Document: 503 U.S. 467 112 S.Ct. 1430 118 L.Ed.2d 108 Robert R. FREEMAN, et al., Petitioners,v.Willie Eugene PITTS, al. No. 89-1290. Argued Oct. 7, 1991. Decided March 31, 1992. Syllabus In a class action filed by respondents, black school children and their parents, the District Court in 1969 entered consent order approving plan to dismantle de jure segregation that had existed DeKalb County, Georgia, School System (DCSS). The court retained jurisdiction oversee implementation of plan. 1986, petitioner DCSS officials motion for final dismissal litigation, seeking declaration achieved unitary status. Among other things, found "has travelled . road status almost its end," noted it "continually been impressed [DCSS'] successes dedication providing quality education all," ruled is system with regard four six factors identified Green v. New Kent County Bd., 391 430, 88 1689, 20 716: student assignments, transportation, physical facilities, extracurricular activities. particular, respect assignments briefly under court-ordered plan, subsequent continuing racial imbalance this category was product independent demographic changes were unrelated petitioners' actions not vestige prior system, taken maximum practical desegregation from 1986. Although ruling would no further relief foregoing areas, refused dismiss case because remaining factors: faculty resource allocation, latter which considered connection non-Green factor, being offered white populations. ordered take measures address problems. Appeals reversed, holding, inter alia, district should retain full remedial authority over until achieves all categories at same time several years; because, test, never status, could shirk constitutional duties pointing shifts occurring status; have correct imbalance, even though such might be "administratively awkward, inconvenient, bizarre some situations," Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bd. Education, 402 1, 28, 91 1267, 1282, 28 554. Held: 1. course supervising has relinquish supervision control incremental stages, before compliance every area operations, may, while retaining case, determine will remedies areas where decree. Pp. 485-492. (a) held duty former necessary steps convert discrimination eliminated, set forth measure unitariness, instructed courts fashion these factors. unitariness concept helpful defining scope court's authority, term "unitary" does fixed meaning or content confine discretion way departs traditional equitable principles. Under principles, inherent capacity adjust feasible violation, Swann, supra, 15-16, S.Ct., 1275-1276, end purpose restoring state local authorities operating compliance, see, e.g., Milliken Bradley, 433 267, 280-281, 97 2749, 2757-2758, 53 745. Where justified facts partial withdrawal judicial retention noncompliance, provides an orderly means fulfilling purpose. may traceable, proximate way, violations. See Pasadena City Education Spangler, 427 424, 436, 96 2697, 2704, 49 599. 485-491. (b) must inform manner are following: whether there satisfactory decree those aspects withdrawn; practicable achieve areas; demonstrated, public parents students once disfavored race, good-faith commitment whole statutory provisions predicate intervention first instance. considering give particular attention system's record compliance; i.e., policies form consistent pattern lawful conduct directed eliminating earlier And passage degree imbalances continue represent vestiges violation diminish, practicability efficacy various can evaluated more precision. 491-492. 2. erred holding that, as matter law, permit regain three factors, education. 492-500. exercised appropriately addressing elements, inquiring into education, determining minority disadvantaged ways required formulation new noncompliance. This approach illustrates need rigid framework demonstrates proper use discretion. By withdrawing longer needed, concentrate own district's resources on effects eliminated necessary. 492-493. related premises underlying Appeals' rejection Court's order—first, given noncompliance discrete categories, control; second, requires heroic ensure balance systemwide—are incorrect analysis precedents. Racial sake, but pursued only when causal link between violation. Once traceable remedied, remedy caused Id., U.S., 31-32, 1283-1284. here accomplished objective year operation, finding resegregation attributable forces credible. A rule based necessity find ensures systemwide curing effect specific 493-497. (c) Resolution question attendance facets await proceedings remand. did addressed assignment problem, findings conclusions made reassignments defect. Moreover, praise DCSS' successes, dedication, progress, failure acted bad faith engaged postdecree acts achieved, equivalent affirmative comply good entirety 497-500. 887 F.2d 1438 (CA 11 1989), reversed remanded. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, SCALIA, SOUTER, JJ., joined. concurring opinions. BLACKMUN, judgment, STEVENS O'CONNOR, THOMAS, took part consideration decision case. Rex E. Lee, petitioners. Solicitor Gen. Kenneth W. Starr, amicus curiae, special leave Court. Christopher A. Hansen, respondents. Justice KENNEDY 1 major suburban Atlanta. involves now serves 73,000 kindergarten through high 32nd largest elementary secondary Nation. 2 subject United States Northern Georgia since 1969, dual system. petitioners dismissal. respects done so categories. relinquished supervisory compliance. Eleventh Circuit (1989), years. We reverse judgment remand, permitted withdraw active aspect administration demonstrated 3 * 4 For decades our Brown Board 347 483, 74 686, 98 L.Ed. 873 (1954) (Brown ), mandate 349 294, 301, 75 753, 756, 99 1083 (1955) II districts desegregate "all deliberate speed," segregated law. DCSS's initial response too familiar one. Interpreting speed" giving latitude delay desegregate, positive toward 1966-1967 year, nothing than adopt freedom choice transfer Some chose attend schools, significant schools. 5 1968 we decided 716 (1968). adoption not, itself, satisfy mandatory responsibility eliminate turning point law respect. Concerned decade inaction, stated " '[t]he mere "deliberate run out.' 438, 1694, quoting Griffin Prince Edward 377 218, 234, 84 1226, 1234, 12 256 (1964). said obligation come forward "promises realistically work, promises work now." 439, 1694 (emphasis original). us understanding assessment how responded directives Green. 6 Within two months Green, who instituted Georgia. After suit filed, voluntarily began working Department Health, Welfare devise comprehensive desegregation. June proposed implemented 1969-1970 year. abolished adopted neighborhood accepted minor modification. schools closed reassigned among jurisdiction. 7 Between 1986 respondents sought infrequent limited affairs DCSS. They request zones policies. 1976 ordered: expand Minority-to-Majority (M-to-M) program, allowing they majority race minority; establish bi-racial committee program future boundary line changes; reassign teachers ratio each be, substance, similar population systemwide. From 1977 1979 approved change one zone rejected proposals restrict M-to-M program. 1983 make adjustments 8 litigation. satisfied say 441, 1696. approached asking additional factor named Green: 9 "an innovative often long noting "the continually within system." App. Pet. Cert. 71a. It activities, areas. stopped short dismissing however, remain teacher principal B 10 Proper resolution any turns careful facts. 1694. Here, most cases issue decree, critical beginning district, comparison proportion individual proportions races whole. inquiry fundamental, regimes exclusion both policy motivated disparagement hostility towards race. accord principle, current mix throughout explanation found. contend appeal fact clearly erroneous them erroneous. disagree conclusion reached respecting assignments. extensive comprises predominates: remarkable composition county presented far different out integrate 1969. 1950 1985, grew 70,000 450,000 total population, gross increase enrollment occurred relevant starting date purposes. experienced modest (remaining low 70,000's), striking population. desegregated 5.6% students; percentage 47%. To compound difficulty radical changes, northern southern parts much growth patterns. "[a]s result shifts, half predominantly black." 38a. 1970, 7,615 nonwhites living 11,508 county. 1980, 15,365 county, 87,583 part. Most nonwhite portion due migration persons city 1975 1980 alone, approximately 64,000 citizens moved coming During period, 37,000 surrounding counties. 13 number years 1970 without making parallel citizens. Yet clear picture emerge. tremendous not. 14 during essential foundation As observed, immense compositions schools." Ibid. declined overall 15%, increased 86%. 16%, 119%. These pronounced County. 15 evidence 1986-1987 following features: (1) 47% attending black; (2) 50% attended 90% (3) 62% 20% blacks average; (4) 27% white; (5) 59% whites (6) 22 five populations black, 80% (7) DCSS, 18 white. 31a. (The respondents' points treated nonblack comprised percent population.) 16 Respondents argued rather forces. addition statistical varied average, contended used available desegregative tools balancing. pointed alleged shortcomings efforts: break subdistricts racially subdistrict; failed expend sufficient funds learning opportunities; community advisory organizations; plan; cluster is, create separate grade levels feeder pattern; institute magnet early have; busing facilitate urban exchanges. 17 According conceded assigning "effectively period time" assignment. 35a. noted, despite concession improper small then contained students: Terry Mill Elementary 76% Stoneview 51% black. observed put place. cited expert witness testimony become predecessors. 1966, overwhelming 1967, Atlanta County—and particular—23% 1968, Mill. effect, grown 76%. accordance absence suggest contributed rapid transformation pre-1969 unconstitutional responsible Its illustrative problems faced integrating district. 19 least base circumstance alone. Recognizing "[t]he achievement cannot hedged attainment brief moment," id., 37a, examined interaction combat demographics order, biracial reviewed lines zones. Since original about 170 changes. segregative effect. An testified, found, taking place time. 21 also initiative, started 1972 marked success. Participation passing 4,500 72,000 enrolled participated. testified impact goes beyond transferred receiving obtain integrated experiences. 19% experience 40a. addition, 1980's, located middle programs included performing arts science programs, foreign language There plans operate occupational gifted talented well preschool open campus. locating attract 23 Further, operates including writing center fifth seventh graders, driving range, summer dialectical speech employs 24 assignment, saw task deciding if "have still do fulfill duty." 41a. Petitioners conflicting potential techniques deployed upon experts reliable, citing greater familiarity standing community. findings: 25 "[The DCSS] inevitable suburbanization, opportunities arising Atlanta, attracted DeKalb; decline born families decrease; blockbusting formerly neighborhoods leading selling buying real estate highly dynamic basis; completion Interstate 20, access easier. previous segregation. convinced defendants, marginal trends, offset described above speed." 44a-45a. added: 26 "[A]bsent massive bussing, viable option either parties court, defendants obviously dedicated, effective deal residential existing time." 46a. 27 Having next staff fulfilled hiring administrators. recruit qualified applicants hired numbers, employing statewide average. "equally exemplary record" 49a. Nevertheless, maintained administrators approximate Singleton Jackson Municipal Separate Dist., 419 1211 (CA5 1969), cert. denied, 396 1032, 90 611, 530 (1970). words, 1984-1985 seven deviated 10% average 26.4% 24.9% principals over-represented percentages underrepresented students. crux problem relied replacement process attain avoided using reassignment. gave reason reassignment competition stiff, difficult keep homes. fact, prefer close homes, voluntary taught ask transfer. Because near makes difficult. 29 "unsympathetic difficulties faces regard," circuit Singleton. 53a. Singleton, "[i]t appear necessitate principals." 58a. With faculty, meeting difficult, estimate schools' conform moving, most, teachers. 30 Addressing ineffable contentions disparity provision certain educational (e.g., advanced degrees, experience, library books), show equal opportunity. went further, concerning praising achievement: gains Iowa Tests Basic Skills (ITBS) students, successful nationwide Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). finding: 31 "While always something improve chances academic success, find, plaintiffs urge, negligent implement assist very enrich lives enhance whites. Many targeted Programs involve negative socio-economic If regard, duties." 69a-70a (footnote omitted). 32 Despite intentional disproportionately tended better educated counterparts per pupil expenditures exceeded findings, equalize spending 33 were: although expressed concerns portable classrooms facilities. 34 factfinding, facilities represented board administration, 35 Both appealed Circuit. affirmed ultimate yet (1989). approach, First Circuit, Morgan Nucci, 831 313, 318-319 (1987), after F.2d, 1446. Because, time, "not status." 1448. bore "may administratively 554 (1971), pairing clustering drastic gerrymandering zones, reorganization, busing. granted certiorari, 498 ----, 111 949, 1038 (1991). 36 Two questions presented. answer affirmative, second reversing circumstances 37 insure wrong injuries stigma inflicted present. rationale I II. said: "to [black students] others age qualifications solely generates feeling inferiority affect hearts minds unlikely ever undone." 494, 691. quoted three-judge Kansas bears repeating here: 38 'Segregation colored detrimental children. sanction law; separating usually interpreted denoting negro group. sense affects motivation child learn. Segregation therefore, tendency [retard] mental development deprive benefits receive racial[ly] system.' 39 "take whatever root branch." 437-438, 1693-1694. which, patterns, free met: staff, activities 435, 1692. identifiability Brown, Courts components systems. 40 courts' conveys central idea facets, later phases ought modified, lessened, withdrawn. But, explained last Oklahoma Dowell, 630, 636, 715 (1991), precise concept: 41 "[I]t mistake treat words 'dual' 'unitary' actually Constitution. denote describe brought command sure useful define terms precisely, subclasses them." 42 follows cautious attribute utility have. 43 That inconsistent principles exercise power. essence equity power lies conditions redress unlawful action. Equitable flexible enforced fairness respect, "a differ fundamentally involving framing repair denial right. correct, balancing collective interest, condition offends Constitution." 1275-1276. requirement according prescription. 44 Our application guiding 599 (1976), instructive. requiring annual readjustment makeup attributed [school district]." 2704. 45 "It totally contemplated Swann. been, example, dispute portions specifying procedures promoting 384 F.Supp. 846 (1974), vacated, 537 1031 (1976). But undercut force principle designed neutrality Pasadena's No disputes objective. entitled require [Pasadena Unified District] rearrange desired perpetuity. having neutral perceived violations fully performed function appropriate discriminatory patterns." 46 n. 5, 2705, ("Counsel urged, below us, perpetual 'no minority' valid concluded moot plaintiffs, arguments properly us. what little substance"). 47 Today, explicit Spangler. federal control. derives instance objectives formulating invoked outset construing courts, guided "judicial powers basis violation," nature determines remedy." 16, 1276. justifiable insofar advances alleviating 48 restore 745 (1977) ("[T]he devising account interests managing affairs, Constitution"). Partial relinquishment control, important step return operations authorities. emphasized systems intended "temporary measure." 636. temporary lasted decades, changed—to Just structure provide shown attained requisite transition phase gradual end. "local autonomy vital national tradition." Dayton Brinkman, 406, 410, 2766, 2770, 851 (Dayton ). Returning earliest true accountability governmental When entities participating decisions supervision, accountable citizenry, political process, ordinary course. discuss below, prerequisites gives protection guarantees acknowledged present country, manifestations emerge subtle forms eliminated. State subdivisions shape lies, responsibility. 50 hold plans, operations. While say, court-supervised limiting 51 purposes sound ordering system; constitution 52 positioned demonstrate Dowell case: "The itself complied entered, past extent practicable." 638. 54 reach prohibiting returning affairs. decide err administrative demonstrated. 55 elements discussed inquire identified, agreed legitimate trial workable consider allocation. challenged examine except underscores others. framework. uses tangible 56 rests premises: first, precedents, neither premise correct. 57 mistaken "awkward," "inconvenient" "even bizarre" late carrying nor undertook designing outset. confirmed closing pupils balance. dramatic altered entire 17-year raised substantial objection basic concentrated mechanisms taint. 58 tantamount showing sake. 1283-1284 ("Neither constitutionally year-by-year bodies official mean problems; agency deliberately attempted fix alter patterns necessary"). cause attendance, remedied. burden 59 mobility distinct characteristic society. (from 1987 1988) million Americans, 17.6 households. Dept. Commerce, Bureau Census, Statistical Abstract States, p. 19, Table (111th ed. 1991). Over third people migrated States. society districts, counties municipalities, undergo change. 60 changing fortunate somewhat predictable. Studies correlation Wilson & Taeuber, Residential Segregation: Their Association, Demography Ethnic Groups 57-58 (F. Bean Frisbie eds. 1978). heard tending stable likely 50%-50% mix. 61 private choices, implications. ability try counteract kinds continuous shifts. attempt results ongoing never-ending simply segregated. housing attendant ever-changing pattern, remedies. 62 term, Past wrongs committed name, stubborn history. history linger persist. escape history, overstate consequences fixing legal responsibilities. concern intangible nonetheless causing bear relation proceed premise. 63 becomes remote intervene, less attenuated faith. light entertain suggestion reasons impractical, doubt massive, expenditure efforts fundamental demographics, regime officials. determination instead scarce 64 Appeals, meet declare interim, vindicate phrase. formalistic. insures 65 device inequities themselves recognized interdependent. intertwined synergistic relation, unless addresses matters well. 443 526, 536, 2971, 2978, 720 (1979) ) (" '[P]urposeful inextricably tied practices' "); Rogers Paul, 382 198, 200, 86 358, 360, 265 (1965) (Students challenge allocation "racial denies equality opportunity pupils"). consequence, another. See, Bradley Richmond 103, 105, 224, 225, 187 (per curiam ("There merit adequacy entirely speculative"); Vaughns George's 742 1275, 1291 (D.Md.1990) interdependent upon, interact with, another, component impinge success another"). 66 mechanism cure deficiencies contrary, suggests solve reassigning few school. it, however. Further 67 assurance against findings. reasonable relinquished. 638 ("The practicable"). enables accept board's representation suffer future. 321 ("A reduces possibility orders ritual"). 68 violations, hesitation continued supervision. Columbus Penick, 449, 461, 2941, 2948, 666 (predicating liability 'never actively [the] system,' Penick 429 229, 260 (SD Ohio 1977)); II, 534, 2977 (adopting "intentionally practices 1954 import remedy"). 69 contrast end." This, though, 70 remanded Appeals. issues briefs opinion. Thereupon remand 71 Each party costs. 72 ordered. 73 THOMAS concurring. Without disturbing finding, revision government action, integration. convincingly reconciled cases, join 76 great assistance able concerned. many country supervised judges, extraordinarily rare remnant discrimination. perfectly narrow basis, resolve—if today, soon—what vast where, profess oversight expedient, democratic processes suspended, prospect restoration, 77 Almost quarter-century ago, 1693-1694, (1968), enforcing merely assign race-neutral "affirmative duty" "desegregate," fabric tendency, reflected speak Constitution Of not: Equal Protection Clause reaches intentionally State. reaffirms "desegregation" (i.e., balancing) extant Constitution, "lingering effect" offended talk "unitary status," "release supervision," desegregate," sole (absent allegation discriminatory) 78 Identifying undoing easy. Where, tax unconstitutionally imposed, calculating derived (which refunded), distinguishing taxes retained), simple matter. legally uncommonly identify causes. know instructions lower subject, tend level generality assumes facile reduction specifics. "[Desegregation] decrees," said, "exceed limits aimed violate flow Public Schools 637, (1991); 282, 2758, (1977). identifies effluent "vestige" "remnant" recognized. Indeed, betrayed awareness tasks considerably amount paid. abandon studied disregard obvious truth, jurisprudence reality. 79 boards typically want neighborhood, ethnic across country—North South—is Austin Independent Dist. 990, 994, 517, 519, 603 (1976) (Powell, concurring). turn, "doubtless result[s] melange happenings prompted economic considerations, discrimination, desire reside one's background." 512, 2964, (REHNQUIST, dissenting); see 435-437, 2704-2706, Consequently, "is national, phenomenon" exists 'regardless character laws policies, regardless discrimination.' Keyes Denver, Colo., 413 189, 223, 9, 93 2686, 548 (1973) dissenting part), K. Taueber, NEGROES IN CITIES (1965). 80 Racially imbalanced hence blend actions, segregated, guesswork. similarly guesswork, course, Only temporarily corrected abandonment segregation, asserted confidence playing role. Thus, proof foreordains "vestige discrimination" cases. If, normally (and generally), entitling relief—that wish old system—the lose. Conversely, normal negative—that discrimination—the win. 471, 2983 (Stewart, result). 81 alternatives palatable, observer unfamiliar avoid neighborhood-school send (with transportation paid) whichever choose. So choice, he identical. right schools; free-choice produce apparently envisioned post-Brown cases.1 Bazemore Friday, 478 385, 407-409, 106 3000, 3012-3013, 92 315 (1986), concerned university-operated clubs services. 82 ultimately charted "freedom choice" necessarily sufficient, 439-440, 1694-1696, applied jurisdictions segregation: 83 'Racially neutral' inadequate; fail resulting location sites distortion size maintain artificial separation. "loaded game board," altering truly nondiscriminatory assignments." (1971). Thus recognition 15, 1275; allocating negating causality defendant. post-Green state-enforced 1954, arises presumption, effectively irrebuttable (because prove negative), continuously existed, 26, 1281; Keyes, 209-210, 2698. 85 context presumption extraordinary unreasonable fact. "Presumptions arise renders existence another 'so probable sensible timesaving assume truth [the inferred] adversary disproves it.' NLRB Curtin Matheson Scientific, Inc., 494 775, 788-789, 110 1542, 1550, 801 (1990), Cleary, McCormick Evidence § 343, 969 (3d 1984). recency improbability young (or parents) disrupt "warrant[ed] [that] substantially disproportionate composition" remnants 1281. granting merits later. "From discrimination." 637 added). partly "[n]o single tradition deeply rooted operation schools," 418 717, 741, 94 3112, 3125, 1069 (1974) (Milliken interest furthered subjecting nation's tutelage indefinite future," 638; ); Spangler 611 1239, 1245, (9th Cir.1979) (Kennedy, temporary, think, rational causation dissipate produced recede past. multitude shaped segregation—normal migration, (as case), "white flight" inner cities, increases costs facilities—the prior, government-enforced diminished assumed factor. 87 At acknowledge absurd assume, proof, dating days Lyndon Johnson President, earlier, appreciable prohibit, qualification, afford consequences, laying aside extraordinary, increasingly counterfactual, soon revert heritage, tradition: alleging intent disparity, Bazemore, 3012-3013; Washington Davis, 426 245, 2040, 2050, 597 (1976); schooling, South, controlled locally elected acting conjunction ----; I, 2770; 741-742, 3125-3126; "desirable" "schools nearest homes," 1282. 89 judicially aspects, Green-type factors,1 constant achieved. write separately explain my enquiry applying today. recognize influencing school's persisting ante, 497-498. possible relationships think worth mentioning others: occur thinking creates. Such independent, supervening body, segregate, relationship fashioning remedy. 21, 1279, insulated presence relationship. remedied (here, assignments) Even attaining composition, plant, per-pupil identifiable. (In overrepresentation administrators, expenditures, section ones "portable classrooms," trailers. 481-482, 484.) identifiable "black," stops nearby move direction "white" act incubator Before ends then, immediate threat unremedied turn way. And, retains reassert finds happen. whom O'CONNOR join, judgment. (1954). Ga., day. "black" Ignoring glaring (DCSS), status" frustrated duality, imbalance. decisions, view, error, therefore concur vacate 95 am agreement holdings agree interfere while, state-imposed 490-491. depends 491, 493-494, Finally, inquiries. 498-499. First, relinquishing "supervision control" subpart Second, elaborate indicate apply standards. Beginning recent school-desegregation running decides again today ceases discriminate [district] completely removed." Board, 1695, (1968) added); Raney 443, 1697, 1700, 727 (1968); 491. skepticism underlies Dowell: "A face value profession discriminated cease future." 637. sense, seems me, disarm renouncing persist Cf. 207, (1973). seem especially misguided unqualified reliance assignments—are exercises greatest obligations articulated Until dissolved standards continues remains enforceable proving eradicating regime. 537, 2979, (1979); 208-211, 2697-2699; 1281, (1971); 1695. 100 Contrary conclusion, obligate "duty" guarantee "eliminate[s] bar like 4, 4. review school-board "will conversion unitary, nonracial Monroe Comm'rs, 450, 459, 1705, 733 538, 2979; Scotland Neck 407 484, 489, 2214, 2217, (1972). new, 101 Whether discusses, Ante, 497; 507 (SOUTER, "contributing cause" 465, 13, 2950, 211 17, 2699 (the "did contribute to" "in of" action). detail. 102 claims enough, exacerbated problem; contribute.1 contribution ways: themselves, directly 103 role encouraging situation care. "[A] apparent examination concluding exist." 211, 2699. Close purely preferences created, part, 104 "People gravitate just needs people. thus influence metropolitan inner-city neighborhoods." 20-21, 1278. 105 interactive choices prospective accordingly.2 demonstrably signal families, perpetuating intensifying movement. 202, 2694; 2950; 507-508 variety ways; choosing enroll obvious. noted: "[T]he mobile classrooms, drafting bases, earmarking composition." 2694. methods identifying manages point, resegregation, respond 508-509 Regardless encouraged 107 exploring Actions aggravate placement closure majority-to-minority (M M) 26-27, 1278, Fourteenth Amendment. 458-459, 2947; 2979. times society's ills, desegregated. supra. note farther suburbs accelerated "blockbusting" neighborhoods. examine, flight respectively 226-231. Nor boundaries, affected 109 correctly analyze "heavy burden" policies—policies served ends. flatly dwell been," "what else 221. "dwell been." describes, placed emphasis district-wide 6%. 477-478. became followed 304, 314, 350, 351, 368. 478. linking exclusively order. 1439. excuse. enough Instead, obligated "counteract segregation." Accordingly, adopting already inevitably perpetuated Davis Comm'rs Mobile 33, 37, 1289, 1292, 577 25-28, 30, 1280-1282, 1283. Virtually 1975. 475; 215, 260. relevance inquiry, 1975; failures render plausible. 113 1975, increased, quickly 73% 56% 13%, respectively. 269-380. 114 opened 272, 299, 311, 316, 337, 353. One all.3 367, 361. 1969-1975 1972. Due, limitations imposed administrators—including "unnecessary red tape," schools—only one-tenth 1% 1975-1976 75, 80. 115 1976, "perpetuate 83. Noting ignored affirmatively eradicate perpetuate desegregation, 89, 91. 116 growing Given determinations minimum, "convert promptly 'white' 'Negro' school, 442, meet. 117 undertaken expanded somewhat, comprising 6% fewer Doubtless promptly; built view integration neighborhoods; redrawn zones; administrators; spent equally. originally discovered exist 1976. III relieved burdensome. sure, aggravated desegregate. desirable achieve, imperative gone unmet 119 issue. proceedings, review, met Cooper Aaron, 358 1401, 1404, (1958) ("[O]bedience general admission Negro schools"); Goss Knoxville, 373 683, 687, 1405, 1408, 632 (1963) (holding minority-to-majority unaccompanied transfers, "if requested Pupils choose, Green's list exclusive. rebut presumption. 208, 2699, (1973); 494-495. Housing, Schools, Incremental Segregative Effects, 441 Annals American Academy Political Social Science 157 Orfield, Desegregation: Past, Present, Future 227, 234-237 (W. Stephan J. Feagin, ed.) (1980); Elam, 22nd Annual Gallup Poll Public's Attitudes Toward Phi Delta Kappan 41, 44-45 (1990). 2.4% 91.7% virtually 269-359.

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