Document: 473 U.S. 788 105 S.Ct. 3439 87 L.Ed.2d 567 Loretta CORNELIUS, Acting Director, Office of Personnel Management, Petitionerv.NAACP LEGAL DEFENSE AND EDUCATIONAL FUND, INC., et al. No. 84-312. Argued Feb. 19, 1985. Decided July 2, Syllabus By Executive Order, participation in the Combined Federal Campaign (CFC), a charity drive aimed at federal employees, is limited to voluntary, tax-exempt, nonprofit charitable agencies that provide direct health and welfare services individuals or their families, legal defense political advocacy organizations are specifically excluded. Participating confine fundraising activities 30-word statement submitted for inclusion CFC literature disseminated employees. Undesignated contributions distributed on local level certain participating organizations, designated funds paid directly specified recipient. Respondent brought an action District Court challenging exclusion under Order grounds, inter alia, denial right seek violated First Amendment solicit contributions. The granted summary judgment respondents' favor enjoined pending future applications participate solicitation Appeals affirmed ground Government restrictions question were not reasonable. Held: 1. Solicitation context speech protected by Amendment. brief statements advance speaker's interest informing readers about its existence goals. Moreover, employee's contribution response request functions as general expression support recipient views. Although does entail discourse between solicitor donor, facilitates dissemination views ideas directing employees soliciting agency obtain more extensive information. And without obtained from various fora, organization's continuing ability communicate goals may be jeopardized. Pp. 797-799. 2. CFC, rather than workplace, relevant forum. initial matter speaker must access public property private devoted use evoke concerns, forum analysis completed merely identifying issue. Rather, defining forum, focus should sought speaker. Here, respondents particular means communication, CFC. nonpublic This conclusion supported both Government's policy creating minimize disturbance while duty formerly resulting unlimited ad hoc practice limiting those considered appropriate. 799-806. 3. reasons excluding appear, least facially, satisfy reasonableness standard. decision restrict need only reasonable, assessed light purpose all surrounding circumstances. President could reasonably conclude dollar spent providing food shelter needy beneficial litigation might result aid needy. avoiding appearance favoritism valid justification Respondents' tax-exempt status determine them record supports inference would detrimental disruptive workplace. forbid viewpoint-neutral speakers who disrupt hinder effectiveness intended purpose. 806-811. 4. Where issue whether impermissibly excluded because it disagreed with viewpoints was neither decided below nor fully briefed before this Court, will first instance, but free pursue remand. 811-813. 234 U.S.App.D.C. 148, 727 F.2d 1247 (1984), reversed remanded. Sol. General Rex E. Lee, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Charles Stephen Ralston, New York City, respondents. Justice O'CONNOR delivered opinion Court. 1 case requires us decide violates when excludes (CFC Campaign), United States Columbia held respondent affirmed. (1984). We certiorari, 469 929, 322, 83 259 we now reverse. 2 * annual fund-raising conducted workplace during working hours largely through voluntary efforts At times litigation, confined literature.1 Volunteer distribute co-workers describing participants along pledge cards. 5 CFR §§ 950.521(c) (e) (1983). Contributions take form either payroll deduction lump-sum payment made fund. § 950.523. umbrella organization organizations. 950.509(c)(5). Designated Through contribute excess $100 million each year. Brief Petitioner 3 relatively recent development. Prior 1957, occurred basis. managers received requests dozens seeking endorsements worksites. Civil Service Commission, Manual Fund-Raising Within Voluntary Health Welfare Agencies 1.1 (1977) (Manual Fund-Raising). In facilities where permitted, weekly campaigns commonplace. Orders 12353 12404 As They Regulate (Part 1), Hearing House Committee Operations, 98th Cong., 1st Sess., 67-68 Because no systemwide regulations place orderly procedure, frequently consisted passing empty coffee can employee employee. Id., 68. Eventually, increasing number entities buildings multiplicity appeals disrupted work environment confused unfamiliar groups Ibid. 4 Eisenhower established forerunner bring order process ensure truly giving Exec. 10728, 387 (1954-1958 Comp.). advisory committee set forth procedures standards uniform program. It permitted three solicitations annually system requiring prior approval "voluntary welfare" agencies. 1(c) 3(d). One principal plan duty. 1(d). Four years after effort, Kennedy abolished ordered Chairman Commission oversee "national such other national appropriate" 10927, 454 (1959-1963 From 1963 until 1982, implemented guidelines Commission's Fund-Raising. Only provided eligible 5.21 (1977). 6 Respondents NAACP Legal Defense Educational Fund, Inc., Sierra Club Puerto Rican Education Federally Employed Women Indian Law Resource Center, Lawyers' Rights Law, Natural Resources Council. Each attempts influence one following means: activity, advocacy, lobbying, behalf others. 1980, two respondents—the Fund (the Funds)—joined Special Contribution time Management (OPM), which 1978 had assumed duties refused admission Funds. led series lawsuits, third today. 7 Funds challenged "direct services" requirement grounds equal protection component Fifth & Inc. v. Campbell, 504 F.Supp. 1365 (DC 1981) (NAACP I ). did reach challenge, found formulated too vague strict specificity required 1368. appeal Court's decision, plaintiffs, funds, allowed 1982 1983 Campaigns receive 8 second proceeding, Director OPM authorize coordinating what share, if any, undesignated allocate classified service associations. Devine, 560 667, 672 1983) II plaintiff categorized themselves associations," category defined having domestic function includes meet basic human needs. 4.2(e). rejected claims OPM's essentially choose Funds, rights Due Process Clause F.Supp., 676. court have flexibility accordance intent donors benefit community. satisfied associations determined how funds. 675. necessary protect whose purposes inconsistent beliefs serve ensuring much money possible Campaign. 675-676. decision. 9 I, Reagan took several steps restore he original issued 12353, 139 (1983), replace 1961 new retained limitation appropriate," delegated authority establish criteria determining appropriateness. Shortly thereafter, amended specify identify consistent purposes. 12404, 151 designed lessen burden meeting needs convenient, nondisruptive channel nonpartisan 1(b), amending 2(b)(1). "voluntary, charitable, families," ibid., 2(b)(2),2 "[a]gencies outcomes elections determination activity parties themselves." Ibid., 2(b)(3). 10 threatened Order. argued also contended 1(b) suffered same vagueness problems struck down I. dismissed challenge Equal Protection claim ripeness grounds. 401 III Those rulings appealed us. portion unconstitutional. reasoned "limited forum" content-based. 407. Finding regulation narrowly drawn compelling governmental interest, 410. 11 divided panel Circuit. majority Perry Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 103 948, 74 794 view reasonable therefore failed even exacting scrutiny. dissent used reached majority. U.S.App.D.C., 169, F.2d, 1268 (Starr, J., dissenting). our cases. Based characterization, rational basis exclusion, standard met here. An equally denied rehearing en banc. App. Pet. Cert. 80a. 12 presented To resolve Amendment, for, not, go further. Assuming speech, nature extent limit depends nonpublic. Finally, assess justifications requisite Applying analysis, find occurring express petitioner's explanation pretext viewpoint discrimination. Accordingly, reverse remand further proceedings opinion. A. 13 Charitable has been recognized speech. Village Schaumburg Citizens Better Environment, 444 620, 100 826, 63 73 (1980), observed: 14 "[S]oliciting involves interests Amendment's guarantee freedom Virginia Pharmacy Board Consumer Council, 425 748, 761 [96 1817, 1825, 48 346] (1976). . ." U.S., 629, S.Ct., 832. 15 "Soliciting financial undoubtedly subject latter undertaken due regard reality characteristically intertwined informative perhaps persuasive causes flow information likely cease. Furthermore, ., dealt cases variety purely commercial speech." 632, 834. 16 See Bates State Bar Arizona, 433 350, 363, 97 2691, 2698, 53 810 17 Schaumburg, ordinance prohibiting expended less 75 percent receipts collected group employed canvassers answer questions group's well "charitable street door door, involve interests—communication information, propagation ideas, causes—that within Amendment." 833. invalid, held, unduly interfered exercise rights. 18 establishes noncommercial petitioner argues confines entitled lesser degree protection. argument premised inherent differences face-to-face involved written encounter there greater opportunity exchange available contained informative. prepared participants, conform prohibit symbols "or distractions" competing potential donor's attention. 950.521(d) 19 Notwithstanding significant distinctions in-person abbreviated deserves Buckley Valeo, 424 1, 21, 96 612, 635, 46 659 950.521(e)(ii) supra, Thus, nexus communication present contexts. length content ascertaining created, they do negate finding implicates B 20 occurs begins inquiry. Even permissible places times. Nothing Constitution freely grant wish every type disruption caused activities. Cf. Jones North Carolina Prisoners' Labor Union, 119, 136, 2532, 2543, 629 Recognizing Government, "no owner property, power preserve control lawfully dedicated," Greer Spock, 828, 836, 1211, 1217, 47 505 (1976), adopted outweighs wishing traditional fora state achieve interest. 45, 954. Similarly, intentionally cannot Access however, restricted long "reasonable [are] effort suppress officials oppose view." 46, 955. 21 permits exclude consists contends, maintain. Having then nature. 22 contends necessarily tangible government property. "property" here constitutes Under takes Respondents, contrast, argue terms view, engage contend attendant literature. 23 agree correct dedicated focused When encompasses See, e.g., supra. sought, taken tailored approach perimeters For example, examined school's internal mail teachers' mailboxes, notwithstanding "internal system" lacks physical situs. Lehman City Shaker Heights, 418 298, 300, 94 2714, 2715, 41 770 (1974), petitioners compel city permit advertising city-owned buses, treated spaces buses communication. Consistent cases, mean, ignore special evaluating limits imposed 44, 24 identified Most regard, course, There types fora: created designation, Traditional "by tradition fiat assembly debate." Public streets parks fall into category. Hague CIO, 307 496, 515, 59 954, 963, L.Ed. 1423 (1939). addition designation large speakers, discussion subjects. 45 n. 7, 955, 7. Of "is indefinitely retain open character facility." 25 create inaction permitting discourse, opening nontraditional discourse. looked ascertain designate traditionally debate 47, 956. compatibility expressive discern government's intent. Widmar Vincent, 263, 102 269, 70 440 (1981), university making registered student use. 267, 273. evidenced clear University's erroneous Establishment religious Additionally, noted campus, students, possesses many characteristics 5, 273, 5. Madison Joint School Wisconsin Employment Relations Comm'n, 429 167, 421, 50 376 citizen involvement statute school board meetings. 174, 6, 426, 6. municipal auditorium city-leased theater Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. Conrad, 420 546, 555, 95 1239, 1244, 43 448 (1975). 26 Not instrumentality designation. Postal Council Greenburgh Civic Assns., 453 114, 130, 101 2676, 2685, 69 517 (1981). "[T]he simply owned controlled government." 129, 2685. face evidence contrary intent, see infer activity. District's contrast Widmar, system. require permission individual teachers granted. revealed transit buses. done so years, management contract managing company over displays. 299-300, 2715. city's enterprise car cards particularly reluctant hold military reservations, jailhouse Adderley Florida, 385 39, 242, 149 (1966), constitute fora. 27 Here argue, agree, estimated 850,000 qualified status. H. Godfrey, Handbook Tax Exempt Organizations 237 participated 1981 National Capital Area. Contributor's Leaflet, "appropriate" officials. show throughout 24-year history suggesting granting ministerial. and, 1978, developed Fund-Raising, ch. pt. 950 Such selective access, unsupported purposeful use, 838, 10, 10. 28 Nor motivated affirmative desire began historical background indicates resulted lessening amount Indeed, stringently included dispositive itself; instead, suggests That imply thereby becomes cited therein. 29 examination strengthens 1217 ("[T]he business installation [is] train soldiers, forum"). like any employment, exists accomplish employer. Connick Myers, 461 138, 150-151, 1684, 1692, 708 employer, wide discretion personnel affairs." Arnett Kennedy, 416 134, 168, 1633, 1651, 40 (1974) (POWELL, concurring part). follows avoid interruptions performance 128-129, 2684-2685. C 30 Control based identity served neutral. 49, 957. wishes address topic encompassed member class especial denies solely point espouses otherwise includible subject. unnecessary based, respondent's unreasonable 31 maintains charities maximizing social programs minimizing costs controlling expend posits attempt outcome First, consensus among worthwhile, compared diverse concerning Limiting widely accepted significantly employees' acceptance consequently ultimate success. addition, hours, controversy produce unwelcome disruption. affect entanglement viewpoints. circumstances, deny 32 some incompatibility services. maintain, concluded usually there. direct, benefits represent, unreasonable. reject record. 33 position advanced share similar "status," asserted heightened inquiry respondents, court's analogous tax exempt U.S.C. 501(c)(3). 159, 1258. believed furthers legitimate adequately accounts differential treatment accorded speakers. 160, 1259. 34 test, agreed assistance laudable goal, goal achieved low-income persons. 161, 1260. partisan Code define groups. Relying principally declined accept rationale success 162-163, 1261-1262. 35 record, disagree Appeals' fails reflect reasonable; most limitation. functioning mandated. (1983); (1974). required, administratively unmanageable curtailed manner. restriction compelling. demand unrestricted efficient delivering message. Rarely contact audience. 53-54, 959, alternative channels, including inperson outside 36 839, 1218; 304, 2717. furthering bound decisions executive status, relevant, favoritism. 37 rejection adversely 52, 959 "exclusion rival union insuring labor peace schools." "insuring peace" Inasmuch reason lack conclusive proof actual effect ignored teachings wait havoc wreaked 12, 12. 38 amply jeopardized letters managers, Chairmen Coordinating Committees Members Congress expressing concern termed "political" "nontraditional" More 80 correspondence related "non-political," "non-advocacy," "traditional" Deposition P. Kent Bailey, Program Analyst OPM, 275, 276. approximately 1,450 telephone calls complaining 286. Many workers indicated extra persuade disgruntled contribute. 287. contributors areas. 305. Other areas reported declines 89th 67 (1983) (statement Donald J. OPM). continued avoidance restricting definition ideas. D 39 On posited denying appear save facade viewpoint-based 957; cf. Los Angeles Taxpayers 466 789, 104 2118, 772 alluded points erroneously characterized ultimately exclusion. therefore, Petitioner's Also declining issue, suggested 157, 1256, 1259, groups, regardless philosophical orientation, 30. Exclusion advocating viewpoint-based, asserts, promoting viewpoint, itself. 30-31, 23. While validity offered fact view. 634, controversial eliminated these facially neutral Nonetheless, purported excited conceal bias against persons 12404. sufficient cast doubt genuineness. services, World Wildlife Wilderness Society, Olympic Committee, 427-428. precisely tailored, decline instance contention 42 violate unreasonable, ordered. 44 MARSHALL part consideration case. POWELL BLACKMUN, whom BRENNAN joins, dissenting. (CFC) precedents indicate "forum designation" (or, term adopted,1 forum") allowing accept, circular reasoning makes was, face, dissent. recognizes regarding generally categories forums, forums. concedes, must, "a subjects" Ante, 802 (emphasis added). nevertheless goes "Government's CFC" 804. continues, "reasonable" ground, except essence, today holds assembly, "fundamental principle American government," Whitney California, 274 357, 375, 641, 648, 71 L.Ed 1095 (1927) (Brandeis, concurring), reduces this: acts holder streets, parks, places, whatever intends do, intend viewpoint. 49 transforms mere ban censorship, ignores principles underlying doctrine, flies limited-public-forum, empties concept meaning. doctrine arose out recurring troublesome gives (1981); (1975); Tinker Des Moines Independent Community District, 393 503, 89 733, 731 (1969); Brown Louisiana, 383 131, 86 719, 637 (1966); 51 crucially important often provides space suitable gatherings, attracts audiences difficult reach. costly "essential poorly financed little people," Martin Struthers, 319 141, 146, 862, 1313 (1943), "allow[s] locus." Cass, Facilities, 65 Va.L.Rev. 1287, 1288 (1979). 52 individuals, helps serves society whole: allows "uninhibited, robust, wide-open" matters importance secures informed citizenry, Times Co. Sullivan, 254, 270, 84 710, 720, 686 (1964); "the building politics culture," Police Department Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 95-96, 92 2286, 2290, 212 (1972); societal changes peaceful lawful means, Carey Brown, 447 455, 467, 2293, 263 (1980); "responsive Stromberg 283 359, 369, 532, 536, 1117 (1931). time, interfere used. answering person person's speak whole balanced "other inhering uses normally put." 54, 251, (1966) (dissenting opinion); 470, 2295; Cox Hampshire, 312 569, 574, 61 762, 765, 85 1049 (1941). 54 balancing depend, upon strength interests, turn depend factors relationship message convey, features make especially desirable undesirable Broad generalizations proper balance are, part, impossible. stated firm guideline, however: incompatible Grayned Rockford, 104, 116-117, 2294, 2303, 222 843, 1219, (1976) concurring). 55 applying principle, categories. first, "quintessential forums," "which debate," sidewalks. Perry, 954; Grace, 171, 177, 1702, 736 rarely evident facts "natural opinion," Schneider State, 308 147, 163, 60 151, 155 (1939), "time mind, communicating thoughts citizens, discussing questions." 964. 56 category, referred primarily opened Heffron International Society Krishna Consciousness, 452 640, 655, 2559, 2567, 298 topics, 175, 8, 45-46, 954-955, tradition, own acquiescence tells compatible put. 57 obviously normal people above, observed absolute, regulate place, manner accommodate "interest all" members enjoy space, 516, 964, treat fairly 765. "justified reference regulated speech," "narrowly interest," "leave ample channels communication." Clark Creative Non-Violence, 468 288, 293, 3065, 3069, 82 221 (1984); 1706; Heffron, 647-648, 2563-2564. 58 465, 2292; 96-97, 2290. Again, "applied environment," Tinker, 506, survive scrutiny applied sometimes Restrictions almost never justified park, reserve 8. offer uses, hand, justify allow those, "belong" Some "outsiders" "in forum's official business," business. 53, 959. Others believes serve. 133, 2541, Distinctions neutral, just recognized, "relate used" "are inescapable property." 55, 960, line forums "may blur edges," really continuum definite demarcation. 132, 2686 regulating blurs edges). invite comes obvious occasionally base lecture drug abuse abuse. But sponsored prevention day, invited up displays booths, similar, uninvited firmer ground. Further, exclusive. instances acquiesced, allowed. 142, 724, (plurality id., (BRENNAN, judgment); 150, 728 (WHITE, result). 62 analytical shorthand guided citizens seems me, turns end. Rather recognize serve, states concerned taking account society's reserving labels dispenses balancing. 64 "First prohibits 'abridging press,' ramifications 'public forum.' " 2686, Nevertheless, "public forum," collapses limited-public-forum infra, ----, constraint nothing rational-basis requirement. offers why attaching label "nonpublic frees stringent constraints being able important; imposed. hardly keeper forces, guardian elections, administrator prisons, educator, capacities, closely scrutinize infringements Wayte States, 470 598, 611, 1524, 1532-1533, 547 (1985); 25, 637, (1976); Procunier Martinez, 396, 413-414, 1800, 1811, 224 (1974); Healy James, 2338, 266 Pickering Education, 391 563, 88 1731, 811 (1968); O'Brien, 367, 377, 1673, 1679, (1968). "designation" completely determinative natural sites Airports, phenomenon, government-sponsored shopping centers. recently become associated discuss. library historically demonstrations association segregation became protest civil movement.2 Another parcel unjustifiably. 180, 1708. 66 guarantees entirely accident grace Government. "owns" seeks dispose claim; users uses. forsakes balancing, abandons test always threshold indicator balance. err labeling engaging inquiry, errs discourse," "intentionally opening" discourse." 802. odds Just "consistent 'appropriate' permission" officials, ante, 804, (1975), "clean, healthful entertainment upbuilding better citizenship" productions 549, 4, 1242, reasoning, Promotions rooms despite disclaimer, 802-803, University "selective access" whereby nonreligious large, rooms.3 68 assumed, arguendo, Cub Scouts system, though clearly 48, lectures "supportive mission leave authorities powerless thereafter prevent civilian entering Fort Dix whatever." his case, Powell followed examine "functional symbolic incompatibility" 'specialized separate society' home base." 844, 1220, quoting Parker Levy, 417 743, 2547, 2555, 439 rejecting Jaycees Alcoholics Anonymous transformed prison again look "for Instead, engaged explicit involved, relying deference "[t]here inmate alike differentiation [between access] imminent threat institutional violence." 2543. meaning two. virtually impossible prove If unless "open 804-805, ever very alone demonstrate explicitly redefines opens "places 954 fail distinguishes 72 strained recognizing obscure real case: impose boundaries forum? "extensive" eligibility criteria, indeed adopt central anything rational. said extends character." indicated, imposes "similar character" already access. Obviously, unconstrained, meaningless. defendants "nonreligious" groups; plays entertainment"; representatives. follow doctrine. noted, draws include compatible, meant encapsulate. explain preserving interest; she "reasonable." implicitly concedes minimal basis" 808-809. 76 "justifications" needy." 809. President's relative translates provide. enforce minorities, women, others task called undertake. 77 event, advisers believe best "directly needy" starkly spend included.4 1981-1982 Area, 61, 26%, food, shelter, residential care, referral housing, according descriptions Leaflet. past few Area absolutely provision needs.5 78 next "avoiding forum." flatly 274, proffered Right Life Trust Planned Parenthood, presumably supporting, participate. simple disclaimer brochure suffice support. 79 controversy" thought rock musical Hair controversy, 563-564, 1249 (Douglas, dissenting part); students protesting Vietnam 509-510, 737-738. Yet "must something discomfort unpleasantness accompany unpopular viewpoint." 509, 738. instead 'materially substantially interfere' intended. Burnside Byars, 363 744, 749 (CA5 1966); 379 551, 453, 462, 471 (1965); Terminiello Chicago, 337 894, 895, 93 1131 (1949). No showing assertion "controversy" admits itself 811, rule governs mean ideas." A give infringed vocal minority devote dollars charity. 81 purpose, material substantial fact, shows increased sources "hundreds" phone preference expected whenever change made, expressed huge force 2.7 employees.6 objecting true unions organized boycotts opposition Work that, areas, declined. showed confusion objectionable receiving contributions, major urged none went group. apparently characteristic generated steadfastly "response objections employees"; "differentiate broad reasons, belief engender jeopardize organizations.' Reply 14, 11. "undifferentiated fear apprehension disturbance." 508, 737. still disposition, think "seek policy," 152 based. apply "advocacy" "political leanings." comparison, excluded, devoting resources expresses achieved. Charities toward "improved health," path goal. "health care" medical research; education; energies detection programs; care sick. improved health, way changing policy, society, enforcing existing activism. communicated criteria. hear quo. distinction blatantly "facade" affirm Appeals. STEVENS, scholarly BLACKMUN quasi-public appropriate sequel decade.1 multitiered am somewhat skeptical value decisional process. Cleburne Living 432, 451-454, 3249, 313 (1985) (STEVENS, precise characterization helpful reaching Everyone agrees prohibited everyone rise speakers." 812; 832 (BLACKMUN, dissenting).2 problem strong enough entry Today decides trial product 797, 812-813. forecloses genuine present, limitations undertake review records. Hasting, 499, 516-519, 1974, 1984-1986, judgment). my study persuaded me correctly 90 found, ways donations Alternatively, donation, contributed placed pool approved formula regulations." 401, 406 1983). 91 11; receive, them. phrase another manner, choices specific designations. fund, charities, emphasize arguments manifestly Parts II-B opinion, plainly merit actually lend bias.3 wholly merit. surely so. suggestion perceived favoring participant belied diversity disclaim perfectly presumptively intelligent worker. Last, supposed pure nonsense—one discussions politics, judicial decisions, sporting events.4 sum, BLACKMUN's persuades Effective September 17, 1984, (OPM) revised comply below. Fed.Reg. 32735. changed operational expressly reserved modify rules event supervening direction court, Congress, President. reinstate regulations. Given revision render moot. Maher Roe, 432 464, 468-469, 2376, 2380 484 "To [Campaign] objectives, shall families. campaign area, rendered overseas. beings, children, youth, adults, aged, ill infirm, mentally physically handicapped. consist research education fields adjustment rehabilitation; relief victims disasters emergencies; impoverished clothing, education, services." Exec.Order 2(b)(2). 956, Note, Unitary Approach Claims Publicly Owned Property, Stan.L.Rev. 121, 137 (1982). inexplicable analysis. holding (1969), protects high wear armbands "hostilities Vietnam." 504, 735. Schools forums" nonstudents alike. mandated." 808. incompatibility. "kind cause, claim, defense," 950.101(a)(1)(i)(H) admitted custody disputes problems, Leaflet (description Social Service, Branch), not. During year, Close-up, "An structured teach opportunities deciding futures"; Rep, Incorporated, "Provides training educating writers, actors, theatrical directors theatre craftsmen"; African Heritage Dancers Drummers, "A community arts area residents appreciation arts, dance music"; D.C. Striders, promising athletes field track competitors"; Music understanding Fine Arts performance"; Howard Theatre Foundation, "Preserves cultural legacy Theatre." worthwhile square inconsistencies saying misapplied 49. needy, strange 75% time. Bureau Census, Statistical Abstract 322 (1985). commentators noted: "Public appears importance. traces back famous dictum Roberts attention Professor Kalven twenty ago, Supreme opinions recently. forum' appeared thirty-two decisions. 1970 thirteen 1980's." Farber Nowak, Misleading Nature Forum Analysis: Content Context Adjudication, 1221-1222 (1984) (footnotes omitted). worth noting different course controversy. 152, 1247, 1251 (that services"); 153, 1252 litigating themselves); 154, 1253 (employee boycotts); ibid. (placing objective jeopardy); improper taxpayer raise groups); (undue CFC); 155, 1254 accurately described 'subsidy' Government"); 1259 assist needy); 1260 groups"); 162, 1261 "controversial"); 166, 1265 available). suggest author conscious prejudice subconscious bias, habitual attitude disfavor, willingness assume frequent expressions disagreement achievements somehow inferior "traditional charities," honestly, incorrectly, "viewpoint neutral." "For classification pausing consider newly classification." Mathews Lucas, 427 495, 520, 2755, 2769, 651 Expressions affection Dallas Cowboys forbidden offices located avoidance-of-controversy valid.

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