Document: 513 U.S. 454115 S.Ct. 1003130 L.Ed.2d 964 UNITED STATES, et al., Petitionersv.NATIONAL TREASURY EMPLOYEES UNION, al. No. 93-1170. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Nov. 8, 1994. Decided Feb. 22, 1995. Syllabus * After § 501(b) Ethics in Government Act 1978 was amended to prohibit a Member Congress, federal officer, or other employee from accepting an honorarium for making appearance speech writing article, respondents including individual members of, and union representing, class composed all Executive Branch employees below grade GS-16 who, but 501(b), would receive honoraria—filed suit challenging statute as unconstitutional abridgment their freedom speech. The speeches articles which had received honoraria past concerned matters such religion, history, dance, environment; with few exceptions, neither subjects nor persons groups paying them any connection respondents' official duties. In granting motion summary judgment, District held insofar it applies enjoined enforcing against employee. Appeals affirmed, emphasizing, inter alia, that Government's failure many identify some sort nexus between employee's job either expression's subject matter payor's character undercut its proffered concern about actual apparent improprieties receipt honoraria. Held: Section violates First Amendment. Pp. __. (a) ban imposes kind burden abridges under Where, here, seek exercise right citizens comment on public interest, are not attempting simply speak upon personal matters, must be able satisfy balancing test type set forth Pickering v. Board Ed. Township High School Dist., 391 563, 568, 88 1731, 1734, 20 811, order maintain statutory restriction employees' See Civil Service Comm'n Letter Carriers, 413 548, 564, 93 2880, 2889-2890, 37 796. However, because constitutes wholesale deterrent broad category expression by massive number potential speakers, here is even greater than progeny, usually involved disciplinary actions taken response particular government Specifically, show interests both audiences vast group present future range outweighed "necessary impact operation" Government, Pickering, U.S., at 571, S.Ct., 1736. Although prohibits discriminates among speakers based content viewpoint messages, prohibition compensation unquestionably significant expressive activity inducing curtail if they wish continue employment. Moreover, far more relatively small lawmakers whose assertedly motivated enactment. large-scale disincentive also public's read hear what otherwise have written said. (b) has failed how asserts justify served applying respondents. Public Workers Mitchell, 330 75 , 67 556, 91 L.Ed. 754, distinguished. asserted officers misuse appear power unofficial nonpolitical speaking activities undeniably powerful, cites no evidence misconduct related rank file Grade GS-16. limited impropriety Members Congress high-level executives cannot extension file, immense workers negligible confer favors those who might pay articles. while operational efficiency undoubtedly vital governmental several features text pertinent regulations cast serious doubt submission perceived so threatening entire service render reasonable threat. First, total exemption payments "any series appearances, speeches, articles" unrelated duties status 505(3)'s definition "honorarium" undermines application Second, definition's limitation "honoraria" activities, opposed services perform his her spare time, requires justification stronger mere speculation harms advanced Government. Finally, regulations' exclusions coverage terms "appearance, article" wide variety performances writings normally consistent presumption work force consists dedicated honorable civil servants ban's dubious merely policymakers, loss offset salary increase, (c) Insofar judgment grants relief senior parties this case, reversed over-inclusive. light Court's obligation avoid judicial legislation inability correctly exact requirement adopted ban, refuses modify remedy further crafting requirement. 990 F.2d 1271 (CADC 1993), affirmed part, remanded. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, KENNEDY, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, filed concurring part dissenting part. REHNQUIST, C.J., opinion, SCALIA THOMAS, Paul Bender, petitioners. Gregory O'Duden, respondent. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 1989 enacted law broadly when article person We decide whether comports Constitution's command "Congress shall make . abridging speech." hold does not. 2 1967 authorized appointment every four years special Commission Executive, Legislative, Judicial Salaries, principal function recommend appropriate levels top positions three branches Federal Each first five quadrennial commissions recommended increases, recommendations went largely ignored. Report Quadrennial Commission, however, instrumental leading enactment Reform 1989,1 contains provision challenged case. 3 Commission's report noted inflation decreased officials, measured constant dollars, approximately 35% since 1969. 4 "also found salaries inadequate, supplementing substantial amounts 'honoraria' meeting interest desire influence votes. Albeit less troubling extent, practice extends officials branches." Fairness Our Servants: Legislative Salaries vi (Dec. 1988). 5 Accordingly, "salary same amount dollars" effect 1969 enact abolishing Ibid. 6 President's Law subsequently issued endorsed views. enacting "by government." To Serve With Honor: 36 (Mar. 1989). Explaining breadth proposal, added: 7 "In recommending we recognize, did enough — 8 'close loopholes consulting, professional similar fees; serving boards; travel; sport, entertainment expenses reasonably necessary involved; benefit equivalent honorarium.' " (quoting Servants, 24). 9 entirety, two Commissions' echo prominently 1989. 703 provided 25% increase judges, above GS-15.2 103 Stat., 1768. Another section—the one issue here—amended create "Honoraria Prohibition," reads: "An may Member, officer employee." Id., 1760. 10 505 defined "officer employee" include nearly "Member" Representative, Delegate, Resident Commissioner Congress. Congressional Operations Appropriations Act, 19923 extended Senate. encompass paid "an appearance, article."4 1992 exclude status. now reads follows: 11 "(3) term 'honorarium' means payment money thing value (including directly individual's made Government) employee, excluding travel incurred (and relative) extent reimbursed person, determined reduced reimbursed." U.S.C.App. 505(3) (1988 ed., Supp. V). 12 503(2) provides provisions governing rules Office (OGE) administered designated agency ethics officials. CFR 2636.201 seq. (1994). OGE's permit reimbursement certain associated confine reach each terms. Thus, performance using artistic, athletic skill talent" "appearance"; reading play delivering sermon "speech"; works "fiction, poetry, lyrics, script" "articles." Id. §§ 2636.203(b), (d). teaching course involving multiple presentations accredited program institution. 13 Attorney General enforce action recover penalty larger $10,000 honorarium. If accepted good-faith reliance OGE employing agency, she penalty. 504 II 14 Two unions career employed full-time various departments agencies Columbia challenge constitutionality ban. Pursuant stipulation certified respondent National Treasury Employees Union representative "below GS-16, who—but U.S.C. app. —would 505(3)." App. 124-125.5 All save class; exception lawyer Nuclear Regulatory published Russian history. 15 alleges he topics full compliance earlier regulations. record affidavits describing prohibit. A mail handler Postal Arlington, Virginia given lectures Quaker religion were "not much, supplement my income way makes difference." 47. An aerospace engineer Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland lectured black history fee $100 per lecture. 63. microbiologist Food Drug Administration earned almost $3,000 year radio television appearances reviewing dance performances. 77. tax examiner Internal Revenue Ogden, Utah comparable environment. 67. 16 granted "unconstitutional government," 788 F.Supp. 4, 13-14 (1992). court acknowledged Congress' promoting "the integrity popular confidence respect for, government" "vital." 9. characterized content-neutral "government condition employment, relinquished Amendment prerogatives. ." 10. Nevertheless, concluded "regulatory having suppressing slightest degree" could "go farther accomplish objective." overinclusive, restricts much speech, underinclusive, forms others. 11. Concluding legislative been mainly own Members, before severable remainder Act. 17 affirmed. 1993). It that, though denial places employees. strong, undisputed "in protecting avoiding created abuse receiving honoraria" advance interest. 1274. emphasized "some payor" improprieties. 1275.6 Stressing absence corruption lower-level 1277. rejected argument administrative enforcement difficulties 501(b)'s prophylactic rule.7 18 Turning question remedy, agreed statute. convinced primarily growing Members; moreover, itself disclosed package key ingredient sharp executive branch officials." 1278 (citation omitted). fashioned effect, rewrote eliminating words "except employees." 1279.8 19 Over dissents, denied petition rehearing en banc. F.3d 1555 (1993). certiorari. 511 ----, 114 1536, 128 189 III write publication time contributions marketplace ideas. They literary giants like Nathaniel Hawthorne Herman Melville, Customs Service; Walt Whitman, worked Departments Interior; Bret Harte, Mint.9 Respondents yet American culture, share these great artists important characteristics relevant confront. 21 Even rights enjoy interest." 811 (1968). capacity citizens, claim employment bearing quality market output Melville. messages nothing do jobs arguably adverse offices work. address co-workers supervisors; instead, segments general public. Neither authors, expression, duties, relevance 22 cases recognized impose restraints job-related plainly applied large. See, e.g., Snepp States, 444 507, 100 763, 62 704 (1980). When required determine validity restraint, "arrive balance [employee], citizen, commenting State, employer, performs through 1734-1735. 23 cases, Pickering's only spoke "as citizen concern" rather Connick Myers, 461 138, 147, 1684, 1690, 708 (1983) (emphasis added). private involves complaint change give rise discipline without imposing employer. 148-149, 1690-1691. If, involve concern, bears justifying action. Rankin McPherson, 483 378, 388, 107 2891, 2899, 97 315 (1987);10 see Waters Churchill, 1878, 1887, 686 Respondents' case fall within protected workplace. addressed audience, outside workplace, 24 sweep heavy. Unlike post hoc analysis responsibilities. Cf. (1994); (1987); (1983); Perry Sindermann, 408 593, 92 2694, 33 570 (1972). Rather, asks us apply speakers.11 2890, 796 (1973), established form Because discussion essentially restated our approval Hatch 75, 754 (1947), components should analyzed context sweeping impediment speech.12 25 accord congressional executive's Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. FCC, 512 n. 2, 2445, 2451, 129 497 (1994) (Stevens, judgment). widespread gives concerns single supervisory decision. City Ladue Gilleo, ---- - 2038, 2044-2045, (1994).13 addition, unlike chills happens. Near Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 283 697, 51 625, 1357 (1931). For reasons, isolated 26 activity. Simon & Schuster, N.Y. State Crime Victims Bd., 502 105, 112 501, 116 476 (1991); Arkansas Writers' Project, Ragland, 481 221, 227-231, 1722, 1726-1729, 95 209 Minneapolis Star Tribune Co. Revenue, 460 575, 1365, 295 (1983). Publishers compensate authors incentive toward expression.14 By denying incentive, induces working Government.15 27 absorbing time-consuming responsibilities legislators policymaking leave little opportunity research creative Such often invitations talk identities. contrast, rank- and-file depend messages. unlikely reduce significantly high-ranking long expense speaker relative available alternative remuneration. infra, __, 19. lower-paid, nonpolicymaking will inevitably diminish output. 28 Bd. Pharmacy Citizens Consumer Council, Inc., 425 748, 756-757, 96 1817, 1822-1823, 48 346 (1976). measure true cost burden, ignore risk deprive Melville Hawthorne.16 IV 29 majority takes place unable grounds immediate workplace disruption followed it. Cf., Waters, 1882. Instead, submits prohibited "reasonably deemed interfere service." 101, 570, (1947). 30 Mitchell upheld 7324(a)(2), partisan political classified employees, including, example, skilled mechanic Mint named Poole authority. explained "[t]here hundreds thousands influential policy determination Mr. Poole. Evidently feared cumulative morale induced participate actively." 570. Commn. 1939 reflected conviction rapidly expanding build invincible, perhaps corrupt machine." 565, 2890. equally 31 "to serve goal advancement performance, sure free pressure express tacit invitation vote chores curry favor superiors act out beliefs." 566, 2890-2891. 32 aimed protect rights, notably restrict rights.17 Like affects activity, hardly threaten liberty. effectively designed combat demonstrated ill effects activities. serves underlying This GS-16.18 Instead "cumulative effect" "menace competency service," 103, relies executives, together purported costs detecting violations policies. 34 As noted, defense abuses F.2d, 1278; F.Supp., 13.19 assume judges generate improper influence. not, extend assumption supervisor mechanics Mint, impair criteria judge staff. But can envision scant harm, resulting lecture reviews. 35 Rankin, 384, 2896-2897, 1888-1889. strange parenthetical reference "a 1991 amendment inserted "honorarium." excludes unless Government." supra, words, exists author's identity payor. taboo payor relationship decision provide Absent nexus, bargain appears likely. rule easier determinations. Brief 21-23. series, unambiguously reflects includes test. blanket 1.7 million convenience. 501 service. Both Commissions stressed importance defining close "potential honorarium." Those considered poses danger time.20 chose One argue occupy favored position constitutional firmament, exempt comprehensive income. Imposing off-duty assumed pose threat is, best, anomalous. 38 fact singles regulation heightens justification. Star, 583, 1370-1371. last Term Communications must-carry cable systems, "[w]hen defends redress prevent anticipated harms, 'posit existence disease sought cured.' demonstrate recited real, conjectural, alleviate direct material way." 2450. That dealt communication entities, logic well multitude reaches. Brandeis reminded us, "reasonable" harms. "Fear injury alone suppression assembly. Men witches burnt women. there ground fear evil result practiced." Whitney California, 274 357, 376, 47 641, 648, 71 1095 (1927) (concurring opinion).21 persuaded posited 39 attach significance limit article." 2636.203 job, sermons, fictional writings, competitions, countermanding recommendation inclusive appropriate. exclusions, course, task somewhat easier, "diminish credibility government's rationale" entirely jeopardizes Ladue, 2044. recognize defer judgments impropriety, weight powerful realistic servants. well. 40 These anomalies underscore conclusion: speculative benefits sufficient crudely crafted engage V 41 holding invalid carefully tailored been, approved overinclusive. Government.22 injunction obvious request outright reversal, upholding applies, first, party and, second, situations present. 42 agree suggestion—that although occasional entertain facial vindicate party's bound statute, see, Secretary Joseph H. Munson Co., 467 947, 965-967, 13, 104 2839, 2851-2852, 81 786 (1984), want need nonparties narrower fully litigants. Trustees University Fox, 492 469, 484-485, 109 3028, 3037-3038, 106 388 (1989). respondents—who GS-16—does require passing applicability percent offsets write. conceivably different thus presenting today.23 unnecessary adjudication issues, Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 346-347, 56 466, 482-483, 80 688 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring), therefore counsels determining officials' Third, recognized, tamper statute,24 strive avoid. 43 persuades reject second attempt redraft undesirable speaker's know accurately sense terse, 33-word statement exempted amendment, __; elaborate, 600-word later Department Defense military school faculty students ban;25 neither. process drawing proper statute's likely raise independent believe properly left drafting statute.26 44 affirms respondents, affirmed; reversed. remanded proceedings opinion. 45 ordered. 46 I aspects run afoul Amendment, separately reasons. emphasize understanding precedents, beginning (1968), culminating most recent application, (1994), conclusion. disagreement view paints too brush. time-tested balance, recently framework manner restrictions Under [Government], contrast prior decisions, presents threshold public, private, concern. off-hour employment—speech relate "internal office affairs" 149, 1691, 49 setting draws meaningful distinction ante kinds punishment discrete, unforeseeable disturbances. ante, There observation, rules, punishments, carry risks overinclusiveness underinclusiveness. ante/ex substitute case-by-case Pickering. circumstances employer prefer codification policies (which, incidentally, notice employees) ad hoc, on-the-job reactions standard fare cases. circumstances, acting bounds. difference, prohibiting being "rude customers," 1886, upbraiding sanctioning acts impudence. draw line view, overgeneralizes threatens undue interference mission employer," at___ (slip op., 12), 1887. 50 Given intrusiveness placed side scale balance. 115, 507-508, (1991), imposition financial burdens incentives speak. Comm'r 585, 1372, (observing burdensome taxes "can operate censor check critical comment"). certainly non-work-related class, doubtless inhibits gainsaid. advances categories support credited objectives salutary occasions. Election Right Work Comm., 459 197, 210, 552, 560-561, 74 364 (1982); Nat. Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 788, 26, 98 1407, 1422, 55 707 (1978); Buckley Valeo, 424 1, 26-29, 612, 638-640, 659 lend efforts put stop work-related wholly Perhaps recognizing this, maintains additional resisting evasion sparing resources. According apparently innocuous illicit purposes, difficulty inherent distinguishing mandates 52 Balancing difficult undertake insubstantial. argues outweigh costs. plurality observed "we consistently deference predictions harm used large." principle limits, recognize. magnitude intrusion rises, Connick, 150, 1692 ("[T]he State's discharge varies depending nature expression"); id., 151-152, (finding degree deference" where touched peripherally concern). "[i]n showing fact, disruptive punished." situation. 53 persuasive insufficiently weighty curbs promulgating relied reports blue-ribbon panels suggested prudence wide-ranging prohibition. problems, anecdotal otherwise, stemming rank-and-file report, therefore, tends substantiate argument, presumes rule. assuredly inspired worthy effort establish inhibition class. notion bare assertion laudable purpose justifies intrusions liberties. closest analogue after canvassing century concrete experience evils spoils system. FCC League Women Voters Cal., 468 364, 401 27, 3106, 3128 82 278 (1984) (noting "evolved over restrictive alternatives proved inadequate effective operation government"). 54 current ethical regime tend gravity problem abuse, least (OGE). 2044, detracts seriously convenience rationale, permits author publications (but publication) regulations, poems, poetry. 2636.203(d) compensated chapters books, piece article. aspect whenever decides act. patchwork lead strength broad, possesses leeway; restrain Constitution protect. prerogatives area stem public-serving someone contribute agency's begins say things detract operation, her." 1887-1888. exceeded limits latitude. empirical data pertaining lower-echelon suffice affected bars bear scale, members' propensity member applications. susceptible question—a harder view—whether overlooks nuance enjoins may, future, request: invalidation 45-46 central aim "could achieved urged government—by [that] employment"). 57 us. overbreadth "strong medicine," "employed sparingly resort." Broadrick Oklahoma, 601, 613, 2908, 2916, 830 (1973). "[i]t usual practice, consider generally desirable, proceed unnecessarily." (1989); New York Ferber, 458 747, 768, 102 3348, 3360, 73 1113 (1982) ("By focusing factual situation development rule, face 'flesh-and-blood' legal problems 'relevant adequate informed judgment' ") (footnotes broadly, people stand applied. Because, freely admit, objective as-applied challenge, 45-46, warrant venture into uncertain terrain. 58 dissent, unduly common appeal unconstitutional, then throw up hands despair delineating unconstitutionality. 38; Reply 15. On face, "series" reason why remedial line. 59 assumes invalidate no-nexus inconsistent intent strike portion hand. jurisprudence model clarity, occasions declared striking Grace, 171, 1702, 736 (1983), unlawful "parade, stand, move processions assemblages Building grounds," display therein flag, banner, device adapted bring party, organization, movement." 13k. Finding fora inadequately justified, sidewalks surrounding 183, 1710. Tennessee Garner, 471 105 1694, 85 (1985), invalidated state permitting police use 'all arrest' fleeing forcibly defendant deadly unarmed, nondangerous suspect. 1697-1698, 1707. Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 491, 2794, 86 394 obscenity "only word 'lust' normal sex." 504-505, 2802. 60 Brockett, "where overbroad purports punish, publish unprotected material[,] [t]he forthwith reaches far, intact." 504, Of "[p]artial contrary legislature passed inseverable known invalid." 506, 2803. itself, contained severability clause announcing circumstance" invalid. 14, opinions Grace Garner mention clauses, best implied severability. impermissible applications, implicitly legislatures issue—Congress Legislature Garner—would preferred statutes intact. "Congress' silence just that—silence —and severability." Alaska Airlines, Brock, 480 678, 686, 1476, 1481, 94 661 (1987). 61 below, "[s]ection contain clause, yields concerning 1271, dispositive; operative instead promulgated lawfully proscribe 684, 1479-1480; Stern, Separability Clauses Harv.L.Rev. 76, 82-83 (1937) (in dealing "whether body intend whatever constitutionally possible"). think answered affirmative here. severing intact Branches. Common suggests, confirms, targets. (describing floor debates continually referred "Members Congress" impetus reform). seems me clear barred examiners bar low-cholesterol cooking. capable functioning independently once excised. 1479-1480. sum, nonwork-related extent. djQ Chief whom THOMAS join, dissenting. 63 flawed respects. understates accorded justifications overstates actually deterred. strikes down handful appealing situations, deals suddenly shifts gears dissent. 64 1991, aftermath distinguished commissions, 65 66 anyone writing, penalize speaks writes; stricture effected compensation. evaluated York's "Son Sam" law, regulated accused convicted criminal's generated described crime. 108, 504. implicated "impose[d] content." 116, 508. Son Sam based, compelling narrowly drawn achieve end. 118, 509-510. meet overbroad. 123, 512. 68 based. Ante, 491 781, 791, 2746, 2753-2754, Renton Playtime Theatres, 475 41, 47-48, 925, 928-929, 89 (1986). result, specter control implicates concerns, review ability regulate 69 relinquish virtue 1734-1735, (1968); 140, 1686, emphasized, regulating 'differ citizenry general.' 1734). resolution competing 'a employees.' 1686 1734-1735). Just Term, explained: 70 "The then, this: achieving goals efficiently possible elevated subordinate sovereign large name efficiency. very goals, appropriate." conducting employers' disruption, 1887-1888 (plurality opinion). 'the discretion management personnel internal affairs.' 151, Arnett Kennedy, 416 134, 168, 1633, 1651, (1978) ( Powell, result)). principles activity.1 examined 9(a) taking 'any active campaigns.' 78, 558. 9(a)'s strictures industrial "[f]or anything Despite three-million "effective campaigns changes lives, fortunes, happiness," 107, 573 (Black, dissenting), "efficiency obtained participation politics workers," objection, 99, 569. 72 More later, again "unhesitatingly reaffirm[ed] holding," 2886, "neither invalidate[d] barring conduct employees," ibid. approach Act's struck "sustainable obviously limitations Act." "[p]erhaps w[ould] come realities life dispute matter. 567, 2891. protection only, concern.2 major thesis end Government—the impartial execution laws—it essential take formal parties, roles campaigns, hazards fair "it practicing justice, it, system eroded disastrous extent." safeguard impartiality effectiveness 95-96, 567-568; 564-567, Applying standards unreasonable. 2890; 1734. 76 ignores foremost prevention impropriety—by solely selected lowest ebb: religion; history; reviewed performances; wrote Undoubtedly represent 'employee[s]' 501(b)—would 'honoraria', 124-125. Nothing certification engaged discussed 6. artificially narrow prism members, focus discussion. 77 unknown individuals conclude preventing Committee, 561, ("The elected representatives recognized"). 78 actors produce "evidence GS-16." 21.3 recognizes, 'have large.' 1886 opinion)). 79 Prior previous inadequate. (Dec.1988) 223. (Mar.1989) (hereinafter Wilkey Commission) echoed concerns: "We help inform encourage interchange sectors. perpetuating Honoraria camouflage entities gain favor. companies frequently deem business enhance access them. "Although aware judiciary, Commission—in alleviating equitable across government—joins 253-254 "recognize[d] banning officials," 254, ailment medicine bitter needed cure patient." covered employees,4 "regard[ed] affairs unacceptable extreme, believe[d] [the not] wait until unspecified date harmful practice." 257.5 83 concedes "payments highranking influence," concludes theory distinction—that articles—is flawed. Tax examiners, bank level 84 Furthermore, Mitchell: "There suggestion barred, constitutionally, 'narrowly selectively define punish specific conduct.' presence administrative, ranks bad. Whatever differences employ detail concerned. Whether them, Congress." 102, obliged infinitely filigreed deal subtle 2886; 87 dismisses irrelevant, rights. indeed, characterization violation dismissal office. 79, 559. Since campaign surely secured abstract 15, 632, (1976) (per curiam ), said wished purposes become requests politics. regarding administering propriety supports validity. "[t]he employer." 1888. regime, determinations, 257 [is] extreme"). subsequent GAO confirmed, gave differing interpretations requirement, "approved questionable appropriateness compensation." Report, observes retained enforce. "series articles," undermining basic purpose, demonstrates sensitive inhibiting responsibility ensuring impartially impropriety. 12-13. paid. deliver smaller 90 prototypical message expressed employee.6 ___ 1-2) 1882-1883, opinion) (analyzing termination statements employer); 381-382, 2895-2896, (1987) attempted assassination President Reagan); 1732 letter board). exempts V); paramount justified (1973); irony regain trust, resurrect bureaucracy previously felt compelled replace equip resources determinations compels conclusion supra. expect, Parts I-IV, inapplicable postal worker others ilk. Part V, fairly O. Henry ending, holds Court: applied" regardless violated remedy.7 13k (1982 ed.), prohibited, "among things, 'display [of] movement' building grounds." 172-173, 1704 13k). insufficient 13k's carrying signs, banners, devices building. sidewalks." Ibid.; Edenfield Fane, 507 113 1792, 1795, 123 543 (1993) (striking solicitation CPAs "business context"). applications __.8 acknowledge litigation "be employment." 45-46. Consistent affirm syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. Stat. 1716, 101 1978, 1824. income, honoraria, codified Schedule, abbreviated "GS," schedule 5332 ed. 447, 5318 note original 1761, 1762. 1993, $11,903 (GS-1, step 1) $86,589 (GS-15, 10). 5332. OPM, mean GS-9, $27,789 $36,123. Personnel Management, Demographic Profile Workforce "even plaintiffs eyebrow," citing editor Voice America GS-7 "tax examining assistant" universality citizens' subjection Service." 1275-76. plaintiff Employees' complains hindered chapters' newsletters. 58-62. "As summarized testimony Senate Committee Governmental Affairs, allowed writer lower following questions negatively: "(1) Is offered focuses specifically responsibilities, programs? "(2) family employee? information imparted? "(4) wishes capacity? "(5) Were materials appearance?" S.Rep. 29, 102d Cong., 1st Sess., (1991). While amorphous (such purporting probe motive honorarium's offeror), difficulty, hypothesize thumb constrain discretion." 1276-1277. Judge Sentelle maintained constitutional. He objected remedy. majority's severance relating "nothing legislation," 1296 quotation marks omitted), reluctance "better 1298. A. Turner, Hawthorne: Biography 170-187 (1980); N. Arvin, 259-260 (1950); G. Allen, Solitary Singer: Critical Whitman 319-321, (1985); Merwin, Life Harte 33-34 (1911). fired President. Satisfied kill President, protected, firing 386-387, 392, 2897-2899, 2901. dissent regard onerous "is Post, teacher's persistent advocacy board, cf. ibid., exhortation life, (1987), disrupted deters enormous quantity uttered, interests. decades ago, three-Justice invoked vagueness challenges Lloyd-LaFollette 7501(a) (1970 cause promote [civil] 160-161, 1647-1648, (1974). stood misdeeds, false defamatory co-workers. accusation bribe Amendment." 158-159, 1646. cited September 30, 1992, 1,680,516 grades GS-1 GS-15. proposition self-evident accept Samuel Johnson's cynical comment: 'No man blockhead ever wrote, except money.' J. Boswell, Johnson LL.D. 302 (R. Hutchins 1952). Several indicated compel discontinue 46, 50-51, 55, 66, 69, 74. newspaper refused publishing respondent's 78. recovery reported complicate recovering expenses, creating 55-56, 65, 74-75, 81, 84, 88. authors' familiar masterworks survive currently administered. Besides exempting fiction poetry coverage, language clear. fiction, both. Singer, 41-55 (discussing Whitman's nonfiction writing). Arnett, 159, 1647 (Lloyd-LaFollette myriad performing widely disparate tasks protection"). Accounting (GAO) Office, Chairman, Subcomm. Services, Post Comm. Employee Conduct Standards: Some Outside Activities Present Conflict-of-Interest Issues (Feb.1992) Report); 22-23. 545 1988 1990. 8. third matter, 58. Report's conclusions exclusively "that focused agencies' and/or duties." 13-14. examples instances real (a chemist physicist) consulting jobs. Its pages job. Portending reliance, primary appeared subtopic "Legislative Branch" section. (Dec.1988). heavily Reports defending 501(b). 3-5, 19-20. "[W]e done already happened. 1692-1693, deferred 100-101, 569-570, employee-protective rationale proscriptive Deferring pernicious encroach unacceptably Amendment's protections. Conservative Political Action 470 480, 498, 1459, 1469, 455 (1985) (statute restricting "exchange uncoordinated expenditures remain[ed] hypothetical possibility more"). Branches believed Branch, still branches. 1279. courts necessarily him. request, reverse Appeals' court's said: cannot, technical intended 'officer employee' beyond branch. branches, 542 Authorization Fiscal Year 2413-2414. condemns refusal rewrite notes banned displays around sidewalks. 180-83, 1708-1710, Drawing intimately familiar, settled principles, 180, 1708-1709, simple lines overly sent signals new drawn, invasion domain. Ex parte Curtis, 371, 381, 232 (1882), giving evident "promote 373, 384. decisive regulate, necessary, 96, (1947) supra ). 'us[ing] [their] authority coerce body.' 79-80, 560 ch. 404). Ironically, engages unsupported factfinding replete observations "[w]ith work," "[b]ecause disruption." flat alternative, highest diverse across-the-board harsh." 258. discusses refute (citing Subcommittee Report)). audited controls 2. exhibited "overly permissive policies," "five violate gain," Nine eleven standard-of-conduct conflict-of-interest statutes." 18. fanciful example terminating agrees 11, neutrality factors evaluating reasonableness employer's (1973) imposed groups, points view. Nor beliefs, anyone's polls"). Lost shuffle Peter Crane, behind 23, does. rewritten longer condemn 26. tailor match selective analysis.

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