Document: 500 U.S. 565 111 S.Ct. 1982 114 L.Ed.2d 619 CALIFORNIA, Petitionerv.Charles Steven ACEVEDO. No. 89-1690. Argued Jan. 8, 1991. Decided May 30, Syllabus Police observed respondent Acevedo leave an apartment, known to contain marijuana, with a brown paper bag the size of marijuana packages they had seen earlier. He placed in his car's trunk, and, as he drove away, stopped car, opened trunk and bag, found marijuana. Acevedo's motion suppress was denied, pleaded guilty possession for sale. The California Court Appeal held that should have been suppressed. Finding officers probable cause believe contained drugs but lacked suspect itself, otherwise contraband, court concluded case controlled by United States v. Chadwick, 433 1, 97 2476, 53 538, which police could seize movable luggage or other closed containers not open them without warrant, since, inter alia, person has heightened privacy expectation such containers. Held: Police, search extending only container within automobile, may warrant where it holds contraband evidence. Carroll States, 267 132, 45 280, 69 L.Ed. 543—which warrantless automobile based upon vehicle evidence crime light exigency arising out vehicle's likely disappearance did contravene Fourth Amendment's Warrant Clause—provides one rule govern all searches. Pp. 569-581. (a) Separate doctrines permitted include inside car when there is vehicle, Ross, 456 798, 102 2157, 72 572 prohibited located moving container, Arkansas Sanders, 442 753, 99 2586, 61 235. 569-572. (b) doctrine stare decisis does preclude this from eliminating requirement specifically undermined Ross. Chadwick-Sanders affords minimal protection interests. knowing if are searching entire more extensively than would order establish Ross requires. Cf. Johns, 469 478, 105 881, 83 890. And hold until obtain incident lawful arrest. Moreover, intrudes far less on individual incursion sanctioned Carroll, prohibition agents slashed upholstery. also antithesis clear unequivocal guideline thus, confused courts impeded effective law enforcement. Place, 462 696, 103 2637, 77 110; Oklahoma Castleberry, 471 146, 1859, 85 112 distinguished. 572-579. (c) This holding neither extends nor broadens scope permissible In instant case, now allows record reveals no vehicle. P. 579-580. 216 Cal.App.3d 586, 265 Cal.Rptr. 23, reversed remanded. BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. SCALIA, filed concurring judgment. WHITE, dissenting opinion. STEVENS, opinion, MARSHALL, Robert M. Foster, San Diego, Cal., petitioner. Fred W. Anderson, Santa Ana, respondent. Justice BLACKMUN Court. 1 requires us once again consider so-called "automobile exception" Amendment its application car. 2 * On October 28, 1987, Officer Coleman Department received telephone call federal drug enforcement agent Hawaii. informed seized package containing Federal Express Office Ana addressed J.R. Daza at 805 West Stevens Avenue city. arranged send instead. then take office arrest who arrived claim it. 3 29, verified contents, took Senior Operations Manager office. At about 10:30 a.m. man, identified himself Jamie Daza, package. accepted apartment Stevens. carried into apartment. 4 11:45 a.m., drop box trash bin. point left scene get warrant. About 12:05 p.m., saw Richard St. George carrying blue knapsack appeared be half full. him driving off, searched knapsack, 11/2 pounds 5 12:30 Charles arrived. entered Daza's stayed 10 minutes, reappeared looked noticed wrapped sent walked silver Honda parking lot. started drive away. Fearing loss evidence, marked him. They marijuana.1 6 Respondent charged state sale, violation Cal. Health & Safety Code Ann. § 11359 (West Supp.1987). App. 2. moved denied. appealed denial suppression motion. 7 Appeal, District, People Acevedo, 23 (1990). contraband. Because officers' directed 538 (1977), rather (1982). Although agreed that, under first obtaining purpose. recognized "the anomalous nature" dichotomy between Chadwick Cal.App.3d, 592, Cal.Rptr., 27. That dictates car—including any therein—may obtained. 8 Supreme denied State's petition review. Pet. Cert. 33. 14, 1990, O'CONNOR Appeal's judgment pending disposition certiorari, were granted, issuance mandate 9 We granted --- ----, 39, 15 (1990), reexamine applicable subject troubled since considered Chadwick. II protects "right people secure their persons, houses, papers, effects, against unreasonable searches seizures." Contemporaneously adoption Amendment, First Congress, later, Second Congresses, distinguished need concealed "a dwelling house similar place" vessel. See 151, 284, 543 (1925). Boyd 116 616, 623-624, 524, 528-529, 29 746 (1886). established exception vehicles, 11 necessary difference store, structure respect proper official readily obtained, ship, motor boat, wagon goods, practicable because can quickly locality jurisdiction must sought." U.S., 153, S.Ct., 285. 12 It therefore Clause Amendment. id., 158-159, 287. 13 refined Chambers Maroney, 399 42, 90 1975, 26 419 (1970), existence exigent circumstances determined time seized. issue place station, immobilized, some after driver arrested. Given stopped, later station passed constitutional muster. validity derived ruling immediate moment seizure permissible. Chambers, 51, 1981. reasoned whenever earlier, so chosen. Id., 51-52, Following justify public roadway, conduct either delayed 14 572, decided 1982, we supported cause. Ross' occurred informant told complete transaction using stored it, discovered drugs. Amendment: "The narrower—and broader—than authorized cause." 823, 2172. Thus, "[i]f justifies lawfully every part contents conceal object search." 825, 2173. therefore, clarified properly including "probing search" compartments long 800, 2160. addition clarification, separate governed 817, 2169. announced rule, unique packages, bags, containers, (1977). narcotics 200-pound double-locked footlocker tracked locker defendants removed train through waiting As soon lifted arrested them, locker, contend locker's brief contact automobile's sufficed make applicable. Rather, urged analogous automobile. 11-12, 2483-2484. 16 rejected argument because, reasoned, expects personal effects 13, 2484. "may often automobiles seized," storage facilities usually available luggage. n. 7, 2484, 7. 17 235 (1979), extended apply suitcase actually being transported watched defendant taxi driven pursued several blocks, applied integral parts (indeed, whiskey upholstery seats, see 136, 281), extend "merely police." 765, 2594. Again, Sanders majority stressed presence diminish owner's items. 764-765, 2593-2594. Carney, 386, 2066, 406 (1985). 18 endeavored distinguish search, search. covered situation, reasonable whereas before searched. 19 dissent correct, course, involved post, 592. encountered during pursuant critical step saying cars Despite purported interest those yielded broad III 20 facts closely resemble particular Here, trunk.2 590, 25. Furthermore, what worth, here, bag. 21 distinction cars. one's equal noted interests glove compartment container." arguable same permit container. 809, 2165. deference however, put question side. 809-810, expense process misdirected cubic inch sack, required sack magistrate permission look inside. decide deferred Ross: whether simply lack conclude not. IV 22 Dissenters asked why "more private, difficult relevant requirement, discover probable-cause automobile?" 839-840, 2180-2181. agree general limited equally easy store hide destroy. fact, principled terms here. attempting come across provided line always clear, rules two objects enable broaden power disserve context Recognizing "entire itself . warrant," "prohibiting opening immediately most instead forcing comb exacerbate intrusion interests." 821, 2171, 28. stop high degree certainty contains If know 24 Such situation fetched. 890 (1985), customs trucks private airstrip approach small planes. drew near trucks, smelled backs manner smugglers customarily employed. headquarters 481, 883. Relying argued unlawful. 482, 884. contended inapplicable anything themselves contention noting never occurred. 483, inapposite body each truck, although chosen do so. 482-483, cannot benefit intrusive one. 25 To extent privacy, minimal. Law "Since police, hypothesis, property, assume will routinely forthcoming overwhelming cases." 770, 2596 (dissenting opinion). able despite New York Belton, 453 454, 101 2860, 768 (1981), said: "[W]e policeman made custodial occupant may, contemporaneous arrest, passenger "It follows conclusion examine compartment." 460, 2864 (footnote omitted). 27 Under allow transporting 28 Finally, ago Carroll. nonetheless destroying interior unreasonable, looking is. afforded our serious doubt substantially serves interests, compel treatment V failed protect conflict cases criticized academic commentary. See, e.g., Gardner, Searches Seizures Automobiles Their Contents: Considerations Post-Ross World, 62 Neb.L.Rev. (1983); Latzer, Searching Cars Contents, Crim.L.Bull. 381 (1982); Kamisar, "Automobile Search" Cases: Does Little Clarify "Labyrinth" Judicial Uncertainty, Court: Trends Developments 1980-1981, p. One leading authority comparing progeny, observed: "These lines completely reconciled, thus how comes container-in-the-car depends used departure." LaFave, Search Seizure (2d ed. 1987). 30 discrepancy led confusion officers. For example, officer, developed drugs, begins discovers applies? argue fact thatthe officer chose indicates require hand, obvious location restrict propriety devolved anomaly virtue providing " ' "clear unequivocal" guidelines profession.' Minnick Mississippi, 498 486, 489, 489 (1990) quoting Arizona Roberson, 486 675, 682, 108 2093, 2098, 100 704 (1988). 'clear unequivocal' guideline." 31 argues decisions evince exception. 594. cited dissent, 110 (1983), involve all. Place temporary detention airport. Not involved, defendant, airport board plane preparing Any similarity leaving remote best. nothing inapposite. 32 Nor dissent's citation support contention. Castleberry presented face affirmed divided court. result illustrates Court's continued struggle absence applying 33 favor government. 600. these cases, government fails explain below, mention many others hear, interfere appeals holdings times further demonstrates jurisprudence courts. 34 Most important, supra, Texas Brown, 460 730, 1535, 75 502 concern From explained differ acknowledge basic principle misconstrues misapplies law. 35 dissenters predicted perverse allowing fortuitous control outcome" various 22, 2489. confusing years expound meaning decision general. 761-764, 2591-2593. bemoaned "inherent opaqueness" principles created concerned." 771, 2597. Robbins California, 420, 425-426, 2841, 2845-2846, 744 (1981) (listing Courts Appeals announced). Three returned "this area," 2169, assert cut back 36 firmly profoundly important purposes legal system, overruled prior comparatively rare occasion bred derelict results. Complete Auto Transit, Inc. Brady, 430 274, 288-289, 1076, 1084, 51 326 explicitly 824, 2172, dual regimes uncover proved predicted. better adopt clear-cut eliminate set forth Sanders. VI 37 interpretation applies words, way: 38 defined nature secreted. places found." 39 went note: "Probable cab." Ibid. reaffirm principle. us, reveal hidden 40 Our today delineated remains "cardinal 'searches conducted outside judicial process, approval judge magistrate, per se Amendment—subject few well-delineated exceptions.' Mincey Arizona, 437 385, 390, 98 2408, 2412, 57 290 (1978), Katz 389 347, 357, 88 507, 514, 576 (1967) unquestionably 'specifically well delineated.' 514. 41 Until today, drawn curious coincidentally turns up protections turn coincidences. interpret contained. 42 remanded proceedings inconsistent 43 ordered. 44 I briefcase protected "general requirement" along street, become unprotected locked unlocked protected. join think faithful text tradition anomalies ever eliminated direction travel. 46 seizures; merely prohibits seizures "unreasonable." What states regarding warrants way limitation use. Wakely Hart, Binney 316, 318 (Pa.1814). means insulating officials liability assessed colonial juries. An own risk; liable trespass, exemplary damages, unless jury action "reasonable." Amar, Bill Rights Constitution, Yale L.J. 1131, 1178-1180 (1991); Huckle Money, 95 Eng.Rep. (K.B.1763). If, acted absolutely immune. Bell Clapp, Johns. 263 (N.Y.1813); Blackstone, Commentaries 288 (1769). By restricting warrants, Framers preserve jury's role regulating seizures. supra; Posner, Rethinking 1981 S.Ct.Rev., 49, 72-73; T. Taylor, Two Studies Constitutional Interpretation (1969). 47 impose course textually possible implicit reasonableness. (still continuing) explosion litigation followed announcement exclusionary Weeks 232 383, 341, 58 652 (1914), lurched imposing categorical reasonableness alone. (The opinions preferring structures.) Compare Harris 331 145, 67 1098, 91 1399 (1947) Johnson 333 10, 68 367, 92 436 (1948); compare Trupiano 334 699, 1229, 1663 (1948) Rabinowitz, 339 56, 70 430, 94 653 (1950). generally Chimel 395 752, 89 2034, 685 late 1960's, preference won out, least rhetorically. Chimel; Coolidge Hampshire, 403 443, 2022, 564 (1971). 48 victory illusory. Even today's decision, "warrant riddled exceptions basically unrecognizable. 1985, commentator cataloged nearly exceptions, "searches border administrative regulated businesses search[es] nonarrest boat boarding document checks welfare inventory school search[es]. ." Bradley, Models Mich.L.Rev. 1468, 1473-1474 (1985) (footnotes Since then, added more. (searches mobile homes); O'Connor Ortega, 480 709, 107 1492, 714 (1987) offices employees). intricate "reasonable privacy" largely creating enabling denominated "search" requirement. 729, 1504 (SCALIA, judgment). 49 Unlike regard momentous departure, continuation years. Cases like taken "preference warrant" seriously, while (1982), (1925), There clarity area minds, express comport actions take. 50 my view, path sought returning "reasonableness" common afforded. County Riverside McLaughlin, 1661, 1672, ---- (1991) dissenting); Chiagles, 237 N.Y. 193, 195, 142 N.E. 583 (1923) (Cardozo, J.). Hodari D., 499 - 1547, 1549-1551, 113 690 (1991). difficulty proposition includes warrant; even changes surrounding (for elimination common-law reasonable, good-faith belief defense absolute Barreme, Cranch 170, 243 (1804) (Marshall, C.J.); Of Sovereignty Federalism, 96 1425, 1486-1487 (1987)), indispensable But supposed rule" appear basis see, 150-153, 284-85; Gelston Hoyt, Wheat. 246, 310-311, (1818) (Story, J.); Wakely, confuses facilitates attempt develop changed circumstances, both demonstrate. still. precedents (as law), home cause, Watson, 423 411, 418-421, 820, 825-826, 598 (1976); Rohan Sawin, 59 Mass. 281 (1851). Upon person, grasp, related crime. 762-763, 2039-2040, (1969); supra (collecting authority). principles, dealer reasonably believed (the unauthorized crime), And, precedents, arrival house, possessions, briefcase, reason Illinois Lafayette, 640, 2605, 65 (1983). According current law, not, stopping street demanding briefcase. makes sense priori, supporting distinction, continue 52 reverse present becomes "automobile" privately owned building, whose concur 54 dissenting. 55 Agreeing STEVENS' reaches, affirm below. 56 whom MARSHALL joins, end pays lip service provide correct analysis case: 'a cardinal exceptions." omitted)." Ante, 580. arguments conservative judges repeatedly past today—despite disclaimer contrary, ibid.—enlarges principle," undergirded retirement author landmark preface response arguments, appropriate restate significance reasons limitations articulated represent fair accommodation requiring restraint Executive power. constitutes Framers' direct practices employed British Crown. 389-391, 343-344, (1914); 624-625, 529, (1886); 3-5 Over years—particularly period World War particularly authored Jackson special prosecutor Nuremburg trials importance bulwark prevail totalitarian regimes. Di Re, 332 581, 595, 222, 229, 210 17, 371, (1948). 60 history is, explanation reflects sound policy absent exceptional invade individual's neutral Executive. 13-14, 369, explained: grasped zealous officers, denies usual inferences men draw Its consists detached judged engaged competitive enterprise ferreting crime." acknowledged imposes burden questioned trained professionals normally reliable assessments held, factors outweighed advance approval. paramount, matter marginal risk error might legality fact. 63 concluding paragraph Chief Burger 64 "Even though predictable, drawn. shown property exclusive dominion authority. Respondents entitled evaluation [their luggage] invaded." 15-16, 2485-2486. mounted frontal attack Government's principal traditionally home." 6, 2481. categorically contention, relying amendment,1 underlying requirement,2 spanning over century jurisprudence.3 alternative rationale demonstrated permitting 66 justifications "substantially greater automobile." "[l]uggage except condition entry carrier travel; regular inspections scrutiny continuing basis." Indeed, intended safeguard unlike "whose primary function transportation." mobility additional Clause. easily detained Once "under control, [i]s slightest danger [luggage] [be] valid With safely undertake Terms identical today. green taxicab Rock Airport. Several blocks airport, cab, passengers, unconstitutional. "nothing lend credence assertion impracticability warrant." State, 262 Ark. 600, 559 S.W.2d 704, 706 dissented affirmed. Powell entirely proper,4 State nevertheless justifying search,5 "failed carry demonstrating automobiles." 763, 2592. wrote separately identify somewhere vehicle—the typical case—and wrote: 71 "Because respondent's marihuana taxicab, duty [97 538] essence legitimate accompanying person; diminished occurs place. Whether hotel lobby, railroad terminal, owner right expect consent, exposed demand police. breadth repeated references 'automobile' lead reader believe—as apparently involves ante, [442 U.S.,] 762-765, [99 2592-2594 14]. carried, suspected locus contraband." 766-767, 2594-2595 (Burger, 73 carefully overrules "simply d[id] whether, piece compartment, structure." 767, 2595. confronted (1982).6 74 [the automobile] broader narrower legitimately authorize inherent justified affect 822, 2171. encompass remainder defining involving exception, practical considerations generalized instances, certain secreted yet undiscovered portion vehicle," secured obtained." 76 These concerns implicated recognizes, 2172; reaching retreat Instead, expressly endorsed reasoning Burger's 813-814, 2167.7 2160, 2165, 2173, applicability 809-817, 2165-2168. 78 searches, rule. 811-812, 2165-2166.8 dealt exception; apply. 79 recognizes read assumes inspection ibid. detain (and respondent) obtained 575. here present. 80 refusal advances three arguments: First, foregoing anomalous. 576-579. Second, significant privacy. 573-576. third, impede 576-577. None withstands scrutiny. 81 "Confusion" 82 nine decided, vehicles. four perfectly straightforward lower suspicion airline passenger's luggage, prolonged delay ascertaining then-recent modified 701, 3, 2642, 3. relied contents. 706-707, 2694. 84 suitcases After arresting him, suitcases, invalid, explaining: "If exactly where, therein. 798 [102 572] [90 1975] (1970); 132 [45 543] specific 753 235] (1979); (1977)." 678 P.2d 720, 724 (Okla.1984). 86 equally-divided 87 decides distinction. lunch nowhere else compelled it." (1985),9 reliance expressed agreement Customs "Under respondents' misplaced. contrasted footlocker, 11-12 2483-2484]. underscored notwithstanding 810-814 2165-2167]. pickup 817 2168]." 884-885. "confusion." relies primarily predictions Sanders.10 cites materialized anyone unable understand opaqueness," 579, uncomplicated issue. offered unsubstantiated allegations dissents, review comments sentence Professor LaFave's treatise. pieces criticizes Sanders.11 treatise, most, factual situations margin decide. LaFave area, ultimately concludes correctly decided. 55-56 summarizes alleged "anomaly" coexistence statement 577. juxtaposition anomalous, accepts flawed premise correlated Yet, proof beyond applies, possess bearing jurisprudence, "cured" paradox. For, surely prohibit One's certainly removing thoroughfare placing it—out sight—in escape increased street. location, demarking blurred edges, erred believes erasing drawing another, clearer boundary. Privacy Argument 93 "minimal privacy," 576, unpersuasive. Every citizen clearly her handbag conceals papers century. 6-11, 2480-2484; Van Leeuwen, 397 249, 251, 1029, 1031, 282 Ex parte Jackson, 727, 733, 877 (1878). view vanishes climbs taxicab. Unquestionably rejection works suggests Ross." 574-575. already noted, 9, fear unexplained inexplicable. Neither uncovered post hoc justification unsupported inception. inflicts minor damage suggesting trunk. subsequent potential officer. Belton supportable 449-453, 2857-2859, (STEVENS, dissenting). Belton's container—which car—provided accepting one, logic compartment. extension whatsoever convenience Burden Enforcement suggestion unsupported, inaccurate, event, insufficient new claims "impeded enforcement," 574, contentions. exist points contrary conclusion. heard narcotics.12 petitioner.13 All save defective warrant.14 three, upheld constitutionality seizure.15 meantime, flow steadily dramatically increased.16 Annual Report Attorney General (1989). No impartial observer criticize hindering progress war loyal foot soldier Executive's fight inconvenience extent, procedural Rights. price society pay freedom. unanimous Stewart "Moreover, mere efficient disregard [403 481 [91 2045]. investigation simplified unnecessary. person's totally sacrificed name maximum simplicity criminal 6-11 2480-2484, 538]." 393, 2413, (1978). too early much freedom America lost magnitude willingness inflict colorable respectfully dissent. When bags there. concerned, challenges holding, decline second-guess courts, raise Brief Opposition cross-petition resolution California. Lytle Household Mfg., Inc., 494 545, 1331, 1336, 504 (1990); Heckler Campbell, 461 458, 468-469, 12, 1952, 1958, "Although deeply concerned colonists, foremost minds Framers, invasions home, mistake conclude, Government contends, guard intrusions home. homes strong historical connection initial clause draws distinctions among 'persons, effects' safeguarding 2482, play provides improper hurried 'engaged crime.' [68 436] begun, exceed bounds done authorization 'particularly describing persons things seized.' Further, assures executing limits 2482. 10-11, 2483. earliest Field's "Having away taxi, spot, seizing 52, 1982. oral argument, conceded constitutionally unobjectionable. Tr. Oral Arg. 44-46." 761-762, 2591-2592. "[B]ecause invariably impinges protective purpose 'the seeking exemption show it.' Jeffers, 342 48, [72 93, 95, 59] (1951)." 759-760, 2590-2591. framing stated: "Unlike vehicle." 2168-2169. quoted following Powell's intervening (1981): "[W]hen fortuitously exigencies 451, 2859, 13. consistent 'automobile case,' respectively came 435, 2850, 816, 2168, purports 569, inexplicably persists referring announcing "separate containers." 571. Equally inexplicable overruling "extend[ed] doctrine" discussion Johns puzzling "cannot one." mean suggest unequivocally bootstrap commenced. Byars 273 29-30, 248, 248-249, 520 (1927). Perhaps fears whole so, unwarranted, foreclosed argument. 578-579 (referring undocumented prediction joined ); 579 "bemoaned 'inherent opaqueness' concerned' "). pieces, J. Choper, Y. L. Tribe, 1980-1981 written criticizing article endorses Brennan's refutation advanced 83-85. articles shortly Rodriguez, 497 2793, 148 Florida Wells, 495 1632, 109 Verdugo-Urquidez, 259, 1056, 222 Skinner Railway Labor Executives' Assn., 602, 1402, 639 (1989); Treasury Employees Von Raab, 656, 1384, Riley, 488 445, 693, 835 Michigan Chesternut, 567, (1988); Greenwood, 35, 1625, Dunn, 294, 1134, (1987); Maryland Garrison, 79, 1013, Colorado Bertine, 479 738, 739 Ciraolo, 476 207, 106 1809, (1986); Montoya de Hernandez, 473 531, 3304, (1985); Sharpe, 470 1568, 605 Jersey T.L.O., 325, 720 Leon, 468 897, 104 3405, 677 (1984); Karo, 705, 3296, 530 Oliver together Maine Thornton, 466 1735, 214 Jacobsen, 109, 1652, Long, 463 1032, 3469, 1201 Andreas, 3319, 1003 Villamonte-Marquez, 2573, Gates, 213, 2317, 527 Royer, 491, 1319, 229 Knotts, 276, 1081, number violations convicted 134% 1980 1986. corresponding increase convictions nondrug offenses 27%. Bureau Statistics Special Report, Drug Violators, 1980-86, (June 1988). percentage dismissed district declined 22.2% 13.8% 1989. Statistics, Criminal Case Processing, 1980-87, Addendum 1988 Preliminary 1989, (Nov.1990).

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