Document: 517 U.S. 186116 S.Ct. 1186134 L.Ed.2d 347 Fortis MORSE, Kenneth Curtis Bartholomew and Kimberly J. Enderson, Appellants,v.REPUBLICAN PARTY OF VIRGINIA et al. No. 94-203. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Oct. 2, 1995. Decided March 27, 1996. Syllabus * Appellee Republican Party Virginia (Party) invited all registered voters willing to declare their support for Party's nominees at 1994 general election become delegates a convention nominate candidate Senator upon payment registration fee. Appellants Enderson desired, were qualified, delegates, but rejected because they refused pay fee; appellant Morse paid fee with funds advanced by supporters eventual nominee. Alleging, inter alia, that imposition violated §§ 5 10 Voting Rights Act 1965, appellants filed complaint seeking an injunction preventing from imposing ordering it return Morse. The three-judge District convened consider § claims granted motion dismiss, concluding "general rule" covers political parties extent are empowered conduct primary elections is inapplicable selection nominating under regulation promulgated Attorney General this Court's summary decision in Williams v. Democratic Georgia, 409 809, 93 67, 34 70; only has authority enforce 10. Held: judgment reversed, case remanded. 853 F.Supp. 212 (W.D.Va.1994), reversed Justice STEVENS, joined GINSBURG, concluded: 1 1. exact was subject 5, which, among other things, prohibits covered jurisdictions enacting or enforcing "any voting qualification prerequisite . different force on" specified date unless change been precleared General. Pp. __-__. 2 (a) erred its application General's regulation, which unambiguously requires preclearance when party makes affecting if, "acting explicitly implicitly jurisdiction." Because law provides two major shall automatically appear on ballot, without need candidacy demonstrate petition, authorizes determine themselves how will select nominees, whether primary, convention, some method, "act[ed] authority" picked certified nominee automatic placement ballot. Cf. Smith Allwright, 321 649, 653, n. 6, 660, 663, 64 757, 759, 88 L.Ed. 987. conclusion activities fall directly within regulation's scope not contradicted, fact supported, narrow holding Williams, supra, also based dismissal appellants' case. 3 (b) Act's language structure compel own changes such as filing electoral practice issue convention. This consistently construed require any bearing "effectiveness" vote cast special, election, including composition electorate votes particular office. See, e.g., Allen State Bd. Elections, 393 544, 570, 89 817, 834, 22 By limiting opportunity participate undercuts influence field candidates whose names thus weakens itself. That nonprimary nomination methods supported Whitley decided Allen, supra; text legislative history 14, defines terms "vote" "voting" include "all action necessary make effective election," persons "party office"; bans racially discriminatory if "the processes leading equally open [protected group] members." (Emphasis added.) 4 (c) Consideration historical background informed 89th Congress passed Act—particularly Terry Adams, 345 461, 73 97 1152, "White Primary Cases," applied Fifteenth Amendment strike down succession measures Texas authorities exclude minority processes—confirms applies here. None reasons offered appellees' contention White Cases have no proper interpretation—(1) did operate manner; (2) that, although meant Amendment, intend legislate Amendment's "outer limit"; (3) present-day one-party Commonwealth, unlike post-Reconstruction Texas—is persuasive. (d) dissents' arguments rejecting foregoing construction 5-that "State subdivision" 5's literal meaning governmental unit; should defer construing coverage; "state actor" decisions virtually certain win election; amounts adoption "blanket must preclear internal procedures—is convincing. 6 (e) Appellees' practical objections 5—(1) create administrative nightmare Department, threatens abridge First associational rights—are rejected. 7 2. Section Act—which does expressly mention private actions file suit against motivated poll taxes—does preclude challenging prohibited tax. Evaluation congressional take into account contemporary legal context. Cannon University Chicago, 441 677, 698-699, 99 1946, 1958-1959, 60 560. "backdrop" implied causes regularly found, see id., 698, nn. 22-23, S.Ct., 1958, may sue 10, just ma y 556, 557, 23, 826, 827, see, Chisom Roemer, 501 380, 111 2354, 115 348. argument contrary 20, refuted 14(e) Act, both recognize existence right action. delegate tax addresses merits be considered first instance. 8 BREYER, O'CONNOR SOUTER, 9 In light demonstrating well aware Cases, failure case-by-case enforcement Mississippi's then-recent efforts use "all-white" process help President, office" provision adopted cover latter type situation, cannot interpreted contain loophole excluding activity, read apply convention-based practices procedures respect voting. far go answer statutory question presented Indeed, go, given difficult questions about Federal Government, through procedures, can regulate workings limits imposed state doctrine. Such properly left squarely presents them. here, however, outside area greatest concern. intended establish less than 5. See 556-557, 826-827, BREYER expressed view underlying claim. 11 J., announced delivered opinion, joined. opinion concurring judgment, JJ., SCALIA, dissenting THOMAS, KENNEDY, REHNQUIST, C.J., joined, Part II. 12 On Appeal Western Of Virginia. 13 Pamela Susan Karlan, Cambridge, MA, appellants. 14 Paul Bender, Washington, DC, U.S., amicus curiae, special leave Court. 15 E. Duncan Getchell, Jr., Richmond, VA, appellees. 16 STEVENS GINSBURG joins. 17 1994, who intent public office next could either $35 $45 contend condition precedent participation 1965. we decide required permitted challenge 18 December 16, 1993, issued call held June 3, Senator. local mass meetings, canvasses conventions conducted officials Party. Any voter committee depending certification. Over 14,000 took part 19 response call, Bartholomew, sought As his her nominee, each eligible delegates; 20 May alleging 79 Stat. 439, 442, amended, 42 U.S.C. 1973c1 1973h (1988 ed.), Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment2 Twenty-fourth Amendment3 Constitution. They require, claims. Oliver North Senate Comm., Inc., (W.D.Va.1994). court remanded constitutional single-judge Court,4 and, after expedited briefing argument, dismiss 21 After noting "a elections, gave rule First, disavowing coverage elections. Second, relied our affirmance Civ. Action 16286 (N.D.Ga., Apr. 1972), party's method selecting national 70 (1972). Its claim rested section Act. F.Supp., 215-217. We noted probable jurisdiction, 513 ----, 932, 130 878 (1995), now reverse. II 23 enacted complex scheme remedies racial discrimination areas where had most flagrant. sets forth formula identifying occurred, South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 317-318, 86 803, 813, 769 (1966), prescribes stringent those remedies. It enactment jurisdiction qualifications differ effect November 1, 1964, later dates, approved Columbia. 548-550, 822-823, (1969).5 one seven found applicable August 7, 1965.6 entire Commonwealth obligation ever since. 24 undisputed charging 1964. selected enforced procedure preclearing Finally, understand agree mandated law, official, would required. 25 What dispute encompasses chosen answering question, note then explain why consistent discuss cause issue. III 26 validity regulation. voting, conditions satisfied: relate function party" jurisdiction."7 deny relates argues, instead, disagree. exercised delegated power Virginia's 27 creates separate tracks access affiliation candidate. An independent statewide comply several requirements. declaration Board Elections. He she petition signed predetermined number qualified voters. For Senate, equal one-half percent least 200 signatures districts. Va.Code Ann. 24.2-506 (1993). 14,871.8 28 contrast, code parties9 petition. 24.2-511. listed sequentially ballot before candidates, whom grouped toget row column spaced apart former.10 24.2-613, 24.2-640. nominees—by method. 24.2-509(A).11 taken advantage these options past sometimes Central Committee, election. Whatever chosen, place name ballot.12 29 dual regime, "ac[t] CFR 51.7 (1995). uncontested sole set access. Pursuant authority, prescribed criteria nearly organizations comply. But reserves places ballot—indeed, top positions13 fill nom inees, however chosen. Those effectively enact ratifies adopting nominees. conventions, example, assemble thousands years, few 550 nominators Senate.14 Even largest attendance date, fewer present meet requirement.15 event, permits allow many sees fit choose 30 choose. Correspondingly, incorporates selection, "endorses, adopts enforces" 664, 765, 987 (1944). inherent privilege conferred natural law. If chooses avail itself over process, necessarily becomes regulation.16 31 Party, guided reasoning more half century ago. There, polled preceding petitions. Id., 764-765. explained "recognition scheme," rather degree control it, made clear delegation fix State." 763. difference here candidates. expansive, less, even greater generally L. Tribe, American Constitutional Law 13-24, p. 1121, (2d ed.1988); Rotunda, Statutory Restrictions Political Parties Wake Cousins Wigoda, 53 L.Rev. 935, 953-954 (1975); Developments Law—Elections, Harv. 1111, 1159-1163 (1975). logic Smith, therefore, acted Commonwealth.17 32 true example describes purport define outer Moreover, brief curiae supporting prior implementation Department applying convention.18 satisfied Department's interpretation correct. Stinson States, 508 36, 45, 113 1913, 1919, 123 598 (1993); Bowles Seminole Rock & Sand Co., 325 410, 414, 65 1215, 1217, 1700 (1945). Accordingly, conclude 33 dismissing complaint, contrary. statutes grant position graphically distinguishes cases. concern elective o ffice, compliance National governing According Georgia over, played in, Convention.19 act implicit explicit, Commonwealth. anything, supports requirement. stated "convinced rights connected safeguard" passage 16286, 4. declined there submission time decision. Since then, clarified "an appropriate official submit rules preclearance, 51.23(b) (1993), thereby eliminating obstacle. Other lower courts subsequently rules, do elections.20 rationale still valid, primaries either, (by hypothesis) likewise means changes. firmly established—and —that carried out precleared.21 35 therefore incorrect base ffirmance Williams. conclude, IV 36 standard, practice, voting." including, limited to, registration, listing pursuant subchapter, casting having counted included totals propositions received election." 1973l (c)(1) ed.). 37 Although reading might confined limit individual voters' register voters, Sheffield Comm'rs, 435 110, 140-150, 98 965, 983-988, 55 148 (1978) (STEVENS, dissenting); Holder Hall, 512 114 2581, 2591-2592, 2602-2603, 129 687 (1994) (THOMAS, judgment), construction. Shortly statute passed, thoroughly reviewed broadest possible scope" reaching altered minor way." 566-567, 832. Similarly, Sheffield, concluded crippling interpretation, susceptible fully implement objectives." 117, 972. " like provisions designed implement, entities aspect designated jurisdictions, counties whatever units government perform registering voters." 118, More recently "expansive sphere operation" "comprehends Presley Etowah County Comm'n, 502 491, 501, 112 820, 828, 117 51 (1992). 38 bear 1973 l (c)(1). Rules concerning requirements qualifications, held, category potential "undermine effectiveness wish elect [particular] candidates." 834; Dougherty Ed. White, 439 32, 40, 368, 373, 58 269 (1978). Changes is, situations raise specter dilution—also belong class "nullify [voters'] ability choice prohibiting them 569, 834. nexus between changed impact recurring theme cases interpreting 50 397, 2365, 348 (1991) ("Any abridgment members protected inevitably impairs outcome election"). reenactments extensions moreover, endorsed broad constructions S.Rep. 97-417, pp. 6-7, (1982). 39 A operates precisely same fashion practices. elementary Nation's system, significance recognized long ago Pitney's concurrence Newberry 256 232, 41 469, 913 (1921). Joined Justices Brandeis Clarke, he wrote: "As matter, ultimate nominations [by parties] made." 286, 484 (opinion part). Classic, 313 299, 319, 61 1031, 1039, 85 1368 (1941) (endorsing concurrence). Just narrows potentially unwieldy serious realistic chance fact, State's compelling interest winnowing justifies substantial restrictions 415 767, 782, 94 1296, 1307, 744 (1974). Virginia, doubt, justify rules—including parties—on basis.22 40 previously extends primary. companion affirmed placed new burdens wished unconcerned One requirement nominator sign personally polling precinct county. 551, 824. Like case, fell scope. onerous burden mere information oneself one's dissent, Harlan agreed functional equivalent primary." 592, 845 Delegate closely tied dilution, repeatedly upheld. divided stages, consisting second being 316, 1038. Exclusion earlier stage, experienced, merely curtail power, abridges To excluded candidate, conducts except kept Each "integral machinery." 318, 1039. reference throughout reinforces specifically recognizes Delegates officers. H.R.Rep. Cong., 1st Sess., (1965) ("Thus, act"). phrase "votes enough encompass variety beyond formal election.23 point, Plan Organization, characterizes "election."24 43 interpretation. Representative Bingham proposed addition term express purpose extending parties. Hearings H.R. 6400 Subcommittee House Committee Judiciary, 456-457 (proposing "political councils, referendums lead endorsement run elections"). Congressional reach speculative. floor House, importance reprise fiasco previous year, "when regular Mississippi Convention series caucuses Negroes excluded." Cong. Rec. 16273 (1965); Hearings, 456 ("The events 1964 need" expand 14). explained, sol ution reached problem "to add definition word 'vote' 14(c)(1)." Cong 16273. described: canvasses. Exempting defeat eventually whole Bingham's amendment. 44 apparent methods. "voting prerequisite" discriminates race color, considers violation occurred subdivision [groups Act] representatives choice." 1973(b) ed.) (emphasis added). Under sweep language, exclusion qualify violation. "adopts 'political process' phase process." 30, 120 45 recent cases, Members questioned 416-417, 2375-2376 (SCALIA, ---- - 2586-2588 (KENNEDY, J.); 2610-2611 never doubt converse—that objectionable prevent attempts status quo. narrower known illegal. "It unlikely anomalous result." Chisom, 402, 2367.25 46 fair unquestionably administer 1968." 1973c V 47 led confirms preamble identifies "fifteenth amendment" implement.26 Our dealing applicability amendment engaged sort remedy relevant. McCain Lybrand, 465 236, 246, 104 1037, 1044, 271 (1984) (interpreting "in prophylactic experience reflects"); 37, 371 (seeking "guidance Act"). Amendments processes. These implemented "den[y] abridg[e] color," prohibits. 48 Nixon Herndon, 273 536, 446, 71 759 (1927), involved 1923 flatly provided 'in event negro Texas,' 540, 446. paragraph Holmes "unnecessary seems us hard imagine direct obvious infringement Fourteenth." 540-541, Promptly announcement decision, Legislature responded what regarded emergency replacing invalid substitute authorized executive every way" "qualified otherwise party." Condon, 286 73, 82, 52 484, 485, 76 984 (1932). Executive "white democrats" rule, Mr. again persuaded authors "classified sense great restraints Constitution action." 89, 487. 49 Condon Thereafter policy authorization resolution restricting membership persons." When confronted issue, Grovey Townsend, 295 622, 1292 (1935). years later, overruled constituted violative Fiftee nth though statute. "The democracy. organic grants citizens elected restriction race. people nullified form organization little value indirectly denied. Lane Wilson, 307 268, 275 [59 872, 876, 83 1281] [ (1939) ]." 765. nonwhite thereafter Jaybird Association. so-called "Jaybird primary" white ran always won Jaybirds status, funds, purely readily voluntary association's black grounds Amendment. 1152 (1953). Citing Clark tersely "old pattern guise revealed record." 480, 818 (concurring opinion). exemplified Texas, proved ineffective stop country intransigence "resorted extraordinary stratagem contriving various kinds perpetuating face adverse federal decrees." 335, 822 (citing 10-11; 162, pt. 8, (1965)). system end evasion once all. implementing approval Columbia General, "shift inertia perpetrators evil victims." 328, 818.27 distinction another variation cover. participating relating "convention" vote. cease high ballots; nor performing avoid normally depend factor completely irrelevant purposes, kind circumvention prevent." undermine permit '[s]uch result so slight form.' 465, 811, (quoting 661, 764). 54 follows Terry. called "primary," involve apparatus slightest way—neither supply officials, ballots, places. 471, 814 Frankfurter, J.). went immunizing control. receive individually fee, complied subject. 486-487, 821-822 (Minton, dissenting). No nominee's made, able requirements, Jaybirds' participate, despite entirely nature association, 5—which discriminate—must convention.28 Appellees nevertheless assert Terry, offer three contention: first, manner, Brief 37; second, limit" ibid.; third, Reconstruction, 36. 56 while today charge occur, occasions, NAACP Hampton Election 470 166, 181, 105 1128, 1137, 84 124 (1985); 250, 1046; 42, 374; 411 526, 534, 1702, 1707, 472 (1973); Perkins Matthews, 400 379, 383-385, 91 431, 434-435, 476 (1971); critical us, below, challenged alteration discrimination." 1137 original). contested potential.29 57 misconceives whole. Again, very states 437. "is assuring advance absence illegality, violates well." 416, 2375 dissenting) encompassed struck guarantees. Not securing enactment, facilitate effort embodied. strains credulity suppose Congress' professed impatience "case-by-case" rights, mean c ases capped struggle primary.30 final fares better. depends success rate endorses. stage regardless "invariably, sometimes, determines representative." operative test, repeatedly, exercises process. 122, 974 (" exercising subdivisions"); 44-45, 375-376 (§ "impact process"); 481, 819 ("[A]ny 'part machinery choosing officials' Constitution's restraints") 765). situation arise two-party States. summarized itself, perforce party, [the Fifteenth] conducting (Clark, concurring) Moore Ogilvie, 394 814, 818, 1493, 1496, (1969) (holding petitions "must pass muster charges vote"); 1039.31 sense. theory, blacks chose individual, independently could. 59 controlling intent. "foreordained" results post, __ impetus behind settle presidential race; 1952 1956, 1968 until 1992, 1976. Nevertheless, insisted white. established party—that say, candidates' atop ballot—of VI KENNEDY THOMAS reject reasons, none rely primarily text, unit government. __-__ radicalism underestimated. rejects centerpiece argument. view, flagrantly discriminated Unsurprisingly, neither extreme plainly war settled Act.32 62 Almost decades Comm'rs jurisdictions." 972 understood "territorial reach" embraced "actions formally 127, 977. invoked point. Ibid. THOMAS' confine subsequent county school board qualifies clearly "one constituent Union," __, defined itself.33 board, conceded "no nominal functions." Dougherty, 44, 375. 63 Besides contravenes precedents, fails textual level. uses Amendment—"State" —to bound honor Long "State" Allwright; Adams. How simultaneously concede reaches yet argue "plainly" excludes understanding. Imposing especially perverse Act—as face—was CIO, 335 106, 112, 68 1349, 1352-1353, 92 1849 (1948) ("There better key emerged"). Speculations beside mischievous unwise seeks exercise provisions.34 arguments. contends __. surprising explanation reliance principles deference. interesting successive administrations.35 66 relying principally Jackson Metropolitan Edison 419 345, 95 449, 477 (1974), Flagg Bros., Inc. Brooks, 436 149, 1729, 185 (1978), argues Thus, actor allowed (or preferred position) reserved parties, selects Given prohibit 67 constitutionality wholly unconvincing. utility "under color State" 1983 terminated customer's electric service. Bros. warehouseman violate sold goods entrusted storage. defendants acting actions. already code. Virginia—indeed, exclusive reserve positions Party.36 embraces reincarnation primaries, viable permissible perfectly enacted, majority opinions holdings Cases. opinions, shed While narrowly counted, (1994)), dominant engaging character 69 accuses "internal procedures." characterization quite inaccurate. hold circumstances: insofar proposes matter functions involving blatant seen since fail trigger downplays drastic limitation arguing lawsuits requirement; were, superfluous units, too. fundamental victims," declaring void cleared KENNEDY's reimpose relieve—the necessity "case-by-case litigation" protect "much different" "restructur ed laws order unlawful Post, restructuring all, acts. simply inaccurate, undertaken began discriminating early 1889, operated framework Texas' laws. highly counterintuitive proposition affected carries out, State. 72 apparently finds idea seek officer," duty determining submitted discriminate. suggestion subvert responsibility harass unsupported shred evidence. distrustful VII 5: requiring multitude practices; response. 74 With important emphasize limitations spelled "affecting Examples "changes recruitment members, campaigns, drafting platforms." line articulate abstract, Regulation 1981 unmanageable likely concerns described theoretical practical.37 construe evoked similar protestations advocated prove administratively unworkable. 54, 380 (Powell, 147-148, 987-988 fears borne think either. 75 wholeheartedly appellees association basic freedom" "governmental curtailing freedom associate closest scrutiny." Buckley Valeo, 424 96 612, 659 (1976), Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 357 78 1163, 1488 (1958)). scrutiny, foreclose possibility. 657, 762 (rejecting primary); Eu San Francisco 489 214, 109 1013, 1025, 103 (1989) (justifying "intervention" affairs "necessary derogation civil adherents") ). argued case—which curtails arguably conflict interests Amendment—is Rather, suggested hypothetical unrelated facts implicate sufficient respond find impediment us.38 consideration day.39 VIII 77 dismissed proceedings brought actions.40 ruling correct recently, give evaluation context." 560 (1979); Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner Curran, 353, 381, 102 1825, 1839, 182 Cannon, Title IX Education 1972 d victims education, heavily during 1960's notwithstanding direction Congress. 1958; 718, 1968-1969 (REHNQUIST, concurring). cited (1969), show found. 22-23. year J.I. Case Co. Borak, 377 426, 1555, 423 (1964), liberal standard finding observations forcefully "achievement laudable goal severely hampered citizen solely litigation instituted discretion General." 826. surely 10.41 attached urged litigants 23. takes Amicus Curiae 25-27.42 80 ratified Allen's reenactments, 91-397, (1970), extended face, 1965." (1982) ); 97-227, (1981). We, turn, entertained (1991); Johnson De Grandy, 2647, 775 (1994). anomalous, say least, enforceable not, lack authorizing language. 81 substantive directs bring types ctions. 42-43. Exactly Allen. question" created plaintiffs existing "[h]owever viewed, inquiry remains litigant."43 20. mattered remedies, indicate antipoll paying fee.44 82 Furthermore, reenacted life 1975, available originally guarantees fifteenth amended aggrieved person." 1973a Report provide formerly alone. 94-295, 39-40 (1975).45 terms, Amendments, 1973h(b) 14(e), added allows attorney fees prevailing States," fourteenth amendment." Obviously, litigant collect attorney's fees.46 Both 10.47 Last, sue. Without merits, incorrect, postpone addressed Court.48 further opinion. ordered. 87 SOUTER join, judgment. particularly me accept Appellees. activity opened size mountain. And everybody knew it. African-Americans systematically deprived years. knew, too, tried maintain quo primary—a tactic permitting alone assured victory Once (1944), step preprimary And, indeed, happened, failed version Association straw poll, unconstitutional. well, 6-22 (noting discussing Amendment); (same); 308-315, 808-812, (1966) (summarizing history), besides. sent delegation, caucuses, "Negroes" excluded. (testimony Rep. Bingham) (hereafter Hearings). Congress, knowing history, wanted rights" containing continue, threatening destroy promise fairness out? 90 want loophole, so. said, offering effective, directly, indirectly, affect 457. ibid. (explaining proposal covering told full Representatives (after accepted amendment) "would extend protections bill arose last (remarks Bingham). 32. amendment, dissents point subdivision." all-white evasive maneuvers statute's reach, appears constitutionally activities. 662-666, 764-766; 473, 815 J.) prohibition 'any State' translated jargon 'State action' "). 1965 words convention-based, ignoring President "no." history—that Jim Crow —one endorse evasion. are, effect, substitutes involves resembles imagine. (but fee) loyalty (in 1990, immediately Un ited race, canceled scheduled oppose incumbent, App. 24), mind asking "preclear" switch. state-law preferences, position, convention's choice. 24.2-511(A), 535, 613 Nor There voting-related "practices procedures" precleared. 502-503, 828-829, (1992) (gathering setting four categories: manner voting[,] qualifications[,] vote[,] [and] creation abolition office"). besides "other business conventions" includes "adoption resolutions platforms outlining philosophy [of Party]" operation. 24. Presley, preclearance. (1995) (making requirement"). I note, small subcategory rules. Hawthorne Baker, 750 1090, 1094-1095 (M.D.Ala.1990) (three-judge court), vacated moot, 499 933, 1408, 440 Fortune Kings 761, 764-765 (E.D.N.Y.1984) court) (per curiam); MacGuire Amos, 343 119, 121 (M.D.Ala.1972) curiam). much activity—including assembly members—I raised render restrictive conventions. here—the —lies "associational" obviously devices, specific Const., Amdt. 24, (banning tax). 100 because, indicate, ones, (1989), Edmonson Leesville Concrete 500 614, 2077, 660 (1991). questions, 101 satisfied, warrant create. (1953); Eu, 1025 (recognizing guaranteeing bar "intervention adherents"); 828-829 (setting preclearance); 6-7 (agreeing p rimary-related activity). 14(c)(1), boundaries draws around Further await day. authorize explains, ante, __-__, (Congress 5), (implied "has 1965"). differences determinative. Ante, addition, know treat differently 1975. focused deleted then-obsolete 10(d), technical amendments 10(b), indicated belief remained provision. Pub.L. 94-73, 408, 405. 40-41 (1975) (reiterating Act); 94-196, 33-34 (same). believe joins, dissenting. "Any interference adherents." Sweezy New Hampshire, 354 234, 1203, 1212, 1311 (1957). reason, treated assertion parties—which, groups like-minded voters—as utmost consequence. Wisconsin La Follette, 450 107, 121-122, 1010, 1018-1019, (1981); 477, 487-488, 541, 547-548, 595 O'Brien Brown, 4-5, 2718, 2720-2721, (1972) 1973c, but, inextricably up association. 106 respects STEVENS' BREYER's constitute remarkable departures course jurisprudence. obvious, perhaps, refusal unconstitutional basis "hypothetical [that] concerns." 1210.1 Instead, "leave day," "difficult" "for them," 1215. luxury precedents allow. constant free-speech jurisprudence claimants statute, ground unconstitutional, contexts principle "overbreadth" context speech speaking, speech. Robel, 389 258, 265-266, 419, 424-425, (1967); Elfbrandt Russell, 384 11, 18-19, 1238, 1241-1242, (1966). 107 satisfy lies "well 'associational' concern," smallest treating weighty posed context, "go hand" going assure overbreadth. whenever "rights [are] ensnared sweep, burdening innocent associations." Broadrick Oklahoma, 413 601, 2908, 2916, 830 (1973) (citing, Keyishian Regents Univ. N. Y., 385 589, 675, 629 (1967)). passes us," acknowledges ----. Yet indications overbreadth, require: "limiting partial invalidation" "remove seeming threat deterrence expression," Broadrick, 613, 2916. 108 flouting doctrine opinions' "[f]urther definition" 1216, leaves guidance [their] primaries," 1214, "which Act," ibid.2 Before today, tolerated uncertainty activities, refrain fear Baggett Bullitt, 360, 372, 1316, 1322-1323, (1964). Surely expected abstain proceeding notification; Another diverges astounding, possible, disregard doctrines overbreadth vagueness. From majority's , surmise Government aside hinder minorities' election-related functions. establishing Obscenity Censors, films books publication, obscenity. Freedman Maryland, 51, 734, 649 Bantam Books, Sullivan, 372 58, 631, 584 (1963). ignored classic restraint. 110 disfavored restraint freedoms guaranteed often speech, noxious, condemned, directed liberty (with "overlap[s] blend[s]," Citizens Against Rent Control/Coalition Fair Housing City Berkeley, 454 290, 300, 434, 492 (1981)). Thomas Collins, 323 516, 539-540, 315, 326-327, 430 (1945); Carroll Princess Anne, 175, 180-185, 347, 351-354, (1968); cf. Healy James, 408 169, 184, 2338, 2347-2348, 266 Today, accepts "precleared" used unlawfully. supplicants rights. five awarded ballot3) voter's capacity elected—no race-neutral effect—unless obtains clearance 1198-1199; 1214-1215. precleared—after rests Rome 446 156, 172-173, 183, 18, 1548, 1559-1560, 1565 119 (1980)—can enjoined. organized near-exclusive influencing outcomes approval, justifying, consequence regarding operations. outrageous tyranny. Government's favorable "Mother, I?" reason astonishment regret today's upheld private, conduct. astonishing regrettable architect express. ignore law: total ambiguity exists, questions. presume "Congress, sworn Constitution, err side liberties legislation implicates liberties." Regan Time, 468 641, 697, 3262, 3292, 487 canon narrowly, impose suspect restraints. Lowe SEC, 2557, (1985), "investment advisors" Securities Exchange Commission, 80b-3, publish "nonpersonalized" investment advice periodic market commentary—thereby avoiding register. Lowe, 190, 204-205, 50, 2562-2563, 2569-2570, 50. insignificant compared self-governance drives demand suggest) notion "strains credulity" political-party 1205. believes, "could intended" result, perception; assumption upon—that legislature half-way measures, attacks easy attacking sensitive well—seems false. one-step-at-a-time employ equal-protection opposite assumption. Williamson Lee Optical Okla., 483, 488-489, 464-465, 563 (1955). question-begging credit coverage, incomprehensible. adduced consists 14's office," 2's 1200-1201; 1214. gives phrases ascribe, accepting says, shows portion conduct; (at circumstances) Nothing anything compels prior-restraint 5,4 co urse us. real credulity-strainer "heavy presumption validity," 70, 639, backhanded fashion—saying "State[s]" subdivision[s]" well. impossible believe, respectfully dissent. Chief 116 join demonstrates action, explore Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Amendments. Cf., 173-182, 1559-1564, (1980). attribution would, implementation, (1953), considerable relevance protection challenges pending Court, J.), matters discussed so; for, recognition vital kindred elaborate confront participatory foundation democratic society, cautious preserve separating behavior reach. 'Careful adherence action" preserves law' avoids control." Collegiate Athletic Assn. Tarkanian, 488 179, 191, 454, 469 (1988), quoting Lugar Edmondson Oil 457 922, 936-937, 2744, 2753, 482 118 traverse terrain case," Lebron Railroad Passenger Corporation, 961, 964, 902 individuals purposes. political, body actors former. explains gloss demonstrated distinguish "person law" "fail refuse person entitled under" "willfully tabulate, count, report person's vote," 1973i(a), "[n]o person, otherwise, intimidate, threaten, coerce attempting 1973i(b). Civil 1871, Rev. 1979, describe ("[e]very who, ordinance, custom, usage, State"), said 'under color' thing 'state Amendment." Price, 787, 794, 1157, 267 929, 2749-2750; Rendell-Baker Kohn, 830, 838, 2764, 2769-2770, 418 (1982); West Atkins, 49, 2250, 2255, (1988); 182, 4, 457, Hafer Melo, 21, 28, 358, 363, 301 coterminous enforces, infer employment imputed instances, Gustafson Alloyd 1061, 1063, 131 (elementary "consistent knows regulating actors, intrusion caution adopt blanket theory Sensitive counsels purposes particular, circumspection drawing roles representative leaders concerned. 545, (reserving action). 492-494, 550-551 result); curiam) (staying seat expressing "grave doubts" Appeals' raising "[h]ighly important" question); Comm. Ariz. Ripon Society 1222, 1226-1227, 1475, 1477-1478, 717 chambers); Society, 173 U.S.App. D.C. 350, 357-359, 525 F.2d 567, 574-576 (en banc), cert. denied, 1147, 1148, 341 (1976). Notwithstanding terse dismissals values attach "freedom identify only." 1019, sound ambiguous difficulties. Miller Johnson, 515 2475, 2491-2492, 132 (refusing concerns). Gregory Ashcroft, 452, 460-464, 2395, 2400-2403, 410 (adopting plain statement Tenth grasping implausible brings problems fore. 122 advised remember contribute fine distinctions balancing Lopez, 514 1624, 1639, 626 ("[I]t mistaken branches forget maintaining balance instance"). attempted, submit, statute; credulity," simple begin with, course, needed invalidate that. ask officer (the States) permission procedures. ordinary ever-increasing camouflage activity. Commonwealth's allowing (and receives elections) option 24.2-509 accordance failing State, restructured If, li kely, 1964," counsel overstated qua strangled birth." Tr. Oral Arg. 12. counteract notorious evade treatment 327-328, 818-819, license 509, 831-832, adhere reflects governmental, entities. respect, 125 THE CHIEF JUSTICE SCALIA joins II, 126 Two discrete Act: so, conventioneers constitutes "with mandates negative forecloses availability 127 128 declares "[w]henever administer" institute absent Only promulgates implicated. Alabama, 141, 984, ("As starting [§ 5] units—States subdivisions"). entity address threshold pure begins Norfolk R. Train Dispatchers, 128, 1156, always, spoken us"). my triggered "State." defined, "will taking ordinary, contemporary, common meaning." Perrin 444 311, 314, 199 (1979). partisan group capitalized—is Union. Webster's International Dictionary ed.1957) (defining occupying definite territory politically government, esp. sovereign, exte rnal control; COMMONWEALTH"). belabors parlance, refers geographical California Massachusetts. fashion. 113, 970 (section "requires rules) added); Hadnott 365-366, 1101, 1105, 336 "provides changes, preclear) employs usual ("Virginia applicable. since") reinforced 14(c)(2) subdivision' parish," exceptions relevant (c)(2) oral "particular geographic regions" York's Westchester County. 15-16. 15, 977, "obviously refer[s] territory, usages term").1 understanding subdivision," odd indeed "State," precedes analogous meaning. refer territorial divisions larger territorially-defined evidence elsewhere speaks "territory" subdivision. 1973b(a)(1)(F) (referring "such ") land, people. nonsensical talk things "within [the] territory" party. Also, definitional 1970 Extension 91-285, indicates connote territories, 1973aa-1(h) (defining, 202 "[t]he 'State' "each Columbia"). 133 "enact resort units. 1973c. legislative, executive, judicial bodies. agency issues directive, governed (requiring Code bulletin distributed Elections). Saint Landry Parish School Bd., 601 859, 864, (C.A.5 1979) uniformly speak 'enactments,' 'legislation,' 'regulations,' 'laws'—all state"). Unlike Assembly, organ affairs, formulate promulgations alter[s] 566, 832 (quoted __). 134 points submissions largely come surprise (effective Jan. 1981), requested processed requests. Tellingly, cite handful predate regulation.2 instructs: request of, government.3 135 Though hardly authoritative. "only reasonable." 508, 831, resolves engaging. conveyed subdivisions. warrants 508-509, 831-832 (declining 5).4 136 My (ND Ga., aff'd, "statutory construction," subdivision.' believed, probably felt evidenced, court's chief connec tion" providing sense, broadly. Essential holding, precedential weight, instructive here.5 137 Contrary Ala., precise city change. controversy parish, "except supervision parish essence 4(b), unit" (though subdivision") Alabama. 127-128, 977-978. 138 Whether original stands, most, city, "[Section] territorially registration." 130, 978. proposition, bodies County, 375-376, (finding "[i]f obligations actuate 5," undermined) nongovernmental says suggests, th obligated, division behalf territory. 139 Undoubtedly, "applies viewed however. State—i.e., cities, counties, municipalities, agencies—not partisan, "political," agenda. e.g, 971-972 ("We registration"); 124, 975 ("Congress duties cities voters); ("local impair ways registration) (all emphases cites units" mentioned one. 133-134, 980-981 (cities; districts; councils; precincts; municipalities). progeny 140 Nonetheless, similarity Sheffield. inflated proportions. dissent warned logistical reviewing strongly suggest requirement." 147, "established" 'affecting voting.' (BREYER, (suggesting preferences on, "voting-related" changes). Solicitor candidly acknowledged, "affecting-voting" administered conventions; logically meetings precede 11. almost occurs theoretically affects voting; unable principled dividing increase exponentially requests, innocuous statutorily amount time. (60 days). "[I]t certainly reasonable strict submissions, deliberately themselves. achieved enactments subdivisions." 148, inclusion demeans regime drastically increases substantially undermines possibility preclear. 141 nod explicit analytical 35. review "[§ ]5 require[s] impose" conventiongoers. Juris. Statement i. Consequently, infra, maintained 29. ("A instrumentality [under ]"). presented, arguments, respective conclusions. 142 tactical error Sibron York, 392 917 (1968). ourselves. "unambiguously provid[e] preclear, nothing sort, word. policies 5.6 143 triggering adequately referring reveal conceivable deeming acts State: developed Amendments.7 repetition analysis, __; agree. 144 gloss. marked contrast coextensive Specifically, accorded 934-935, 2752, "[e]very deprives (1982 1983's reasonably incorporate expect 1983. "whenever changes.8 145 does, langua ge section. "[W]here omits presumed intentionally purposely disparate exclusion." Russello 464 296, (1983) (internal quotation marks omitted). 11(a) supplemental provisions] vote, willfully vote." 1973i(a) 1973i(b) ("No coerce, attempt vote") motivate strained group, opposed subdivisions bodies, interfere 146 breadth clarity together traditionally using law," done parts evident 147 indulging fairly attributable irreconcilable precedents.9 Cases—most notably (1953) characterized actors. Where err, "does forms activity." 158, 1734, "encompasses state-regulated produce 'the officials.' 820-821 concurring)). stand categorical factual circumstances, deemed agent 149 enunciated 'state-regulated electio[n]' extends. 1734-1735. initial follow directions [is made] participants role election—whether general, —but attend 150 But, assuming actual insufficient [is] compelled myriad start finish. 662-663, ,S.Ct., comparison, pale. 24.2-510 imposes deadlines Va.Code. selected, 24.2-511 chairman certify nomination, permissive, mandatory, provision; "required [this] directio[n]." exists ballot," relatively words, holds put gear. (1941).10 151 "follo[w] Terry." analysis agreed. 6. rationalized unique predicates: (1) foreordained winner intentional discrimination. 625, 2085, election"); Mobile Bolden, 55, 64, 1490, 1498, (1980) invariably election" "there agreement purposeful process"). nub de facto consciously serve such; thus, 152 premises hint involvement one—not litigants, below—has concert ban race-based anyone discriminate costs convention.11 tantamount lost proof modern-day stranglehold 1940's.12 short, cry bounds delineated, albeit too clearly, Terry.13 153 "carefully defined" refined jurisprudence, principle. discharge "traditionally performed" 'exclusively to' 352, (1974)). 621, 2083 traditional function"); 939, 2754-2755 illustration 'public function' test"). performed was, 154 "our serving function.' 842, 2772, (citation "[w]e 'traditionally prerogative State.' common: exclusivity." 640, 2093 (O'CONNOR, "private comprise something does." 155 test. protects advocacy regard officials" exclusively function." 1734 carefully distinguished "conduct" state-created framework. Providing orderly officers function. evidences, founding: Times, Places Manner Elections Senators Representatives, thereof." Art. I, cl. 156 convening best represent group's goals historically been, province State—much province. function, eminent domain, associated sovereignty." 454. Arts Athletics, Olympic 483 522, 2971, 2985, 427 (1987) "[n]either coordination amateur sports Blum Yaretsky, 991, 1011-1012, 2777, 2789-2790, 534 nursing home services sovereign function); 638-641, 2092 (arguing peremptory strikes choice). ccess Storer 724, 1274, 714 knowledge designate democracy possessed identification __.14 157 emphasizes __-__; ballot." formulation deciding enjoy manage Burdick Takushi, 504 428, 433, 2059, 2063, 245 definitively Virginia—not Party—in Code. 24.2-101, (1993) (providing receive, cast). wrong asserts "are eliminated 24.2-511(D) notice Elections]"). "who 158 distinct access, distinguish: identity making determination, "qualifications" conflates criteria, standards 24.2-101 picks according "it government's reason." 638, sum, "forms responsibility" 2092-2093. 159 sure, certifies candida te 13; conferral benefits entity—even benefit monopoly status—is convert actor. Edison, 351-352, 453-454.15 unfair granting ballot-access contest hypothesizes, exist, 160 organization's "exercise initiative comes doing action'." 357, afforded opted interest; reality, intensely intra-Party disputes illustrate.16 erects platform" acts, responsible it." 632, 2089 dissenting).17 161 subjects precedents. justification—statutory, constitutional, otherwise—for 5.18 B 162 Assuming arguendo word, "voting." Based "voting," 163 office." enumerates covered, logical) inference 164 omission list revealing contrasted Campaign 1971 "election" "(A) runoff (B) caucus candidate." 431(1) 600 criminalizes promising exchange connection office, as, candidate") wants to. expertise, 165 maintains diminished (1994), "as concerned, 'effective' counted." 2605 counted. strain hold, majority, lacked personal favorite 166 functionally indistinguishable. "resembles imagine." assertions imagination). crucial former, avails erected, funded, managed whereas latter, not. occur involvement, accountable Breyer lists involvement. 167 ought bottom, policy. discern determination favor sensible short write Naftalin, 768, 773, 2082, 624 examine lines drawn, exceedingly rigorous logic. FCC Beach Communications, 307, 2096, 2101, 211 (reviewing rational 'judicial intervention unwarranted unwisely branch acted' Vance Bradley, 93, 97, 942-943, 171 (1979)); Primate League Administrators Tulane Fund, 72, 84-85, 1700, 1707-1708, (enforcing, "mere technicality" "Congress rationally distinction"). 168 "we qualifications." 502, 828; However, running 14. 828. ("In (1985) (change deadline election); (rule unpaid campaigning plaintiff election). 550, 823-824 district at-large, occasion falls sufficiently "direct relation voting," 506, "practice voting" 833 'voting voting' 5"). Regardless "endorsed 169 ambit argue. amputates rest sentence, "primary, "candidates (voting officer, intention succeeded transforming 170 notes, work tandem. patent discrepancy undeniably incongruity 1982 pre-election processes, 97-205, 134, concomitant contains turn decline preferable harmonize produced undesirable inconsistency free them.19 C Were counseling Holding poses problems. Edward DeBartolo Corp. Florida Gulf Coast Building Constr. Trades Council, 485 568, 575, 1392, 1397-1398, 645 (1988). "This approach prudential needlessly confronted, swears oath uphold lightly assume infringe 172 Among ones expression." supporters, affiliation. 487, 547, "[A]t heart association," gather programs 549 judgment). perhaps forum expression views advancing views. look "hypothetical," controversies concerns. represented fund contributions donors, undue contributors. 45-46. pursue goals, Constitution." Tashjian Conn., 479 208, 224, 554, (1986). 1020, (1981) makeup Constitution"). Appeals Circuit choice, calculated strengthen interests, deserves [T]here associations organize way effective." 585 (1976) deleted). funding burdened embodied 174 'common advancement beliefs,' presupposes Wisconsin, 1019 1020-1021, (1989). novel construction, impinges interest. expression, cogently explains. 175 Legislative scrutiny 433-434, 2063-2064 (le vel severity infringement); 225, 1021; Cousins, 489, 548-549. Severe "may [only] sustained [government] drawn unnecessary freedoms." Buckley, 25, 638. glibly inquiry, ("[s]uch difficult"), survive challenge. 176 cede circumstances. state-approved 469-470, 813-814. precondition representatives, denial 177 obviates problems). letting begets issues. Ironically, generates difficulties contorting, giving 178 disagree suits localities taxes that: 179 "[T]he forthwith actions, subdivisions, declaratory injunctive relief therefor subsection section." 180 single taxes: inescapable litigating implication otherwise. Suits evidently thought entrusts alone, 181 affirmatively proclaims 'no denied [a by, under, 5].' 555, "[a]nalysis language" "indicate[d] 5." effectuate guarantee unapproved 827.20 690, 1954, (1979) describing benefited State"). taxes. "guarantee" reside jurisdictions. do, actually forbid administering provides, "declaration policy" prefacing suits, abridged 1973h(a) administers tax, bringing procedural appeal 1973h(c). taxes, confers remedial 183 am unpersuaded maxim backdrop "implied 1958-1959; factors Cort Ash, 422 66, 2080, (1975), Cannon. 699, 1958-1959 (considering "contemporary context" assess third factor, reveals evaluating "what ultimately determined asserted." Transamerica Mortgage Advisors, Lewis, 15-16, 242, 245, Touche Ross Redington, 442 560, 2479, 2488-2489, "begin[ning] itself." 245. 10—which taxes—precludes section.21 184 1975 generalized adjudicating accurately state, "explicitly [Act]." 41. logical deduction "aggrieved person" i.e., future. ed.).22 At complain forced courts. This, contend, 10." 38. claim, "special procedure" 186 187 invokes even, erroneously actor, step, imply 188 cuts loose moorings governs. writing determin[e] primaries"); ("Nor expends ink evading inevitable cases") (citations reassuring, do. Eventually, grips untenable constitutionally-flawed wrought encounter, easily averted conundrum making.23 189 leveled wholly-private instrument harassment aimed recasting suit, along follow, trivializes goal. syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. provided: "Sec. Whenever prohibitions 4(a) qualification, prerequisite, denying abridging enters procedure: Provided, interposed objection sixty days submission, object entered enjoin procedure. heard judges 2284 title lie Court." "No laws." "Section Vice electors failu re article legislation." loan 11(c) 1973i(c) Neither obtain [membership group]," showing excuse "Failure 'renders unenforceable.' 646, 652, 691 Hathorn Lovorn, 255, 269, 2421, 2430, 824 (1982)). Fed.Reg. 9897 (1965). others Alaska, Louisiana, Mississippi, Carolina. portions Carolina, Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho shortly thereafter. 14505 1981, provides: "Political Certain effected requirement: subunit 'jurisdiction' 'covered jurisdiction') parties." 2,974,149 January 1994. Number Precincts Registered Voters (rev. 1994). One-half figure 14,871. "which, ten filled definition. stone, 1991, 1990 Council Governments, Book 260 (1992-1993 Rather outcome, requisite retroactively. 1991 Va. Acts, ch. 12, 1(7). die, withdraw, aside. circumstance, nominations, run. ensures 24.2-539, 24.2-540 incumbent office-holder consents nomination. 24.2-509(B) brief, exception plenary 31. appeared 1996 try down, Whitley, Republicans Wrestle Issue, Richmond Times-Dispatch, 1995, B1, relented valid. Op. Atty. Gen. (Nov. 22, 1995). Democrat chose, named period Secretary certification timely, certified. Research shown positioned. study phenomenon H. Bain D. Hecock, Ballot Position Voter's Choice: Arrangement Names Effect Voter Note, Statutes: Unconstitutional Advantage Incumbents, S. Cal. 365 (listing studies); Problems Statutes Regulating Position, Tulsa L.J. (1987). Some studies varies visibility machines. 127. research conclusive, prefer (affidavit David Exec. Dir. ¶ 12). 14,614 attended 14,871 supra. "practical accommodation reality" shown, performance significant levels support. credited showing. Weisburd, Candidate-Making Constitution: Restraints Protections Nominating Methods, 213, 242 (1984)). "crediting" entail numbers predicated electability. appellees, Rhodes, (1968), Jenness Fortson, 403 1970, 554 (1971), modicum "takes met let else. depended extensive turned factor. nine surveyed 624-625, (1935), understanding, intervening (1941), officials." basis, Grovey, unregulated entity. irrelevance confirmed Smith. Subsequent repealed primaries. persons. Fourth practices, "[s]tate regulated b formerly." Rice Elmore, 387, 390-391 (1947) accord Baskin 391 (1949). principal declared commands 466, 812 Black, 11-13. promulgated, 2,000 16,000 letter Drew Days III, William K. Suter, Clerk dated 1995 (lodged Court). April 1982, plan senatorial Curiae, 7; Wm. Bradford Reynolds, Assistant Div., Russel Rosen, Director, Va., 1981. example: Sumter 1974, York 97th 2246, 2265 (appendix James P. Turner, Acting Ass't Edwards 9, 1981). 1972. Hunter, Review 69, reprinted 94th 1541 (M.D.Ala.1972), 1529-72 (DDC Nov. Hunter Changes, 30. regulations Ga.Code 34-902. inspection regulations." 4-5. affirm obligated approve Rule Bishop Wood, 426 341, 345-346, 2074, 2077-2078, 684 764 committee, "public function" filling vacancies office). "rather slender reed" future decisions. Anderson Celebrezze, 460 780, 784-785, 1564, 1567-1568, 547 (1983). "A disposition affirms essential sustain judgment." Either above—the noninvolvement suitable submission—would sufficed affirmance. signature self-nominated 1936. Ann., Tit. (1936) 250 Commonwealth). records, news accounts reported "discourage cranks glorification code." Qualification, News Leader, Mar. 1936, 8. Then now, exempt Quoting observed nominated, elected. 400, 2366-2367, 2; (Republican Plan, 22) "Party Canvass" electing Conventions"); (Plan, VIII, A, 3) Mass Meeting, Canvass, Convention"); H, 4); &Par; 8). responded, stated: alternates Meetings, Conventions, Canvasses 1994." 62. "whether origin mechanism triggers relief, preclearance." 28. violations same, represents conditions, explicitly, follow[s] 2." dilute strength. legislatures committees ' dilutive effects, devices 'switching at-large Negro strength concentrated districts, facilitating consolidation predominantly redrawing districts divide concentrations strength.' 389, 437, (1971) 91st Glickstein)) infra. "harmonize[d]" sunder "To purposes." carry supplement officials. supplied examples extension testimony Director Commission wherein reiterated continued testified diluting newly enfranchised Glickstein), quoted examples, introduced persisted "pattern convention," 18-19; "withheld prevented fully," 43; tenfold large numbers, 27; count books, Examiner, 46, purges 48, misled notify 46-47. testimony, Glickstein findings directive. 17-18. progress entry affairs—the meaningful reminiscent existed Reconstruction 'Negro government' rise intimidation contrivances finally disenfranchisement citizen." Rights, Participation (May 1968). analogy closer, meetings. 470, 813-814 818-819 suggests—and suppose—that became switched balloting irrelevant. unpersuasive per se literacy tests facially Lassiter Northampton 360 985, 1072 (1959). overruling Lassiter. 334, 821-822, (1966); 173-178, 1559-1562, legislated "intent test" propounded 39-43. Classic 'by integral machinery.' incorrect. 'integral process,' "merged apparatus. 1495-1496 MacDougall Green, 281, 288, (Douglas, Ho (statement ("It process") passing surrounding 30-40. believed 28-30. registers borrowed bolster "Prohibited acts" 11(a), forbids natural, draw draft liability privileges immunities official's abuse position." Monroe Pape, 167, 172, 476, (1961). served exactly end, looked desired cover: Will Michigan Dept. Police, 491 2304, tries proposing new, disjunctive supposedly clearer law.' concatenation elements, unclear locution focuses implement. Ordinary "persons" time, "plain meaning" "person" broadly, show. non-natural entities, partly redundant concedes smaller Sheffield; Dougherty. concocted phrase. unwilling representation decision; goes length claiming "displac[e]" 4; "substitut[e]" "analytical point" considering somehow prejudge accurate. discussion analyzing ground, position. relies O'CONNOR's (1991), overlooks powers adversaries instead opposing sides lawsuit, use. reasoned, "neutral" 'responsible' 643, 2095 O'CONNOR, hand, everyone else host preferential placement, replace disqualified 10-13. ends buttressed admittedly Apparently, 217-218 (1994-1995 remove bailout mechanisms Several initially successfully availed bailouts Alaska; Carolina; Elmore Idaho; Apache, Navajo, Coconino Counties, Arizona). exceptional violated, prediction (1973). facial successful, "strong medicine," employed sparingly resort." "where involved, real, judged legitimate sweep." 615, 2918. unbroken associative defense condemned 761-762; 1025. 237, (1986) lawfully elements democratic—whether not"). Presumably face. departure "traditional adjudication." 610, 2915. "classic restraint." minimal implicated justified. Relying statements record, suggests danger donors enable contributors ironic, successful delegate's 7-8 (Complaint 21-34). provided, part: (i) precludes unreasonable financial hardship franchise, (ii) relationship (iii) color. Upon findings, "(b) "(c) hear assign hearing earliest practicable thereof, expedited." 442. footnote inadequacy prompted 21. Similarly declining remedy. former persons" backwards. generically vote" unprecleared specificity, "persons means" hardships ha[ve] color." 1973h(a). individuals. know, conferring privilege" "right," wrong, denies question. "guarantee 5" circular 12(a) (prescribing sanctions deprivation attempted secured 10]"), 1973j(a) 12(c) conspiracy 1973j(c) generally: "In legislation, mechanism. has, agency, other, behalf. concludes assist rights." 40. states: "Such there, accomodations [sic] involved. Fee awards enabling vindicate congr essional stricter test 17, year. 400. Seven weeks—in scarcely context," 739-743, 1979-1982, relaxed moot held. disavowed returned collected back continues finance "capable repetition, review." 784, 1567, (1983); 737, 1282, (1974); 816, 1494-1495, (1969). brevity's sake, author. thinks "very likelihood" nullification induce organizer chance. curious subsidiary determinations 'adoption party],' ibid., oversight, convention—upon depends—is oversight. good bargain tyrant. "follow[ing] [v. ]," "did way," alludes laws, incidental So ne respond, should. fancies departing (which, overcome indication intent, Helvering Stockholms Enskilda Bank, 293 84, 86-88, 51-52, (1934)) violating inflexible interpret debatable lie. imagined disappears subjecting neither. colorable 14(c)(2); "county weakness maintain. discovered instances submissions. 18. Per thousand requests Annual ("During 2,800 13,300 5"); fiscal 1986, 3,700 20,000 (1992); Pleasant Grove 462, 866 (1987); (1984); Lockhart 125, 998, 863 Port Arthur 459 159, 530, 334 Blanding DuBose, 393, 715, 576 McDaniel Sanchez, 452 2224, 724 (1980); (1978); Berry Doles, 438 2692, 693 Morris Gressette, 432 2411, 506 (1977); Supervisors Warren Cty., 429 642, 833, Beer 425 1357, (1976); 2296, Connor Waller, 421 656, 2003, 486 (1969); Arizona Reno, 887 318(DDC), app. dism'd, 516 --- (1996). appeal, Hawthorne, summarily other. "surprising [his] deference." presupposing valid assumes displaces 831 ("Deference acquiescence"). above, same. distinguish, from, unpersuasive. state-delegated power. Further, mischaracterizes "only" adequate existed; premise limited, decided, "at Act." 1225-1226, units; "settled." errs statement, purpose" "candidate process," expresses parallel instance, "[a]lthough [28 1331 ] parallels 'Arising Under' Article 'arising under' identical Verlinden B.V. Bank Nigeria, 461 494, 1962, 1972, Here, ordinary-meaning governs identified justification bases 10-11. premised jurisdiction"). Likewise, 14-20, 24-25. 34. criticism inserting parties" opening clause imported acknowledge indistinguishable analysis. believes system." Allwright 662-664, 764-766, (1944) (detailing system" "makes 810, ("While primary], [in pointed control"). true, states, rises level "[v]oting 'invariably, representative.' hold. stated, dicta, machinery," dispositive merged 31, state's system: 815, 1494 Ill.Rev.Stat., c. 10-3 "automatically 5's] reach." That, inferring charged strategy producing 'all-white' process" record students black. Party"). corporations corporations, advantaged 13.1-692.1, 13.1-870.1 (creating corporate directors). seriously, corporation steps invoke benefits, actor; headfirst unequivocally privately-owned symbiotic 357-358, 456-457; 1011, 2789, Editorial Primarily Primaries, Dispatch, A-8 (describing contentious debate challenger "[i]t human means—convention primary—perceived edge"). well-established Bowman, 190 139, 678, 680, 979 (1903) ("[A] purports punish representatives"); 835 (1883). founded sheer disbelief thinks, ("How rights' ?"). wondering enact." Congress"—I institution—might "wan[t] enact" extant enacted. imaginary reality "read ope[n] statute," place. "loophole" boils establishes others. cognizant constraints curb speculation "possible" (if enough) bridge gap statutes, 25. nonresponsive discusses precleared, suggesting redistricting plans. Reapportionment plans, usually (reapportionment council). (either noncovered jurisdiction) nonetheless lawsuit hence litigation. it: asserts, "simply 43. inadvertently, incorrectly, proceed sections "that provision," thereunder. outlawing engage "important" provision, privately enforceable. Apart unresolved, raises additional provisions. alternative preclearance? "bailout suit" jurisdictions? id. 1973b(a). Are 2? 1973(a). Can appointment examiners monitor pendency suit? 1973a(a). Quite apparently, stopped ramifications

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