Document: 473 U.S. 1 105 S.Ct. 3012 87 L.Ed.2d Jeffrey MAREK, Thomas Wadycki and Lawrence Rhode, Petitionersv.Alfred W. CHESNY, Individually as Administrator of the Estate Steven Chesny, Deceased. No. 83-1437. Argued Dec. 5, 1984. Decided June 27, 1985. Syllabus Petitioner police officers, in answering a call on domestic disturbance, shot killed respondent's adult son. Respondent, his own behalf administrator son's estate, filed suit against petitioners Federal District Court under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 state tort law. Prior to trial, made timely offer settlement $100,000, expressly including accrued costs attorney's fees, but respondent did not accept offer. The case went trial was awarded $5,000 state-law claim, $52,000 for violation, $3,000 punitive damages. Respondent then request fees 1988, which provides that prevailing party action may be "as part costs." claimed included work performed subsequent declined award these latter pursuant Rule Civil Procedure 68, if pretrial is accepted "the judgment finally obtained by offeree more favorable than offer, must pay incurred after making offer." Appeals reversed. Held: Petitioners are liable petitioners' settlement. Pp. 5-12. (a) Petitioners' valid 68. does require defendant's itemize respective amounts being tendered underlying substantive claim costs. drafters' concern so much with particular components offers, judgments allowed defendants. Whether or recites specifies an amount costs, has entered defendant both damages caused challenged conduct This construction 68 furthers its objective encouraging settlements. 5-7. (b) In view awareness various federal statutes which, exception "American Rule," authorize parties cases, most reasonable inference term "costs" intended refer all properly awardable relevant statute. Thus, where statute defines include such purposes Here, 1988 includes available plaintiff suit, subject cost-shifting provision Rather "cutting grain" applying context consistent 1988's policies objectives plaintiffs bring meritorious civil rights suits; simply encourages 7-11. 720 F.2d 474 (CA7 1983), Donald G. Peterson, Chicago, Ill., petitioners. Jerrold J. Ganzfried, Washington, D.C., United States amicus curiae, special order Court. Victor Stone, Champaign, respondent. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion We granted certiorari decide whether paid when recovers less 2 * Petitioners, three officers 3 "for sum, now ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND ($100,000) DOLLARS." "wrongful death" 4 $171,692.47 fees. opposed postoffer relying shifts exceeded ultimate recovery at trial. argued covered agreed "costs, judgment." 547 F.Supp. 542, (ND Ill.1982). subsequently $32,000 fairly represented allowable prior settlement.1 appealed denial 5 1983). court rejected what it termed "rather mechanical linking up section 1988." Id., 478. It stated Court's reading while "in sense logical," would put counsel "predicament" "cuts grain 478, 479. Plaintiffs' attorneys, reasoned, forced "think very hard" before rejecting even inadequate deterred from bringing good-faith actions because prospect losing right were rejected. 478-479. concluded "[t]he legislators who enacted have wanted effectiveness blunted little known rule court." 6 certiorari, 466 949, 104 2149, 80 536 (1984). reverse. II 7 (Emphasis added.) plain purpose encourage avoid litigation. Advisory Committee Note Rules Procedure, Report Proposed Amendments, F.R.D. 433, 483 n. (1946), 28 U.S.C.App., p. 637; Delta Air Lines, Inc. v. August, 450 346, 352, 101 1146, 1150, 67 287 (1981). prompts evaluate risks litigation, balance them likelihood success upon merits. requires us this proper one used 1988. A. 8 first question we address contends invalid lumped proposal their argues separately recite offering he cover Only bifurcated, contends, clear how can possibly assess wise He apparently bases argument language providing "may serve adverse allow taken him money property effect specified accrued" (emphasis added). 9 holding "an is, force itself, 'with'—that plus 'costs accrued,' whatever those is." F.2d, 476. We, too, reject argument. do read 10 critical feature portion allows accrued. other words, If accepts will necessarily costs; specified, obliged terms additional discretion, see supra U.S., 362, 365, S.Ct., 1153, 1156 (POWELL, J., concurring), determines sufficient either case, however, Accordingly, immaterial included, allowing or, matter, refers all. As long implicitly explicitly provide valid. 11 best Rule, defendants make lump-sum offers would, accepted, represent total liability, they understandably reluctant offers. observed, "many unwilling binding left exposed liability might fix motion plaintiff." 477. 12 Contrary suggestion, way frustrate plaintiffs' efforts determine defendants' adequate. At time made, knows conduct. also knows, ascertain, A determination adding two figures comparing sum offered. troubled know whenever made. any event, requiring itemization separate help advance exceed 13 Curiously, maintains regard, notes $100,000 great $60,000 damages, preoffer $139,692.47 assumes, should comparison. correctly recognized merely offset expense continuing litigation calculus. B 14 second By adopted 1938, had authorized defined awards 85 years. See Act Feb. 26, 1853, Stat. 161; generally Alyeska Pipeline Service Co. Wilderness Society, 421 240, 95 1612, 44 141 (1975). Unlike England, fees; each been required bear Rule" applied courts, become certain exceptions late 1930's. Some evolved product "inherent power courts situations." Alyeska, supra, 259, 1622. But found directed cases. 260-262, 1623. 15 Section 407 Communications 1934, example, provided that, "[i]f petitioner shall prevail, fee, taxed collected suit." 47 407. There identical 3(p) Railway Labor Act, 45 153(p) (1934 ed.). 40 Copyright 1909, 17 ed.), "award fee And contained similar provisions "costs." See, e.g., Clayton ed.); Securities 1933, 77k(e) Exchange §§ 78i(e), 78r(a) 16 authors fully aware American Rule. Committee's 54(d), 621, contains extensive list cases; 35 "statutes costs" set forth final paragraph Note, no fewer Against background varying definitions "costs," drafters define term; nor there explanation meaning history setting, given importance unlikely omission mere oversight; contrary, authority. considered within scope absent congressional expressions satisfied Fulps Springfield, Tenn., 715 1088, 1091-1095 (CA6 1983); Waters Heublein, Inc., 485 110, 113-117 Cal.1979); Scheriff Beck, 452 1254, 1259-1260 (Colo.1978). 362-363, 1155-1156 concurring). 18 sued 1983. Pursuant Rights Attorney's Fees Awards 1976, 90 2641, amended, Since Congress "plain meaning" interpretation interplay between only gives word 1988.2 19 Appeals, believe Congress' ensuring obtain " 'effective access judicial process.' Hensley Eckerhart, 461 424, 429, 103 1937, 76 (1983), quoting H.R.Rep. 94-1558, (1976). Merely subjecting curtail significantly deter suit. Application disincentive plaintiff's attorney continue makes evidence, Congress, considering thought claims different footing insofar concerned. Indeed, penalized "helping lessen docket congestion" settling cases out court. 94-1588, 7. 20 Moreover, 68's policy settlements neutral, favoring neither defendants; expresses lawsuits. plaintiffs—along plaintiffs—who thereafter recovered recover services But, since many benefit encouraged receive compensation where, recovered, And, prevail earlier date without burdens, stress, short, rather interests well 21 To sure, application about continued worthwhile; precisely contemplates. inconsistent authorizes "reasonable" parties. held factor" determining "is degree obtained." 436, 1941. specifically noted say expenditure counsel's relation achieved." Ibid. exceeds recovery, plaintiff—although technically party—has received monetary benefits attorney. presents good example: $139,692 legal resulted $8,000 Given focus achieved, persuaded shifting circumstances thwart intent 22 held, convinced nothing incompatible objectives. III 23 course, recoverable subjects Nothing revealed our review constitutes necessary expression intent" "to exempt . [the] operation of" Califano Yamasaki, 442 682, 700, 99 2545, 2557, 61 176 (1979). hold 24 Reversed. 25 POWELL, concurring. 26 Airlines, (1981), $450, together date." 1156. brief concurring opinion, I expressed comport Rule's requirements. seemed me consist identified components: (i) relief proposed, (ii) fee. ultimately discretion accepted. questioning form Delta, influenced fact Title VII case. 'costs' component 363, 1155. My view, specificity "substantive relief" depend solely 27 No joined my concurrence. decision ground. Although think better practice identify components, important "parties public whole interest—often overriding one—in exhaustion protracted proceedings." "facilitat[e] early resolution marginal suits perceives merit, recognizes speculative nature." id., 1, 1156, 1. join 29 REHNQUIST, 30 dissent Further examination wrong, therefore THE CHIEF JUSTICE. Cf. McGrath Kristensen, 340 162, 176, 71 224, 232, L.Ed. 173 (1950) (Jackson, 31 BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 32 presented Procedure1 elsewhere throughout taxable 1920 traditionally understood "costs"—court printing expenses, like2—or instead fees-award happens Relying recurrently emphasizes language" statute, 1988,3 today holds litigant entitled per se barred recovering proffered 33 dissent. reasoning wholly structure Rules, over 100 produce absurd variations based picayune differences statutory phraseology. Neither could inexplicable incentives. "seriously undermine behind provisions" laws, 378, 1163, (1981) (REHNQUIST, dissenting)—provisions imposed Fourteenth Amendment.4 Today's violates basic limitations rulemaking authority Enabling 2072, summarized Finally, Judicial Conference engaged years possible amendments That process strongly suggests previously viewed governing awards, illustrates wisdom deferring avenues amending ourselves engaging "standardless lawmaking." 1163 dissenting). 34 analysis, ante, 11, goes follows: "prevailing party" "a turn obtains previous Because "attorney's fees" concludes, prohibits proposed out-of-court Ante, 9. approach Judge Posner's below noted, logical." 474, 478 However, starting point interpreting rules always words themselves, inquiry abstract comprehend, understanding convey act."5 confronted "superficially appealing argument[s]" strikingly today, "cannot survive careful consideration." Roadway Express, Piper, 447 752, 758, 2455, 2460, 65 488 (1980). So here. 36 1927 (1976 ed.) (which imposition "excess "unreasonably vexatiously" delayed proceedings),6 interpreted argument, concluding well-settled limited traditional items 1920. 759-761, 2460-2462. consistently "sought standardize treatment 'make uniform—make law explicit definite,' petitioner's "could result virtually random basis laws problem controlling abuses processes." 761-762, 2461-2462. Specifically, definition vary depending phraseology 37 "would create two-tier system sanctions. Under Roadway's 1927, lawyers brought [authorizing costs] face stiffer penalties prolonging attorneys. persuasive justification areas differing sanctions dilatory court's processes abused commercial action. Without express indication intent, hesitate reach imaginative outcome urged Roadway, particularly plausible flows [viewing uniformly 1920]." 762-763, 2462. 38 restricts discussion single footnote, urging decision" "§ came whereas "Rule come 9-10, 2. purported "distinction" begs question. "come[s] costs"—that effort courts," 761, 2461—or widely statute.7 parties' arguments interchangeable, analysis advanced conclusory statement different. 39 For number reasons, accordance 1920: First. mean common predecessor 1920.8 Nowhere suggested involved—a cut uniform procedures applicable "every Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 1.9 41 Second. automatically clerk day's notice, 54(d)—strongly suggesting routine, readily determinable charges appropriately clerk, notice appropriate. frequently entail lengthy disputes hearings,10 obviously fall category. Third. When encompass explicitly. Eleven "expenses" circumstances, demonstrating knew difference, "expenses," fees."11 43 Fourth. With recent opinions, attorneys ever fees.12 Yet years, potentially numerous during time. "The defense bar develop seeking" shift reduce evidence with" 360, 1154. Fifth. phrases usage pari materia, otherwise "attribute schizophrenic drafters." 353, 1150. Applying results like heads plainly violate restraints Act. 54(d) "costs course unless directs."13 Similarly, "must offer"—language costs.14 virtue wording falling Had addressed troubling consequence approach, perhaps acknowledged conflict directly vexatious, frivolous, harass embarrass defendant,"15 standard overrides point, cannot ways. Unless engage "schizophrenic" construction, 1154, inclusion subsume alter fundamentally nature civil-rights legislation. 762, extreme still some "select ad hoc features into" 68—a constitute short Ibid.16 46 Sixth. uniform, proceedings ----, incentives litigation." today's lead dramatically minor statutes—distinctions appear irrational explanation. statutes, affected decision. Appendix illustrates, employed variety slightly wordings statutes. sometimes referred awarding costs," fees," decision, operate potential loss incentive fee," reference "as" costs.17 48 sanction senseless patchwork flies fundamental Rules—the procedure courts. Such "introduce into [Rule 68] distinctions unrelated goal [will] Rule." consumer safety Motor Vehicle Information Cost Savings Act18 Consumer Product Safety Act,19 same session structure—they promulgation standards, private violations requirements, costs,20 fees.21 successful will, requirements met, defective toaster (under Act) bumper Act). supports bizarre differentiation. 49 untenable character further illustrated laws. involving alleged discrimination housing Fair Housing 196822 1982,23 gender often Equal Pay 196324 1964.25 excluded Act26 1982,27 Act28 VII.29 difficult enough apply seeking "fees statutes.30 More importantly, absolutely reason eager induce 1982 fair-housing litigation,31 sterner gender-discrimination cases.32 50 contain several arising subsections, differs section. preposterous applications subsection of, inter alia, Privacy 1974,33 Home Owners' Loan 1933,34 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Amendments 1978,35 Interstate Commerce Act36 happened invoke. 51 justify incomprehensible fine linguistic among statutes—particularly cost embodying derived partners responsibility carry constructions producing "untenable unreasonable results." Tobacco Patterson, 456 63, 71, 102 1534, 1538, 748 (1982). supra. JUSTICE Stewart, cogently reasoned (dissenting opinion), "two-tier cost-shifting" attribute "woode[n] pervers[e]" motives Rules; "[n]o exists failure offered settlement" basis.37 52 fails discuss problems reviewed above, devote space arguing 11. far assert fits smoothly (1983). 53 wrong. instructed entitlement governed reasonableness standard.38 Until precludes reliance "bright-line" denying acknowledging "mathematical approach[es]" "little aid light factors." 435-436, 1040-1041, hours reasonably expended litigation," "does end inquiry": considerations legislative district adjust upward downward." 433-434, 1939 added).39 emphasized "necessarily equitable judgment" "superior 437, "acutely sensitive merits antidiscrimination policy." 54 hand, "sensitive" policy. rejected, deprives respect matter using strongest verb type English language—'must.' 369, 1158. apparent.40 55 Of unreasonably settlement, itself unproductive wake rejection. extent crucial factor 440, 1943 added); "excessive, redundant, unnecessary" calculus, 434, 1939. extent, wooden Seventh Circuit's remand instant stand, conducting appropriate determined awardable. 56 congruent, mandates consideration broad range factors accords leeway informed discretion. protestations, "[t]his example" smooth 9, never evidentiary unreasonableness request. clear, "has excellent results" far-reaching interest. 435, 1940. disallowance passed muster standard,41 vaguely result.42 57 argues, defendants." 10. contention twice 'one-way street,' defending claimants."43 Interpreting current version skewed squarely intent. complaint days reject. inevitably violated "low-ball" immediately able information discovery strength severe pressure settle risk bearing reveal greater liability. limitation, advised ever-slightly larger conducted discovery. 58 sort so-called "incentive" goals. "private citizens rights" "those Nation's laws" proceed impunity."44 'appear cloaked mantle interest' "; promote "vigorous enforcement modern legislation," general" "be faith vindicate here involved."45 uninformed decisions notwithstanding "excellent"46 achieve full picture emerges, just deterrent effect.47 59 Other difficulties follow injunctive declaratory relief, altogether unclear intends judges go quantifying "value" success.48 raises concerning representation conflicts interest class actions.49 These questions, suggest stronger effective contrary 4-paragraph discussion, direction, provoked sharp debate commentators.50 interesting economic aggregate results. Posner created "cu[t] 1988," event modification 60 turned beyond pale judiciary's delegated prescribe general appeals actions." 2072.51 grant limited, condition "[s]uch abridge, enlarge modify right." "substantive" term. Amendment, House Senate Reports "fee integral remedies compliance" redress violations.52 Statutory "are new causes tied specific procedural 443, 2, (BRENNAN, dissenting part). 479 (§ accurate efficient parties; clearly [at issue Ragan Merchants Transfer & Warehouse Co., 337 530, 69 1233, 93 1520 (1949) ], designed objective—compliance laws").53 construed surely "abridge" "modify" test really regulates procedure,—the enforcing duties justly administering remedy disregard infraction them," operates abridge guise regulating procedure." Sibbach Wilson 312 10, 14, 422, 426, (1941) Hanna Plumer, 380 460, 464-465, 1136, 1140, (1965). bad-faith inherent act bad faith, vexatiously, wantonly, oppressive reasons," 258-259, 1622, assessment whose falls comfortably courts' administer "remedy infraction" rules, 426. 62 component. ----. Court, divest guessed unforeseen changes collides congressionally prescribed standards give way. 63 central issue, device prompt disputes. respect, refashioning foreclosed "inappropriate Judiciary, guidance, reallocate burdens 247, 1616. Beyond handful "limited circumstances" decision,54 "it apparent matters determine," 257, 262, 1621, 1624 added), "courts free fashion drastic allowance" 269, 1627. permitting supplant divesting exercise, assumed forbidden "roving authority" "make major inroads reserved itself." 260, exercised case-by-case here, promulgated delegation authority: substance 424.55 64 reexamination proposals amend initially amendment August equally discretion.56 criticism57 replaced revised September unreasonably," sets detailed assessing rejection.58 Public hearings months ago.59 meantime, revisions 1981 today,60 drew opposition hearings61 voted Subcommittee. Subsequent fate.62 1984, legislation introduced qualification "was occurred."63 Hearings legislation,64 too 66 activity respects. First, currently else largely unnecessary. Second, close issues raised (1) import (2) (3) need revise ensure offerees (4) non-pecuniary (5) class-action (6) clients create, (7) precise sanction. Many discussed above carefully crafted problems. nn. 56, 58, institutionally competent resolve matter. least ambiguous, leads inconsistencies stayed hand pursued. poor administration law, renders imperative dispatch. APPENDIX TO OPINION OF DISSENTING fee-shifting typically categories: (A) Statutes Variations formulations "defin[e] fees." Thus 68." 70 (B) describe item Typical fee." none evaluated (C) uncertain categorized On phrase "including modifying part, arguably seems meaning"), 72 following summary authorizing broken down categories above.65 explained why disparate 73 Referred "Costs" 74 Freedom 552(a)(4)(E) (F). 75 1974, 552a(g)(2)(B), 552a(g)(4)(B). 3. Government Sunshine 552b(i). 77 4. Commodity 88 1394, 18(d) (e). 78 5. Packers Stockyard 1921, 166, 210(f). 79 6. Perishable Agricultural Commodities 1930, 534, 499g(b). Practices 1967, 82 95, 2305(a) (c). 81 8. 132, 1464(q)(3). Bank Holding Company 1970, 84 1767, 1975. 83 Antitrust 731, 15(a) (b). Hart-Scott-Rodino Improvements 1396, 15c(a)(2), 26. 12. Unfair Competition 1916, 798, 72. 86 13. 82, 77k(e). 14. Trust Indenture 1939, 1171, 1176, ooo(e), 77www(a). 15. 890, 898, 78r(a). 89 16. Jewelers Hall-Mark 298(b)-(d). 17. 1218, 1226, 2060(c) (f), 2072(a), 2073. 91 18. Hobby Protection 686, 2102. 92 19. Export Trading 1982, 96 1243, 4016(b)(1) (4). 20. National Cooperative Research 98 1817, 4304(a) (1982 ed., Supp. III). 94 21. Historic Preservation 1980, 3002, 470w-4. 22. Endangered Species 1973, 897, 1540(g)(4). 23. Utility Regulatory Policies 1978, 3129, 2632(a) 97 24. 2586, 505. 25. Semiconductor Chip 3353, 911(f) Racketeer Influenced Corrupt Organizations 1964(c). 27. Omnibus Crime Control Safe Streets 1968, 2520. 28. Jury System Improvement 1875(d)(2). 29. Rehabilitation 2982, 794a(b). 30. Surface Mining Reclamation 1977, 503, 1270(d). 31. Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources 573, 1427(c). 32. Oil Gas Royalty Management 2458, 1734(a)(4). 106 33. Water Pollution 888, 1365(d). 107 34. Marine Protection, Research, Sanctuaries 1972, 1057, 1415(g)(4). 108 35. Deepwater Ports 2141, 1515(d). 109 36. Prevent Ships, 2302, 1910(d). 110 37. Drinking 1690-1691, 300j-8(d), 300j-9(2)(B)(i) (ii). 111 38. Voting 1965, 445, 1973 l(e). 112 39. 113 40. Institutionalized Persons 350-351, 1997a(b), 1997c(d). 114 41. 1964, 244, 2000a-3(b). 115 42. 246, 2000b-1. 116 43. 261, 2000e-5(k). 117 44. 1880, 2000aa-6(f). 118 45. Noise 1244, 4911(d). 119 46. Comprehensive Older Americans 1555, 6104(e)(1). 120 47. Energy Policy Conservation 930, 6305(d). 121 48. Resource Recovery 2826, 6972(e). 122 49. Clean 1686, 1706-1707, 7413(b), 7604(d), 7607(f). 123 50. 784, 7622(e)(2). 124 51. Powerplant Industrial Fuel Use 3335, 8435(d). 125 52. Ocean Thermal Conversion 990, 9124(d). 126 53. 657, 1349(a)(5). 127 54. 1926, 578, 153(p). 128 55. Shipping 737, 829. 129 56. Merchant 1936, 2015, 1227. 130 57. 3132, U.S.C.A. 1710(h)(2) 131 58. 1072, 1095, 206, 132 59. Cable 2779, 553(c)(2), 605(d)(3)(B) 133 60. Natural 2076, 1686(e). 134 61. Hazardous Liquid 1979, 1015, 2014(e). 135 62. 11705(d)(3), 11710(b). 136 63. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance 1796, 1810(c). 137 B. Not 138 552a(g)(4)B. 139 Plant Variety 1556, 2565. 140 Bankruptcy 303(i), 362(h), 363(n), 523(d). 1464(d)(8)(A). 142 1260, 1730(m)(3). 143 Credit Union 1010, 1786(p). 144 Deposit Insurance 879, 1818(n). 145 Real Settlement Procedures 1728, 2607(d)(2)(b). 146 Right Financial 3708, 3789, 3417(a)(4), 3418. 147 899, 78u(h)(8). 148 Trademark 439, 1117. 149 Traffic 1966, 724, 1400(b). 150 Truth-in-Lending 157, 1640(a). 151 Leasing 1667b(a). 152 1134, 1681n(3), 1681o(2). 153 1524, 1691e(d). 154 881, 1692k(a). 155 Electronic Fund 3737, 1693m(a) (f). 156 Land Sales Full Disclosure 595, 1709(c). 157 955, 963, 1918(a), 1989(a)(2). 158 Toxic Substances 2039, 2041-2042, 2618(d), 2619(c)(2), 2020(b)(4)(C). 159 Petroleum Marketing 331, 2805(d)(1) (3). 160 Condominium Abuse Relief 1677, 1679, 3608(d), 3611(d). 161 Alaska Interest 2426, 3117(a). 162 Navajo Hopi Indian Relocation 934, 640d-27(b). 163 Tax Reform 1665, 6110(i)(2). 164 Code, 1927. 165 Access 2412(b). 166 Norris-LaGuardia 107. 167 Standards 1069, 216(b). 168 Labor-Management Reporting 1959, 524, 431(c). 169 Age Discrimination Employment 604, 626(b). 170 Employee Retirement Income Security 891, 1132(g). 171 Multiple Development 710, 526(e). 172 State Local Fiscal Assistance 919, 6721(c). Longshoremen's Harbor Workers' Compensation 1438, 928(a). 174 Patent Infringement 813, 285. 175 Servicemen's Group Life 1165, 784(g). Social 624, 406(b). 177 Atomic 1954, 946, 2184. 178 Legal Services Corporation 381, 2996e(f). 179 88, 3612(c). 180 Mobile Construction 706, 5412(b). 181 Environmental Response, Compensation, Liability 2792, 9612(c)(3). 182 658, 1349(b)(2), 1818(c)(1)(C). 183 2430, 1631(c). 184 Mar. 1897, 619, 1506. 185 11708(c). 186 Household Goods Transportation 2016, 11711(d) 187 C. "Costs Expenses, Including Fees" 188 Magnuson-Moss Warranty—Federal Trade Commission 2189, 2310(d)(2). 189 Multiemployer Pension Plan 1263, 1451(e). 190 Mine Health 1303, 183, 815(c)(3), 938(c). 191 511, 520, 1275(e), 1293(c). 192 Uniform Property Acquisition 1906, 4654(a) 193 Nuclear Appropriations Authorization 2953, 5851(e)(2). 194 Railroad Revitalization 122, 854(g). refused contest ruling. (1980), result. today. sought penalty vexatiously multiplying Express distinction rather, incorporates applies provides: "At begins, service serves written file acceptance proof thereof thereupon enter judgment. An deemed withdrawn admissible except proceeding preclude another verdict judgment, remains proceedings, adjudged served commencement liability." "A judge tax following: "(1) marshal; "(2) reporter stenographic transcript use case; "(3) disbursements witnesses; "(4) exemplification copies papers "(5) Docket 1923 title; "(6) appointed experts, interpreters, salaries, 1828 title. bill and, allowance, decree." "[i]n enforce sections 1981, 1983, 1985, 1986 title, title IX Law 92-318, VI court, party, States, S.Rep. 94-1011, pp. 5-6 (1976), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 5908, 5912; 7, 8-9 2A Sands, Sutherland 46.07, (4th ed. 1984). Campos-Serrano, 404 293, 298, 471, 457 (1971) ("If literal irreconcilably war purpose, considered"); Lynch Overholser, 369 705, 1063, 1067, 211 (1962) ("The repeatedly warned dangers confines bare 'literalness strangle meaning' "); Brown, 333 18, 25-26, 376, 379-380, (1948) canon favor strict inexorable command override evident purpose. magnified emphasis ambiguous contradictory fair remaining language"). Harrison Northern 317 476, 479, 361, (1943) ("words inexact tools best"): "who multiplies increase satisfy personally excess amended payment attorneys' conduct." Pub.L. 96-349, 3, Taken logical limit, "definition Rules' ignore defining Surely endorse question, me, "definition" pick choose enumeration modifies 54(d). 351-356, 1149-1152, (1981); 13, infra. Notes "unaffected rule"—suggesting intend 621. cited article present rule" fundamental, essential, doctrines borne mind ." Payne, Costs Common Actions Courts, Va.L.Rev. 397, 398 (1935) original), continued, stating secure States. intention establish 1853 exclusive declarations interdictions act. seem object substitute rules." "There probably mandate." Wright Miller, Practice 1029, (1969) (Wright Miller). Moore, ¶ 1.13[1], 285 (2d 1985) (Moore). drafted already disparity "very unlikely" 7-9. indicates "unaffected" Rules. 1938 led incentives, 32, infra —variations absence inference," pronouncement, conform uniformity M. Derfner Wolf, Awarded Attorney Fees, chs. 23-24 (1984); 25-27. Fed.Rules (signing pleadings, motions, violation Rule), 16(f) (noncompliance respecting conferences), 26(g) (certification requests, responses, objections 30(g)(1) (failure giving deposition attend), 30(g)(2) subpoena witness), 37(a)(4) (conduct necessitating compel discovery), 37(b) obey orders), 37(c) (expenses admit), 37(d) attend deposition, answers interrogatories, respond inspection), 37(g) participate framing plan), 56(g) (summary-judgment affidavits faith). citing see, Dowdell Apopka, Fla., 698 1181, 1188-1189, (CA White New Hampshire Dept. Security, 629 697, 702-703 (CA1 1980), rev'd grounds, 455 1162, 325 (1982); Piguead McLaren, 699 401, 403 Association Retarded Citizens Olson, 561 495, 498 1982), modified, 713 1384 (CA8 Greenwood Stevenson, 225, 231-232 (RI 1980). full: "Except therefor directs; agencies permitted notice. thereafter, ordinary Miller 3001, 3005; Moore 68.06. Hughes Rowe, 449 14-16, 173, 178-179, (1980) (per curiam ); Christiansburg Garment EEOC, 434 412, 421, 694, 648 (1978); "prevail" elements others. 434-437, 1939-1942. Shifting reasons text, infra, ---- - interacts referring naturally preceding word, 947, 1901 et seq. 1207, 2051 1918(a) ("costs awarded"). 2073 fees"). 81, 3601 "[a]ll right, every Territory, enjoyed white inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, real personal property." Jones Alfred H. Mayer 392 409, 2186, 1189 (1968). 206(d). 253, 2000e 3612(c) ("court fees") (FLSA), 216(b) ("a action") 2000e-5(k) costs") 1940, "involve core facts related theories" apportion claims. "Such lawsuit series discrete Instead significance overall guidance lower conflicting closely fact, abolish "anomalous gaps" "consistent" awards. relies chameleonic scheme FLSA, 1060, 201 seq., 577, regulate wages employees. Both FLSA 216(b), 153. similarly situated employees Compare 552a(g)(3)(B) ("reasonable 552a(g)(4) 1464(q)(3) ("cost fee") 1464(d)(8)(A) expenses 1349(a)(5) expert witness 684, 1349(b)(2) ("damages fees"), 1818(c)(1)(C) 11705(d)(3) ("attorney's 11708(c) addition costs"). majority Lines (implicitly) REHNQUIST (explicitly) repudiated views Lines. 8-9; 6; 8-9. Among consider labor required; novelty difficulty questions; skill requisite perform properly; preclusion employment due customary fee; fixed contingent; client circumstances; (8) involved obtained; (9) experience, reputation, ability attorneys; (10) undesirability (11) length professional relationship client; (12) cases." 430, offer-of-judgment aspect "reasonableness" rejection "end inquiry" "all 1940-1941, "reasonable," play enumerated standard, 4, 39, nowhere mentioned history, only: permit Eleventh Amendment. Hutto Finney, 437 678, 693-695, 2565, 2574-2576, 522 5; Amendment 339, 363 (1983); 407, 5910. 4-5, 5912 Northcross Memphis Board Education, 412 427, 428, 2201, 2202, (1973) curiam); Newman Piggie Park Enterprises, 390 400, 401-402, 964, 965-966, 1263 (1968) curiam). unfairness forcing "enough appraise strengths weaknesses defense," thus extension connection measures "information fairness F.R.D., 434-435. unable prove actual nominal $1, nevertheless demonstrates unconstitutionality injunction, $500 "get rid" controversy, failed vice versa, justified time." part) ("Civil large persons, worth stand gain spread obtaining them. [The] compounded fac[t] 1988"). nonpecuniary deciding "judgment" "more offer" uncertainty assessments add pressures doing abandons opportunity nonmonetary relief—a discouraging entirely odds 5-6; affecting hundred thousand dollars practical significance. Now situations vital assume Like 48, inconsequential extended provisions, expected substantial actions. "[S]uits alleging racial ethnic suits, classwide wrongs." General Telephone Falcon, 147, 2364, 2370, 740 individual Yet, recently cautioned, "[an] offeree's burden named representative-offeree exposure heavy [for expenses] recouped unnamed members. [This] representatives members class." 436. 23(e) approval compromised; protects "from unjust unfair lose satisfaction compromise." Moreland Rucker Pharmacal 611, 615 (WD La.1974). mesh supervision. Its addition, nondiscretionary 10-day limit acceptance—a impossible likely complex members, approval. sources 57, 59, 61, Branham, Offer Judgment 68: Response Justice, John Marshall L.Rev. 341 (1985); Fiss, Comment, Settlements, Yale L.J. 1073 Shavell, Suit, Settlement, Trial: Theoretical Analysis Alternative Methods Allocation Costs, J.Legal Studies Simon, Crossroads: Relationship Between U.Cin.L.Rev. 889 Notes, Impact Litigation, Colum.L.Rev. 719 "New" Tool 1978 Duke 889; Statutorily Authorized Fees: Reconciliation Scope Purpose Ga.L.Rev. 482 'Offer Judgment' Actions: Fundamental Incompatibility, Golden Gate 963 (1980); Toughening Sanctions, Iowa 237 2072 part: Supreme forms process, writs, actions, admiralty maritime therein, orders administrative agencies, boards, commissions, officers. preserve jury declared Constitution." 5913. 2-4; 1; Maine Thiboutot, 448 2502, 2508, 555 helpful rule—or to—is nonprocedural having efficiency process." Ely, Irrepressible Myth Erie, Harv.L.Rev. 693, 725 (1974). Those fund, opposing acted willful disobedience order. Summit Valley Industries, Carpenters, 717, 721, 2112, 2114, 511 257-259, 1621-1623, "It although prevent through 'mak[ing] itself,' approve achieved rulemaking." Conflict Attorneys' Fee Statute: Reinterpreting 828, 844 (1985), provided: denominated rule, stipulation dismissing accordingly. remain open withdrawal. writing withdrawn. Evidence expenses. "If unaccepted remained days, offeror claimant reduced excessive unjustified circumstances. consideration. faith. period time, derivative 23, 23.1, 23.2." Preliminary Draft (Aug. reprinted 337, 361-363 Procedure: (Washington, Jan. 1984); (Los Angeles, Cal., summons (or counteroffer) a[n] money, property, sooner offeree. rule. "If, entry unreasonably, resulting unnecessary delay needless impose rejection, merit lack closeness questions furnish "test case," presenting non-parties, delay, cost, incur prolonged. "In take account earned rates "This (Sept. 1984), 432-433 (1985). Standing Committees Criminal 1985); (San Francisco, 21, 1985). During Subcommittee hearings, Senator Hatch submitted S. 585, 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 2(c) "No [§ 1988] substantially Awards: 585 Constitution 2d Sess., 17-18, 29-31, 51, 65-66, Municipal 1983: 141, 98th H.R. 99th 2802, 8(2), (1984): made— officer finds that— "(A) "(B) occurred." Equity Act: 2802 purport complete court-awarded provisions.

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