Document: 397 U.S. 620 90 S.Ct. 1328 25 L.Ed.2d 615 The CHOCTAW NATION and the Chickasaw Nation, Petitioners,v.State of OKLAHOMA et al. CHEROKEE OR TRIBE OF INDIANS IN OKLAHOMA, Petitioner, v. State Nos. 41, 59. Argued March 5, 1970. Decided April 27, Rehearings Denied June 1, See 398 945, 1834. Lon Kile, Hugo, Okl., Peyton Ford, Washington, D.C., for petitioners. G. T. Blackenship, Oklahoma City, M. Darwin Kirk, Tulsa, respondents. Louis F. Claiborne, United States, amicus curiae, by special leave Court. Mr. Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion 1 This case involves a dispute over title to land underlying navigable portion parts Arkansas River in Oklahoma. As practical matter, what is at stake ownership minerals beneath river bed dry created navigation projects that are narrowing deepening channel. 2 In December 1966, petitioner Cherokee Nation brought suit States District Court Eastern against various corporations which had leased oil gas other mineral rights. its complaint, sought both recover royalties derived from leases prevent future interference with property rights, claiming it been since 1835 absolute fee owner certain below mean high water level River. Subsequently, petitioners Choctaw Nations were granted intervene order present their claims part belongs them. 3 After pre-trial proceedings Court, judgment on pleadings was entered favor State. held grants made conveyed no rights court thus remained until 1907, when passed upon Oklahoma's admission Union. On appeal, Appeals Tenth Circuit affirmed 402 F.2d 739 (1968). We certiorari, Oklahoma, 394 972, 89 1455, 22 972 (1969), consider petitioners' they received question treaties 1830 1835. 4 * At outset, we note these cases require us pass effect into nearly century half ago. background, necessary briefly relate circumstances large treaty States. 5 history behind goes back least period immediately after Revolutionary War prior adoption Constitution—a time Indian occupied much today southern southeastern 1785, Treaty Hopewell, November 28, 7 Stat. 18, peace friendship Indians established boundaries acknowledged themselves be under protection next year, similar concluded between Choctaws January 3, 1786, 21. 6 following years, number additional Cherokees Choctaws.1 By means treaties, purchased areas provide room increasing numbers new settlers who encroaching lands during westward migrations. Although not considered own lived, did have right exclusive use occupancy land—a could ceded only States.2 Moreover, continued live laws way life, those 'solemnly' guaranteed Holston, July 2, 1791, 39, 40; see Intercourse Act 1802, 139. Even while making this solemn guarantee, however, adopted policy aimed completely extinguishing Nations' native lands. acquired western territory 1803 Louisiana Purchase, soon proposed relocated west Mississippi.3 For time, seemed removal might readily accomplished. 8, 1817, 156, agreed trade Georgia amount Territory. also February 1819, 195. Thereafter, left eastern traveled west. Three years later, Doak's Stand, October 1820, 210, exchange approximately remaining Mississippi tract Territory an even larger one farther 8 Before relocate lands, set aside already settled. It apparent far enough escape nation's expansion. 20, 1825, 234, persuaded cede given them Stand. Similarly, voluntarily moved move again—farther land, 'a permanent home, shall, most guarantee be, remain, theirs forever.' May 6, 1828, 311. 9 prospect voluntary disappreared. part, refused give up long home. abortive attempt justifiably many doubt would protect But same deciding settlers' expansion desire increased. Georgia, state legislature, tired waiting fulfill promise extinguish lands,4 asserted jurisdiction prepared distribute followed suit, abolishing tribal government extending territory. 10 A clash obligation hand forcing relinquishment inevitable. With passage Removal 1830, 411, became policy, obligation, prevail. spite promises Indians' sovereignty, clear unable or unwilling citizens violating 11 Thus faced losing again forced move, promised convey simple 'to inure shall exist as nation it.' addition, pledged itself secure 'jurisdiction all persons may within limits west, so ever embraced any State.' Dancing Rabbit Creek, Sept. 333—334. 12 first determined retain settled down, establishing farms towns.5 However, they, too, leave. New Echota, 29, 1835, 478, East join Mississippi. Once again, assured lands: patent issue simple, never 13 succeeded efforts remove exchange, Creek Echota vast area two Nations. encompassed third Oklahoma; north, remainder perpetual outlet 14 later tribes originally included grants, undividued one-fourth interest 17, 1837, 573; 22, 1855, 611, well century. 15 Then, due pressure lands,6 Congress acted change arrangement. § 16 1893, 27 645, commission negotiate located allotment indiviual members preparation final dissolution tribes. Indians—including Choctaws, Chickasaws, Cherokees—agreed termination affairs. 1898, 30 495; 1902, 32 716. Finally, provided disposition provision 'be trust benefit Indians.' 26, 1906, 34 148. paved Union 'on equal footing original States,' conditioned disclaimer 'owned Indian, tribe, nation.' 16, §§ 4, 270, 271. According petitioners, Because individually allotted otherwise disposed pursuant 1906 Act, State, hand, land. courts disposing undisputed if incident statehood. sole review then whether II 17 more construction argues accepted standards ordinary conveyancing skilled draftsman 'the descriptions standing alone, actually exclude beds.' 18 Part here surrounded sides Cherokees, regard argument strained. There explicit exclusion Echota; fact, there reference point where stone placed opposite east lower bank Grand junction Arkansas' Canadian. 480. read issued thereunder President, undivided described merely exterior metes bounds. That junctions Canadian Rivers lies bounds, inside including seems clearly grant. 19 Below confluence Canadian, forms boundary north south, do explicitly refer river. Stand boundaries: 20 'Beginning River, line strikes same; thence Fork, source; South Red River; down three miles mouth Little empties side; direct beginning.' 211. (Emphasis added.) 21 Ten grant superseded 'varied description little, patent,' Fleming McCurtain, 215 56, 59, 54 L.Ed. 88 (1909): 'beginning near Fort Smith crosses running source fork; limits; south Arkansas; along 333. 23 And 1842 President Tyler repeated language latter treaty. 24 preceded Nation; and, them, claim entire Oklahoma-Arkansas border. river, based setting out border Echota: From 'thence said *.' 26 Van Buren 1838, follows: 'down river; main channel northern extremity *' added. 28 thereby Petitioners disagreement about words patents river.7 29 disagreement, does nothing make convincing State's excluded matter law. About can standpoint skillfully drafted. More important fact exercises conveyancing. seek agree arm's-length transaction. Rather, imposed choice but consent. consequence, has often must interpreted understood see, e.g., Jones Meehan, 175 11, 44 49 (1899), doubtful expressions should resolved favor. Alaska Pacific Fisheries 248 78, 89, 39 40, 42, 63 138 (1918). Indeed, provides 'in wherever founded arise, construed favourably towards Choctaws.' 336. Applying principles here, conclude bounds terms 'up 'along River.' competent say 'north side' 'bank' meant, 1817 158. damaging contemporaneous interpretation reflected specific patent, river.'8 italicized branch reading seem include bed—that 'secondary' branches—but conflicts Court's term Brewer-Elliott Oil & Gas Co. 260 77, 43 60, 67 140 (1922). 31 facts involved essentially cases. reservation Osage bounded side river.' 81, S.Ct., 62. establish reserves it, intervened came 'whether nonnavigable, through flowed before statehood, dispose bed, done so, Osages.' Id., 80, 61. region non-navigable Osages certainly channel, because expressly carry line.' 87, 64. beyond power reserved decision. cases, River.9 understand argue Brewer-Elliott. waters just public Shively Bowlby, 152 47—48, 548, 565—566, 38 331 (1894). intended supra, 41; Moore 157 760, 763 (C.A.9th Cir. 1946); cf. Donnelly 228 243, 259, 33 449, 453 454, 57 820 (1913). Turning question, think clear, Appeals, parties pause specifically bed. State—even petitioners—we need look further 'disposals territorial lightly inferred, regarded unless intention definitely declared very plain.' Holt Bank, 270 49, 55, 46 197, 199, 70 465 (1926). limited instruments identical 'expressly' Bank rule construction, (see 49—50, 566) requires blind determining intent grantor. examined detail such disposal.' U.S., 58, 200. conclusion error, countervailing well-founded Together, winds course. natural inference conveyed, banks rivers. To extent documents speak consistent tend confirm reading. Certainly express grants. 35 meant entitled enter take sand gravel shallow islands formed low. respects virtually complete sovereignty Atlantic R. Mingus, 165 413, 435—436, 348, 354, 41 770 (1897). believe precluded exercising basic unlikely otherwise. Nor intend rather than avulsive changes river's course, noted common area. retaining all; concerned navigational easement via constitutional commerce. Cf. Pollard Hagan, How. 212, 229, 565 (1845). 36 remembered accompanied 'no light promise, purest legal fictions found semblance understanding (on necessarily places principal reliance), retained some 37 judgments therefore reversed, remanded opinion. ordered. Judgment reversed remanded. HARLAN took consideration decision 40 DOUGLAS, concurring. While I opinion, add few words. 42 exchanged aboriginal domain 14,000,000 acres Mississippi, now Pursuant 31, describing conveying simple.1 entirely Cherokees. mystery why patent. reservations: (1) permit get salt grant; (2) assigned Quapaws turned lands; (3) maintain military posts roads together free timber, fuel, materials support facilities. Since reservations fair dealing standard, conclude, think, tail went hide. another section Whatever me grant, each segments respective grantees simple. 45 Here resettlement,2 assurances selfgovernment3 pledges homelands State.4 They indeed constituted sovereign autonomy lieu prospective State.5 usual 295 103, 55 681, 79 1331 terminable nations ceased abandoned territory—conditions yet occurring. reliance 465, misplaced occupancy. 58—59, 47 speaking Solicitor General, filed brief taking position maintaining vigorously oral argument. concedes, 566—567, 331, holds territory, away transfer though stated purpose 'not 199. Such exceptional here. 48 solemnly So reasonable infer plan hold says, indulge cynical fiction without basis fact' attribute parties. Sixty creating lands.6 Friction whites settle mounted. American attitude hostile below. Commissioner Affairs his 1886 Report spoke exploitation monopoly he attacked such: 50 '(I)t perfectly plain my mind contemplated un-American absurd idea separate nationality our midst, choose organize own, nor allow organized, proposition contains other. These obstruct civilization commerce self-government, government, expect harm, insisting ultimate judge best political view. repeat, view acknowledge foreign eminent domain, soil—a theory utterly repugnant spirit genius laws, wholly unwarranted Constitution States.' H.R. Exec. Doc. No. pt. 49th Cong., 2d Sess., 87. 51 views Robert L. Owen, Agent, vol. 50th 134—135 (1888). A. Debo, Rise Fall Republic 245 seq. (1934). 52 agreement superseding earlier related Choate Trapp, 224 665, 667—670, 565, 56 941. An reached whereby individual passing trustees Indians. 137. allotted. year—1907—Oklahoma admitted 267. cession possible vehicle transferring Oklahoma.7 53 properly makes candidates application classic agreements favor, commercial interests repeatedly exploit perhaps Winans, 198 371, 380—381, 662, 664, 1089: '(W)e will construe 'that unlettered people' 'as justice reason demand, exerted strong whom owe care protection,' counterpoise inequality 'by superior looks substance technical rules.' (Choctaw States) 119 L.ed. 306, Sup.Ct.Rep. 75; (Jones Meehan) 1. How gathered circumstances.' resolve doubts Indians, mindful Jackson meeting Chickasaws: 'Brothers, listen: done, tranquillity your people obtained, is, you across country equal, superior, have. Your great father ever, belong children nation, interruption. Peace invites there; annoyance behind; limits, authority permitted; intruders, traders, above all, ardent spirits, destructive health morals, kept among you, ordinances sanction admission.' S.Doc. 512, 23d 1st Vol. 240—242. 58 Only continuation regime discrimination people,8 plagued relations races, deny claim. 59 WHITE, THE CHIEF JUSTICE BLACK join, dissenting. 60 downstream Arkansas. stream below, above, contending base 1838 Chickasaws fulfillment commitments. doctrine newly takes beds rivers borders; denies border, south. 61 owners border: crossed purporting bed; relevant reveal differ portions 62 riparian concenred—and purposes too—the applicable always distinguished nonnavigable streams. Section 931 Title Code, Rev. 2476, dates 1796, unmistakably: 'All rivers, remain deemed highways; streams different persons, thereof become both.' 64 adjacent surveys stop streams; conveyances federal St. Paul Railroad Schurmeir, Wall. 272, 288—289, 74 (1869), difference clear: 65 '(T)he hesitate decide, Congress, distinction law rules apply bordering latter, stream, highways.' 66 Packer Bird, 137 661, 672, 213, 819 (1891), like effect. 566, (1894), re-emphasized that: 'The congress constantly interior coast, high-water mark, taken actual occupants, encourage settlement country; soils ebb flow tide, being chiefly valuable commerce, navigation, fishery, improvements promote purposes, but, international duty exigency, states, vest several organized Union, powers prerogatives appertaining older states jurisdictions; short, piecemeal individuals, private property, whole ultimately administered dealt state, community.' 68 grantee Oregon not. 69 1845, power, except permitted, implied implication repudiated statements Goodtitle Kibbe, 471, 220 (1850), 566. latter: 'We cannot doubt, therefore, mark whenever becomes perform obligations, improvement promotion convenience appropriate objects territory.' 48, 71 Nevertheless, retricted statehood open 85—86, 63, 64, (1922); whether, home tribe permitted purposes. (1926), recognized early adhered regarding dominion, refrained disposal thereof, save instances impelled particular disposals exigency.' 72 Martin Waddell, Pet. 367, 409—411, 997 (1842), whatever Federal Government lying unorganized territories, undertook general laws. 48—50, 566 567. Conveyance embraces stream,' 213; 565—566. 'during 73 Against doctrinal either prevail, 'very plain' concluding neither satisfy standard. 1842, quotes 333, describes '(b)eginning fort fork treaty, 1820 going Fork quoted phrases (and Creek) bases upstream conveyance gave hence none Choctaws. 75 proceeding Arkansas, execution treaties. 14, 1833, 414, supplemental contain 'main channel' used patent; ran gives 76 Insofar concerned, obviously cry evidence irrelevant considerations Reliance stating 'wherever arise,' find difficult murky reject historic respect executing patents. whatsoever day utility negatives sharing '(n)avigable pay higher toll U.S.' 77 recited surveyed survey. Field notes 1831 survey show unmistakably surveyor 'fixed, corner lands' '64.50 Ch, bank, 78 executed field official 1821 pint distance mile thirty chains, 630 yards wide,' 'October 4th started post meander Arkansas.' plat 1825 shows terminus anything, contrary, indications Cherokees' Choctaws' side. 80 unimpressive river' belonged '(b)ounded 229. central owned thread Tribe 100, 101 (C.A.8th 1920). ruled 'riparian acts 1872, 1883 place premises lie unnavigable threads thereof. Rev.Stat. 2476 (43 U.S.C. 931); (St. Pacific) Schurmeier (sic), 287, 74. F., 109. affirmed, pointing out, true, extended Nothing said, construing 81 Much declarations argued reserve narrow Navigable resource hands Whether anticipated congressional history, carried adjoining 82 cannot, III 83 single calls excluding quite true plots perimeters property. waters. No stated. suggests full control lost travel virtue Nation. thought underwater days, insufficient prove supra. 84 otherwise, equitable, individuals. (1909). If all. hereby revert extinct, abandons same.' contained condition. duration qualified absoluteness words, simple." 61, 18. significance limitation Cherokee, Choctaw, Nations, terminated governments existence supervision Interior Department. 716; c. 1876, Tribal sold. Transfers individuals former solely widely diverse peoples Should severed longer serving communal remains sold purely purposes? patents, governmental entities 1906. 1907 meanwhile reverted 85 affirm Appeals. E.g., 1798, 62; 1801, 66; 25, 1805, 93. Johnson McIntosh, Wheat. 543, 681 (1823); Fletcher Peck, Cranch 142—143, 162 (1810). 1804, 15, 289. 'peaceable (sic) terms." Dept., Law 180—181 (1958). n. behalf court, (1831), Worcester 515, 483 (1832). recent account efforts, Burke, Cases: Study Law, politics, Morality, Stan.L.Rev. 500 (1969). generally, 180—200. Marlin Lewallen, 276 248, 249, 467 (1928); 667—668, 941 (1912). likewise question. indicates minimum middle accustomed using 'up' 'down' designating 490 (Alabama); 1811, 641 (Louisiana); 250 422, 832 (1919); Iowa Illinois, 147 239, (1893). Given usage, whose negotiated, analogous situation involving entities. analogy Barney Keokuk, 94 324, 337, (1877), approval Haight City Keokuk 213 (1856): (Indians) body. Had society, medium filum aguae, Illinois.' undoubtedly society,' 'well doubt' must, judicial notice navigability times case, finding head 86, addition millions surrounding segment west' 'free unmolested use' details ancestral Western Ct.Cl. 6,000 18,000 still homes. prisoners guard 5,000 soldiers, hunted mountains driven valleys bringing enforced emigration.' 20. finally forcibly removed Army General Scott: 'He quickly successfully, recorded painful experience life: "Food abundance depots, wagons every detachment troops. Georgians humanity tenderness. night thousands—men, women, children, sick in. Poor creatures. obstinately prepare removal. Many arrived starved, food pressed length less pride, way, parents. waiters occasion, flowing tears. autobiographer witnessed scene deeper pathos." 23. incidents aspects problems James, Andrew Jackson: Portrait 280—281, 304—305 (1937); C. Warren, Supreme History, 483. Our agents Council 1837: 'Here subjected voice; unsuited customs, abhorrent ideas liberty. There, yourselves, estimation suited country, yours; yours exclusively. protected vigilant intrusion white man.' 120, 25th 988. Article consent Territory.' IV 311, forever—a never, embarrassed having around lines, extension, existing story local agencies recently summarized William Brandon: 'Termination truly word ill omen Its meaning affairs 'Federal responsibility,' responsibility act trustee resources; groups possessions—protect particularly counties, cities, divest possesstions—and services education health. 'These responsibilities equally commitments, pledged, return cessions value, render unto protection, plus schools, hospitals, sawmills, teachers, doctors, tools implements, roads, supplies needed—all modern world, supplied jurisdictions, apprehensions jurisdictions trustworthy carrying promises.' Progressive, 1970, p. 38. E. Cahn, Brother's Keeper theme: knows forms. He flooded reservation; relocated; him meet taxes subject. His himself prejudice wiped substitution law, jurisdiction. All these, knows, variants truth: keep promises. Sometimes breaks once, sometimes slowly, time. result same—termination. When asked forsake status Bureau cash, aid, works industrial developments, learned things: '—That kept. kept, inadequate deprivation.' negotiated 12, 1883, 1893—prior record disclose date assumed role lessor although See, Lynch Clements, 263 P.2d 153. Sequoyah, Tennessee, stood Tennesee crippled life hunting trip; inactive thereafter invented syllabary, inspired 'talking leaves' written printed pages communicated. syllabary syllables language. memory perpetuated name genus California giant redwoods statue Statuary Hall National Capitol 1917.

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