Document: 421 U.S. 397 95 S.Ct. 1708 44 L.Ed.2d 251 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.RELIABLE TRANSFER CO., INC. No. 74—363. Argued March 19, 1975. Decided May Syllabus The admiralty rule of divided damages, whereby the property damage in a maritime collision or stranding is equally whenever two more parties involved are found to be guilty contributory fault, regardless relative degree their held replaced by requiring liability for such allocated among proportionately comparative and only when at fault it not possible fairly measure fault. Pp. 401-411. 2 Cir., 497 F.2d 1036, vacated remanded. John P. Rupp, Asst. Sol. Gen., Dept. Justice, Washington, D.C., petitioner, pro hac vice, special leave Court. Copal Mintz, New York City, respondent. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion 1 More than century ago, Schooner Catharine v. Dickinson, 17 How. 170, 15 L.Ed. 233, this Court established our law damages. That rule, most commonly applied cases between vessels, requires equal division both contributing whatever may have been. courts every major nation except ours long since abandoned that now assess damages on basis proportionate an allocation can reasonably made. In present case we called upon decide whether country's should requiring, possible, proportion each party. * On clear but windy December night 1968, Mary A. Whalen, coastal tanker owned respondent Reliable Transfer Co., embarked from Constable Hook, N.J., Island Park, N.Y., with load fuel oil. voyage ended, instead, vessel stranded sand bar off Rockaway Point outside Harbor. 3 Whalen's course led across mouth Inlet, narrow body water lies breakwater southeast shoreline Coney northwest. ordinarily marked its southernmost point flashing light maintained Coast Guard. As, however, captain deckhand observed while was proceeding southwardly inlet, operating night. As Whalen approached about half hour later, her attempted pass tug barge tow ahead, but, after determining he could overtake them, decided make 180 turn astern barge. At time tide flood, waves, whipped northwest winds gale force, were eight ten feet high. After making passing barge, headed eastwardly, believing then south heading open sea. He wrong. About minute later structure southern came into view. Turning avoid rocks visible ran aground sand. 4 brought action against United States Federal District Court, under Suits Admiralty Act, 41 Stat. 525, 46 U.S.C. § 741 et seq., Tort Claims 28 1346 seeking recover caused stranding. vessel's grounding 25% failure Guard maintain 75% Whalen. so finding issue court stated: 5 'The egregious Attempting negotiate east, space bell buoy shoals Point, Captain set his without knowing where was. Obviously, would looming directly ahead him within change course, if had been north believed 6 'Equipped look-out, chart, searchlight, radio-telephone, radar, made use nothing own guesswork judgment. . turning loop toward as tow, sure position before setting new 73 course. fact blowing 45 knots foot seas difficult see, emphasizes need caution rather excusing unknown. .' held, settled required party bear one-half vessel.1 7 Appeals Second Circuit affirmed 1036. It trial 'was clearly erroneous negligence parties, proportions stated, stranding.' Id., 1037—1038. And, although 'mindful criticism recogniz(ing) force argument type equitable,' id., 1038, appellate felt constrained adhere 'to doctrinal development Supreme await appropriate Congress.' Ibid. 8 We granted certiorari, 419 1018, 491, 42 291, consider continued validity rule.2 II 9 precise origins shrouded mists history.3 any event until early 19th know emerged British law. 1815, Woodrop-Sims, Dods. 83, 165 Eng.Rep. 1422, Sir William Scott, Lord Stowell, considered various circumstances which collisions occur stated those 'where blame.' 85, Eng.Rep., 1423. total 'apportioned between' 'as having occasioned them.' Nine years became English House Lords ships reversed decision Scottish apportioned blame, and, relying ordered equally. Hay Le Neve, Shaw H.L. 395. 10 background 1855 adopted 233. because prevailing England, become majority lower federal courts, seemed 'most just equitable, best (tended) induce care vigilance sides, navigation.' 177—178. There no question subsequent history experience conspicuously eroded rule's foundations.4 11 true well entrenched ancient form rough justice, means apportioning See R. Marsden, Shipping Laws, Collisions Sea §§ 119 147 (11th ed. 1961); Staring, Contribution Division Damages Maritime Cases, Calif.L.Rev. 304, 305—310 (1957). But England has rule5 follows Brussels Collision Liability Convention 1910 provides apportionment 'degree' do so.6 Indeed, virtually alone world's nations adhering proportional fault7—a encourages transoceanic forum shopping. G. Gilmore & C. Black, Law 529 (2d 1975) (hereinafter Black). 12 While originally adhered they recently followed grudgingly, terming 'unfair,'8 'illogical,'9 'arbitrary,' 'archaic frequently unjust.'10 Judge Learned Hand particularly stern critic rule. Dissenting National Bulk Carriers States, 183 405, 410 (CA2), wrote: 'An (of damages) plainly unjust; ought some five one. And obstinate cleaving abrogated nearly all civilized nations.' invited overturn when, earlier Circuit, 'we power divest ourselves vestigial relic; go far close eyes doubtful delinquencies.' Oriental Trading Transport Co. Gulf Oil Corp., 173 108, 111. Some even bolder, simply ignored J. Griffin, American 564 (1949); supra, 341—342. Cf. Margaret, 30 923 (CA3). 13 longer apparent, ever was, Solomonic serves achieve justice.11 An satisfactory result approximately thus assumes share degrees cannot measured determined rational basis. produces palpably unfair results other case. For example, one ship's causing relatively slight small, second ship grossly negligent suffers extensive damage, first must still substantial payment second. 'This hardly commends itself sense justice appealingly does common doctrine ..' Black 528. 14 potential unfairness magnified application Pennsylvania, 19 Wall. 125, 22 148, minor statutory violation will require unless she satisfy heavy burden showing 'not merely might causes, probably not, been.' 136 (emphasis added). O/Y Finlayson-Forssa A/B Pan Atlantic S.S. 259 11, (CA5); Marine 10, 109 564, 566 (CA2). also 202. implicitly recognized patent harshness face disparate blame applying 'major-minor' find solely fault.12 escape valve, addition being inherently unreliable, replaces another. primarily justify shouldering responsibility, nor excuse slightly bearing all. Tank Barge Hygrade Gatco Jersey, 250 485, 488 problem remains began—with rule: 16 '(T)he look too jealously navigation vessel, faults glaring, nature sop Cerberus. doubt better nothing; inadequate reach heart matter, constitutes constant temptation merits.' CA2) (L. Hand, J., dissenting). said justified difficulty concededly Max Morris, 137 1, 12, 29, 32, 34 586. Although there argument, based mutual When impossible allocate wrongdoing equitable solution. unnecessarily crude inequitable like Potential problems proof adherence archaic cases. Every evidently able apply serious problems, see Mole Wilson, A Study Comparative Negligence, Corn.L.Q. 333, 346 (1932); re Adams' Petition, 125 F.Supp. 110, 114 (SDNY), aff'd, 237 884 untoward difficulties personal injury actions. See, e.g., Pope Talbot, Inc. Hawn, 406, 409, 74 202, 204, 98 143. Merchant (Jones) 38 1185, amended, 1007, 688; Death High Seas 537, 766. 18 promotes out-of-court settlements, becomes apparent vessels readily agree divide damages—thus avoiding expense delay prolonged litigation concomitant courts. difficult, argued, who apportion accordingly. persuasive. markedly disproportionate, interest litigate controversy hope major-minor eventually persuade absolve liability. if, hand, appears realistic assessment situation roughly equal, reason why apportions less likely settlement always divides Experience area teaches fairness produce fair settlements.13 persuasive is, accepted. For, bottom, asks us continue operation facile out yields quick, though inequitable, relieves litigation. Congestion legal unjust encourage speedy accommodations. Finally, suggests creation task Congress Court.14 Judiciary traditionally taken lead formulating flexible remedies maritime, 'Congress largely left responsibility fashioning controlling rules law.' Fitzgerald Lines 374 16, 20, 83 1646, 1650, 720. Moragne Lines, 398 375, 405 n. 17, 90 1772, 1790, 26 339; Kermarec Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, 358 625, 630—632, 79 409—410, 550. No judicial precept precludes indeed bring recovery line Jones 688.15 20 authors leading treatise put matter: 21 '(T)here late date 'confess error' adopt Congressional action. resolution follow 120 rested overwhelming authority judgments tenable today. 'vested rights,' theory fact, intervened. regard 'settled expectation' heart-reason stare decisis relevance respect rule; concept reduced absurdity collision. abrogation seems, disharmony branches law, general statutory.' 531. (footnote omitted).16 prevail country sheer inertia intrinsic merit. reasons Court's adoption disappeared. repeatedly criticized experienced judges correctly pointed works often precisely opposite what sought Catharine—the 'just equitable' worldwide taught goal realized standard allocates according possible. 23 hold contributed cause stranding, 24 Accordingly, judgment remanded further proceedings consistent opinion. 25 ordered. Judgment described Sapphire, 51, 56, 814: 'It undoubtedly sums representing sustained added together aggregate two. This effect deducting lesser greater dividing remainder. If injury, liable other, fault.' Similarly, North Star, 106 22, 41, 45, 27 91, '(A)ccording occurring entire mass thereupon arises pay sum necessary equalize burden.' also, White Oak Transportation Boston, Cape Cod Canal 258 341, 338, 66 649; Eugene F. Moran, 212 466, 29 339, 53 600. applies partly damaged nonvessel Atlee Packet 389, 619 (barge struck pier owner); supra (steamship canal joint steamship company). 7—17, pp. 522—523 1975). Government's petition certiorari presented single did file cross-petition argues Government requests increase favor full amount However, absent challenge enlarge rights thereunder. Morley Constr. Maryland Casualty 300 185, 190, 57 325, 327, 81 593; Railway Express 265 425, 435, 560, 563, 68 1087. Moreover, argued respondent's factual findings support judgment, Stern, Cross-Appeal Cross-Petition Certainty Confusion?, 87 Harv.L.Rev. 763, 774 (1974), concurred Appeals, meet 'two-court rule.' Graver Mfg. Linde 336 271, 275, 69 535, 93 672. Berenyi Immigration Director, 385 630, 635, 666, 669, 656. Most commentators traced back Article XIV Laws Oleron, promulgated A.D. 1150, provided way another anchor, owners crew swore oath accidental. 1961). 304 Other enacted provisions similar during same period, variations scope principle division. 125. underlying seems peril sea—a misfortune borne either rateably interests risk.' 140. acknowledged existence least recent Weyerhaeuser 372 597, 603, 926, 929, 1; Halcyon Haenn Ship Ceiling Refitting 342 282, 284, 72 277, 279, 96 318. neither occasion re-examine appraise underpinnings propriety application. Union San Jacinto, 409 140, 368, 365, reconsider conclusion totally free Conventions 1911, Geo. 5, c. 57,s 1. part: 'If shall respectively committed. Provided circumstances, establish respective faults, equally.' informed jurisdictions ratified are: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Haiti, Hungary, Iceland, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, U.S.S.R., Uruguay, Yugoslavia. Knauth Knauth, Benedict 38—39 (7th 1969). 857 3, 340—341; Ahlgren Red Star Towing Transp. 214 618, 620 Fuel Corp. Ruth, 231 319, 321 F.2d, 488. Mystic M/S Antonio Ferraz, 498 538, 539 (CA2); Petition Oskar Tiedemann 289 237, 241—242 (CA3); 884, 887 Luckenbach 157 250, 252 imagine manner 'induce vigilance' penalizes wrongdoing, seem designed imposes strongest deterrent wrongful behavior harm others. City York, 72, 211, 216, 37 84: 'Where part uncontradicted testimony, itself, sufficient account disaster, enough raise management vessel. presumption adverse claim, reasonable conduct resolved favor.' Victor Plymothian, 168 410, 149, 519; Umbria, 166 404, 610, 1053; Oregon, 158 186, 804, 39 943; Ludvig Holberg, 60, 477, 620. applicable actions 766, appear discourage negotiation settlements reported, marine involving terminated fiscal year 1974, 9.6% reached trial. 1974 Proceedings Judicial Conference Annual Report Director Administrative Office Courts, Table C4, p. 416. relies Senate twice failed ratify urged inaction indicates 'grave doubt' rejection justice. guidance 'negative legislation,' took Convention, opposition Convention's poor translation cargo provision prevent recovering non-carrying eliminating several damage. H. Baer, 414—415 1969); 343. Comment, 64 Yale L.J. 878 (1955). contexts, hesitated overrule settle matter continuing concern, relief obtained legislation. Burnet Coronado Gas 285 393, 406 52 443, 447, 76 814 (Brandeis, dissenting) (collecting cases). Donovan Ray, Mutual Fault—Half-Damage Rule—A Critical Analysis, Ins.Coun.J., 395 (1974); Allbritton, Admiralty—A Rising Tide Confusion, Commerce 323 (1971); Jackson, Archaic Rule Dividing Collisions, Ala.L.Rev. 263 (1967); 304; 333 Huger, Proportional Damage Sea, 531 (1928).

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