful manner.' 333, 902, quoting Armstrong Manzo, 380 545, 552, 1187, 1191, (1965). Whenever impracticable, prompt postdeprivation Compare North Finishing, Inc. Di-Chem, Inc., 601, 719, 751 (1975), Mitchell T. Grant Co., 416 1895, 133 follows enough qualify hearings—let alone safeguards. ex parte. commitment; enjoy determination, representation, witnesses, own. deficient. Wolff McDonnell, 418 539, 2963, 935 (1974); 269-271, 1021-1022, (1970). understand why pretermits condemnation parte operate hearing," suffer rigors long-term confinement.21 134 place, commencement pending disposition 135 avoiding discord stage fractured institutionalization event, unlikely disrupt relationships. recommendations. doctors urging adversaries. consequence, veracity. defend even, matter, behavior. argue, warrant outright discharge. Conflict discord. 136 impracticable. 137 defeat primary enterprise. scheme, 614-615. Superintendents ibid. unmet, released refused regardless desires. determinations fairly opposing viewpoints secret, deliberations.22 138 intentions adverted 615-616, excuse like disciplinarians "although utmost frequently reports advice others; controlling disputed." 739. App. 188-190, Dr. Messinger. Goss, "risk trivial, guarded prohibitive interference '[F]airness rarely obtained one-sided decisive .' 'Secrecy congenial truth-seeking self-righteousness gives slender rightness. instrument devised arriving truth jeopardy it.' 739, Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee McGrath, 341 123, 171-172, 624, 647-648, 649, 817 (1951) (Frankfurter, Guardians 140 workers dismisses grounds 619. reasoning unpersuasive. With equal logic, trials prosecutors prosecute innocent persons. 142 mind, justification denying typically waived wished confined. context, transmuted clients. shield rearing interference. defense immunize workers. worker-child deserving relationship, 143 whenever discharging duties securing prehospitalization prevent needy receiving pendency proceedings. hinder recovery. 144 reasons, exigent recommendation unconstitutional. 145 legitimacy champion stands oppose guardians review. fairness abandoned protectors voice. Pending review, plaintiffs died. moot, because, holding. certified objection appellants, consisted "of younger hereafter defendant and/or 'facility' to" witness day 200 140. Section provides: "The shall 88-503 amended respects 1978, references herein provisions question. deposed. list Apparently, eighth Northwest Rome, issued activities Regional. data Program Directors, Report: Agency Expenditures (Aug. 1978). sparse routines discussed visited respects, strong certain protections. quasi-judicial body interesting statement text referring opined agencies misused 768. MacClintock, "Voluntarily Admitted" 351 (1976) MacClintock). Study financed up distinguished scholars field health. six studying time. Community Centers Act, Stat. 290, amended, 2689 seq. opinion, arising IV, Gove Fain, Stigma Hospitalization, 494, 500 (1973); Phillips, Rejection Ill: Influence Behavior Sex, Am.Sociological Rev. 679, 686-687 (1964). Research Astrachan Fain "that ex-patient." 329, 333 concluded: "Discharge [from hospital] controlled advance inhospitable world incubate chronicity place." 334. Judge Friendly cogently pointed out: "It realized entail expenditure resources, individuals safeguard outweighed protection, expense protecting undeserving probably pockets deserving." Friendly, "Some Kind Hearing," U.Pa.L.Rev. 1267, 1276 Wheeler Montgomery, 280, 282, 1026, 1027, 307 (1970) (dissenting opinion). fully later, infra, 617, subsequent, patient's check Relying statements remotely here, dissent traditional, judicial, deprivation. mandated, demonstrates approach. inconsistent repeated "due demands." 481, 2600, (emphasis added). exactly compare (1970), scope expands areas creating controversies incumbent design burdening problems. model nature, unmanageable Albers Hospitalization: Surrender Courthouse, Am.J.Community Psychology 287, 288 (1974) (mean 300 consecutive 9.2 minutes); Miller County Lunacy Hearings: Observations Commitments Hospital, Social Prob. (1966) 3.8 Scheff, Societal Reaction Deviance: Ascriptive Elements Screening Patients Midwestern 401 (1964) (average lasted minutes). Cohen, Function Attorney Ill, Texas altogether clear, apparently contemplated preceded proposed presumably evidence, cross-examine reciting rejecting application. institution, call designated ad litem lawyer, empowered elect perceives odds, nothing evaluating detecting "dumping" keep mind Services. suspect mistreated sensitive fact, point. documented records. Equally documented, disturbances Alaska Stat.Ann. 47.30.020 Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 36-518, 36-519 Ark.Stat.Ann. 59-405 (B) (1971); Cal.Welf. Inst.Code Ann. 6000 (West Supp.1979); D.C.Code 21-511, 21-512 Fla.Stat. 394.465(1)(a) (Supp.1979); (1978); Haw.Rev.Stat. 334-60(a)(2) (only 15); Idaho 66-318, 66-320 (Supp.1978) (parent 14, release); Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 911/2, 3-502, 3-503 (Supp.1978); Ind.Code 16-14-9.1-2 (1976); Kan.Stat.Ann. 59-2905, 59-2907 Ky.Rev.Stat. 202A.020 La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 28:57(C) Md.Ann.Code, Art. 59, 11(g) (parental permissible facilities); Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., 10(a) Mich.Comp.Laws 330.1415 (child object hearing); Miss.Code 41-21-103(1) (certificate required); Mo.Rev.Stat. 202.115(1)(2), 202.115(2)(2) Nev.Rev.Stat. 422A.560, 433A.540 N.Y. Hyg. 9.13 (McKinney 1978) admit, own N.D.Cent.Code 25-03.1-04 (Supp.1977); Ohio Rev.Code 5122.02(B) Okl.Stat., Tit. 43A, Or.Rev.Stat. 426.220(1) Pa.Stat.Ann., 50, 7201 (Purdon Supp.1978-1979) 14); R.I.Gen.Laws 26-2-8 (requires certificate insane); S.C.Code 44-17-310(2) S.D.Comp.Laws 27A-8-2 Tenn.Code 33-601(a)(1) Utah 64-7-29, 64-7-31(2) (1953); Wash.Rev.Code 72.23.070(2) (1978) consent); W.Va.Code 27-4-1(b) (consent Wyo.Stat. 25-3-106(a)(i) vary reflects indefinite personally checking work obtaining relief availability habeas corpus. appellants' "Ga.Code 88-502.11 facility, friend person, petition writ corpus legality detention person." 36-37. supra. treatable "less drastic" settings, programs. found. correctness remedy. *452-453; *203-206; Schouler, Treatise Domestic Relations 335-353 (3d ed. 1882); G. Field, Legal Infants 63-80 (1888). cardinal custody, nurture reside preparation obligations supply hinder." 645. culture reflect tradition beyond debate enduring tradition." 232, 1542, 15. "Because foresee enforceable bargain. lawfully pleases, attend exhibitions motion pictures. marry consent." 102, 2856, (STEVENS, part). Stump Sparkman, 349, 366, 1099, 1109-1110, 331 State; destiny 573. unjustified exist. aberrant detract assessment. disappear, lasts forever. true "secure nearly equivalent [his parents] him." standing place; maintain, according ward, educate her." entirely today discusses differences, 604, think fundamental one. expectant mother's abortion—a Roe Wade, 410 705, 147; Doe Bolton, 179, 201. BRENNAN's post, 630-631, 16. enforcing child-labor intervened, would, limitations Winters Miller, 446 (CA2), cert. denied, 404 985, 450, 369 Scott Plante, 532 939 (CA3 1976); Souder McGuire, 423 830 Pa.1976). Knecht Gillman, 488 1136 (CA8 1973); Mackey Procunier, 477 877 (CA9 1973). Hardin, 3195-N Ala., Feb. 28, 26, July 1975); Price Sheppard, Minn. 250, 239 N.W.2d 905 Nelson Hudspeth, C.A. J75-40 (R) (SD Miss., May 16, 1977). Kaimowitz Michigan Dept. Health, U.S.L.W. 2063 (Cir.Ct. Cty., Mich., Note, Harv.L.Rev. 1190, 1200 HEW, Biometry Branch, Statistical Note Utilization Facilities Years Age, Table 8, p. (July Bowlby, Growth Love Horrocks, Adolescence 156 F. Elkin, Agents Socialization Children's 357, 360 (R. Bergman 1968). B. Flint, Institution 14-15 (1966); H. Leland D. Smith, Retardation: Present Future Perspectives N. Hobbs, Futures 142-143 Crisis Health: Challenge 1970's 271 (1969). Kugel Wolfensberger, Changing Patterns Residential Glass, 473 983 (CA7 Davis Watkins, 384 1196 (ND 1974); Welsch Likins, 373 487 (D Minn.1974). Simmons, Examination Lourie Rieger, Psychological Handbook (2d 1974). supra 9, 267. Being Sociological Theory Ennis Litwack, Presumption Expertise: Flipping Coins Courtroom, 693 115, Hospitals (Apr.1975). Katz, When Fail M. Midonick Besharov, Courts: Juvenile Delinquency, Ungovernability, Neglect Wald, Intervention Behalf "Neglected" Search Realistic Standards, Stan.L.Rev. 985 Martorell Ochoa, 276 (CA1 1921). Jehovah's Witnesses King 278 (WD Wash.1967), aff'd, 390 598, 1260, 158 (1968); Sampson, Misc.2d 658, 317 N.Y.S.2d 641 (Fam.Ct. Ulster County, 1970), A.D.2d 668, 253 (1971), N.Y.2d 900, 328 686, N.E.2d 918 Perricone, N.J. 463, 181 A.2d (1962). recent sterilization led operations far-reaching consequences. H., 163 Ind.App. 636, 325 501 K. 515 S.W.2d 467 (Mo.1974); Frazier Levi, 440 (Tex.Civ.App.1969). Commonwealth Renfrew, 332 Mass. 492, (1955); Meyerkorth 173 Neb. 889, 585 (1962), dism'd, 372 1018, (1963); Weberman, 198 Misc. 1055, (Sup.Ct.1950), App.Div. 656, 302 855, 47, 342 884, 178, 663 (1951). Murdock, Retarded: Critical Issues, Notre Dame Law. 133, Vogel Bell, Emotionally Disturbed Scapegoat, Modern Introduction (1968). reported: "[T]housands thousands elderly back [mental] thirty, forty, fifty ago. report estimates 'can anticipate permanently lives.' 5-6. promote accuracy ensure diverts prove therapeutic. feel confinement, illness, cooperate attempting remove impediment therapy. Right Treatment—An Enchanting Fiction?, U.Chi.L.Rev. 755, 768-769 579, 2495,

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