Document: 391 U.S. 367 88 S.Ct. 1673 20 L.Ed.2d 672 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.David Paul O'BRIEN. David O'BRIEN, Petitioner, v. STATES. Nos. 232, 233. Argued Jan. 24, 1968. Decided May 27, [Syllabus from pages 367-368 intentionally omitted] Solicitor Gen. Erwin N. Griswold for the United States. Marvin M. Karpatkin, New York City, O'Brien. Mr. Chief Justice WARREN delivered opinion of Court. 1 On morning March 31, 1966, O'Brien and three companions burned their Selective Service registration certificates on steps South Boston Courthouse. A sizable crowd, including several agents Federal Bureau Investigation, witnessed event.1 Immediately after burning, members crowd began attacking his companions. An FBI agent ushered to safety inside courthouse. After he was advised right counsel silence, stated that had certificate because beliefs, knowing violating federal law. He produced charred remains certificate, which, with consent, were photographed. 2 For this act, indicted, tried, convicted, sentenced in States District Court Massachusetts.2 did not contest fact certificate. argument jury publicly influence others adopt antiwar as put it, 'so other people would reevaluate positions Service, armed forces, place culture today, hopefully consider my position.' 3 The indictment upon which tried charged 'willfully knowingly multilate, destroy, change by burning * (his) Registration Certificate (Selective System Form No. 2); violation Title 50, App., Code, Section 462(b).' 462(b) is part Universal Military Training Act 1948. 462(b)(3), one six numbered subdivisions § 462(b), amended Congress 1965, 79 Stat. 586 (adding words italicized below), so at time an offense committed any person, 4 'who forges, alters, destroys, mutilates, or manner changes such *.' (Italics supplied.) 5 In Court, argued 1965 Amendment prohibiting destruction mutilation unconstitutional it enacted abridge free speech, served no legitimate legislative purpose.3 rejected these arguments, holding statute its face First rights, court competent inquire into motives enacting Amendment, a reasonable exercise power raise armies. 6 appeal, Appeals Circuit held law abridging freedom speech.4 At enacted, regulation required registrants keep 'personal possession all times.' 32 CFR 1617.1 (1962).5 Wilful violations regulations promulgated pursuant made criminal statute. 50 U.S.C. App. 462(b)(6). Appeals, therefore, conduct punishable under already nonpossession regulation, consequently valid purpose; further, light prior must have been 'directed public distinguished private destruction.' basis, concluded ran afoul singling out persons engaged protests special treatment. ruled, however, O'Brien's conviction should be affirmed statutory provision, 462(b)(6), view crime, regarded lesser included crime defined Amendment.6 7 Government petitioner certiorari arguing erred unconstitutional, decision conflicted decisions Courts Second7 Eighth Circuits8 upholding against identical constitutional challenges. cross-petitioned 233, sustaining basis neither nor tried. We granted Government's petition resolve conflict circuits, we also cross-petition. hold both applied. therefore vacate judgment reinstate sentence without reaching issue raised I. 8 When male reaches age 18, register local draft board.9 assigned number,10 within five days issued (SSS 2).11 Subsequently, based questionnaire completed registrant,12 classification denoting eligibility induction,13 '(a)s soon practicable' thereafter Notice Classification 110).14 This initial necessarily permanent,15 if interim before induction registrant's status some relevant way, may reclassified.16 reclassification, board 'as issues registrant new Classification.17 9 Both are small white cards, approximately inches. specifies name registrant, date registration, number address registered. Also inscribed birth, residence physical description, signature, number. itself indicates State board, year chronological position board's record.18 10 shows name, number, classification. It whether classified appeal President. contains mailed. 11 bear notices notify writing every address, condition, occupational, marital, family, dependency, military status, might contain notice appear communications board. 12 demonstrated concern abused well here challenged. 1948 Act, 62 604, prohibited many different abuses involving 'any prescribed provisions title, rules hereunder 622. Under §§ 12(b)(1)—(5) unlawful (1) transfer aid person making false identification; (2) possess duly intent using (3) forge, alter, 'or manner' notation validly thereon; (4) photograph make imitation purpose (5) counterfeited altered addition, previously mentioned, personal times. (1962) (Registration Certificates);19 1623.5 (Classification Certificates).20 And 12(b)(6) 622, provision thereto felony. 13 By added 12(b)(3) issue, subjecting liability only who 'forges, changes' but 'knowingly destroys (or) mutilates' note outset plainly does speech face, do understand argue otherwise. Amended deals having connection speech. prohibits System, there nothing expressive about conduct. distinguish between destruction, punish expressing views. Compare Stromberg People California, 283 359, 51 532, 75 L.Ed. 1117 (1931).21 more abridges than motor vehicle drivers' licenses, tax books records. 14 nonetheless argues application him, what calls 'purpose' 'to suppress speech.' arguments separately. II. 15 first applied him act protected 'symbolic speech' Amendment. His expression guarantees includes modes 'communication ideas conduct,' definition 'demonstration war draft.' 16 cannot accept apparently limitless variety can labeled 'speech' whenever engaging intends thereby express idea. However, even assumption alleged communicative element sufficient bring play follow constitutionally activity. has when 'nonspeech' elements combined same course conduct, sufficiently important governmental interest regulating nonspeech justify incidental limitations freedoms. To characterize quality appear, employed descriptive terms: compelling;22 substantial;23 subordinating;24 paramount;25 cogent;26 strong.27 Whatever imprecision inheres terms, think clear government justified Government; furthers substantial interest; unrelated suppression expression; restriction freedoms greater essential furtherance interest. find meets requirements, convicted it. 17 support armies laws necessary proper end broad sweeping. Lichter Uniter States, 334 742, 755 758, 68 1294, 1301—1303, 92 1694 (1948); Draft Law Cases, 245 366, 38 159, 349 (1918); see Ex parte Quirin, 317 1, 25—26, 63 9—10, 87 (1942). classify conscript manpower service 'beyond question.' supra, 756, 1302; supra. Pursuant power, establish system individuals liable training service, require reason cooperate system. issuance indicating administrative functioning legislation insure continuing availability serves system's administration. 18 contrary premised unrealistic characterization certificates. essentially adopts pieces paper designed classification, retained tossed wastebasket according convenience taste registrant. Once received notification, view, retain notes most information notification all; hardly needs told characteristics. agree much notification. circumstance, lead conclusion purpose, that, like purposes addition Many defeated certificates' mutilation. Among are: 19 1. proof individual described thereon registered draft. named undescribed individual. Voluntarily displaying two easy painless way young man dispel question delinquent obligations. Correspondingly, display relieves burden otherwise verifying suspected delinquents. Further, since nature 'receipts' attesting done requires, just efficient administration they continually available, event, example, mix-up file. Additionally, national crisis, each cards assures rapid uncomplicated means determining fitness immediate induction, matter how distant our mobile society 2. supplied facilitates communication boards, simplifying benefiting concerned. begin with, bears item unlikely memory. card readily available communicate supplies requests simpler task locating Finally, inquiry, particularly through own, concerning frequently answerable simply certificate; whereas, reasonably uncertain answering questions considerably complicated. 21 3. carry continual reminders specified status. smooth requires boards aware whereabouts registrants, deprives potentially useful device. 22 4. regulatory scheme clearly prohibitions alteration, forgery, similar deceptive misuse obviously increases difficulty detecting tracing these. mutilated used purposes. 23 functions performed beyond doubt preventing wanton unrestrained assuring punishing wilfully destroy mutilate them. unpersuaded pre-existence negates 24 absence multiple punishment, never suggested anything improper Congress' providing alternative avenues prosecution assure effective protection majority dissenting opinions Gore 357 386, 78 1280, 1405 (1958).28 Here, pre-existing avenue statutory. Regulations modified revoked discretion. Certainly, supplement regulation. 25 Equally important, comparison protect overlapping interests, reach somewhat classes wrongdoers.29 gravamen deliberate rendering unavailable various serve. Whether times, regulations, particular long render them unavailable. Although below concerned inappropriate observe those destruction. 12(b) amended, certificates, own someone else's violate regulations. 26 apparent substantially established Nation vital raising maximum efficiency capable easily quickly responding changing circumstances. reasons, 27 equally specifically protects perceive precisely narrowly wilful Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 407—408, 83 1790, 1795—1796, 965 (1963), cases cited therein. more. words, operation limited noncommunicative aspect scope harm System. deliberately rendered frustrated impact else, convicted. 28 case bar unlike where arises measure allegedly integral thought harmful. (1931), struck down phrase punished expressed 'opposition organized government' flag, badge, banner, device.' Since aimed suppressing could sustained See also, NLRB Fruit & Vegetable Packers Union, 377 58, 79, 84 1063, 1074, 129 (1964) (concurring opinion). 29 conclusion, appropriately narrow protecting condemns independent reach, interest, shown conviction. III. 30 finally reject settled principles Congress, uses term, declaring unconstitutional. 31 familiar principle will strike illicit motive. As ago stated: 'The beginning lend whatever judiciary restrain lawful wrongful motive caused exerted.' McCray 195 56, 769, 776, 49 (1904). 33 fundamental adjudication reaffirmed collected Brandeis Arizona 423, 455, 522, 526, 1154 (1931). 34 Inquiries congressional hazardous matter. interpretation legislation, look statements legislators guidance legislature,30 benefit sound decision-making inthis circumstance risk possibility misreading purpose. entirely asked void is, well-settled criteria, fewer handful Congressmen said What motivates legislator scores enact stakes high us eschew guesswork. decline ground unwise undoubted reenacted exact form another 'wiser' 35 position, extent below, rest misunderstanding Grosjean American Press Co., 297 56 444, 80 660 (1936), Gomillion Lighfoot, 364 339, 81 125, 110 (1960). These stand, proposition inevitable effect Thus, publications certain kinds taxes press impose tax. Similarly, Gomillion, complaint true, 'inevitable effect,' U.S., 341, 127, redrawing municipal boundaries deprive petitioners vote Negro. cases, irrelevant, effect—the 'necessary operation,' 59, 777, (1904)—abridged rights. attacked instant effect, respect inevitably expressive. Accordingly, constitutional. 36 amiss, passing, comment legislative-purpose argument. There little floor debate either House. Only Senator Thurmond commented substantive features Senate. 111 Cong.Rec. 19746, 20433. brief statement, additional comments, bill, H.R. 10306, passed 20434. House Congressment addressed themselves Amendment—Congressmen Rivers Bray. 19871, 19872. bill further 393 principally O'Brienmakes congressional-'purpose' examine case, obliged authoritative reports Senate Armed Services Committees. portions explaining reproduced Appendix entirety. While 'defiant' so-called 'draft cards' 'open' encouragement indicate stemmed apprehension disrupt IV. 37 applied, entered disposition makes unnecessary consideration claim affirming regulation.31 ordered. 39 MARSHALL took cases. APPENDIX TO OPINION OF THE COURT. 40 PORTIONS REPORTS COMMITTEES ON ARMED SERVICES SENATE AND HOUSE EXPLAINING AMENDMENT. 41 'Explanation Bill' Report follows: 42 'Section 1951, provides, among things, subject fine $10,000 imprisonment years, both. explicit prohibition section cards. 43 committee taken defiant dissident disapprove policy. If allowed continue unchecked contumacious represents potential threat 44 'For 'knowingly' done. qualification intended lose accidentally.' S.Rep. 589, 89th Cong., 1st Sess. (1965). explained: 45 provides card, thereon, years. 10306 amend apply card. 46 Committee fully of, shares in, deep throughout over increasing incidences large groups openly defy encourage authority destroying mutilating 47 'While present Criminal Code property enough cover acts mistreatment individuals, feels critical situation country, offenses pose grave security whatsoever left intention irresponsible punished. 48 'To end, specific constitutes thereunder; years.' H.R.Rep. 747, (1965) Congressional Administrative News, p. 2890. HARLAN, concurring. crux Court's opinion, I join, general ante, 377, that: 'a interest.' 52 wish understanding passage foreclose claims rare instances 'incidental' expression, imposed 'important substantial' satisfies practice 'speaker' significant audience whom lawfully communicate. manifestly conveyed message ways 53 DOUGLAS, dissenting. 54 states 'broad sweeping' question." undoubtedly true times when, declaration state war. underlying basic problem conscription permissible war.1 That briefed presented oral argument; submit, litigants country entitled ruling. discussed Holmes 390 936, 1835, legal seen ruled question. reargument heard Hart 956, 1851, 871, today denies certiorari.2 55 rule parties inflexible yields 'exceptional cases' (Duignan 274 195, 200, 566, 71 996) need correctly decide court. E.g., Erie R. Co. Tompkins, 304 64, 58 817, 82 1188; Terminiello City Chicago, 337 69 894, 93 1131. unusual ask (Sherman 356 369, 379, n. 2, 819, 848, Frankfurter, J., concurring) parties. Abel 362 217, 683, 668, conceded deportation arrest warrant though supported sworn affidavit stating probable cause; ordered petitioner's case. 219, n., par. 687; 359 940, 720, 674. Lustig 338 74, 1372, 1819, exclusionary fruit unreasonable search officials solely acted concert officers (see Weeks 232 383, 652; Byars 273 28, 248, 520). then pending Wolf Colorado, 25, 1359, 1782, applicability Fourth U.S.Sup.Ct. Journal, October Term, 1947, 298. Donaldson Read Magazine, 333 178, 591, 628, presented, parties, record contained evidence fraud uphold order Postmaster General. Reargument abridgment 181—182, 593—594; 70. Musser Utah, 95, 96, 397, 562, vagueness statute, Jackson. 87. 57 precedents demonstrate appropriateness restoring calendar constitutionality peacetime knew They later discovered undisputed Youth Corrections 5010(b), custody Attorney General period years supervision representing pretrial motion dismiss indictment. trial sentencing, chose represent himself. represented Appeals. 376 F.2d 538 (C.A.1st Cir. 1967). portion revised January 1967. Citations 1962 edition nevertheless remanded resentence court's district judge considered aggravating imposing sentence. subsequently denied rehearing, charged, nonpossession, 538, 542 Miller, 72 (C.A.2d 1966), cert. denied, 386 911, 855, 787 (1967). Smith 368 529 (C.A.8th 1966). 605, 65 76, 453; 1613.1 (1962). 1621.2 1613.43a 1621.9, 1623.1 1623.1, 1623.2 1623.4 1625.1 1625.1, 1625.2, 1625.3, 1625.4, 1625.11 1625.12 (1962), part: 'Every himself submit must, registered, 2) prepared changed preparation failure shall prima facie register.' 2), 110) showing current classification.' text, infra, 382. NAACP Button, 371 415, 438, 328, 340, 405 (1963); 403, 1793, (1963). 343, Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 449, 464, 1163, 1488 (1958). Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 524, 412, 417, 480 Thomas Collins, 323 530, 315, 322, 89 430 (1945); 406, 1795, 408, 1796, Cf. Milanovich 365 551, 728, 773 (1961); Heflin 358 451, 407 (1959); Prince 352 77 370 (1957). very well-defined class inquiry principal apparent—those statutes challenged bills attainder. attainder inflicts punishment ascertainable group judicial trial. attainder, analysis definitional elements—specificity identification, lack trial—are occasion led See, e.g., Lovett, 328 303, 66 1073, 90 1252 (1946). Two type suggests engage Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 169—184, 554, 568—575, 644 Trop Dulles, 86, 95—97, 590, 595—596, 630 Trop, decisions—i.e., determine review punitive nature. penal nature, designated acts. cross-petition Neither men services "beyond question" concerns conscription. 856, 349, decided 1918, upheld month declared German Empire being enforced 1694, Renegotiation wartime measure, 1942—1945 (id., 745, 1297) excessive profits 1942—1943 753, 1300). War declared, course, 1941 (55 795). referred discussing 'background' (334 S.Ct., 1300) Power. Today stays Shiffman Local Board 5, 930, 1831, 849, Zigmond 16, 851, delinquency invoked related

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