Document: 490 U.S. 30 109 S.Ct. 1597 104 L.Ed.2d 29 MISSISSIPPI BAND OF CHOCTAW INDIANS, Appellantv.Orrey Curtiss HOLYFIELD, et ux., J.B., Natural Mother and W.J., Father. No. 87-980. Argued Jan. 11, 1989. Decided April 3, Syllabus On the basis of extensive evidence indicating that large numbers Indian children were being separated from their families tribes placed in non-Indian homes through state adoption, foster care, parental rights termination proceedings, this practice caused serious problems for children, parents, tribes, Congress enacted Child Welfare Act 1978 (ICWA), which, inter alia, gives tribal courts exclusive jurisdiction over custody proceedings involving an child "who resides or is domiciled within" a tribe's reservation. This case involves status twin illegitimate babies, whose parents enrolled members appellant Tribe residents domiciliaries its reservation Neshoba County, Mississippi. After twins' births Harrison some 200 miles reservation, parents' execution consent-to-adoption forms, they adopted county's Chancery Court by appellees Holyfield, who non-Indian. That court subsequently overruled appellant's motion to vacate adoption decree, which was based on assertion under ICWA vested court. The Supreme Mississippi affirmed, holding, among other things, twins not "domiciled" law, light Court's findings (1) had never been physically present there, (2) "voluntarily surrendered" went efforts see born outside promptly arranged adoption. Therefore, said, domicile properly exercised proceedings. Held: Tribe's within meaning ICWA's provision, was, accordingly, without enter decree. Pp. 42-54. (a) Although does define "domicile," clearly intended uniform federal law did consider definition word be matter law. purpose part, make clear certain situations have In fact, statutory congressional demonstrate perceived States as partly responsible separation problem it correct. Thus, most improbable would scope statute's key jurisdictional provision subject Moreover, could hardly lack nationwide uniformity result state-law definitions whereby different rules apply time same child, simply his her moved across lines. 43-47. (b) generally accepted term "domicile" applies extent inconsistent with objectives statute. absence definition, assumed legislative expressed ordinary words used, object policy. Well-settled common-law principles provide minors, are legally incapable forming requisite intent establish domicile, determined has traditionally meant mother children. since (as well father) been, at all relevant times, also there even though there. altered fact because concerns going beyond wishes individual finding removal cultural setting seriously impacts long-term survival damaging social psychological impact many These enact rule permit defeat scheme giving birth placing off 47-53. 511 So.2d 918 (Miss.1987), reversed remanded. BRENNAN, J., delivered opinion Court, WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, JJ., joined. STEVENS, filed dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., KENNEDY, joined, post, p. 54. Edwin R. Smith, Meridian, Miss., appellant. Edward O. Miller, Gulfport, appellees. Justice BRENNAN Court. 1 appeal requires us construe provisions 2 * A. 3 92 Stat. 3069, 25 U.S.C. §§ 1901-1963, product rising concern mid-1970's consequences families, abusive welfare practices resulted care placement, usually homes. Senate oversight hearings 1974 yielded numerous examples, statistical data, expert testimony documenting what one witness called "[t]he wholesale homes, . tragic aspect life today." Program, Hearings before Subcommittee Affairs Committee Interior Insular Affairs, 93d Cong., 2d Sess., (statement William Byler) (hereinafter Hearings). Studies undertaken Association American 1969 1974, presented hearings, showed 35% adoptive institutions. Id., 15; H.R.Rep. 95-1386, 9 (1978) House Report), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 1978, pp. 7530, 7531. Adoptive placements counted significantly total: State Minnesota, example, eight age 18 home, during year 1971-1972 nearly every four infants rate times Approximately 90% Hearings, 75-83. A number witnesses testified adjustment encountered such adolescence,1 adoptions themselves. See Hearings. 4 Further covering much ground, held 1977 bill became ICWA.2 While again focused harm involuntarily decisions local authorities, considerable emphasis themselves massive For Mr. Calvin Isaac, Tribal Chief Band Choctaw Indians representative National Chairmen's Association, follows: 5 "Culturally, chances reduced if our only real means transmission heritage, raised denied exposure ways People. Furthermore, these undercut tribes' ability continue self-governing communities. Probably no area more important sovereignty respected than socially culturally determinative family relationships." 193. 6 id., 62.3 Isaac summarized succinctly saw principal reason high rates children: 7 "One failings system removed natural nontribal government authorities intelligently evaluating premises underlying home childrearing. Many individuals decide fate best ignorant values, worst contemptful way convinced removal, household institution, can benefit child." 191-192.4 8 incorporated into reflect sentiments. found: "(3) resource vital continued existence integrity .; 10 "(4) alarmingly percentage broken up often unwarranted, them public private agencies institutions; 11 "(5) States, exercising recognized administrative judicial bodies, failed recognize essential relations people standards prevailing communities families." § 1901. 12 At heart concerning Section 1911 lays out dual scheme. 1911(a) establishes tribe," wards regardless domicile.5 1911(b), hand, creates concurrent but presumptively reservation: petition either parent tribe, state-court placement transferred court, except cases "good cause," objection parent, declination 13 Various Title I set procedural substantive those do take place safeguards include requirements notice appointment counsel; intervention invalidation illegal proceedings; procedures governing voluntary consent rights; ful faith credit obligation respect decisions. 1901-1914. requirement imposed 1915(a), absent cause" contrary, mandates made preferentially child's extended family, (3) families. 14 thus, Report accompanying it, "seeks protect community tribe retaining society." Report, 23, 7546. It so establishing "a Federal policy that, where possible, should remain community," ibid., making sure determinations white, middle-class standard cases, forecloses [an] family." 24, 7546.6 B 15 known purposes B.B. G.B., wedlock December 29, 1985. Their mother, father, both (Tribe), Reservation J.B. gave Mississippi, January 10, 1986, executed form County. Record 8-10.7 W.J. signed similar form.8 16, Orrey Vivian Holyfield9 1-5, chancellor issued Final Decree Adoption 28. 13-14.10 Despite court's apparent awareness ICWA,11 decree contained reference nor infants' background. 16 Two months later ground 15-18.12 July 14, motion, holding "never obtained involved herein. ." one-page relied two facts reaching conclusion. noted first "went confines Reservation" Holyfields. Second, stated: "At date resided Reservation." 78. 17 affirmed. (1987). rejected arguments lacked any event, applied laid ICWA. question turned whether Reservation. answered point said territory aside Appellant's argument living womb qualifies children's residency may lauded creativity; however, apparently unsupported state, will addressed due far-reaching legal ramifications occur we follow complicated tangential course." 921. 19 distinguished appeared principle "the minor follows parents," ibid.; Boyle v. Griffin, 84 Miss. 41, 36 So. 141 (1904); Stubbs Stubbs, 211 821 (Miss.1968); re Guardianship Watson, 317 (Miss.1975). voluntarily surrendered abandoned undisputed prevent Gulfport Memorial Hospital, Mississippi." So.2d, County Indeed, appears concluded reason, none applicable. Ibid. ("[T]hese actually escape applicable Welfare"). case, contention followed: "[T]he judge conform strictly adhere minimum consent, notice, service process, etc." Ibid.13 20 Because centrality overall ICWA, conflict between decision several courts,14 granted plenary review. 486 1021, 108 S.Ct.1993, 100 225 (1988).15 We now reverse. II 21 novelty strong pre-ICWA courts. See, e.g., Fisher District Sixteenth Judicial Montana, 424 382, 96 943, 47 106 (1976) (per curiam ) (tribal proceeding parties residents); Wisconsin Potowatomies Hannahville Community Houston, 393 F.Supp. 719 (WD Mich.1973) found reservation); Wakefield Little Light, 276 Md. 333, 347 A.2d 228 (1975) (same); Buehl, 87 Wash.2d 649, 555 P.2d 1334 (state off-reservation order); Lelah-puc-ka-chee, 98 F. 429 (ND Iowa 1899) appoint guardian reservation). enacting confirmed States. 22 issue here "child proceeding." defined " 'adoptive placement' shall mean permanent including action resulting final adoption." 1903(1)(iv). "Indian children." 1903(4). sole is, recognized, reservation.16 23 course, Congress' intent. itself it. initial must confront believe statute necessarily sense construction remains supervision, P. Bator, D. Meltzer, Mishkin, Shapiro, Hart Wechsler's Courts System 566 (3d ed. 1988); cf. Reconstruction Finance Corporation Beaver 32 204, 210, 66 992, 995, 90 L.Ed. 1172 (1946), sometimes intends given content application De Sylva Ballentine, 351 570, 580, 76 974, 980, 1415 (1956); supra; Helvering Stuart, 154, 161-162, 63 140, 144-145, 154 (1942). start, general assumption "in plain indication when enacts act dependent law." Jerome United 318 101, 104, 483, 485, 640 (1943); NLRB Gas Utility Dist. Hawkins 402 600, 603, 91 1746, 1749, 206 (1971); Dickerson New Banner Institute, Inc., 460 103, 119, 103 986, 74 845 (1983). One statutes application. Jerome, supra, U.S., S.Ct., 485; Dickerson, 119-120, 995-996; Pelzer, 312 399, 402-403, 61 659, 660-661, 85 913 (1941). Accordingly, intended. E.g., 328 209, 995 (statute permitting diverse tax laws property Government corporations). second presumption against danger program impaired control." 486; 995; 661. "we look ascertain intended." 403, 24 Hearst Publications, 322 111, 64 851, 88 1170 (1944), "employee" used Wagner explained conclusion "Both terms statute, history, show mind patchwork plan securing freedom employees' organization collective bargaining. solve national scale. Nothing background, indicates limited varying conceptions, judicial, administered accordance whatever respective states fit adopt disposition unrelated, problems." 123, 857. 26 Dist., 603-604, 1749. reasons follow, equally 27 First, fundamentally, rely critical term; quite contrary. very text mention history led enactment, concerned vis-a-vis authorities.17 More specifically, part orrect. 1901(5) "judicial bodies families").18 Under circumstances leave 28 domicile. An example illustrate. one, Mexico pursuant 1911(a), took birth—notwithstanding days after later. Baby Child, 102 N.M. 735, 737-738, 700 198, 200-201 (App.1985).19 Had traveled give birth, rather Albuquerque, applied. same, presumably, true transported Mexico. State, prospective intermediary merely transporting lines.20 Even conceive (and thus jurisdiction) differently transport another, cannot mind.21 therefore think dispute ICWA.22 case. babies rested trial court: parents. 921; us, therefore, suffice render nondomiciliaries 31 stated "start used." Richards 369 1, 9, 82 585, 591, 492 (1962); Russello 464 21, 296, 299, 78 so, 'object policy' Mastro Plastics Corp. NLRB, 350 270, 285, 349, 359, 309 (1956), quoting Heirs Boisdore, How. 113, 122, 1009 (1849). dealing not, drawing determine inform understanding employed define. find helpful borrow established 33 "Domicile" concept widely conflict-of-laws purposes, uncontroverted. Restatement 11-23; Leflar, L. McDougal, Felix, Conflicts Law 17-38 (4th 1986); Weintraub, Commentary Conflict Laws 12-24 (2d 1980). synonymous "residence," Perri Kisselbach, 34 N.J. 84, 87, 167 377, 379 (1961), reside Columbia Murphy, 314 441, 62 303, 86 329 (1941); Estate Jones, 192 78, 80, 182 N.W. 227, (1921). adults, physical presence connection one's Texas Florida, 306 398, 424, 59 563, 576, 83 817 (1939). acquires "domicile origin" continues until new (a choice") acquired. Iowa, 81, N.W., 228; Moore, 68 792, 796, 415 653, 656 (1966). Since minors Yarborough Yarborough, 290 202, 211, 54 181, 185, 269 (1933). mother. Kowalski Wojtkowski, 247, 258, 116 6, (1955); Wash.2d, P.2d, 656; 14(2), 22, Comment c; Am.Jur.2d, Domicile 69 principles, entirely logical "[o]n occasion, origin been." b. Tr. Oral Arg. 28-29. statement "[a]t reservation," 921, correct State's doctrine country 35 Nor defeated actions solely about interests non-Indians. 1901(3) ("[T]here children"), 1902 ("promote stability security tribes").23 prerogatives accorded provisions, (exclusive domiciliaries), 1911(b) (presumptive nondomiciliaries), 1911(c) (right intervention), 1912(a) (notice), 1914 action), 1915(c) alter presumptive priorities actions), 1915(e) obtain records), 1919 (authority conclude agreements States), must, seen protecting addition, detrimental culture.24 consented As congressionally Policy Review Commission stated, summarizing concerns, "[r]emoval 52.25 37 intended.26 RE oF indiaN 111 155, 168-171, 543 925, 931-933 (1988). argue strenuously great lengths But precisely concern. Permitting avoid simple expedient would, extent, nullify accomplish.27 Utah scholarly sensitive become leading ICWA: 38 "To [state] abandonment operates [the child's] change facilitate non-Indians while she domiciliary conflicts undermines operative subsections [1911(a) ] [1913(a) deal weakens considerably assert interest protection core recognizes distinct parity relationship finds parallel ethnic cultures difficult understand slow recognize. recognition relationship, designates forum determination matters reservation-domiciled preferred nondomiciliary [State] frustrate judgment custodial entitled parents." Halloway, 732 962, 969-970 (1986). 39 agree permits Since, begun, possessed 1911(a). adoption; 1914, 28, vacated. III 40 unaware three years passed Holyfield deciding today writing blank slate 1986. Three y ars' development ties undone, doubtless cause pain. 41 Whatever feelings might live, question. asked children—not outcome be. places hands mandate followed potential anguish avoided, automatically "reward custody, lawfully otherwise, maintain ensuing protracted) litigation." 972. ours say trauma removing outweigh Tribe—and perhaps themselves—in having community.28 Rather, defer experience, wisdom, compassion [Choctaw] fashion appropriate remedy." 42 reversed, remanded further opinion. 43 ordered. 44 whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE KENNEDY join, dissenting. 45 unquestionably intention exercise them. hospital closer available. Both written advance and, challenged Tribe, reaffirmed desire Holyfields found, 918, 921 Appellee today, urging allowed retain G.B. 46 J.B.'s eligible membership closes courthouse door her. term's] Congressional Act, situation enacted, existing precedents, taken familiar least way." 449, 307, agree, cramped term. To preclude deliberately invoking distorts delicate balance group response "an agencies," ov r 1901(4), (5) (emphasis added). primarily unjustified inadequately culture.1 48 forth providing insure protected.2 provides party seeking effect of, involuntary to, stringent proof breakup likely emotional damage child. 1912(d), (e), (f). Each right examine reports documents indigent custodian counsel. 1912(b), (c). termination, valid fully explained, withdrawn entry then collaterally attacked grounds fraud duress. 1913. Finally, protects sets criteria adoptive, preadoptive favor resolution tribe. 1915. 49 rights, restrict complement help transfer veto transfer. 1911(b).3 ones. 1911(c), 1912(a).4 upon showing designed violated. 1914.5 50 Act's major preserve domestic confirm developing line temporary intend "to oust traditional falling geographic limits." 19, 7541; Wamser, 1978: Focus, N.M.L.Rev. 413, 416 (1980). overrule Cantrell, 159 Mont. 66, 495 179 (1972), lived he left accompany father trip. Welfare: Jurisdictional Approach, Ariz.L.Rev. 1123, 1129 (1979). specifically approved series declined (1976); 33, (1975), temporarily residing Mich.1973), Greybull, Or.App. 674, 1079 (1975); 7543.6 express disapproval Appeals Ninth Circuit ex rel. Cobell Cobell, 503 F.2d 790 (9th Cir.1974), cert. denied, 421 999, 95 2396, 666 indicated Montana "by divorce submitted courts." F.2d, 795 deleted). 51 Commission, early proponent makes serve: 52 "Domicile depend exclusively location moment time, residency. move back dwelling border distant communities, depending employment educational opportunities. situations, strong, fairly jurisdiction." Federal, Jurisdiction (Comm.Print 1976).7 53 shielded reflects allowing deliberate choice conducive neither tri al court.8 "By 'choose' sever parent-child promotes defend familial standards." Ariz.L.Rev., 1141. Indians, Public Lands provision: "The ultimate responsibility rests support legislation interfered basic relationship." S. 1214 95th (1978).9 55 If required jurisdiction; changed own unequivocal abandonment, enunciated defeat, serves Act. occurs deserts another relinquish obligations. (Second) e (1971) Restatement); 966 (Utah 1986). takes d micile father; e; Domicil person stands loco parentis him. 966; (1966); Harlan Industrial Accident Comm'n, 194 Cal. 352, 654 (1924); i ; D.L.L. C.L.L., 291 N.W.2d 278, 282 (S.D.1980).10 effective, abandon actual shown convincing evidence. C.S. 483 S.W.2d 790, 793 (Mo.App.1972).11 56 When jurisdiction. expresses frail soon steps Similarly, still protected other. served closing preventing unwarranted provisions. intentionally invoked non-Indian, self-governance implicated. McClanahan Arizona Tax 411 164, 173, 93 1257, 1263, 129 (1973); Williams Lee, 358 217, 219-220, 79 269, 270-271, 251 (1959); Felix Patrick, 145 317, 332, 862, 867, (1892). 57 interpretation o haul potentially unfamiliar conditions interests. renders forever suspect, susceptible challenge void entered jurisdiction.12 forces invoke Only wealth able use processes fail how paramount "promot[ing] 1902. 58 concludes observation suffered failure initially Ante, 53-54. By avail jurisdiction, virtually ensure future. mandated language contrary respectfully dissent. Dr. Joseph Westermeyer, University Min esota psychiatrist, research adolescents experienced difficulty coping white society, despite purely environment: "[T]hey identity. They home. attended, predominantly schools, almost attended church really came little culture, behavior, viable recall things seeing cowboys TV feeling historical figure contemporary group. "Then adolescence, society grant identity had. began ways. universal experience youngsters this, pressures derogatory name calling relation racial putting didn't possess taking possess." 46. Hearing Select 1st Sess. (1977) Hearings); sentiments shared sponsor House, Rep. Morris Udall, 124 Cong.Rec. 38102 ("Indian drained result, future jeopardy"), minority sponsor, Robert Lagomarsino, ibid. ("This directed threaten ."). particular points workers role society. noted: "An scores hundred, relatives close, family. workers, untutored assuming irresponsible, leaving persons nuclear neglect terminating rights." 7532. Senator Abourezk played "We've throughout Nation thing need relative friend in. It's concept." 473. (discussing custom orphaned children). reads full: otherwise Where ward notwithstanding residence quoted passages Report's discussion 1915, attempts accomplish aims, regard establishment domiciliaries, goals pursued Beyond created, II, grants organizations aid programs. 1931-1934. 103(a) 1913(a), recorded "court competent jurisdiction," certify understood. 1913(a) prior thereafter invalid. mother's birth. n. 26, infra. W.J.'s notary 11-12. June however—well suit decree—did him execute 12-A. died pendency appeal. 6-month waiting period interlocutory decrees discretionary authority waive immediately Miss.Code Ann. 93-17-13 (1972). id here, less month babies' chancellor's certificates recited Consent Waiver full compliance 95-608" (i.e., 1913(a)). confers standing participate adjudications. authorizes parents) invalidate "upon violated sections 102, 103" 3072. (Indian intervene rights). "Termination rights" 1903(1)(ii) "any lower fulfilled requirements. 8, comply cognizance 1915(a): "In preference given, good member family; tribe; (Emphasis added.) 1915(e), moreover, records "evidencing order specified section." Notwithstanding below 1915 violated, Brief Appellant 20-22 Support Petition Rehearing 11-12 57,659 (Miss.Sup.Ct.), stating conclusory "minimum standards" met. 962 198 (App.1985); Appeal Pima Juvenile Action S-903, 130 Ariz. 635 187 (App.1981), sub nom. Catholic Social Services Tucson P.C., 455 1007, 1644, 71 875 (1982). unclear fell appellate postponed consideration hearing merits. Pursuant version 1257(2) appeal, review "where drawn validity repugnant Constitution, treaties validity." sufficient sustained facts. Volt Information Sciences, Inc. Board Trustees Leland Stanford Junior University, 489 468, 473-474, 4, 1248, 1252, 488 (1989); Dahnke-Walker Milling Co. Bondurant, 257 282, 288-290, 106, 107-108, 239 practice, as-applied comes turns framed. Hanson Denckla, 357 235, 244, 1228, 1234, 1283 (1958); Memphis Beeler, 315 650-651, 857, 859-860, 1090 appellants argued "that preempted legislation." 5. Whether formulation "squarely" challenges applied, Japan Line, Ltd. Los Angeles, 441 434, 440-441, 99 1813, 1817, 60 336 (1979), asserts immunity, 1257(3), answer inevitably somewhat arbitrary. near extend rare Pub.L. 100-352, 662, importance. Rather attempting resolve question, advisable assume improper writ certiorari presents. Spencer Texas, 385 554, 557, 648, 650, 606 (1967). dismiss treat papers certiorari, 2103, petition. (For convenience, refer appellees.) "Reservation" broadly 1903(10). There falls definition. proviso appear 280, 67 588, amended, allows civil criminal reservations. 1918 reassume Secretary Interior. asserted 280. Cohen, Handbook 362-363, nn. 122-125 (1982); John, 437 634, 2541, (1978). inescapable reading entire main curtail authority. especially 1901, 1911-1916, 1918. 38103 (letter K. Udall Assistant Attorney General Patricia M. Wald) ("[S]tate share responsibility" crisis threatening families"); 7541 ("Contributing officials, agencies, account special legitimate preserving wellspring future"). 969 "quite frankly expected receptive [Indian Yet receptivity evils aimed"). Some details briefs Pino Bernalillo 469 1031, 105 501, (1984). dismissed Rule 53, 472 1001, 2693, 709 (1985), following successful collateral attack, cited text, taken. inconceivable manner inapplicable extreme spur brokerage business. (with financial inducement) up, like permitted according forum, Restatement), here. note likelihood so. explicitly. 1903(2) ("extended member" custom); 1903(6) custodian" law). 34, 3. emerged studies recurring developmental adolescence environment. supra. 114 Academy Psychiatry); S.Rep. 95-597, Report). generally, "depriving heritage." 45; 38102-38103 (remarks Lagomarsino). incorporates Louis La Rose, chairman Winnebago Commission: "I cruelest trick man ever done courts, erase send nebulous value A-1 Nebraska reaches 17, brown goes absolutely idea are, effectively non-person destroy him." 43. seems justified put fundamental protected." Ariz., 189. reach history. contains expression aspects problem: effects paternalism alienate [parents] hospitals departments entrust Another involuntary, arbitrary, 12, 7534. Bureau pointed out, issuing nonbinding guidelines "residence" "are tend undermine Act." Fed.Reg. 67584, 67585 implication proposition effectuate 967, although majority rule. (abandoned retains last-abandoning parent). below, Halloway "legally abandoned," predicate 103(a), requires, 7, non-domiciliaries consent. appears, women obstetric facilities Juris.Statement 2. return presumably theory. Application newborn allegedly unfit hospital, terminate assured oral code 17. face vastly greater risks typical whole." similarly motivated "reports agencies." (1977). 12532 Udall) ("The record developed 94th Congress; disclosed amounts callous raid specious foreign parents"); ("Studies revealed percent institution"); Lagomarsino) ("For particular, constitutes threat ongoing, communities"); ("It decades mercy arbitrary local, agency officials. Unwarranted common communities"). (H.R. 12533), introduced al., f promote institutions unique values culture assistance operation programs." (footnote omitted), 7530. ("[The Act] clarifies allocation importantly, faced courts"). part: "(b) Transfer tribe: Provided, tribe." 1911. 67586 (1979) ones"). Significantly, favoring followed. None approvingly abandonment. upheld clothing toys available (1976), Tribe. letter Representatives, Department jurisdiction: "As you aware, consistently governments relationships located reservations, unless 83-280. ignored neglected, S.1214 remedy cases." 35, 7558. explanation subsection "Subsection directs proceeding, Either modified non conveniens, Indian, custodian, 7544. commenting suggested section clarified perfectly surrender objected. "Section 101(b) amended prohibit objects transfer." 32, 7554. specific suggestion implemented, noteworthy nothing suggest recommended elsewhere provision. Hearing, supra 158 behalf Association) ("We receive resident require blood 101(c) infringing rights"). Parental Kidnaping Prevention 1980, 94 3569, 1738A(c)(2); Uniform Custody U.L.A. suggests effective judge. 51, 26. ignores everything meet constitute minor's Wilson Pierce, 321, 383 927 (1963); H. Clark, Domestic Relations 633 (1968). 1986), cites approvingly, ante, 52-53, vividly illustrate problem. Mexico, maternal aunt knowledge Utah. learned weeks later, Nevertheless, filed, intervened successfully approving colored withdrew entitle relief 1913(c)), limitation. acknowledged argument, effected old long 15.

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