Document: 541 U.S. 267 VIETH ET AL.v.JUBELIRER, PRESIDENT OF THE PENNSYLVANIA SENATE, AL. No. 02-1580. Supreme Court of United States. Argued December 10, 2003. Decided April 28, 2004. After Pennsylvania's General Assembly adopted a congressional redistricting plan, plaintiffs-appellants sued to enjoin the plan's implementation, alleging, inter alia, that it constituted political gerrymander in violation Article I and Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. The three-judge District dismissed gerrymandering claim, plaintiffs appealed. Held: judgment is affirmed. 241 F. Supp. 2d 478, JUSTICE SCALIA, joined by CHIEF JUSTICE, O'CONNOR, THOMAS, concluded claims are nonjusticiable because no judicially discernible manageable standards for adjudicating such exist. They would therefore overrule Davis v. Bandemer, 478 U. S. 109, which this held justiciable, but could not agree upon standard assessing claims. Pp. 274-306. (a) Political gerrymanders existed colonial times continued through framing. Framers provided remedy problem: Constitution gives state legislatures initial power draw federal election districts, authorizes Congress "make or alter" those districts. Const., Art. I, § 4. In Clause also grants judges — duty control practice. 274-277. (b) Neither 2 4, nor Clause, provides enforceable limit on considerations States may take into account when districting. 277-291. (1) Among tests determining existence "nonjusticiable" "political" question lack discoverable resolving question. Baker Carr, 369 186, 217. Because Bandemer was "not persuaded" there deciding cases, S., at 123, cases were justiciable. However, six-Justice majority discern what might be. For past 18 years, lower courts have simply applied plurality's standard, almost invariably producing same result as obtained had been nonjusticiable: Judicial intervention has refused. Eighteen years judicial effort with virtually nothing show justifies revisiting whether promised exists. 277-281. (2) standard—that claim can succeed only where "both intentional discrimination against an identifiable group actual discriminatory effect group," 127—has proved unmanageable application. misguided proposed, improved subsequent application, even defended appellants Court, should be affirmed constitutional requirement. 281-284. (3) Appellants' proposed two-pronged based 2, neither manageable. Appellants mistaken they contend their intent prong ("predominant intent") different from racial cases. predominant test challenged district voted, see, e. g., Miller Johnson, 515 900, whereas here assert satisfied partisan advantage motivation behind entire statewide plan. Vague used evaluate single all evaporates statewide. other reasons, provide comfort. effects appellants' proposal requires rival party's voters systematically "packed" "cracked"; court persuaded totality circumstances map thwart plaintiffs' ability translate votes seats. This right proportional representation. Even discernible, There effective way ascertain status, and, any event, status races does establish particular contests. Moreover, if party identified, impossible ensure won seats unless States' traditional structures radically revised. 284-290. (4) many Justice Powell's standard—a totality-of-the-circumstances analysis evaluates districts eye ascertaining "fair"—must rejected. "Fairness" standard. Some criterion more solid demonstrably met than necessary enable limits districting discretion, meaningfully constrain courts' win public acceptance intrusion process very foundation democratic decision-making. 290-291. (c) Writing separately dissent, JUSTICES STEVENS, SOUTER, BREYER each propose These own deficiencies, additionally fail reasons identified respect Bandemer. KENNEDY concurs judgment, recognizing existing measuring burdens representational rights voters. 292-305. (d) Stare decisis require allowed stand. weakest decision interpreting Constitution, particularly reliance decision. 305-306. KENNEDY, while agreeing complaint must dismissed, possibility relief foreclosed limited precise rationale yet found correct established violation. Courts confront two obstacles presented injury gerrymandering. First comprehensive neutral principles drawing electoral boundaries. No substantive definition fairness commands general assent. Second absence rules confine intervention. That grant involving race answer need principles, since involve sorting permissible classifications impermissible ones. Politics matter. Gaffney Cummings, 412 735. A determination violates law rest something conclusion applied. It instead classifications, though generally permissible, invidious manner unrelated legitimate legislative objective. object "fair representation citizens." Reynolds Sims, 377 533. seem determine, exercise related burden rights. lack, however, agreed model fair makes difficult. With districting, basis define clear, manageable, politically given classification imposes Suitable critical our case, plurality convincingly demonstrates parties here, dissents either inconsistent precedent, both. are, then, weighty arguments holding like these nonjusticiable. so compelling now bar future clear abstract guide Amendment suffice justiciability these. workable gerrymander's emerged mean none will emerge future. adjudicate case before it. absent measure imposed rights, evidence best legislature classifications. describes flaw under governing Gaffney, supra, 752. While equal protection continues govern prove offer sounder prudential dwell purpose, concentrates legislation complaining ideology, beliefs, association. allows pragmatic functional assessment accords some latitude See, Eu San Francisco County Democratic Central Comm., 489 214. 306-317. J., announced delivered opinion, REHNQUIST, C. O'CONNOR JJ., joined. filed opinion concurring post, p. 306. dissenting 317. GINSBURG, joined, 343. BREYER, 355. APPEAL FROM UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR MIDDLE Paul M. Smith argued cause appellants. him briefs Thomas J. Perrelli, Bruce V. Spiva, Sam Hirsch, Daniel Mach, Robert B. Hoffman. John P. Krill, Jr., appellee Jubelirer et al. brief Linda Shorey Julia Glencer. Bart DeLone, Senior Deputy Attorney Pennsylvania, Cortés D. Michael Fisher, General, G. Knorr III, Chief General.* SCALIA THOMAS join. 1 Plaintiffs-appellants Richard Vieth, Norma Jean Susan Furey challenge drawn Pennsylvania establishing Representatives, ground constitutes unconstitutional gerrymander.1 109 (1986), them. present appeal presents questions error, not, * facts, alleged plaintiffs, follows. population figures derived 2000 census showed entitled 19 Representatives Congress, decrease Commonwealth's previous delegation. took up task new map. At time, Republican Party controlled both Houses Governor's office. Prominent national pressured adopt plan punitive Democrats having enacted pro-Democrat plans elsewhere. members House Senate worked together On January 3, 2002, passed its signed Governor Schweiker Act 1. 3 Plaintiffs, registered who vote brought suit Middle seeking implementation Rev. Stat. 1979, 42 1983. Defendants-appellees Commonwealth various executive officers responsible enacting implementing alleged, among things, created malapportioned one-person, one-vote requirement gerrymander, Amendment. regard latter contention, "meandering irregular," "ignor[ed] criteria, including preservation local government boundaries, solely sake advantage." Juris. Statement 136a, ¶ 22, 135a, 20. 4 panel convened pursuant 28 2284. defendants moved dismiss. granted motion (on Eleventh grounds) Commonwealth; declined dismiss apportionment defendants. See Vieth 188 532 (MD Pa. 2002) (Vieth I). trial ruled favor plaintiffs. 195 672 II). retained jurisdiction over pending court's review approval remedial 18, 2002-34, Ann., Tit. 25, 3595.301 (Purdon 2003) (Act 34), cure problem 5 Plaintiffs impose arguing consider 34 proper scheme, malapportioned, predecessor. denied motion, concluding rejecting previously assigned I. 484-485 III). appealed dismissal claim.2 We noted probable jurisdiction. 539 957 (2003). II 6 American scene. One scholar traces them back Colony beginning 18th century, several counties conspired minimize city Philadelphia refusing allow merge expand surrounding jurisdictions, denying additional representatives. E. Griffith, Rise Development Gerrymander 26-28 (1974) (hereinafter Griffith). 1732, His Majesty's Council attorney deputy inspector comptroller affairs Province North Carolina reported proceeded "divide old Precincts Law, & enact Ones Places, whereby his Arts he endeavoured prepossess People according desire, Designs herein being . endeavour means get Majority creatures Lower House" disrupt assembly's proceedings. Colonial Records 380-381 (W. Saunders ed. 1886); see Griffith 29. remained alive well (though known name) time allegations Patrick Henry attempted (unsuccessfully) James Madison out Congress. W. Rives, Life Times 655, n. (reprint 1970); Letter Jefferson William Short, Feb. 9, 1789, reprinted Works 451 (P. Ford 1904). And 1812, course, occurred notoriously outrageous Massachusetts gave name amalgam names Elbridge Gerry creature ("salamander") outline credited forming thought resemble. Webster's New International Dictionary 1052 (2d 1945). "By 1840 recognized force politics formation conceded attempt gain proportionate numerical strength." 123. 7 significant practices Constitution. leaving elections, permitted wished.3 Many objected oversight provision. course debates Constitutional Convention, Charles Pinckney Rutledge strike relevant language. responded defense provision check manipulation States: 8 "Whenever State Legislatures favorite carry, care mould regulations candidates wished succeed. Besides, inequality Representation States, produce Natl. Legislature, presumable Counties former secure themselves latter. What danger giving controuling Legislature?" Federal Convention 1787, pp. 240-241 (M. Farrand 1911). 9 Although failed, opposition needed prevent voiced ratifying debates. delegate convention warned 10 "might make unequal partial division states representatives, disqualify one third electors. Without powers people remedy; 4th section remedy, controlling legislature, composed senators representatives twelve states, without influence commotions factions, hear impartially, preserve restore sacred election." Debates 27 (J. Elliot 1876). 11 bestowed regulate restrain practice gerrymandering, lain dormant. Apportionment 1842, 491, elected single-member "composed contiguous territory." 12 (noting "an forbid gerrymander"). again requirements 1862, 572, 1872 further required "contai[n] nearly practicable number inhabitants," 17 2. 1901, compactness 31 733. contiguity, compactness, equality repeated 1911 legislation, 37 13, thereafter continued. Today, singlemember-district-requirement remains. 2c. Recent history, attests Congress's awareness sort protest, Since 1980, fewer five bills introduced H. R. 5037, 101st Cong., Sess. (1990); 1711, 1st (1989); 3468, 98th (1983); 5529, 97th (1982); 2349, (1981).4 ago, we (1986). consideration precedent turn. III 13 As Marshall proclaimed centuries "[i]t emphatically province department say is." Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 177 (1803). Sometimes, business entertaining unlawfulness entrusted branches involves Nixon 506 224 (1993) (challenge procedures impeachment proceedings); Pacific Telephone Telegraph Co. Oregon, 223 118 (1912) (claims arising Guaranty IV, 4). Such said "nonjusticiable," "political questions." 14 186 (1962), set forth six independent question: 15 "[1] textually demonstrable commitment issue coordinate department; [2] it; [3] impossibility policy kind clearly nonjudicial discretion; [4] undertaking resolution expressing due government; [5] unusual unquestioning adherence already made; [6] potentiality embarrassment multifarious pronouncements departments question." Id., 16 probably listed descending order importance certainty. second doubt validity. "The Power" 1, whatever choose do, Valley Forge Christian College Americans Separation Church State, Inc., 454 464, 487 cf. Grupo Mexicano de Desarrollo, A. Alliance Bond Fund, 527 308, 332-333 (1999), chooses assign them, Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 576-577 (1992); Chicago Southern Air Lines, Inc. Waterman Corp., 333 103, 110-114 (1948). act English courts. most obvious limitations action governed rule. Laws promulgated Legislative Branch inconsistent, illogical, ad hoc; pronounced principled, rational, reasoned distinctions. Over dissent three Justices, that, decided," clumsy shifting proof premise (the do exist, rather "persuaded" do) necessitated uncomfortable fact discernable point. Four Justices finding believed thing, id., 127 (plurality White, Brennan, Marshall, Blackmun, JJ.); else, 161 (Powell, part part). lived assurance (or precisely, standard), coupled inability specify years. considered numerous claims; never revisited unanswered governs. Nor have, succeeded shaping initially unable enunciate. Bandemer's four-Justice opinion. application produced (except incurring attorney's fees) commentary put it, "[t]hroughout served exclusively invitation litigation much prospect redress." Issacharoff, Karlan, Pildes, Law Democracy 886 (rev. 2002). (and merely preliminary relief, that) did lines;5 aware common form denied.6 although seemingly involved ne plus ultra manipulation, 5, loss explain why line just there, embraced upheld despite extreme discrimination, bizarrely shaped disproportionate results. Session Perry, 298 (ED Tex. 2004) (per curiam); O'Lear Miller, 222 850 Mich.), summarily aff'd, 537 997 (2002); Badham Eu, 694 664, 670 (ND Cal. 1988), 488 1024 (1989). To think jurisprudence "judicially standards" fantasy. justify us following discussion reveals, emerged. Lacking conclude wrongly decided. 20 begin possible White's because, narrowest employed group." 127. element, acknowledged "[a]s long done difficult likely consequences reapportionment intended." 129. significantly harder satisfy. Relief persons banded purposes failed achieve commensurate numbers, scheme made winning elections 132. Rather, shown taking variety historic factors projected results, "denied chance effectively process" whole, achieved electing candidate. 132-133. enough establish, example, "placed supermajority voters" "departs pre-existing boundaries." 140-141. individual inquiry focus "on opportunity participate deliberations slating nomination candidates, register vote, hence directly returns attention candidate." 133. challenge, contrast, "the voters' direct indirect whole." Ibid. (emphasis added). gross understatement, "of necessity inquiry." 143. 21 her concurrence, predicted "will arbitrary else evolve towards loose proportionality." 155 (opinion Burger, J.). similar prediction unmanageability expressed making prognostication Court. 171 ("The basic failure enunciate affords guidance courts"). amply fulfilled. 22 courts, legacy record puzzlement consternation. Session, 474 ("Throughout borne witness powerful, conflicting forces nurtured judiciary address `excessive' line-drawing, unenforceable"); 2d, 544 "recondite enunciated offers little concrete guidance"); Martinez Bush, 234 1275, 1352 (SD Fla. (three-judge court) (Jordan, concurring) "lower continue struggle interpret apply `discriminatory effect' [Bandemer] standard"); O'Lear, 855 (describing "somewhat murky"). criticized indeterminacy host academic commentators. L. Tribe, 13-9, 1083 1988) ("Neither approach real forced ..."); Still, Hunting Gerrymander, 38 UCLA 1019, 1020 (1991) "confounded legislators, practitioners, academics alike"); Schuck, Thickest Thicket: Partisan Gerrymandering Regulation Politics, 87 Colum. 1325, 1365 (1987) judgments "largely subjective beg lie heart competition democracy"); Judging Politics: Elusive Quest Review Fairness, 71 Texas 1643, 1671 ("Bandemer begot confusion"); Grofman, An Expert Witness Perspective Continuing Emerging Voting Rights Controversies, Stetson 783, 816 (1992) ("[A]s far am believe sense. person, Lowenstein, diametrically opposed view means"). today appellants, decline affirm B 23 run enunciating length reflects litigant's experience, shares features standards, well. retains framework modifies type showing sufficient satisfy each. 24 plaintiff "show mapmakers acted advantage," "by circumstantial criteria subordinated goal achieving Brief compared mere disadvantage plaintiff's group, meet expense indeterminate. 25 "Predominant intent" refers relative goals seeks pursue contiguity observance lines subdivision, incumbents parties, cohesion natural ethnic neighborhoods, compliance 1965 regarding distribution, etc. borrowed 900 (1995); Shaw Reno, 509 630 (1993). with, important so. context, voted. supra; Hays, 737 (1995). Here, fails "it quixotic considering redraw lines," "partisan plan," 32 "predominant motivation" Does mean, instance, outweigh statewide? how "outweighing" determined? If three-fifths map's forgo pursuit ends strictly observing political-subdivision lines, two-fifths ignore subdivisions "predominant" between two? sure 26 within narrower compass challenges district, applying easier less disruptive. contemplates entities, unsurprisingly turns root-and-branch matter politics. 914 ("[R]edistricting implicate calculus interests compete recognition ."); Shaw, 662 (White, dissenting) ("[D]istricting inevitably expression interest 735, 753 (1973) reality intended substantial consequences"). By purpose segregating lawful one, rarely encountered. Determining shape substantially affected presence rare constitutionally suspect motive invalidate quite excess ordinary always room election-impeding lawsuit contending motivation; Finally, justified accepting modest degree enforce command (like obligation refrain discrimination) clear; inferring too partisanship districting) dubious severely unmanageable. extent represent comfort here. replaces vague process," 132-133, specific. requisite "(1) `pack' `crack' voters,7 examination `totality circumstances' confirms seats." footnote loosely 1965, 1973, race, Johnson De Grandy, 512 (1994). But person's readily permanently race. affiliation immutable characteristic, shift next; election, follow line. dare hope) puts forward utterly incompetent candidate lose registration stronghold. facts assess fashion evaluating violation, finally craft remedy. 156 (O'CONNOR, judgment).8 Assuming, determined, prevents electorate Before sense Deny do), rests principle groups least political-action groups) contains principle. guarantees persons, equivalently sized groups. nowhere says farmers urban dwellers, fundamentalists Jews, Republicans Democrats, accorded strength numbers.9 29 relevant, established? using results benchmark support. describes, won. 137a-138a received President auditor general, Senator, treasurer). establishes contests, factor voting behavior levels affiliation. assuredly true. comment it: "There country legislature. separate is. change, strengths weaknesses campaigns raise money changes, issues change everything changes. highest totals percentages: specific Lowenstein Steinberg, Districting Public Interest: Illusory, 33 59-60 (1985). 30 Gerrymandering: Problem Solution, 240, (B. Grofman 1990). identify party, find wins revise structure elections. winner-take-all system, guarantee, drawn, party. point which, pleadings, conducted "free gerrymandering." 137a. "neutral playing fiel[d]," Democrats' major-party (50.6%) translated minority (10, versus Republicans). 133a, Whether reason constituents wind "cracked" throughout others. Dixon, 462 (1968) ("All Is `Gerrymandering'"); Rev., 1359. Consider, draws objectives mind except subdivisions. Under tend cluster (as cities) called "natural" packing effect. 159 judgment). Our 533 (1964); Wesberry Sanders, 376 (1964), bearing question, practicality. Not principle, selection individuals say, dwellers equivalent numbers. practicality, easily administrable enables decide it) essentially determined lives, districts; requiring system casts sea imponderables, asks determinations experts upon. C reject suggested Powell He effect, ultimate ought boundaries exclusion "all redistricting." part); 164-165. inquiry, factors, "[n]o dispositive." 173. shapes subdivision "Other include nature history reflecting contemporaneous goals." "bear combined "evidence concerning disparities statistics tending dilution," 35 rightly failing suggest based, falls short mark. analysis, conceivable dispositive, weighed gone far—or, terminology, "fair." Fairness compatible noncontiguous straddle subdivisions, mirrors proportion vote. seems discretion decisionmaking. IV 36 turn next today's dissenters. preface observation four dissenters come standards—all appellants—goes STEVENS challenges. Though reaches via standing 327, 328 (dissenting opinion), reach political-question conclusions same: would, individual-district level. Much addressed incompatibility severe principles. disagree employ, proceedings, incompatible "try" impeachments. discussed violate occurred, design point, STEVENS's helpful, saying, essentially, context 39 examined, 285-288, Only few STEVENS. "mistakenly assum[e] cannot judgments." Post, 338. race-conscious decisionmaking unlawful. Race used, indicator neighborhood cohesiveness race," 286—that race's sake, politics' sake. "er[r] assuming `an motive'" 324—but brings contest argument excessive injection So is, assume. alter setting segregate unlawful rare, (so doesn't go far) ordinary. 40 confidence belief apply," 335. different. discriminate receives strictest scrutiny not. "[N]othing compels subject precisely scrutiny. fact, country's persistent voting—as jurisprudence, reserved race—would compel opposite conclusion." 650 (citation omitted). quoted passage response rejection of) suggestion White "a functionally nonracial purposes, gerrymanders." Bush Vera, 517 952, 964 (1996) opinion) ("We subjected strict scrutiny"). 41 relies 324-325. elementary triggers heightened level receive underlying consequently harms, comparable. suppression speech (a claimed violation) give case—perhaps good sustained, render renders hiring non-policy-level jobs. Elrod Burns, 427 347 (1976), decent share jobs administration, disregarded. Having justiciability. asserts imposing strong presumption invalidity (strict scrutiny) evenhanded balancing thumb scales (ordinary scrutiny). refute known, readily, always, invalidation. exist apply—the proposition devoted establishing, 321-327, 340-341—does willy-nilly standards—even standards—having relation harms. points out, 15, differences "may adjudicated, refusal entertain case." 125. shown, wrong. 43 restrict us, district-specific 346, 353 opinion). Unlike SOUTER recognizes proposes "fresh start," 345: newly constructed Title VII McDonnell Douglas Corp. Green, 411 792 (1973), complete five-step prima facie sewn parts of, articles, self-styled "clues" unconstitutionality manageably applied, doubt, detect crime investigating—an "extremity unfairness" competition. 344. 44 SOUTER's member "cohesive group"; "that residence paid heed" principles; "specific correlations district's deviations distribution hypothetical exists includes residence, remedies cracking deviates (5) intentionally manipulate pack crack 347-350. When showings made, reference naked 351. 45 five-part eminently scientific, finds last steps quantifying unguided ill suited development standards: How disregard principles? distribution? remedying district? legislators crack—and efficacious (must been, sine qua non cause)? step two, "little heed principles." 348. when, often adheres others? evade "It exactly balance indices poor another, detail 348-349. devil lurks detail. central far. solve break down original unanswerable (How much?) discrete equally questions. 46 doomed reason: test—yea, test—can possibly successful knows testing for. deprivation minimal entitled. seen, sought (unhelpfully, gamely) was: "[a] process." test: "[the] avoids difficulties formulations telling looking for, unhelpful unfairness." vaguely harm concerned dilution, 351, term usually implies weight element looks success, opportunity, influence, group. know designed prevent. 47 implausible) believes consists "vote Despite framework, mapmakers' pretextual.10 stated, certainly negates dilution. explained above, cracking, no, consistent lines. 289-290. better example incumbency protection. acceptable 1047-1048 so, protect packed, tightly reelection Indeed, efforts maximize opposing incumbent protected, potential adversary mollified, diluted. 48 Like acknowledges accepts "some inescapable whenever bodies devise intent." Thus, much." once premises conceded, candidly admits, "notio[n] fairness." flabby deprived determinacy. sure, frames somewhat differently: intervene, says, reached extremity solved adding modifier. 49 BREYER's play important, proper, role 358. places dissenters, position bad tackle 50 unjustified use entrench power." 360 original). invokes passing reader entrenchment depends theory "effective government." 356. incredibly starting create "basically democratic" government, ibid., impassable distance away Judiciary (somehow defined) machinations (whatever means). 51 journey. promise tells beyond "unjustified entrenchment." 360. Instead, "set[s] sets lay indicia abuse," "along continuum," 365, proceeding (presumably) unconstitutional. first "scenario," willing "would support claim." 366. refreshingly categorical, until realizes consist receiving acquire successive "neutral" explanation phenomenon. explanation—if time-honored scenario "could add gerrymandering," ibid. added); crosses line," 367 helpful. Each suffers problems notably motivated justifications, 285-286, scenarios purport answer, presumably determine whether, circumstances, entrenchment" occurred. sum, test. 52 perhaps surprising omission views matters, cost-benefit analysis. normally work will," 362, actors, officers, commissions, ballot initiatives referenda, stand ready happen. 362-363. instance none) permanent frustration will. itself indeterminate period (two scenario), assumes "court necessary," 364. Why so? world, available tends sought, necessary, vaguer availability, frequently litigation. regular insertion delay uncertainty enmity worth benefit accelerated (by unknown degree) effectuation will? V 53 "demonstrat[ed] shortcomings date," 308 acknowledges, moreover, "lack ... boundaries," 306-307; "absence intervention," 307. From premises, concludes day discovered. 54 thing about KENNEDY's disposition legally available. justiciable met. logically unconstitutional-districting met, have) "[b]ecause, standard." 313. job, plaintiffs', explicate adequate inadequate claim. nonsuit 55 declare nonjusticiability incautious. 311. rush after fruitless "contrasts starkly" "with patient approach" taken past. 310. areas fall authority adjudicate, Court's practice, earliest days Republic present, reminiscent Hannibal Hamlet. July 1793, Secretary wrote direction Washington, asking "questions [that] depend solution construction treaties, laws nations, land," arise "under cognisance tribunals country." Correspondence Papers Jay 486-487 (H. Johnston 1891) letter specifically invited categorical yes-or-no offering "from [the Justices] might, pronounce on." 487. August 8, decidedly "impatient" manner, saying advisory opinions opinions, affecting power. "[T]he separation government" prevented 488. rejected "cautious" "deny[ing] hopes 310, door open imagine) powers. Gilligan Morgan, 413 Ohio National Guard's shooting students Kent University, "initial continuing surveillance training, weaponry, orders Guard." nonjusticiable; committed conceive area governmental activity competence." 10. letting try hand regulating military declared impossible. Most recently, certain trying reserve sometime, somewhere, technology wisdom experience right. 56 cites never-say-never Carr 310-311. cover. There, describe regarded rendered wandering wilderness idea, turned work. 57 Carr: true matters sort, refrained spelling (It later (1964).) Baker, unlike demand nonjusticiable, dispose disagreeing determination. observed earlier, unsupported facts. causes merits competence adjudicate. 58 worries deny erode premature intervene." function hope. job announcing valid prepared figure out. confidence; placing pretending afford help none, deters affording genuine relief. confronted claim: 59 "When resolves retreat learned firsthand neither. Throughout unenforceable. Inevitably, uses lock advantage, attempts stretch protective cover Act, urging dilution may, accepted, aid short-run detriment protected long-run. Casting appearance wrong stands incentives self-correction." 474. 60 conclusive refutation made: disposition. question; identifies met; Reduced essence, boils this: "As presently advised, unhappy hope able my future." pronouncement? treat reluctant fifth holds, being, VI 61 (what fleetingly invoke) 62 Considerations stare interpretation field, mistakes corrected Payne Tennessee, 501 808, 828 (1991). doubly weak majority's exist) presaged reconsideration light experience. triply hard imagine conceivably frustrated bringing lawsuits, primary conduct relevant. 63 lightly overturn holdings, "when decisions unworkable badly reasoned, `this felt constrained precedent.'" 827 (quoting Allwright, 321 649, 665 (1944)). pointless incapable principled 64 65 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici curiae reversal Caucus Gerald Hebert Pamela Karlan; Civil Liberties Union Burt Neuborne, Deborah Goldberg, Gass, Steven Shapiro, Arthur N. Eisenberg, Laughlin McDonald, Neil Bradley; Citizen Alan Morrison, Amanda Frost, Scott Nelson; Reform Institute Ortiz Trevor Potter; JoAnn Erfer Einer Elhauge; Senator Mellow Gladys Brown. amici Alabama Lowell Barron Blacksher Segall; Center Research Governmental Processes, Jamin Raskin; DKT Liberty Project Sinder; Bernard Reed Witherby; Jack Rakove Joseph Guerra Stephen Kinnaird. gerrymander" defined "[t]he dividing geographical highly irregular shape, unfair diluting opposition's Black's 696 (7th 1999) apparently amended allege inVieth resolved merits. subject-matter implicated raised assume deemed constructively amended. follows: Times, Places Manner Elections Senators shall prescribed Legislature thereof; Regulations, chusing Senators." abusive practices. redistricting, measures insulate See,e. Iowa Code 42.4(5) (2003); II, 2; Haw. 25-2 (1993); Idaho 72-1506 (1948-1999); Me. 21-A, §§ 1206, 1206-A (West 2003); Mont. Ann. 5-1-115 Wash. 44.05.090 SeeRepublican Martin, 980 F.2d 943 (CA4 1992) (upholding denial Rule Procedure 12(b)(6) defendants); Bd. Elections, 3d 563 1994) (unpublished (upholding, modified, injunction). Martin dealt Carolina's superior statewide, resulted judge 1900. 948. Later developments described infra. prayers underDavis Duckworth Administrative Election Laws, 332 769 Boyle, 144 1060 (CA7 1998); La Porte Comm. Board Comm'rs Porte, 1126 1994); 1275 panel); Marylanders Fair Representation, Schaefer, 849 1022 (Md. Terrazas Slagle, 821 1162 (WD 1993) Pope Blue, 809 392 (WDNC) panel), 801 Illinois Redistricting Comm'n LaPaille, 782 1272 Ill. 1992); Fund Accurate Informed Weprin, 796 (NDNY) 1017 Holloway Hechler, 817 617 Va. 507 956 Hastert 777 634 1991) Anne Arundel 781 394 938 Virginia Wilder, 774 400 re 2003 ME 81, 810; McClure Commonwealth, 436 Mass. 614, 766 847 Cases, 331 Md. 574, 629 646 Kenai Peninsula Borough 743 (Alaska 1987). "Packing" filling "Cracking" splitting delicious illustration alluded above underBandemer. supra. Hunt, 94-2410, 1996 WL 60439 (CA4, 12, 1996) curiam) (unpublished), judgt. 77 470, 311 stipulations 132 statements, approximately 300 exhibits, oral argument, "had experiencing pervasive success whole unabated 60439, *1. pronouncement, "every office victorious level," Fourth Circuit (with reason) "directly odds recent court," *2, causing remand reconsideration. alarm asserted tendency Assuming assertion true, State's delegation wishy-washy (because "effectively" distributed constitute bare majorities districts), hardcore packed districts). Choosing "dilutes" radical Democrat; choosing moderate. takes sides dispute proving affirmative defense, demonstrate "were pretext old-fashioned gerrymander."Post, 352. case. face complies criteria. 66 judgment. 67 ordering correction commit unprecedented process. directing Nation's life. understanding great caution approaching subject, foreclose 68 obstacles. uncertain limits, intervening intentions risk political, legal, responsibility produces distrust. 69 Those controversies inquiry. classification. 752 ("It idle, think, fashioning it"). 70 533, 565-568 (1964). pursue. 72 obstacle first. burden, Absent guidance, disparate inconsistent. 73 overcome violated elect precept. novelty accompanied convincing adoption, satisfactory date. ante, Parts (demonstrating colleagues both). comments discover, helpful discussions annals parliamentary bodies. statements well-accepted legislator's 74 Second, promising outset (e. compactness) altogether sound neutrality seems, unavoidably assure criterion, face, another. ("District phenomena. predominantly Republican, close likely"); Bork, Tempting America: Seduction 88-89 (1990) (documenting author's service special master Connecticut noting final benefited Party, albeit unintentionally, chairman personally congratulated him); Altman, Modeling Effect Mandatory Compactness Gerrymanders, Pol. Geography 989, 1000-1006 (1998) (explaining live high density regions). 75 recognized. Illusory? (1985) ("[W]hat fortunes policies affected. things stake neutrality. contest"). dearth historical must, part, uncertainty. 76 prevail run. view, gerrymander. tradition burdened denied. alien approve Courts, all, instances. intervene. willingness enter thicket "easily standard," 290, contrasts starkly mention overrule. 78 sufficed 226. 79 "Nor action, ask lacking. developed familiar, enactment policy, capricious action." 80 familiar nonequipopulous Reynolds, (concluding "[s]ince citizens concededly aim apportionment," legislature's invalid, arbitrary, leads populations sat wide 303-304. instructs: "has [any] [a] claim," righ[t]" issue. Ante, 277. violations Amendment, survey approaches controlling. 302-303. 81 putting side distinguishes still nonjusticiability. Relying distinction proof: negative. treatment otherwise alike hinges entirely negative context. 82 Where involved, full analytical satisfaction err caution. Allegations bias serious claims, vote" "those processes ordinarily relied minorities." Carolene Products Co., 304 144, 153, (1938). "All X's representation, accord principles," surely violated. admit remains express directive. suggests another suitably apportionment's facto incorporation aims thus fashion). 83 306 ("Eighteen us"). during formulated single, insuperable 344-345 timeline period. addition, rapid evolution technologies field unexplored possibilities. Computer assisted become routine sophisticated legislatures, experts, databases hours, months. Larios Cox, 305 1335 Ga. curiam). Technology threat promise. hand, refuse temptation favoritism grow. methods evident parties. facilitate burdens, standards. 84 suitable emerge, hindsight prematurely abandoned field. take. papers us. (Harlan, malapportionment "should `failure granted'" "[u]ntil decided [the] [to apportion] [a State] runs afoul limitation, `justiciability' `political question'"). 85 Because, Failing apportionment, flaw, consequence, alleges granted. result. Fed. Civ. Proc. 12(b)(6); 134. 86 thinks resolve 301, governs; that. My notes subsidiary classification, provable source note Amended Complaint 48; 145a. burdening penalizing participation process, association views. (1976) contexts interest. 362. "Representative democracy populous unit governance unimaginable band promoting espouse views." California Jones, 530 567, 574 (2000). precedents show, concerns enacts subjecting disfavored 88 place area. 294. implication invalid. ("Only districting"). misrepresents used. group's restrictions views, shows Of restriction 89 voters, emphasis permissibility enactment's works classifying permissible. complicated purpose. answered burdens. 214 Anderson Celebrezze, 460 780 (1983). 90 understand disfavors acknowledge 292 judgment" [are incompatible] principles"); 293 [in districting] unlawful"). suits, prove, "well familiar" "reflec[t] said, cautious adopting excessive. Excessiveness determined. Consider schemes: X controls captures every seat. Y blatant egregious, proceeds subtle effort, capturing State. total Y's capture captured. egregious. subtle. culpable. 91 92 ordered working Republic, decorum restraint citizenry itself. abandoned. serve order. demonstrating world works. spoken concern pride, unfortunate declaring comes apportionment: "`We rigging elections.'" Hoeffel, Six Incumbents Are Week Away Easy Election, Winston-Salem Journal, Jan. 27, 1998, B1 senator). 93 responsibilities instance. failings improper. observations, join 94 dissenting. 95 coming differ, Members convinced erroneous. apparent writings today, prevail, contrary profoundly unwise advanced differing precedential value obscure agreement greater significance. 96 concept justice impartially. Romer Evans, 620, 623 (1996); Lehr Robertson, 463 248, 265 York City Transit Authority Beazer, 440 568, 587 (1979). Today's exempt officials license, devoid rational justification. sole pretense forsaken unabashedly subverted body 97 reaffirm narrow ground. urge authorize transient abuse undertake ambitious project. persuaded, well-settled propositions defendants' plaintiff-appellant Furey's 98 According complaint, Democrat resides Montgomery County, located 1992 Congressional 13.1 "non-compact" 6.2 "solely" effectuate Republicans,3 "exclusively" "maximum advantage" plan.4 plainly establish: she constitutionality 6; gerrymandering; stated 6, erred 99 Prior seminal heeded Frankfurter's warnings dire entering thicket" Colegrove 549, 556 (1946). result, egregious sheltered review.5 prohibits diminish overpopulated reaching conclusion, "legislatures collectively responsive popular 565 accordingly apportionment" "achieving citizens," 565-566. Consistent goal, reviewed discriminated multimember threatened "to cancel elements population." Fortson Dorsey, 379 433, 439 (1965). "vulnerable" "if ha[d] fenced invidiously minimized." 754 (1973). Whitcomb Chavis, 403 124, 143 (1971); Burns Richardson, 384 73, (1966). 100 118-127, followed ineluctably reasoning 186. context: 101 consistency decided, branch coequal abroad, grave disturbance home [Pennsylvania] challenged. 226 (footnote 102 "[T]hat [gerrymandering] submitted distinguish cases] terms justiciability." 103 278, Baker's applicable deeply rooted preceded refined peculiar symptom illicit line-drawing notably, Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 340 (1960), invalidated statute altered Tuskegee square uncouth twenty-eight-sided figure" preventing African-Americans municipal bizarre improper motive, proven, abundantly [have] establish[ed] 140 geographic abuses 341. Fortas' Kirkpatrick Preisler, 526, 538 (1969), referred deliberate distortion personal purposes," maps attached exhibits Gomillion, 348 (Appendix Court), "uncouth" single-minded, nonneutral 104 supplied lawfulness configurations relevance 165. Applying three-part Indiana's excluded placed data trends. 175-176. pointed strange conspicuously ignored 176-177. impact residents districts,6 included illustrated irregularity shapes, 181, 183. Third finally, "substantial evidence," press accounts, architects considerations." 177. 105 jurisprudence. examined schemes guarantee "so irregular" "rationally understood anything effort" 630, 646-647 (Shaw I), "race dominant 913 Easley Cromartie, 234, (2001); 899, 905 II).7 emphasized "reapportionment appearances matter," 647, focused majority-minority decisions, enacted,8 looked purely decision,9 illustrating outlandish shapes.10 106 Given precedents, argues settled. squared decisions. Especially perplexing ipse dixit Notably, argue "much encountered" partisanship, 286, motive" dominated "is [such decision] [be] invali[d]," wholly irrelevant 107 errs motive." squarely notion "purpose politics," 293, contrary, core activities Amendment," 347, 356 fundamental scrutiny, 363; Police Dept. Mosley, 408 92, 94-95 (1972). appropriate base hire, promote, transfer, recall, discharge, retaliate employee, terminate contract, individual's speech. Comm'rs, Wabaunsee Cty. Umbehr, 518 668, 674-675 O'Hare Truck Service, Northlake, 712, 716-717 Rutan Ill., 497 62, 64-65 Branti Finkel, 445 507, 519-520 (1980); Elrod, 355-363.11 follows excluding district. 108 patronage specific." elementary, justiciability.12 outlined regardless occurs.13 dicta 952 (1996), relies, 293-294, beside speak difference Amendments, lesson benign appears goes "too far" engages sake" undertakes "racial sake." 293. touched maintains, intervene "dubious." 286.14 discriminates unadorned maximizing decisionmaker's remain impartial. Lehr, 265. Gerrymanders necessarily legislators' predictions "members way." Mobile Bolden, 446 55, (1980) (STEVENS, "In racial, religious, ethnic, economic species 88. offended. treated persuasive distinguishing gerrymanders. confirm reinforce justiciable.15 110 Indiana basis. shifted required, standing, stating race-based actually reside challenging. 737, 745 Hays rule claim.16 end Challenges relate "representational" harm, district-by-district injuries types individualized resident 6. 111 complain injured membership particular, plaintiffs-appellees discrimination." (citing complaint). Indiana. Republicans, half 19-person delegation.17 744-745.18 112 cognizable.19 challenging alleging rationally race." 649. describing pernicious enhance explaining dramatically "`have probative call explanation,'" 647 Karcher Daggett, 725, 755 (1983) concurring)), message misshapen sends officials: 113 obviously perceived constituency whole. antithetical representative democracy." 648. 114 Undergirding norms tether constituencies 115 "[L]egislatures," explained, 565, "[l]egislators farms cities interests," 562.20 subvert norm winner gerrymandered infer primarily attributable architect hold disruption cognizable "representational har[m]." 745. whose misperceive fealty, 904; "plaintiff asserting generalized grievance approve," 957-958 116 stronger 6.21 She complains resulting fairly flowing 6.22 grotesque configuration residing parallels Officials "are whole."23 warranted 117 harms great, greater, official racially feel beholden portion constituents, U.S., parallel perceive drew cast ballots, subset constituency, all.24 problem, put, cartographers govern.25 Judge Ward recently wrote, "extreme vice-versa." 451, 516 (concurring Elected masters: sponsors Their obligations realistic expect idle it." art society. 119 properly officials, members' religion, predicate. Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 426 88, sovereign, impartially"); 166 dissenting). enforces law's stake." Romer, 623. Trustees Univ. Ala. Garrett, 531 356, 375 (2001) (KENNEDY, ("States instruction demand"). implements impartially requires, least, sovereign nonpartisan purpose.26 120 Washington Davis, 229 (1976).27 applies divides unevenly school chosen county boundary river major thoroughfare. limiting school, families unpopular religious 344-345; Ed. Kiryas Joel Village School Dist. Grumet, 687, 699-700 121 predominated began irrational [could] 658. Then, I's irrational-shape bizarreness violation; rather, contours "persuasive lines." 913. per se impermissible, 642; elevated paramount be-all end-all "Race motivating decision." Easley, (internal quotation marks citations 122 Just objective save "traditional "compactness, subdivisions," "important defeat 752, 18; Karcher, concurring)). "Where race-neutral `defeat lines.'" 916 647). 123 essence racial. faction opponents. Mobile, desired probability economic, way. overriding political. 749-750 concurring); judgment).28 redress perform 125; Cousins Chicago, 466 830, 853 1972) (Stevens, 124 supply played in, dictate outcome predominate. If, justification minority, 125 considerations, ones, perfectly legitimate. 285-286. Until slightest intimation written Member line.29 referring consistently assumed undesirable, indicated dominate decisions.30 Purely motives "rational" literal sense, word `rational' me legitimacy characterize performance sovereign's impartially." Cleburne Living Center, 473 432, 452 concurring). taxes tax revenues pay campaign expenses. neutrality; partisan. 452-453. 126 plurality. 288. held, objective, 754, comply 1965.31 implicitly embraces contrived disadvantaging objectionable flawed. disregards mistakenly judgments.32 forsaking principles.33 desire increase strength, then challenge. meritorious preclude abuses, disclosed 664 (1989),34 shorten felt. mitigate current trend becoming apportioning 128 Plaintiff-appellant 2002 splits "Montgomery alone districts."35 "looms dragon west, towns communities Berks Counties."36 "solely interests" Republicans,37 "exclusively maximum plan,38 criteria."39 viewed advance justification."40 problem," "subordinated indeed bases decisionmaking, viewpoint another."41 "ignores criteria," alleges, "thus plan."42 reverse proceedings 129 indeed, elsewhere 277, found, patterned statute. fix lacks 130 Quite obviously, identifying justification; three-factor Bandemer; fashioned cases; endorse advocated BREYER. unavailability drives instead, condemn 131 Accordingly, respectfully dissent. [Appendix page.] 133 [THIS PAGE IS BLANK] App. 129a 142a. 143a. InColegrove, 1901 reapportioned ensuing decades, "despite indicating changes 569 (Black, Illinois' 1945 ranged 112,000 900,000 most. Nonetheless, Frankfurter, "due Government revealed peculiarly determination." 552. Fewer later, strikingly Tennessee unchanged dramatic growth tension Colegrove, action. 192, 197-198. distinguished equity's powers." 235. "`[T]he voter disillusion nonparticipation great,' artificial units. Intelligent affiliation, resent purpose." omitted) fromGomillion 339 644-645 (relying Gomillion), 173, "[i]n more, InMiller 917-919 (1995), Georgia responding Department's objections operator computer" designing 961-962 (discussing computer program lines). InShaw 910 reports Hunt 526 541, 554 (1999); 986 opinion); 928; 659. inUmbehr, 686 (SCALIA, J.), Rutan, correctly namely, expressly prohibited text Bill bears endorsement open, widespread, unchallenged dates striking down," 95. Cf. 274-275 (tracing century). "[o]ur history"; "[r]ather, commence identification practice." 354-355. trigger nonetheless Allen Wright, 468 (1984); DeFunis Odegaard, 416 312 explains "accep[t] unmanageability" "constitutional clear," unmanageable."Ante, 286. statement faith tautological. reluctance recognize driven fear rise flood Seeante, list lengthy 280, decades average year. volume trivial compared, amount adoption "one-person, one-vote" inBandemer, well: "That characteristics stigma today,ante, wise 161, concurrence 744 interpreted law. required. dissented incorrectly illogical free reexamine litigate 138a inHays, "[v]oters [gerrymandered] suffer [that suspect] ." 127, inquiry" districts." CfMcConnell Comm'n, 540 93, 153 (2003) ("Just troubling functioning classic quid pro quo corruption officeholders desires constituencies, wishes large financial contributions valued officeholder"). 16. 129a. resided anywhere allege, behalf, irregularly shaped. glance appended map,infra, reveals especially contours. 16, represented Democrat. 261 142a "[A]mple owe `the states' mercy legislatures." Note, Harv. 1196, 1202 (2004) cousin "rotten borough." Parliament units wrought Industrial Revolution. "Because population, vast inequities so-called rotten boroughs. Old Sarum, human sheep sent Yorkshire, million inhabitants." Zagarri, Size: 1776-1850, (1987). "many insignificant returned members, not," "even tiny fraction Butler, Passing Great 176 (1914). Meanwhile, bribed patron distinctions offices cash," electors way."Ibid. boroughs rule, borough owed loyalty (if any). Similarly, selecting select realm buttressed "`a outcomes, disfavor class restraints.'"Cook Gralike, 510, 523 Term Limits, Thornton, 514 779, 833-834 (1995)). extends alike. Beginning early session statutes Executive employees neutrally carry duties. Ex parte Curtis, 371, 372-373 (1882). avoided furnish indirectly defray expenses keeping happens patronage." 375. "fundamental" expected execute programs thereof." Service Carriers, 548, 564-565 expectation impartial execution laws" "great Government." 565. InWashington earlier "`the product contrivance origin.'" 240 Wright Rockefeller, 52, (1964)). unanimous "whether `boundaries purposefully 67). consideration. Creating worse creating Irish-American, Polish-American, Italian-American events abrogated neutrally. SeeKarcher, 753-754 judgment); 850-853 interesting,ante, 274-277, vintage Republic," 688 review. Compare, Bradwell Wall. (1873), Nevada Human Resources Hibbs, 721, 729 end, unconvincing juridical capacity administer (1973); (1966); exercise" core, evinces distrust serving self-interest good." Balderas Texas, O. T. 2001, 01-1196, SeeShaw 918 dissenting); 1033-1034 947-948 (GINSBURG, seldom decision, survive "rational basis" "[n]ot influenced objectionable."Grutter Bollinger, 306, 327 predictive judgments, reliable unreliable) characteristics, origin. characteristic class. Registered sometimes vice versa. politics, "discernible." 287. belied difficulty discerning eligibility citizen cited lines."Shaw 647. criterion. 162, 168 inBadham featured designed, dilute 1987, 87-1818, Exh. D, 77a. Three summary affirmance 135a 136a. 140a. 135a. whom GINSBURG joins, formal divisions populations: 568 Otherwise, others carries clout. unequally skew choice way, consequence mythical identity absolutely gray uniformity. spectrum impotent fractions, marginalizing However matter, minimized maximized, 734, (1983), unfairness sufficiently demonstrable, condemns equality. 129-134 (1986) "each [having] group,"id., "right `fair representation,'" 162 Wells 542, 551 (1969) sentiments community"). undeniable sophisticates destroying 134a, edge notions distinct opportunities reviewing episodic far, sources intent. Wells, 554-555 ("In reality, represents complex blend regional, considerations"). much, exact verbal defining consciousness inevitable 1057-1062 (SOUTER, Instead formula clues, unfairness. practical closer 281.1 enough, accept counsel despair. principal theoretical administrability specification forbidden "essentially shut 139. 670-671 court). avoid threshold low (let results) demonstration devaluation ever deliberate, register, impeded. meeting, demanding vagueness; fault belongs predecessors. Higginbotham painfully [Davis] offered `"constitutional green light" would-be gerrymanderers' realized." 173 part)). solve, fresh start. voices did, increasing efficiency damaged predecessors imagine. Cartels, 593, 624 (2002) (The "pattern gotten exquisite improved"); Fire Next Time: Reapportionment Census, Stan. 731, 736 ("Finer-grained data, methods, powerful computers increasingly equipopulous gerrymanders"); Principled Limitations Racial Redistricting, Yale 2505, 2553-2554 (1997) ("Recent document microscopic astonishing precision redistricters carve precincts distribute Morrill, Geographer's Perspective, 213-214 1990) "high proportions safe seats"); Amici Curiae 5-8 (decline competitive seats). ("A grind totally frustrate overwhelming issues"). preserveDavis's issue, start anew. analogous crafted calling rebut supporting choices, allegations. luck devising concentrated patterns. somehow important; usual greatest overall. But, level, illegitimately drawn. simplicity, stick dealing these, forget complications posed elements. First, cohesive belonged, inDavis. claimant minor (which target vigorous hostility State) coherent engaged bloc voting, labor union do. choice, easy small organization such.2 (1995) (requiring standing), straightforwardly: conformity rivers mountains. justifying absolute equality, 740, 997, 1008 (1994), relying competence. blush yield precision, measured quantitatively dispersion, perimeter, ratios, possible. Pildes Niemi, Expressive Harms, "Bizarre Districts," Rights: Evaluating Election-District Appearances Mich. 483 1057 (suggesting formulas salvage (1993)).3 Third, strongly Counties." stick, protuberances Draconian fissures squirm Republicans. split, tended other. counterexamples reasonable compel, inference begin, complete, defendant (drawn uselessly group) fatally few), systems. 7. Fourth, (in claim) higher one) deviated Thornburg Gingles, 30, "responsible [their preferred] candidates"). credibly correlated caused by, Drawing redrawing district,4 another) Fifth, (1976). substantiating devised hard, fourth (correlation cause) established, politicians disinterested characteristically naive. ("[W]e redistricts, composition districts"). equivocal count governor's vetoproof).5 could, admittedly, mind, naturally bipartisan commission. got alternatives advantage. rebuttal affirmatively posit 990 (compliance interest). plead unattainable lopsided proportions. (1973);6 (totality "minority constitute[d] population").7 present. petrify exclusive, itself, built entail redefined. ripples boundary, longer piecemeal. D essential unworkability. [of far] 296-297. intractable fragments handle larger tractable theory, subjects deal asks, "[w]hat [is] others?" 296. arises answering Hamrick, 1355, 1362-1363 2001) (noncontiguity Gingles fatal city's rough asymmetrical [and] non-contiguous portions districts] separated unincorporated relatively near joined"). enquiries proposing edged wish be, subjectivity function. destined 297-298. objection discouragement description Achilles heel suggestion. 343, 349-350) dilution: manipulating full-blown fairness, furnishing divergence ideal unfair, dispute; observe gerrymanderer, summarizes, 274-276; aimed detecting mine unnecessary implies, 297-298, ages leave seek process; opportunism remove control, requires. worst catch all. Scalia, Rules, Chi. 1175, 1178 (1989) ("To standpoint `perfect' nice competing values"). drafting assumption plurality, revision mind. insufficient grounding. short, feasibility alternative own, require. require, amend. leave, vacate vain 292; BREYER'S response, 368. andnever anytime occur, imply down, groups, concentrate evidence, going on. permitting elected. references serve, measures, Professors includedispersion, ratio smallest circle circumscribes 554-555; diameter equals area's 555-556; contained minimum convex encloses "rubber-band" area), 556-557, 206. circumscribing denominator. 557. Polsby Popper, Criterion: Procedural Safeguard Against Gerrymandering, Pol'y 339-351 quantitative favoring perimeter anti-gerrymandering purposes); Schwartzberg, Reapportionment, Notion "Compactness," Minn. 443 (1966) variant measure). permit multiple Seeinfra, 353. redistrict other's firm exercises monopolistic market, unilateral "heightened scrutiny." 18-19 Terry Adams, 345 461 (1953), Jaybird case). 593 Issacharoff Markets: Lockups Process, 643 (1998). analogy antitrust intriguing fruitful, embrace wholesale conceptual transfer economics commentators criticizedGaffney 613 ("Gaffney illustrates unmoored positive process"). settled law, gerrymanders, associated correct, wary lumping waited moment charge representationAnte, 288 ("Deny [their] representation"). (1971), Regester, (1973)). permits "Proportional representation" procedural mechanisms 1089-1172 systems district). "necessary evil" tolerate. pure helps objectives. Sometimes "gerrymandering" plausible simultaneously threatening harm. (but proved) complaint. focuses yea, for." 297 conflict mandated "test illustrate "We People," "ordain[ed] establish[ed]" "`principles, structure, mass,'" basically democratic. Wood, Creation 1776-1787, 595 Murray, Sketches, Inscribed Excellency Adams (1787)). also,e. Meiklejohn, Free Speech Its Relation Self-Government 14-15 modern Nation people, foresees guaranteed representing 530-531 (1969); 730 method transforming government. transformation. minimum, thereby enabling dissatisfaction quo. "throw rascals out." McConnell (2000); Colorado Campaign 604, 615-616 (1996). party-based satisfies condition encourages responsibility. facilitates transformation refer norm, insist reflect History, tell story. lies single-member-district "more representative" (i. e., proportional) finish "first post" legislators. obtain majority, freezing smaller coalition governments. decision-making throw out), providing stability. Mershon, Costs Coalition: Coalition Theories Italian Governments, Am. Sci. 534 1946 1992, "almost [Italian] stayed governments collapsed months"); Hermens, Proportional Electoral System: Issues Alternatives (A. Lijphart eds. 1984) paralysis hallmark Republic" representation). Duverger, Which Best System? System, 31, (arguing "preven[t] team," nonproportional "choose decisions"). preferable; more-directly-representational politicians, observers, location districts" complexion area." predict Persily, Defense Foxes Guarding Henhouses: Case Acquiescence Incumbent-Protecting 678, nn. (recounting court-appointed drawer, helped uninhabited swamp inadvertently disrupting environmental projects politician swamp's More mathematical fact. delegation, random sentiment, 51% 49% seismic makeup 100% 1002 randomly selected compact statewide). Any exaggeration wiping undemocratic. nonrandom "traditional" rarely, ever, neutral. memory, suburbs rural areas, geographically "pac[k]" former. 290 judgment)); "`formal' billing `fair' `neutral'"). Neighborhood community-based Irish, Jewish, African-American same. All knowledge maps. iron mathematics extraordinary volatility-enhancing historically "politics free." series compromises virtues ease "government" "opposition" stability uneasy truce, sanctioned tradition, boundary-drawing Constitution's fundamental: Ordinarily, abuse. harmful desirable ends, maintaining stable circumstance serious, remediable, abuse, situation enjoys populace take, hold, minority's factors. "other" lead "justified" (albeit temporary) sheer happenstance, unique Senate, (geographic, interest, etc.) obvious. popularly districts: "Logically, society ostensibly grounded differently, sanction bodies, appear surpasses governed, will." place, want; values dishonored. entrenchment, Constitutionally specified Unless entrenches countervailing reason, does, instances, amounts described, harmed improperly disadvantage, races—particularly Governor—who undo round sooner. determinations. 4; 275-277 Congress' "power States"). tiring rivalry, solution, confiding commission concerns. Conference Legislatures, currently [state] legislature." Commissions Conducting (2004), http:// www.ncsl.org/programs/legman/Redistrict/Com&alter.htm (all Internet materials visited Mar. 29, 2004, Clerk file). redistricting: Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Jersey, pass district-drawing data. Ibid.; Assembly, Bureau, Guide (Dec. 2000), http://www.legis.state.ia.us/Central/LSB/ Guides/redist.htm. unwilling act, informed, civically militant electorate," 270 (1962) (Frankfurter, dissenting), occasionally hands, referendums. Arizona Proposition 106, Ariz. pt. 2001). reforms borrow countries utilizing Administration Cost Project, Boundary Delimitation ACE Project), Canadian Parliament, http://www.aceproject.org/main/english/bd/bdy_ca.htm Canada's draft factors); Kingdom Redistribution http://www.aceproject.org/main/english/bd/bdy_gb.htm Kingdom's recommendations consultation public); Gudgin Taylor, Seats, Votes, Spatial Organisation (1979) commissions "explicitly sense"). implement 126. incentive advantages availability enhanced ways neighborhoods homes, carving slim victory margins cutting thin. Handley, Tools Technology, Real Y2K Problem: Census Data (N. Persily 2000); (1998); 345-346 notwithstanding shifts combination map-drawing frequent bring precise, dislodge. necessary. capable Smith, 254 (affirming injunction precleared 1965); 725 unconstitutional); 586-587 actions houses legislature). 1688-1690, 227-233 (reporting wake 1980 census, court-ordered redrafting, senate plans, house action—all meant aside preclearance provisions one-third injunctive cases)). dangers inadvertent balanced commission, bottom evil, entrenching use. solved, (being occurrence), sign, describes,i. departs Below, along continuum: entrenched becomes, circumstances. suppose ways, redrawn 10-year period; departure alleged; elections; i. challenged) twice ways. entrenchment. departures norms. depart criteria; advantage; above) ways). norms, seriously threatened, census-related period— either, behest struck unlawful, (finding mandate), accord; strong, unrefuted statistical likelihood delegation; jettisoning midcycle raises describing. similar, circumstances—where demonstrated, irrelevant, found—seem off alarm. serious; possible; found. criticisms approach. overstated. Compare ("[O]f gerrymandering]—if protection"), (pointing examples party); compare (complaining statewide"), 366 (identifying "majority party" elections"). Other judgments. 299 vagueness machination, "whatever means," entrenchment), 360-361 (detailed Sims); 301 costs high), 364-365 rule). criticism warrants elaborate response. observes 292. it? recommend differ respects. reconcile differences. thorough, accompanies stimulate discussion. where, justiciability, search 311-312 proceed;

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