Document: 382 U.S. 296 86 S.Ct. 486 15 L.Ed.2d 373 E. S. EVANS et al., Petitioners,v.Charles NEWTON al. No. 61. Argued Nov. 9 and 10, 1965. Decided Jan. 17, 1966. Jack Greenberg, New York City, for petitioners. C. Baxter Jones Frank Jones, Macon, Ga., respondents. Louis F. Claiborne, Washington, D.C., the United States, as amicus curiae. Mr. Justice DOUGLAS delivered opinion of Court. 1 In 1911 States Senator Augustus O. Bacon executed a will that devised to Mayor Council City Georgia, tract land which, after death Senator's wife daughters, was be used 'a park pleasure ground' white people only, stating in while he had only kindest feeling Negroes 'in their social relations two races (white negro) should forever separate.' The provided under control Board Managers seven persons, all whom were white. city kept segregated some years but time let use it, taking position public facility which it could not constitutionally manage maintain on basis.1 2 Thereupon, individual members brought this suit state court against Macon trustees certain residuary beneficiaries Bacon's estate, asking removed trustee appoint new trustees, title would transferred. answered, alleging legally enforce racial segregation park. other defendants admitted allegation requested trustee. 3 Several Negro citizens intervened, limitation contrary laws policy refuse private trustees. Thereafter resigned amended its answer accordingly. Moreover, heirs intervened they than asked reversion trust property estate event prayer petition denied. 4 Georgia accepted resignation appointed three individuals finding unnecessary pass claims heirs. On appeal by intervenors, Supreme Court affirmed, holding right give bequeath his limited class, charitable trusts are subject supervision equity, power so purpose fail clear. 220 Ga. 280, 138 S.E.2d 573. case is here writ certiorari. 380 971, 85 1338, 14 267. 5 There complementary principles reconciled case. One pick own associates express preferences dislikes, fashion life joining such clubs groups chooses. constitutional ban Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment state-sponsored inequality, course bars from acting serves cause. Com. Pennsylvania v. Directors Trusts, 353 230, 77 806, 792. A golf club, however, restricted either or membership one expression freedom association. But municipal race activity indicating preference matter State must neutral.2 What 'private' action what 'state' always easy determine. See Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 81 856, 6 45. Conduct formally may become entwined with governmental policies impregnated character limitations placed upon action. serving cause an obvious example. supra. town privately owned managed, does necessarily allow company treat if wholly sector. Thus we held Marsh Alabama, 326 501, 66 276, 90 L.Ed. 265, exercise protected rights streets denied owner. justified, said, 'permitting corporation govern community restrict fundamental liberties * *.' Id., at 509, 280. We have also where delegates aspect elective process groups, same restraints State. Terry Adams, 345 461, 73 809, 97 1152. That say, when endowed powers functions nature, agencies instrumentalities limitations. Yet generalizations do decide concrete cases. 'Only sifting facts weighing circumstances' (Burton supra, 722, 45) can determine whether reach extends particular range government activities broad varied, fact has engaged mean entrepreneur manager kind undertaking suffers inhibitions. While segregate schools exclude more religious those sects parochial educational systems. Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 45 571, 69 1070. 7 If testator wanted leave school center no way implicated supervision, control, management facility, assume arguendo difficulty encountered.3 8 This park, different posture. For integral part Macon's activities. From pleadings swept, manicured, watered, patrolled, maintained whites well granted tax exemption Ga.Code Ann. § 92—201. momentum acquired certainly dissipated ipso facto appointment So far record shows, there been change maintenance concern over facility. Whether these characteristics conjectural. municipality remains just utility Public Utilities Commission District Columbia Pollak, 343 451, 462, 72 813, 96 1068, remained Fifth because surveillance federal affairs. hold tradition firmly established, cannot take judicial notice mere substitution instantly transferred conclusion buttressed nature service rendered even nature. It open every person, being selective element race. Golf clubs, centers, luncheon Tuskegee least origin,4 like organizations sector often racially oriented. hand, fire department police traditionally community. Mass recreation through parks plainly domain, Watson Memphis, 526, 83 1314, 10 529; courts aid parties perform function basis implicate conduct proscribed Amendment. Like transit system predominant municipal. Under circumstances case, conclude requires treated institution command Amendment, regardless who now law. fairly view hands operated basis, approved appointed. put say transfer per se disentangled regime long controlled it. 11 Since judgment below gives effect purpose, 12 Reversed. 13 WHITE. As BLACK emphasizes, comes us very narrow context accepting appointing successor lower enjoin comply restriction trust, therefore presented decision question whether, enforcement constitute discriminatory forbidden Bell Maryland, 378 226, 328—331, 84 1814, 822 (dissenting opinion). properly before us, my opinion, prohibits voluntarily excluding Negroes. law questions independent question. city's resignation, acceptance courts, based premise not, could, obey without violation Federal Constitution. incorrect, vacate remand further consideration issues free compulsion erroneous Missouri ex rel. Southern R. Co. Mayfield, 340 1, 5, 71 95 3; Minnesota National Tea Co., 309 551, 60 676; Tax Utah Van Cott, 306 511, 59 605, 950. operation disputed. cases cited majority, ante, n. 1. themselves operate majority holds not. I agree, reasons. 16 To large extent grounds exclusion thus violative existence prior involvement 17 'The (the park) sector.' Ante, p. 301. 18 equally evident show continued park—the silent point. contrary, interest seem lead cut ties clear 'entwined Amendment,' 301; barred, undoubtedly press claim failure expressed results property. seems unlikely act unnecessarily jeopardize centrally located comprises about 100 acres largest parks. 19 might extricate itself once course, done so; am inclined resolve conjecture. refer possible inferences self-interest solely emphasize affords absolutely inferring raise presumption showing absence proof converse. postulate manner simply disguised form conjecture and, submit, insufficient 20 nevertheless condition given because, view, incurably tainted legislation validating §§ 69—504 69—505 Code, adopted 1905, six executed. Sections make lawful 'dedicated perpetuity ground, purpose' provide 'the said conveyed (may) women children colored any race, *.'1 21 compel settlor grant designated directly coerced discrimination. Nevertheless, validity doubt 1905 statute restrictions, leaving nonracial restrictions still question, coercive language prevent application depart strict neutrality matters discrimination enlisting State's assistance involve choice convert infected into Compare Robinson Florida, 153, 1693, 771; Lombard Louisiana, 267, 1122, 338; Peterson Greenville, 244, 1119, 323. Although decisions point doubt, available authorities led me did favoring 22 Apart 69—505, governing determination permissible objects 108—203.2 'almost copies 43d Elizabeth,' Newson Starke, 46 88, 92 (1872), fully adopting common charities, Habersham, 107 174, 180, 336, 27 401. expect general applicable elsewhere several States. principles, grave concerning less whole public. 23 leading Commissioners Special Purposes Income Pemsel, (1891) A.C. 531, 583, Lord Macnaghten established classification that, modifications, since prevailed: 24 "Charity' legal sense four principal divisions: relief poverty; advancement education; religion; purposes beneficial community, falling preceding heads.' 25 Restatement (Second), Trusts 368 (1959). test accomplishment 'is justify permitting devoted perpetuity.' IV Scott 368, 2629—2630 (2d ed. 1956). first categories identified designate recognized whole—whether immediate benefit relatively small group—and satisfy stated Professor Scott. 374, comment present falls fourth category sustained generality user establishes Otherwise establish country club residents wealthiest charitable. states principle follows: 26 'As seen, promote happiness well-being charitable, although relieve poverty, advance education, religion protect health. generally merely class persons.' 375.2, 2715 (Emphasis added.) Accord, Trustees Castle Common Megginson, Boyce 361, 376, A. 565, 571 (Sup.Ct.Del.1910) (trust charitable; '(i)t public, relates inhabitants inhabitants, group thereof separately distinction creed, rank, wealth, occupation, business *'); Restatement, 375, comments c (1935); (1959); see Bogert 1964).3 dealing found, Smith, Validity Charitable Gifts Ga.B.J. 16, 26—27 (Feb. 1939), consistent rule enunciated Bramblett Trust 182 87, 185 S.E. (1936) 'home gentlewomen' charitable), Houston Mills Memorial Home, 202 540, 43 680 (1947) old folks' home charitable).4 whole, therefore, extremely doubtful 108—203 authorized portion excluded 28 clearly permit grounds. At time, sections appear created doubtful. Section authorizes conveyance park' provides limit natural construction provision subpart men Irish persons only. Such interpretation follows maxim expressio unius est exclusio alterius dedication refers, pp. 300-301, indicate means Western Union Telegraph & Banking 227 285 (D.C.S.D.Ga.1915). ("There dedication, strictly speaking, uses, nor uses enjoyment public.") commentator suggested intended expand clause 108—203, note 2, i.e., 'to enlarge 'public works' conveniences' include 1939). assumption, sole authority gifts 69—504, section makes restrictions. Even regarded clarification law, rather addition casting 29 accordingly viewed except result, regulations involved significant extent' bringing 'must reflect violate Amendment.' 156—157, 1695, 771. reasons stated, proceedings. 30 BLACK, dissenting. 31 find nothing Constitution compels subdivision want chooses so. And supposed until resign trusteeship depended entirely Here, assumes exists reverse affirming trial court's decree, held, 'two things: (1) Accepted Baconsfield; (2) trustees,' 284, 573, 576. 32 Court's scope decree binding unless somehow lost decrees relating wills creating ignores destructive our systems support, think, decisions. myself, accept declared namely, committed error execute trust. 33 sure passing decided approving successors. powers, drastic departure settled doctrine vastly important refrain saying, deserves clearer explication given. Ambiguity cannot, conceal revolutionary holding, successfully obscure tremendous lopping off heretofore uniformly conceded belong ambiguous confusing disposition highly particularly disturbing discussion status advisory decide. Consequently, foregoing agree Brother HARLAN certiorari dismissed improvidently granted. 34 Questions jurisdiction different, prohibited provision. none. implies, amounted 'state-sponsored inequality,' correct, suggestion rests implication result Baconsfield Park basis. here, reasons, support implications: specifically affirmed approval ones; directed basis; (3) indication Furthermore, valid illegal, responsibility illegal escaped putting Cf., e.g., Mormon Church 136 47—48, 792, 481. 35 casts Georgia's revert conditions impossible carry out. raised issue below, neither reached able find, taken ever written touching subject. believe complete cast think does. hold, despite adjudicate accordance will, then explicitly 36 Nothing implying equal protection account color paramount importance Government dedicated justice all. accord esteemed respect due, distorting structure away due. 37 HARLAN, STEWART joins, 38 decision, product human impulses, share, solid thinking. made sacrifice long-established wise procedural substantive principle. respectfully dissent. I. 39 far-reaching tendered sufficient clarity require adjudication, assuming 40 posture required them Neither decided, ambiguity score. so, dismissed. infer does, entitled stretch issue. contravenes reasonably avoided. Peters Hobby, 349 331, 75 790, 99 1129; Rumely, 41, 543, 770; Charles River Bridge Proprietors Warren Bridge, Pet. 420, 553, 773. Application especially called precise knowledge factual details nuances bring focus. Dismissal follow. II. 41 merits, permits frustrate terms longer connected, administration Baconsfield. findings reverse. 42 reaches discriminations capricious action; touch whose origins effectuation arise out predilections, prejudices, acts. Civil Rights Cases, 109 3, 18, 835. concerned curtailing acts, all, left within power. appears, 'private discrimination.' origin action1 personal philosophy him. recent years, carrying both legitimate, indeed prevailing mores times. When continuance became incompatible later changes doctrine, undertook disregard imposed appropriately challenged, obedient commands, city, laws, straightforward train events justifies 'state action' necessary play. 44 ground majority's assumption past. continue connected future. underpinning circumstance geographically adjunct proceeding, vested predicate future contrary. speculation test, readily supports inferences. Papers precisely order Baconsfield.2 Why assumed resources past faced challenge effectuate keep respects? Further, courts' readiness sever between derogation alone earlier nonsegregated strongly indicates flinch completing separation remain facet unacceptable imputing unconstitutional action, resting pure surmise conjecture, implausible ones that.3 III. 47 Quite evidently uneasy advances another ultimately emerges real holding. derives asserted character' (ante, 302) 'municipal nature' services 301). Here funds, managed enjoy exclusive franchise, continuing regulatory agency. inherent quite independently factors, criterion domain' 302). 48 Except found shaky precedent, novel theory. applied due standards, standards instances involving citywide company. premised close regulation utilities commission commission's attack. alternatively rested near-exclusive monopoly enjoyed company, U.S., 454, Ct. 816, function' 529, ordering speedy desegregation facilities concededly government. 303 F.2d 863, 864 865.4 case5 performed technically company-owned 1,500 effectively integrated surrounding area suppress speech safeguards. stronger theory imagined, won five eight Justices participating, concurred separately, spoke extended. declined review turn inapplicable residential apartment buildings housing 35,000 residents, Watchtower Bible Tract Soc'y Metropolitan Life Ins. 297 N.Y. 339, 79 N.E.2d 433, denied, 335 886, 232, 93 425, development 25,000 alleged discriminate grounds, Dorsey Stuyvesant Town Corp., 299 512, 87 541, A.L.R.2d 133, 339 981, 70 1019, 94 1385. Hall Virginia, 875, 240, 418, dismissing 188 Va. 72, 49 369. More serious firm doctrinal potentialities Its failing realm concerns shown comparing—among examples drawn unfolding sweep functions—the parks, serve exists, strong field. almost anyone others. normally alternatives shut inconveniences disadvantages caused restriction. intimacy varies greatly depending size institution. 50 resemblance, leaves unaffected traditional adapt admission requirements, bounds. difficult, avoid opens door reversal basic concepts, logic, jeopardizes denominationally making college entrance rejection letter potential 51 analogy spun orphanages, libraries, garbage collection companies, detective agencies, host commonly nongovernmental though paralleling fields activity, example is, pervasive substitutes comparatively tests catch-phrase approach vague amorphous far-reaching. dispenses sound careful realm. carries seeds transferring vast areas wisely 529. Baltimore Dawson, 350 877, 76 774 (beaches bathhouses). Holmes Atlanta, 879, 141, 776, Orleans Improvement Assn. Detiege, 358 54, 99, 46. argued segregated. permitted person 69—504. companion measure corporations grants 69—505. policy, urged, 'coercive effect' (Lombard 273, 338,) implicating discrimination, legislative pattern travel uncertain end. Before enacted attempt numerous difficulties. pre-1905 statutory expressly proper trusts, specific regards. 4008 (1895). conceived 'dedicated' commons easement favor Franklin, 239. concept meant whole. Ford Harris, 97, 101, 144, 145; East Atlanta Land Mower, 380, 388, 422. posed conceptual difficulties, least, dedicate Cf. Brown Gunn, 441, disposed 'dedication.' likely difficulties discussed eliminate. facilitated, establishment Ala.Laws 1880—1881, 395—396; Ala.Laws, 1882—1883, 392—393. '69—504. grounds.—Any may, appropriate conveyance, devise, give, State, fee simple lands conditions, shall devisor grantor; also, property, personal, development, improvement, '69—505. Municipality accept.—Any corporation, artificial, gift, made, behalf named enjoyment; improve, embellish, ornament herein specified, power, provision, devise (sic) thereof.' (1957). '108—203. Subjects charity.—The following subjects charity equity: '1. Relief aged, impotent, diseased, poor people. '2. Every purpose. '3. Religious instruction worship. '4. Construction repair works, highways, conveniences. '5. Promotion craft engaging therein. '6. Redemption prisoners captives. '7. cemeteries tombstones. '8. Other similar subjects, having object suffering promotion civilization.' mooted England few enactment re Christchurch Inclosure Act, Ch.D. 520 (1888), aff'd, (1893) appears English differ American rule. Act gave tenants cottages turf fuel. court, manner, great giving 'For, occupiers been, perhaps were, people, occupiers, parish district, 530. felt bound dictum Selborne Goodman Saltash, App.Cas. 633, 642 (1882) fishery 'free ancient tenements' '(a) gift town, (as understand law) Blackburn dissented saying 'though many purposes, confined poor, considered know perpetuities 662. No Selborne's constituted feudal traditions history royal charters burghers, inhabitants' (in fact, Saltash fictional supposing charter, lost), keeping democratic tradition, reflected regarding 3. Home 108—203(1) ('Relief people'), classifiable tested standard disclaims reliance early statutes authorizing My WHITE, finds statutes, 'incurably taint(s)' 305). thesis fall short. First, declaratory existing pro tanto. See, (permitting aged). WHITE'S allowing among user-restricted Second, 'incurable taint' arguable turning apparently invalidly 'removed restrictions' 306) improperly encouraged discriminate. whatever acted otherwise statute, gap reasoning obscured 'involvement' 'infection.' Third, hardly passed, light then-prevailing doctrine; difficult perceive how irrevocable choice. 20, 22, provisions allotting management, improvement preservation' Twice intimates developed 301, says, 'We concluding 302, reads: it.' These cautions reinforce outset dissent refused cloudy record. Rescue Army Municipal Court, 331 549, 67 1409, 91 1666. citation 302)—'and (mass parks) Amendment'—quite oblique Shelley Kraemer, 334 68 836, 1161, cite. Whatever inscrutable purports rest anything resembling 1152, none opinions garnered commentators concluded requirement read Fifteenth occasion. Lewis, Meaning Action, Col.L.Rev. 1083, 1094 (1960); Note, Strange Career 'State Action' 74 Yale L.J. 1448, 1456 1459 (1965).

Category: 1