Document: 476 U.S. 227 106 S.Ct. 1819 90 L.Ed.2d 226 DOW CHEMICAL COMPANY, Petitionerv.UNITED STATES etc. No. 84-1259. Argued Dec. 10, 1985. Decided May 19, 1986. Syllabus Petitioner operates a 2,000-acre chemical plant consisting of numerous covered buildings, with outdoor manufacturing equipment and piping conduits located between the various buildings exposed to visual observation from air. maintains elaborate security around perimeter complex, barring ground-level public views area. When petitioner denied request by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for an on-site inspection plant, EPA did not seek administrative search warrant, but instead employed commercial aerial photographer, using standard precision mapping camera, take photographs facility altitudes, all which were within lawful navigable airspace. Upon becoming aware photography, brought suit in Federal District Court, alleging that EPA's action violated Fourth Amendment was beyond its statutory investigative authority. The Court granted summary judgment petitioner, Appeals reversed, holding exceed investigatory authority photography petitioner's complex without warrant prohibited Amendment. Held: 1. fact competitors might be barred state trade secrets law is irrelevant questions presented this case. Governments do generally appropriate private sector, right free appropriation protected law. Moreover, tort governing unfair competition does define limits Pp. 231-233. 2. use Congress invests agency such as enforcement authority, it necessary identify explicitly every technique may used course executing mission. Although § 114(a) Clean Air Act, provides entry premises purposes, authorize observation, section appears expand, restrict, general powers, there no suggestion statute powers conferred are intended exclusive. needs explicit provision employ methods commonly available at large. 233-234. 3. taking, aircraft lawfully airspace open areas industrial analogous "curtilage" dwelling, entitled protection place where occupants have reasonable legitimate expectation privacy society prepared accept. See California v. Ciraolo, 207, 1809, 210. intimate activities associated family home curtilage simply reach or spaces structures plant. For purposes surveillance, more comparable "open field" individual legitimately demand privacy. Oliver United States, 466 170, 104 1735, 80 214. Here, employing some unique sensory device public, rather conventional, albeit precise, camera mapmaking. so revealing details raise constitutional concerns. mere human vision enhanced somewhat, least degree here, give rise problems. 234-239. 749 F.2d 307 (CA6 1984), affirmed. BURGER, C.J., delivered opinion WHITE, REHNQUIST, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined, Part III BRENNAN, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, POWELL, joined. J., filed concurring part dissenting part, post, p. 240. Jane M. Gootee, Midland, Mich., petitioner. Alan I. Horowitz, Washington, D.C., respondent. Chief Justice BURGER Court. 1 We certiorari review (a) Agency's (b) under 2 * Dow Chemical Co. chemicals Michigan. consists At times, has maintained these areas. It also investigates any low-level flights over facility. undertaken, however, conceal views. cost covering would prohibitive. 3 In early 1978, officials EPA, Dow's consent, made two powerplants complex. A subsequent second inspection, denied, thereafter warrant. Instead, floor-mounted, altitudes 12,000, 3,000, 1,200 feet. times 49 U.S.C.App. 1304; 14 CFR 91.79 (1985). 4 inform when became it, motion on ground had doing violating permanently enjoined taking disseminating, releasing, copying already taken. 536 F.Supp. 1355 (ED Mich.1982). 5 accepted parties' concession " 'quest evidence' "search," id., 1358, limited analysis whether unreasonable Katz 389 347, 88 507, 19 576 (1967). Proceeding assumption terms been conducted, court found manifested because intentionally surrounded them other enclosures. F.Supp., 1364-1366. 6 held reasonable, reflected secret protections restricting Id., 1366-1369. emphasized "the finest available" permitted capture film "a great deal than eye could ever see." 1367. 7 reversed. 1984). recognized indeed subjective certain -level intrusions, persuaded being surveillance since taken precautions against contrast precautions. 313. rejected argument feasible shield critical parts surveys. 312-313. Appeals, reject Court's factual finding expectations. 8 Accepting expectation, "[w]hen entity observed multibuilding area outside buildings." Viewing like 214 (1984), office, common-law doctrine apply large closed connected pipes, conduits, equipment. F.2d, 313-314. looked peculiarly strong concepts intimacy, personal autonomy home" basis protection. 314. view sophisticated photographic controlling. 9 then clearly acted even absent express authorization concluding delegation similar agencies, sufficient support photography. 315. II 10 issue case essentially those Any person airplane readily duplicate them. common much else, technology changed century. These developments processes, life; they techniques. Whether penetrate question 11 nevertheless relies heavily claim laws protect competitors, relevant our That regard here. State Cf. supra (trespass necessarily Amendment). Government seeking order regulate, compete with, Dow. If Dow, Fifth "taking" claim. Indeed, alleged complaint, dismissed prejudice. But bar forms complex; rather, only intent revealed proscribed. Hence, prohibition casual passenger airliner, company producing maps mapmaking purposes. 12 claims first implement "site inspection" 42 U.S.C. 7414(a);1 second, "search" that, notwithstanding size "industrial curtilage" field," 13 vested spelling out precisely how exercised myriad circumstances arise monitoring matters relating clean air water standards. each Aerial example, usually expressly extended police traffic control, hardly thought legislative body tell control metropolitan area, send messages highway patrols particular over-the-road truck traveling excess 55 miles per hour. Common sense ordinary experience teach violators apprehended observation. Regulatory carries modes inquiry investigation traditionally useful execute granted. standards cannot enforced libraries laboratories, helpful institutions be. 15 Under 114(a)(2), Act "upon presentation . credentials," "right to, upon, through premises." 7414(a)(2)(A). argues grant enter particular, unannounced deprives informed will occurred, confidentiality information contained places photographed, provided (c), 7414(a), (c). claimed disclosed agency. 16 Section 114(a), investigate. Nor There location accessible public. regulatory agency, large: we hold authority.2 IV 17 turn now contention constituted thereby rights making contention, concedes simple flyover naked-eye photograph nearby hillside overlooking facility, problem. 18 210 (1986), decided today, altitude 1,000 feet backyard constitute instant case, additional presented: encompasses Dow's, permissible context. one occupying 2,000 acres, fall fields" States having equivalent home. further contends intrudes upon expectations Plainly business establishment enjoys Marshall Barlow's, Inc., 436 307, 98 1816, 56 305 (1978); City Seattle, 387 541, 87 1737, 943 20 Two lines cases inquiry: doctrine. immediately surrounding house long given supra. 21 As evolved same kind interior structure, contrasting well. From Hester 265 57, 44 445, 68 L.Ed. 898 (1924), drawn line what dwelling: fields provide setting [Fourth] shelter governmental interference surveillance." Oliver, U.S., 179, S.Ct., 1741. "an doors fields, except home." 178, To "need neither 'open' nor 'field' speech." 180, n. 11, 1742, 11. 22 plainly legitimate, objective equally clear observe. E.g., expected erect huge cover tract. contending entire enclosed curtilage," facilities possible step access level. 23 whatever intrusions into areas, here 312-314. described dwelling extends activity 'sanctity man's privacies life.' 1742 (quoting Boyd 116 616, 630, 524, 532, 29 746 (1886)). 24 Admittedly, can perhaps seen falling somewhere curtilage, lacking characteristics both.3 inner elaborately secured ensure ground. actual physical significantly different questions, "[t]he businessman, occupant residence, go about his official entries property." supra, 543, 1739. narrow raised seizure, concerns entry.4 25 pointed Donovan Dewey, 452 594, 598-599, 101 2534, 2537-2538, 69 262 (1981), "greater latitude conduct warrantless inspections property" owner property differs sanctity accorded individual's unlike homeowner's interest inspections." 599, 2538. And inspections, "[w]hat observable inspector well." 315, 1822 (footnote omitted). 26 field context, survey lands air." 1741 walls record conversations plants, offices, asserts yet enlarged significant degree, points magnification permits identification objects wires small 1/2-inch diameter. 27 well be, concedes, highly satellite technology, constitutionally proscribed undoubtedly detailed views, remain outline facility's problems.5 An electronic windows hear confidential discussions formulae very far serious questions; competitors.6 28 conclude spread acres surveillance;7 persons above sufficiently near cameras. 30 Affirmed. whom BLACKMUN join, part. 31 protects citizens arbitrary their Government. nearly years, adhered ensured retain vitality expanded Government's capacity commit unsuspected activities. Today, context premises, retreats standard. holds accompanied trespass most form holding, existence asserted apparently solely reference manner intrude interest. Such rights, permit gradual decay advances. 32 Since 1890's, Company (Dow) Its covers contains number process plants. Many "open-air" reactor equipment, loading storage facilities, transfer lines, motors buildings. plants constitutes information, design configuration reveal processes.1 33 Short erecting roof Midland has, states, undertaken "elaborate" secure unwelcome intrusions. Ante, 229. fact, done everything commercially borders Security measures include 8-foot-high chain link fence completely guarded personnel monitored closed-circuit television, alarm systems triggered unauthorized detectors indicate movement restricted anyone authorized personnel, strict policy released prior management approval.2 addition precautions, open-air placed internal portion members fence. 34 program includes procedures designed instructed employees "concerned pass App. 14. "suspicious" overflights occur, plane makes several passes try obtain plane's description. Working Police local airports, locate pilot determine if he photographed learns so, takes steps prevent dissemination show proprietary technology.3 35 controversy underlying litigation arose efforts check emissions power houses violations federal quality After obtaining schematic drawings requested permission during proposed objected decision request. considering gain Inexplicably, follow procedure, hired firm 36 Using camera,4 took approximately 75 color "some directly capable enlargement scale inch equals greater, loss detail resolution. manner, viewed magnification, discern 1/2 diameter." 1355, 1357 Mich.1982) (emphasis original). Observation minute is, found, impossibility" anywhere "but above" Ibid. Because complicated captured photographs, concluded, saw see," observer facility.5 37 Several weeks later, learned EPA-authorized overflight independent source. lawsuit, scope §§ 7413, 7414.6 upheld position both issues entered permanent injunction restraining conducting future Sixth Circuit (1984). concluded while respect intrusion photography.7 114 7414. holdings. 472 1007, 105 2700, 86 716 38 rejects Amendment." 239.8 application (1967), context; explain result squares progeny. questionable assertions concerning conclusion closely resembles marks drastic reduction previously afforded decisions. Along 210, signal retreat rationale 39 interests "is based societal deep roots history 8, 1741, (1978), "particular offensiveness" writ assistance, despised Framers Constitution, "was acutely felt merchants businessmen whose products inspected" 311, 1820. Against history, "it untenable ban searches residence." 312, Our precedents therefore leave doubt proprietors including corporations, intrusion. G.M. Leasing Corp. 429 338, 353, 97 619, 629, 50 530 (1977); 1739, 40 exception rule presumptively unreasonable. "in onto agents government," whatsoever, assurance regularity unnecessary schemes." 2538, (1981) Thus, determination system enforce purpose, presence comprehensive defined help subject periodic inspections," permitted. 600, 2539. This contend, hold, authorizes adequately inspection. 41 characterizes decisions giving 'greater property' differ 237 (citation reasoning misunderstands precedents. pervasively regulated businesses, see supra; Biswell, 406 92 1593, (1972); Colonnade Catering 397 72, 774, 60 (1970), founded differences occupied businesses homes, implicate Rather, enjoy scheme itself. never acceptable On contrary, regular Amendment's requirement fully applicable 312-315, 324, 324; 358, 631; 543-546, 1739-1741. turned intruded Smith Maryland, 442 735, 99 2577, 61 220 (1979); 407 297, 2125, 752 (1972). property, relied property. 313, 1820, 1822. purporting consider rubric Katz, ignores heart A. 43 correctly observes recognize reasonable. 236. Similarly, protecting ground, properly concludes 236-237. Turning erroneously states "actual entry" "into area." statement repudiates Katz. continues era accomplished penetration proximity Writing Stewart explained mean little modern world "turn[ed] absence enclosure." 512. just longer functions reliable proxy privacy, form, private. B 45 rooted "source Amendment, either real understandings society."9 Rakas Illinois, 439 128, 143-144, 12, 421, 430-431, 58 (1978). enacting laws, preserving portions secrets, should theft disclosure secrets.10 46 discussed above, extend society's historical understanding owners 311-313, 1819-1820; 8. despite misconception nature plants,11 correct argue entities kinds particularly competitors. Accordingly, required preserve C 47 fly airplanes. Whatever merits inapplicable "[a]ny member flying who cared glance down" obtained 213, 1813. "saw see."12 242-243, 5. possibility passengers rejection interests. 48 "curtilage." Of course, neither. purpose 1742. limit Yet, applies doctrine, affords heightened homeowners, eviscerates offers convincing explanation application. role play Open people alike. 180-181, 1742-1743. bears resemblance meaning cases. judgment—assorted observations plant—is less convincing. notes conversations." 238. "satellite technology" another type "equipment public." map-making." shed light antecedent recognizes method become new replace seriously risk technological advances disseminated society.13 51 I reverse Appeals. penetrated enclave, claimed. establish sought neutral judicial officer.14 trespass—a theory disapproved beginning States. sensitive means cherished society. today reconciled 114(a)(2) provides: "(2) Administrator representative, credentials— "(A) shall records paragraph (1) located, "(B) copy records, inspect (1), sample (1)." Assuming Act's provisions somehow deemed 7414(c), fear disclose addressed prohibiting Trade Secrets 1905, Freedom Information 552(b)(4). Chrysler Brown, 441 281, 1705, 208 (1979). "for boundaries marked; conception defining curtilage—as life extends—is familiar easily understood daily experience." 182, 1743, 12. While attempt definitively mark field, noted "[i]t term 'open fields' unoccupied undeveloped curtilage." recognized, well-defined, stark contrast, half dozen farms. find important adjacent home, heightened. effort surveillance. Contrary partial dissent's understanding, 241-242, emphasized: "Dow though airport pattern planes landing off. expensive security, argues, measure say something observation." 312 1984) added). Simply keeping track numbers overhead, later follow-up taken, "procedur[e] photography." Post, 241. dissent emphasizes diameter observed. 243. shows snow-white background. No class ring, recognizable, identifiable faces documents fashion must facts extravagant generalizations. "[W]e potential, opposed actual, invasions Karo, 468 705, 712, 3296, 3302, 82 facts, nothing suggests infringed. laws. 248-249, advance interests, "those determination" violates 249. cited us proscribes let alone unrelated amateur snapshots. 232. Seventh Circuit's regarding "business Swart, 679 698 (CA7 1982); involved premises. establishes primarily reasons safety. determined accident occur hazardous inadvertently released, concentration toxic explosive fumes intolerable employee health observes, enclosing 229, reflects roofing $15 million 1978. greatly increase routine maintenance. 74-75. "spent 3.25 dollars last ten years" preceding litigation. 1365 Mich. 1982). discovers requests photographer film. develops reviews photographs. depict retains negatives. event refuses cooperate, commences secrets. believed "important description effective used" photographing 1357, "The twin engine Beechcraft," "able 'provide stability, fast mobility flight endurance photography.' "cost $22,000.00 'finest available.'. mounted floor inside precise rapid succession." facilitates stereoscopic examination, examination depth perception. explained, "flying 5,000 feet, [his] basic sizes, shapes, outlines, colors below." hand, "successfully vivid images analyze magnified conditions." due violation prejudice, before us. Appeals' rested erroneous assumed build barrier discuss why disagreed posed virtually agree technique, constraints, extent join opinion. often words "reasonable" "legitimate" interchangeably describe 219-220, 4, (Powell, dissenting). observed: "Society spoken Congress, Legislatures, courts. law, crime government information. itself, 114(c), addresses concern [proprietary] adopted regulations providing 2.201-2.309. Michigan recognizing action, M.C.L.A. 752.772, invade one's 750.539a-539b. pronouncements reflective acceptance reasonable." assertion, coextensive statutes. statutes disregards acuity. pictures viewer transparent slides, projected screen. possibilities illustrate intrusive ignored today. limitation today's $22,000 distinction heretofore wholly unknown jurisprudence. With respect, purported distinction—for analysis—between degrees sophistication supported "conventional" suggests, holds, "available capability "small Satellite informative technology. "members public" likely purchase need demonstrate "[p]robable cause criminal sense" compliance scheme. 320, 1824. "not specific evidence existing showing 'reasonable satisfied [establishment].' omitted; quoting Camara Municipal 523, 538, 1727, 930 (1967)).

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