Document: 362 U.S. 99 80 S.Ct. 543 4 L.Ed.2d 584 FEDERAL POWER COMMISSION, Petitioner,v.TUSCARORA INDIAN NATION. AUTHORITY OF STATE NEW YORK, Petitioner, v. TUSCARORA Nos. 63, 66. Argued Dec. 7, 1959. Decided March 1960. Rehearing Denied April 18, See 956, 858. J. Lee Rankin, Washington, D.C., Sol. Gen., for petitioner Federal power comm. Mr. Thomas F. Moore, Jr., New York City, Power Authority of York. Arthur Lazarus, respondent. Justice WHITTAKER delivered the opinion Court. 1 The ultimate question presented by these cases is whether certain lands, purchased and owned in fee simply Tuscarora Indian Nation lying adjacent to a natural site on Niagara River near town Lewiston, York, may be taken storage reservoir hydroelectric project, upon payment just compensation, State under license issued it Commission as directed Congress Public Law 85—159, approved August 21, 1957, 71 Stat. 401, 16 U.S.C.A. §§ 836, 836a. 2 River, an international boundary stream navigable waterway United States, flows from Lake Erie Ontario, distance 36 miles. Its mean flow about 200,000 cubic feet per second. river drops 165 at Falls additional 140 rapids immediately above below falls. 'head' created great falls, combined with large steady river, makes Lewiston site, located rapids, extremely favorable one development. 3 For purpose avoiding 'continuing waste resource make possible States America Canada develop, benefit their respective peoples, equal shares waters available purposes,' entered into Treaty February 27, 1950,1 providing 100,000 second over during specified daytime evening hours tourist season (April October 31) 50,000 other times, authorizing division all excess purposes.2 In consenting 1950 Treaty, Senate imposed condition that 'no project redevelopment States' share such shall undertaken until specifically authorized Act Congress.' U.S.T. 694, 699. To end, study was made reported 1951 Army Corps Engineers respecting most feasible plans utilizing detailed embodying studies were prepared submitted prior June 1956, Bureau Commission, Mohawk Corporation.3 enable utilization nighttime week-end would not needed those times generation power, provided pumping-generating plant lift reservoir, contain them released use through plant, when its motors (operating reverse) serve generators—during demand highest diversion restricted treaty. Estimates dependable capacity several recommended projects varied 1,240,000 1,723,000 kilowatts, estimates 22,000 acre-feet covering 850 acres 41,000 1,700 acres. variations largely due differing assumptions length daily period peak demand. 5 Although there controversy desirable engineering plan development,'4 serious disagreement should publicly or privately developed marketing preferences matters policy. That continued eight sessions Committee Hearings, which more than 30 proposed bills considered, Eighty-first Eighty-fifth Congresses,5 delayed congressional authorization seven years. 6 On rock slide destroyed Schoellkopf plant.6 This critical shortage electric community. It also required expansion if 20,000 water had been reserved utilized. Accordingly, major revision plans. Those revised plans, designed utilize installed 2,190,000 1,800,000 kilowatts 17 day, necessitating 60,000 2,800 acres.7 7 Confronted destruction consequent need community, speedily composed differences manner terms prescribed 85—159. 1957. 401. By § 1(a) Act, 'expressly directed' 'to issue construction operation permitted used agreement.' 1(b) 'include among licensing conditions, addition deemed necessary Act,' conditions are only collateral importance here.8 concluding section 2, provides: 'The this granted conformance Rules Practice Procedure but event any conflict, provisions govern respect herein authorized.' 8 Thereafter, municipal corporation laws develop St. Lawrence projects, applied thus it. application embraced shortly before approval 85—159.9 scheduled completed 1963 estimated cost $720,000,000. 9 Hearings notice given interested parties, including Nation, inasmuch contemplated taking some lands reservoir. intervened objected ground 'that applicant lacks authority acquire them.' At hearings, shown reservoir—then though 1,000 acress—are part separate tract 4,329 simple assistance Henry Dearborn, then Secretary War, Holland Land Company November 1804, proceeds derived contemporaneous sale North Carolina—from they removed year 1775 reside Oneidas central York.10 10 After January 30, 1958, order granting license. found having usable 'is properly resources involved.' 'are almost entirely underveloped except agricultural use,' did pass Tuscaroras' objection because assumed 'other Applicant unable lands.' But direct licensee revise exhibit definitely show area acrease involved, resubmit within stated time. 11 rehearing, contended, things, portion sought 'reservation,' defined 3(2), 4(e), Act,11 therefore could lawfully purposes absence finding will interfere inconsistent reservation acquired.' denying '(t)he best location require approximately land Intervener,' held involved 'reservation' referred Section 4(e) 3(2) (Federal Power) suggested Intervener required.' May 5, approving licensee's precisely delineated location, area, acreage reservoir—which included 1,383 lands. 12 16, filed petition review Court Appeals District Columbia Circuit challenging insofar authorize lands.12 interim judgment 14, constitute meaning include 'will acquired,' court remanded case might 'explore possibility making finding.' 105 U.S.App.D.C. 146, 265 F.2d 338, 343. 13 Upon remand, extensive exploring matter locating 1959, result delay, severe community disruption, unreasonable expense; 85—159; removal reducing reduce 30,000 loss 300,000 capacity. concluded that, although contiguous acquired Tuscaroras,13 'would transmitted which, 24, after considering various motions final instructions amend exclude said condemn Indians purposes.' U.S.App.D.C., page 152, 344. 14 Because conflict between views Second Circuit, general questions we certiorari. 360 915, 79 1435, 1532. 15 parties have urged us number contentions, think turn answers two questions, namely, (1) covered Commission's U.S.C. 791a et seq., and, not, (2) whether, condemned licensee, eminent domain powers conferred 21 814, 814. We now consideration stated. I. A 'the acquired' 797(e), sense term Act. generally accepted standards common understanding decisive free competent artificially define 'reservations' And bound give effect definition term, idle 'if despite choose ourselves.' Fox Standard Oil Co., 294 87, 96, 55 333, 337, L.Ed. 780. 796(2), has provided: 's 3. words following meanings wit: 18 '(2) means national forests, tribal reservations, military interests withdrawn, reserved, withheld proviate appropriation disposal public laws; purposes; monuments parks.' (Emphasis added.) 19 plain seem rather clearly intended 'reservations,' wherever embrace 'lands States.' 20 Turning definition's legislative history, find it, too, strongly indicates intention. original draft bill Water 1920, Administration passed House Sixty-fifth Sixty-sixth Congresses, follows: "Reservations' interest private publicland laws, purpose.'14 22 difficult perceive how intention expressed. However, reached inserted 'national monuments, parks, other' (emphasis added) beginning definition.15 When returned explained Senate's 'amendment recasts 'reservations."16 enacted contained recast. remains form, deletion parks,' occasioned 3, 1921 (41 1353), 797 note, negating works finally deleted amendment 1935. 49 838. seems clear no change substance effected amendment, 'recasting' specified, illustrative, 23 Further evidence limit 'purpose Act' (§ 3), owns furnished context Congress, streams bodies jurisdiction Commerce Clause Constitution (Art. I, 8, cl. 'upon reservations must known, Comm. Oregon, 349 435, 443, 75 832, 837, 1215, 'in relation springs Property Clause' Constitution—namely, '* * dispose needful Regulations Territory belonging *.' Art. IV, 2. acting Constitution, deal Ibid. 24 Moreover, Act's compensating licensed explicable confined, evidently intended, proprietary interest. licensees property others the' 'by exercise right domain' federal state courts, course, compensation. But, all-inclusive terms, does apply nor condemnation 10(e) 803(e), expressly provides pay reasonable annual charges recompensating use, occupancy, enjoyment property' devoted project. appears unmistakably language first proviso saying, pertinent part, 'That licenses involving Government dams structures (these italicized being lifted straight 'reservations') fix charge thereof *,' treat treated structures, for, stated, requires 'reasonable charges' paid 'its property.' 25 analysis history leaves doubt 'for confine 'tribal reservations' 'owned 26 contrary. Indeed, includes 'has interest.' thought paternal relationship Government's concern protect against improper alienation gave requisite 'interest' here 'must same phrase (etc.)' construed limitation (etc.)." 150, 342. do agree. welfare protection expressed Heckman 224 413, 437, 32 424, 56 820. 'paternal interest' 'interests required, element 27 Inasmuch States,' hold issuance embracing II. 28 Petitioners contend broad statute construction, maintenance, any' simple, excluded, delegated section. Parrying contention, argues 29 heavily relies Elk Wilkins, 112 94, 41, 643. true Court, dealing native-born American citizen Fourteenth Amendment said: 'Under constitution originally established General acts congress Indians, unless so manifest pages 99—100, 44. However been, well settled many decisions applying persons interests. Superintendent Five Civilized Tribes Commissioner, 295 418, 820, 1517, funds Creek invested him Superintendent, arose income investment subject taxes. earlier case, Blackbird 38 976, Tenth exempt taxation. Board Tax sustained tax, affirmed, brought here. observed act applicable contrary unbroken policy wards affairs. Whenever affected legislation named dealt with. argument Nation. affirming judgment, 'This harmonize what Choteau Burnet (1931), 283 691, 693, 696, 51 598, 599, 600, 1353: 31 "The (the Internal Revenue 1918) subjects 'every individual' tax. 213(a) 'from source whatever.' intent levy tax residents sorts income. sort person petitioner's status income, does. expressed, where, here, laying enough matter.' declined follow quoted pronouncement Blackbird's Case. 1928 very broad, nothing excepted. Irwin Gavit, 268 161, 45 475, 69 897; Heiner Colonial Trust 275 232, 48 65, 72 256; Helvering Stockholms Enskilda Bank, 293 84, 50, 211; Pitman Cir., 64 740. sufficiently clear.' 419—420, 821. 33 Oklahoma 319 63 1284, 87 1612, holding estate inheritance taxes statutes, 34 statutes either scope.' (319 U.S., 1285.) 'If intends prevent levying non-discriminatory alike citizens, say words. Such conclusion cannot rest dubious inferences.' 607, 1288. 35 See, e.g., Shaw Gibson-Zahniser Corporation, 276 575, 581—582, 335—336, 709; Ransom, 263 44 230, 68 508; Kennedy Becker, 241 556, 563—564, 705, 707—708, 60 1166; Choate Trapp, 665, 673, 565, 568, 941. constitutes complete comprehensive development improvement navigation development, transmission commerce powers, powers. 4(e). neither overlooks excludes occupied them. Instead, shown, defines treats Indians—'tribal reservations.' 10(e). gives every indication plan, persons, Indians. recognized so. 151, authorizes cited, applies 37 insists even still 'without express consent referring lands,' 177, 177.17 section, 'No purchase, grant, lease, conveyance title claim thereto, nation tribe validity law equity, treaty convention pursuant Constitution. *' 39 obvious unfair, improvident disposition possessed without Government, parens patriae vacate consent. Hellard, 322 363, 985, 88 1326; Candelaria, 271 432, 441—442, 46 561, 562-563, 70 1023; Henkel 237 43, 51, 536, 539, 59 831; Sandoval, 231 28, 46—48, 1, 5—6, 58 107. requirement conveyances condemnations licensees; 'nor conceivable necessary, subjected rule Gas & Elec. 318 206, 211, 534, 537, 716. 40 As contention 177 prohibits specific Congress,' thing certain. alienations proceedings mere 'expressed consent' vain idle. least contemplates assent tribe. withholds refuses convey follows however specific, avail nothing. Therefore, imperative all. 41 sovereign nor, hence, whom that: 42 'A imposing restrictions impose itself expression implication effect.' Wittek, 337 346, 358—359, 1108, 1114, 93 1406. 43 Mine Workers America, 330 258, 272—273, 67 677, 686, 91 884, 'There old well-known divest pre-existing rights privileges Leiter Minerals, Inc., 352 220, 224—225, 77 287, 290, 267; Wyoming, 331 440, 449, 1319, 1324, 1590; Stevenson, 215 190, 35, 54 153; Bell Telephone 159 548, 553—555, 69, 71—72, 255; Lewis 92 618, 622, 513; Herron, Wall. 251, 263, 275; Dollar Savings Bank 227, 239, 80. applied, combination, rules Acts contrary, effect. 536 (sustaining take Reclamation 17, 1902, 388), Spalding Chandler, 160 394, 360, 469 strip track Chandler Michigan constructing canal, derogation tribe), Cherokee Southern Kansas R. 135 641, 965, 295. There, much undescribed tribe,18 saying: 47 'It strange government, execution rightful authority, states, territory tribe, members directly political control. territory, like owners everywhere geographical limits government objects germane compensation owner.,' 656 657, 971. Lone Wolf Hitchcock, 187 553, 216, 221, 299; Missouri, Texas Co. Roberts, 152 114, 117—118, 496, 497, 377; Beecher Wetherby, 95 517, 440; Kohl 367, 449. light authorities compensation; Tuscaroras (see notes 18); prohibit 50 All Court—no other—adhere concept agreements performed—no less others—but breach faith contractual agreement conclusive reason none. Reversed. 52 BRENNAN concurs result. 53 BLACK, CHIEF JUSTICE DOUGLAS join, dissenting. holds Act1 22% (1,388 acres) single homeland 150 years.2 Admittedly created—a permanent home Tuscaroras. I believe taking, positively violates Nation's long-established recognizing preserving treaties since 1794. Whether permits depends, Reservation is, forbids *.'3 There fact, inundation F.P.C. 148. If homelands within' 3(2)4 unauthorized made. alone, historical background viewed, entitled protections 'Reservation,' 57 "reservations' parks supplied.) surely They reservation. called described treaties, decisions, agency reports, books, articles, maps. far can ascertain, never anything else, anywhere time—until today. Even briefs record quite naturally refer 10-square-mile accept fact lives according (in words) 'generally understanding' term. however, decides departed universally phrase, says, 'artificially.' believes follow, technical legal title. Court's 'artificial' interpretation, turns out reservations—except (Indians)."5 Creating wholly artificial limited definition, new disruptive, imposes heavy burden justification who asserts told tribes own Pueblos Mexico 700,000 fee. put jeopardy strained interpretation. suggests plausible reason, matter, why place less-favored position.6 fortuitous accidental circumstance probably attributable prevailing early date established. Their sold, leased easements Government. agencies always others,7 suspect wanted differently 61 add word on. points version 1920 (now Act) present cover title, served purpose. additions, me, 62 undertakes support saying knew, decision States." understand assurance clause, whatsoever matter. likely me regulating empowers 'To regulate Tribes.' accepting moment sufficient merely reservations'; not. Or, again conception, modified follow. Read way, 'interests.' Thus approach 'interests' Certainly used, surplusage; accomplish own. undoubtedly controls (has in') country simple. title.8 sold Interior took position 1912 desired lease individuals limestone quarrying.9 And, long-accepted guardian-ward requirements fair involves, own.10 Anyone doubting extent ownership rapidly he deed Government.11 agree, therefore, inadequate kind condemnation. 65 concludes interpretation goes 21. incorrect both sections traditionally gone carefully consistent exercising accord themselves moved, None satisfied relied upon. 10(e), relies, emphasize care takes claims one. 66 cites justify read Many taxation—federal state. sometimes taxed citizens remotely indicate weakened way preserve reservations. example, Corp., 709, cited involve production oil company Indian. owner individual Indian, reservation, royalties obtained his allotted vast western reclamation 'well known Congress' taken, taking. 356, 48, 49, 538. provision resembling 1794 Other 469, aware Indians' lands—unlike 1957 836a, relates calls 'plain words' statute. interpret fundamental reasons disagree considered body built up throughout extending back Articles Confederation. summarize briefly history. experience illustrates tribe.12 discovered lived later became Carolina. Early settlers want up. Numerous conflicts clash desires. Finally, 1710, war colonists South routed. majority warriors killed. Hundreds men, women children captured slavery. Nearly remainder fled. distant Iroquois Confederation Nations. With acceptance 1720 Six Historical accounts 1780 supported Revolution compelled leave residence hostility fought British Colonies.13 migrated Village home. remained ever since—nearly 180 came 1800 Seneca 'thought just'14 deeds three square miles occupying Presidents Washington Jefferson able, sell Carolina $15,000. money, War trustee, adjoining received trust 1804 1809. supervised payments Company, obtained, conveyed Nation.15 today purchase. Despite continuing guardianship years attempts property. 1838 parts States.16 carried Congressional 1830, 411, program removing Eastern West. President solemnly assure exchange made, forever secure guaranty them, heirs successors, exchanged directing violation existing tribes.' Id., 7. existence 1764 today.17 Nations, time member years, representatives signed treaty.18 Article III solemn promise: 'Now, acknowledge aforementioned boundaries, Seneka nation; same, disturb nation, friends residing thereon united thereof: remain theirs, people purchase.' article substantially repeated promise 1784 15, our adopted, Oneida nations secured possession settled.' 73 Of course 1794, signed, yet able obtain pledge money-lender's mortgage. Up enlarged interpretation; beyond engage sharp practices wards.19 principle 761, 768, 708, where said, treaty: 74 already acknowledged nation—that enjoyment, theirs These guarantees her pledged uphold.' agreed go west, decided so, respected objections left land. have, time, depriving will.20 Jackson, 1835, destined 'secured guaranteed them."21 Missouri compromise discussed 1854 Senator Sam Houston picturesque describe Indians: 76 'As long flows, grass grows earth, sun rises your pathway, you kindle camp fires, protected habitations.'22 carry sacred promises security adopted 'interfere 78 largest wil $700,000,000 completed. build proper delay controversy. cause abandonment homes people. depended exclusively inconvenience, justified using breaking life seen fit protect, actually encourage. Cogent arguments better concerned abandon customs habits, become incorporated communities reside. remains, done traditional sees fit. changes ordinarily scrupulously careful see satisfied. Until chance keep let request too late now. If, argued impliedly measure once confirming authorization. Joint Resolution day interpreted like. Commissioner Estate Church, 335 632, 639—640, 322, 326, 288. action hands Legislative Department wisely reposed it.23 81 hard cling tenaciously life.24 impression fertile, landscape beautiful splendid specimens architecture. home—their ancestral they, children, forebears born. They, memories loves. Some things worth money costs enterprise. 82 instances broken examples pointed us. am convinced regret governmental breaks dependent Great nations, word. 694. fluctuate 44,000 210,000 second, depending flow, year, day. S.Rep. No. 85th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 4. superseded Boundary Waters 11, 1909 (Treaty Series 2448) diversions 36,000, 20,000, Beginning 1921, utilized Corporation expiring 1971. rated 360,000 kilowatts. pp. 5—6. Works, Subcommittee, Eighty-second, Eighty-third Eighty-fourth session Congress; Works Eighty-second Congress. hearings Subcommittee session. Reports 2501, 83d 2d Sess.; H.R.Rep. 713, 1408, 84th 2635, Sess. 862, note Report reporting statement: proposals contemplate total firm 17-hour-day basis. anticipate achieve amount pump-storage facilities 5. July 23, (Schoellkopf) disaster, formerly plant. proposal anticipated capacity, U.S.Code Cong. Adm.News 1591. resolved previously disputed issues 50% nonprofit cooperatives 'at lowest rates reasonably possible,' 20% neighboring States. purchase 445,000 designated supply, 'restore low to,' customers relinquishment construct independent lines reach preference control resale distributors purchasing bear remedial maximum sum, scenic drive park. consisted, general, main generating east bank short (3) acre-feet, acres, (4) intake structure (5) system forebay latter ($15,000) payable installments price ($13,752.80), installments, (which receipt installment price, lien unpaid price) Dearborn Trust' 'Tuscarora Assigns . Heirs (to) grant Fee Simple otherwise hereafter appoint.' collection remaining turn, remitting balance Successors ever,' encumbrances, conveyance. embraces tracts containing 1,920 first, 640 ceded 1798. 1,280 1799. case. amended, 838, 796(2) 797(e). Meanwhile, commenced so-called 'appropriation' Highway Law, McKinney's Consol.Laws, c. 25, Tit. Authorities 43—A, use. complaint seeking declaratory injunction temporary restraining order. action, 'local' one, transferred Western hearing, denied relief prayed, dissolved order, dismissed merits. 146 F.Supp. appeal, affirmed reversed part. 58—159 thereunder district (16 814), to. 257 885. writ certiorari 13, 1958. 358 841, 66, 76. respondent proceedings, appealed laws. 608, 960. statement text doubtless alluding offered $1,500,000 $1,000 acre, plus replacing houses center building, expenditure 2,400,000, offer, withdrawn. tells brief 'What unfortunately fails point Authority's 'offer' empty gesture since, ruled, prohibited selling 233 (25 233).' 715, 65th 22; 180, 66th 10. 10; Cong.Rec. 1103. 910, rely 233, confers, qualifications, courts civil actions contains band York.' regarded Fort Stanwix 22, (7 15), unratified Harmar 9, 1789 33), Canandaigua 44). shows related principally least, last mentioned, question, another Senecas) Big Tree September 1797 601) approbation Robert Morris freed effects Morris, rests conveyance, 10), Tuscaroras, save few 'on Roanoke' Carolina, moved York—at 200 County, York—in 1775. Oneidas' 'guests' 'tenants suffer- ance.' Hough, Census 1857, 510; Document 1846, 68. recognized, Nations thereafter Oneidas, Mohawks, Onondagas, Cayugas Senecas). Senecas question. side defeat battle Elmira 1779, went vicinity 1780. place. Just certainty 1797. tenure, i.e., guests tenants sufferance, One chiefs situation 'squatters distinct nation.' 15) 33) promised lived—which River. 44) (except, VI, $4,500 clothing), alone possessory treaty, Senecas. Under 1786 Hartford Compact Massachusetts, sovereignty Massachusetts underlying Senecas' occupy who, covenant buy occupancy behalf Company. 601), derives, further details) 1063, 791a—828c, 791a—828c. While petitioners argument. Neither absolutely Project. indispensable indispensable. available.' 186, 188. remand refused indispensable, expensive. 146. 273, 275. expensive hardly proof projects. crucial significance reads: '(l)icenses commission acquired, department whose supervision falls deem adequate Title 4(d) re-enacted 1935 amendments, throughout. 796, definitions 1063. 'reservations.' states: 'Inasmuch 562, 1023, 39, 107, Pueblos' responsibilities towards 767, similar governed assert 366, 987, 1326 ('The States'); Minnesota 305 382, 292, 83 235; Affairs, H.R.Exec.Doc. Pt. Vol. 45th 397, 558 564 (1877). 845, Rev.Stat. 2116 (1875), bans 6, supra, 20, infra. 'interest in' finding. 11659—11660, 14561—14562. 971, 295; 99, 44, 643; Ex parte Crow Dog, 109 569, 396, 1030; Georgia, Pet. 25. 442, 563, Spanish Mexican law. Kagama, 118 375, 384, 1109, 228 ('duty protection'), Chief Marshall's leading Johnson M'Intosh, Wheat. 543, 591, 681 ('Indians (are) lands'). set aside principles res judicata litigation party. supra. discussions Hodge (editor), Handbook (1910), 842 853, Smithsonian Institution Ethnology, Bulletin H.R.Doc. 926, Part 59th Cohen, (1941), 423; Morgan, League (1904), 42, 93, II, 77, 187, 305; Cusick, Ancient History (1848), 31—35; 1590, 63d 3d 11—15 (1915); 562—563 statements Ct.Cl. 413 (1895); D.C.W.D.N.Y. 164 107; People ex rel. Cusick Daly, 1914, 212 N.Y. 183, N.E. 1048, 1050. op. cit., 12, 848; Wilson, Apologies (1960), 135. Letter Theophile Cazenove Joseph Ellicott, 10, 1798, Bingham Company's Papers: Ellicott (Buffalo Hist. Soc. Pub. 32, 1937) 23. histories particular transaction letters speeches War. Letters Sent Relating Affairs (National Archives, Record Group 75, Branch), A, 19, 22—23, 113—114, 117—119, 147—148, 402, 425—426, 438—439, B, 29, 274, 421; Buffalo 221; letter Erastus Granger manuscript files. recorded County Clerk's Office, Lockport, Nov. Liber 2—7; Jan. 1809, '(I)n Indians.' From letter, Fellows Blacksmith, How. 684. 1838, 550, 554 (Article 'Special Provisions Tuscaroras'). Spain, Mexico, Britain European pre-Colonial days. 563; 381, 228; Worcester 515, 551—552, 483; 17—18, affairs 9. Non-Intercourse 1790, 137, provided, 4, valid duly executed presently 2079, 71, 71. VI '(B)ecause desire, humanity kindness, contribute comfortable sum thousand dollars five hundred dollars, heretofore allowed ratified 1792); whole, four dollars; expended yearly forever, cloathing (etc.) Every 81st indicated rested 'article 1794.' E.g., 1120, 80th Subsequent Congresses appropriated obligations 'treaties 774, 82d 'such amounts 1951' 254. each act. (I)t obligation full. many, years.' Director D. Otis Beasley, Division Budget Finance, Interior, Appropriations 1952, Appropriations, 1747, 1764. 'Kanatsoyh, alias Nicholas Kusik,' Tuscarora, identified there. Treaties December 47, listed 'Tuscarora.' hinted, today, Nations' Treaty. 737, 760, 667 ('enlarged reference treaties'); 582, 483 prejudice. How understood unlettered people, meaning, form construction') (concurring opinion); Tulee 315 681, 684—685, 864, 86 1115 ('in spirit generously recognizes full people'). 405, 364, 469; 100, Dog. 572, 406, Rogers, 567, 1105. origins extend Marshall 547, 483, speaking policy, king willing sell, take; coerced surrender speech 1763. consistently 403, Forty-three Gallons Whiskey, 188, 197, 846; 708; 25; 681. 476, 476; 311 328, 311—328 CFR 161.3(a). age scope doctrine fairness illustrated responding address councilors Nation: 'I uninformed, led difficulties, peace. inform evils established, undertook altered; only, formed, binding. 'Here, then, No State, person, defrauded, rights.' Papers (Indian 1832) 142; Writings (United George Bicentennial Comm'n ed. 1939) 179, 180. Seventh Annual Message, Richardson, Messages 1789—1897, 147, 172. Cong.Globe, 33d App. 202. Morison Commager, Growth Republic (1950), 621. 988, ('the plenary'); 45—46, Tiger Investment 221 286, 315, 578, 586, 738 ('It (Congress), courts'); 299 ('Plenary relations exercised judicial government'); complain homelands.' Bennett Chairman Kuykendall, relating

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