Document: 384 U.S. 158 86 S.Ct. 1384 16 L.Ed.2d 445 Harry J. AMELL et al., Petitioners,v.UNITED STATES. No. 282. Argued Jan. 24, 1966. Decided May 16, David Scribner, New York City, for petitioners. John C. Eldridge, Washington, D.C., respondent. Howard Schulman, Maritime Trades Dept. of AFL—CIO, amicus curiae. Mr. Chief Justice WARREN delivered the opinion Court. 1 The case before us presents interesting problems a jurisdictional nature. Suits in Admiralty Act1 vests exclusive jurisdiction district courts when suit is maritime Under Tucker Act,2 Court Claims has over contractual claims against United States. This interaction itself here. 2 petitioners are employees various federal executive departments working aboard government vessels. They filed actions Claims, alleging they were entitled to back pay increases and overtime their labors, invoking statutes regulations. In all these suits, predicated on Act, which generous six-year limitations period provides grace as well, 28 U.S.C. § 2501 (1964 ed.). Their employer, States, motions have transferred ground that nature justiciable exclusively under Act. Act only two years claimants file suit, also requires exhaustion administrative remedies, 46 745 granted without opinion, simply citing three unreported cases it had made similar dispositions. To uphold this transfer would bar those accrued more than prior time filed. We certiorari, 382 810, 66, 15 58, reverse. 3 On its face, permits individuals with Government sue Claims. similarly affords an open berth courts, provided question should be applicable brought here, turn depends whether seafaring appropriately classified workers or mere seamen. 4 takes position deprived liberal benefits longer available other so, reasons, because purposes wage petitioners' status seamen overrides acknowledged role workers. assuming posture, seeks best both worlds. Congress depicted ambivalent treating either depending may redound benefit Government's proprietary interest. 5 acknowledges governed by patchwork pattern encompass many facets economic welfare. With regard so-called fringe benefits, pervasive schemes provide sick leave vacation pay,3 death, health, medical pension programs.4 potential recovery personal injuries limited strictly workmen's compensation statute governing them exclusion Public Vessels Act,5 Johansen v. 343 427, 72 849, 96 L.Ed. 1051, Patterson 359 495, 79 936, 971. By virtue governmental employment, right join unions select bargaining representatives, unlike private seamen, exists express President, Exec. Order 10988, 27 Fed.Reg. 551 (1962), forbidden, pain discharge, fine imprisonment, from exercising asserting strike, 69 Stat. 624, §§ 118p—118r 6 When comes treats petitioners, detriment, workers, however, wages fixed regulations, like employees. It true rates geared prevailing scale shipping operations,6 but factor diminishes upon analysis. A host so adjusted.7 then, essentially no different civil servants who deliver mail, fight forest fires, construct public buildings, engage countless tasks affect virtually every phase country's well-being. government-employed agencies; not automatically adjusted rate prevalent industry, some easily ascertained. Further, employees—unlike normal seamen—benefit won industry prospectively degree. Often contract negotiations continue beyond terminal date set collective agreement. agreement signed, generally receive increased retroactively. actual reached sector. Therefore, catalogued side ledger, although salty tang. 7 inference congressional intent reinforced considering pay. Here there specific provision—Section 205 Federal Employees Pay 19458 fixes ratio employees' basic thus explicitly prescribed uniform manner wage-board employees, not. Furthermore, determining applicability statutory requirement, court will interpreting regulation department. task typically within province expertise 8 think foregoing indicates respect claims, thought happened chance worked Government. remaining relate legislative amendments. approaches noting specifically repealed far conflicted. readily conceded, see, e.g., Calmar S.S. Corp. 345 446, 455—456, 73 733, 737—738, 97 1140; Matson Navigation Co. 284 352, 52 162, 76 336. Compare From proposition adduces principle admiralty now deeply woven fabric law action required overturn it, cf. State Bd. Ins. Todd Shipyards Corp., 370 451, 458, 82 1380, 1385, 620. sound where applicable, such 9 evolution law, judicial, at least until 1960, seamen's was unchallenged. do understand dispute fact. For example, found expressly ambit Bruner 112, 115, 581, 583, 786. States Townsley, 323 557, 65 413, 89 454, affirmed judgment favor operator dredge. assumed 101 Ct.Cl. 237, never disputed issue. Subsequent same effect.9 line precedent relied bringing suit. fact worthy mention illustrate impact whose suits otherwise time-barred if we hold restricted present Brady Roosevelt Co., 317 575, 63 425, 428, 87 471. 10 addressed overlap between Its major aim empower latter them. accomplished providing made, original filing toll period, Sept. 13, Pub.L. 86—770, 74 912, 1506. Simultaneously, abolished distinction merchant vessels, matter sorely confused attorneys caused misfilings past, S.Rep. 1894, 86th Cong., 2d Sess., pp. 3, 6. amending wanted affirm existing courts. new 742, words Senate Report, supra, p. 2, U.S.Code Congressional Administrative News 3583, 11 'restates brief simple language conferred sides, could sued persons, property involved.'10 12 believe oblique reference 'persons' designed make inroads reject argument. history surrounding enactment containins discussion whatever concerning highly significant active interest nautical legislation taken labor unions. If meant lower six years, surely been privy decision; one considers often stationed away home ports need lengthy register claims. exhaust remedies well shorter 13 effect, asks repeal former practice implication. held numerous request bears heavy burden persuasion, Bulova Watch 365 753, 758, 81 864, 867, 72; Fourco Glass Transmirra 353 222, 228—229, 77 787, 791—792, opportunity 1964 deprive rights amended itself. Instead, broadened forums plaintiffs suing fees, salary official services, giving concurrent matters less $10,000, 78 699, 1346(d) 14 As questions involving intersecting statutes, positive answer. can exercise our Congress. instance, traditional treatment tips balance jurisdiction. possesses necessary adjudicate serves centralized forum developing particularly large claim suits. These responsibility since 1887. multi-party amounts, having eliminates any problem transferring venue several locale, see 1406 here misconstruing Congress, rest explicit language. therefore reverse remand further proceedings. ordered. Reversed remanded. 17 HARLAN, whom STEWART joins, dissenting. 18 my course legal history, reflecting decisions enactments, precludes interpretation placed 41 525, amended, 741 seq. I. 19 enacted 1920 deal created formation government-owned fleet during World War established method protect interests libellants while prevent rem attachments vessels possible emergency. See 223, 66th 1st Sess. (1919); H.R.Rep. 497, 58 Cong.Rec. 7317 59 1684—1688 (1920). Although creation procedure occasioned particular needs, early cases, discussed below, unmistakably, first, remedy and, second, affording relief underlying cognizable admiralty. 20 corporation '(i)n vessel privately owned operated, cargo possessed, person involved, proceeding maintained * *.' 742. narrow construction unanimously rejected Eastern Transp. 272 675, 47 289, 71 472, amenable cause admiralty, personam, owner liable. U.S., 690, S.Ct., 292. view reiterated Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Rosenberg Bros., 276 202, 48 256, 531. There Corporation respondents argued did preclude nonstatutory corporation. agencies. left open, 'the act prevents resort causes 214, 258. 21 reservation laid Johnson 280 320, 50 118, 451. four consolidated: involved allegations negligence; third alleged breach affecting cargo; fourth loss due negligence. barred limitations, common-law still available. squarely spite well-briefed arguments support cases.1 Reviewing structure intent, stated Act's served 'if allowed state permitted agents enforcement covered Act.' 327, 120. concluded 'that given libel might it.' Ibid., 22 subsequently recognized ultimately adopted occasions passed supporting premised exclusivity heard Soon after case, decided, acted mitigate effects two-year limitation. June 30, 1932, 420, waive suitors timely elsewhere decision.2 1950, order eliminate confusion, again codify rule applied agents, namely, '(t)hat (the Act) shall hereafter reason subject agent employee 64 1112, 2535, 81st (1950), quoted note supra; 1292, (1949). 23 directly altered conform 1948 strike word 'admiralty' scope court's 25, 1948, c. 646, 62 940, 1491 ed).3 facilitate transfers running litigants sued, incorrectly, then time-barred. September 1506 Recognition prompted statute. H.R. Rep. 523, (1959); (1960). II. 24 survey case-law development quite clearly falling purview test falls class 'a Act),' 120, directly, operated maintained.' 25 Until today familiar historical one, term 'proceeding admiralty' obviously co-extensive meaning ordinary usage. us, employer person. answer affirmative, Sheppard Taylor, Pet. 269; Kossick Fruit 731, 735, 886, 889—890, 56. Benedict, Law American 124 (6th ed. Knauth 1940): 'The mariners ship commonly said wards wages, rights, wrongs always special jurisdiction.' litigated court, Leon Galceran, Wall. 185, 74; 35. But litigation irrelevant sovereign, shown above, 'could maintained' indubitably claim. III. 26 Court, recognizing conflicted,' ante, 163, avoids result compelled conventional formulating statute's applicability. Instead asking traditionally jurisdiction, seems interrelation requiring inquiry into mariners, weighing factors concludes seafarers. I false basis lies puts mischievous gloss relevant statutes. Obviously One label refers employer; type work perform. dual classification industries. thousands employed activities. Because system law; land-based co-workers option. contracts, obligations types defining Cf. Steam-Boat Thomas Jefferson, Wheat. 358; International Stevedoring Haverty, 50, 19, 157. different. argument showing respects merits own terms, Part IV, infra, does negate McCrea 294 23, 55 291, inter alia, Not Court's approach based yardstick, contrives impracticable applying heretofore used application that, absent clear exception,4 encompasses defendant shipper. Since long understood, normally know what brought. proper primarily nature.' indicates, resolved instances complicated elusive process. Indeed, pages analysis able determine 'with Government,' 163. Putting aside nothing show ever contemplated 'jurisdictional' standard, replacing straightforward 'admiralty jurisdiction' unpredictable 'primarily nature' bound introduce confusion uncertainty determinations appropriateness forum, very reasonably definitive IV. 29 construes reluctant federally Apart anything else, accomplished, expense forfeiting substantial advantages 30 First, likely better acquainted these, sensitive tradition 'wards admiralty.' Classification 1949, 954, 1082(8) ed.), crew members compensated 'as nearly consistent accordance practices 31 consolidated raises payment 'port watch tours duty,' petitioner, alleges 'prevailing rates' trade require '16 hours per hour port tour duty.' Another complaint involves, naval regarding lunch periods where, work, 'it administratively desirable allow specified off lunch.' Navy Civilian Personnel Instruction 610.2—1k. Questions admiralty.5 32 Second, $10,000 1346(a), (d) Three above limit, District Columbia. Of involve facilities Fort Lauderdale, Florida. most probably allowing favorable provisions admiralty.6 33 Third, runs judgment, 2411(b), 2516 award 743, Greater costs awarded 743 2412(b) 34 ruling today, lost merely case. untoward results decision leads themselves engendered serious misgivings soundness ruling, albeit produce beneficent instance. 35 741—752 505, 1346, Annual Sick Leave 1951, 679, 2061—2066 Employees' Group Life Insurance 1954, 68 736, 2091—2103 ed.); Civil Service Retirement 70 2251 2267 Health Benefits 1959, 708, 3001—3014 43 781—790 Section 202(8) substance agencies industry. 1962, Salary Reform making declaration policy fixing comparable enterprise levels Oct. 11, 87—793, 841, 1171—1174 Pursuant direction, President issued Executive Order, 11173, Aug. 20, 1964, 11999, taking full cognizance enunciated 1962. So board evinced concern, 85—872, 1696, 1181—1184 Thus, whole trend draw service salaries earn entering 295, 913 provides: annual monthly boards authority serving purpose section 673c title. each employment computed follows: provision, gives one-half times See, Hearne F.Supp. 786, 107 335, cert. denied, 331 858, 67 1752, 91 1865; Adams 141 133; Abbott 169 144 712. Continental Casualty 156 942, 140 500. 742 pertinent part: 'In (owned States) maintained, appropriate non-jury personam Such parties suing, them, reside principal place business charged liability found. *' Legislative bearing aspect meager, colloquy House Committee Judiciary hearings bill suggests certain situations. Hearing Attorney General's Substitute S. 3076 7124, ser. 8, (1919). Again 1950 extended accommodate who, reliance decision, Hust Moore-McCormack Lines, 328 707, 66 1218, 90 1534, overruled Cosmopolitan McAllister, 337 783, 1317, 93 1692, tort committed being company general report noted '(t)o future repetition mistake restates agents.' (1950). noted: courts.' 308, 80th App. 138 (1947). 971, Compensation 1916, 39 751 sole injured barring offset peculiar nonmaritime components persuasive. too, possess expertise, born $10,000. 1346(a) 'shall found.'

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