Document: 127 S. Ct. 2618 (2007) Deborah MORSE et al., Petitioners, v. Joseph FREDERICK. No. 06-278. Supreme Court of United States. Argued March 19, 2007. Decided June 25, *2621 Kenneth W. Starr, Los Angeles, CA, for petitioners. Edwin Kneedler, the States as amicus curiae, by special leave Court, supporting Counsel Record, Rick Richmond, Eric Hagen, Kirkland & Ellis LLP, Petitioners. Steven R. Shapiro, Catherine N. Crump, ACLU Foundation, Jonathan B. Miller, New York, Douglas K. Mertz, Mertz Law Office, Juneau, Alaska, Jason Brandeis, Alaska Anchorage, Respondent. *2622 Chief Justice ROBERTS delivered opinion Court. At a school-sanctioned and school-supervised event, high school principal saw some her students unfurl large banner conveying message she reasonably regarded promoting illegal drug use. Consistent with established policy prohibiting such messages at events, directed to take down banner. One student among those who had brought eventrefused do so. The confiscated later suspended student. Ninth Circuit held that principal's actions violated First Amendment, student could sue damages. Our cases make clear not "shed their constitutional rights freedom speech or expression schoolhouse gate." Tinker Des Moines Independent Community School Dist., 393 U.S. 503, 506, 89 733, 21 L. Ed. 2d 731 (1969). same time, we have "the in public are automatically coextensive adults other settings," Bethel Dist. 403 Fraser, 478 675, 682, 106 3159, 92 549 (1986), "must be `applied light characteristics environment.'" Hazelwood Kuhlmeier, 484 260, 266, 108 562, 98 592 (1988) (quoting Tinker, supra, 733). these principles, hold schools may steps safeguard entrusted care from can encouraging We conclude officials this case did violate Amendment confiscating pro-drug suspending responsible it. I On January 24, 2002, Olympic Torch Relay passed through on its way winter games Salt Lake City, Utah. torchbearers were proceed along street front Juneau-Douglas High (JDHS) while was session. Petitioner Morse, principal, decided permit staff participate an approved social event class trip. App. 22-23. Students allowed observe relay either side street. Teachers administrative monitored students' actions. Respondent Frederick, JDHS senior, late day. When he arrived, joined his friends (all but one whom students) across watch event. Not all waited patiently. Some became rambunctious, throwing plastic cola bottles snowballs scuffling classmates. As camera crews by, Frederick unfurled 14-foot bearing phrase: "BONG HiTS 4 JESUS." Pet. Cert. 70a. easily readable Principal Morse immediately crossed demanded taken down. Everyone complied. told report office, where him 10 days. explained because *2623 thought it encouraged use, violation policy. Juneau Board Policy 5520 states: "The specifically prohibits any assembly . advocates use substances minors. ." Id., 53a. In addition, 5850 subjects "[p]upils events trips" conduct rules apply during regular program. 58a. administratively appealed suspension, District Superintendent upheld it, limiting time served (8 days). memorandum setting forth reasons, superintendent determined displayed "in midst fellow students, hours, activity." 63a. He further "was disciplined `disagreed' message, appeared advocate drugs." 61a. continued: common-sense understanding phrase `bong hits' is reference means smoking marijuana. Given [Frederick's] inability unwillingness express credible meaning phrase, only agree countless others advocating drugs. political. legalization marijuana religious belief. displaying fairly silly usage activity, benefit television cameras covering Relay. potentially disruptive clearly inconsistent school's educational mission educate about dangers drugs discourage use." 61a-62a. Relying our decision concluded permissible Frederick's "speech action intrudes upon work schools." 62a (internal quotation marks omitted). Education suspension. then filed suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, alleging board rights. sought declaratory injunctive relief, unspecified compensatory damages, punitive attorney's fees. granted summary judgment ruling they entitled qualified immunity infringed court found interpreted usea "directly contravened Board's policies relating abuse prevention." 36a-38a. Under circumstances, "Morse authority, if obligation, stop 37a. reversed. Deciding acted "school-authorized activit[y]," "proceed[ing] basis expressed positive sentiment use," nonetheless punished without demonstrating gave rise "risk substantial disruption." 439 F.3d 1114, 1118, 1121-1123 (2006). *2624 right display so "clearly established" reasonable Morse's position would understood unconstitutional, therefore immunity. 1123-1125. certiorari two questions: whether wield banner, and, so, liable ___, 722, 166 559 resolve first question against no occasion reach second.[1] II outset, reject argument caseas has every authority address question. See 22-23 (Principal Morse); 63a (superintendent); id., 69a (school board); 34a-35a (District Court); F.3d, 1117 (Ninth Circuit). occurred normal hours. It sanctioned "as trip," 22-23, district's expressly provide pupils "approved trips subject district conduct." administrators interspersed charged supervising them. band cheerleaders performed. standing school, toward making plainly visible most students. cannot "stand activity claim school." There uncertainty outer boundaries when courts should school-speech precedents, see Porter Ascension Parish Bd., 608, 615, n. 22 (C.A.5 2004), facts. III cryptic. doubt offensive some, perhaps amusing others. To still others, probably nothing all. himself claimed "that words just nonsense meant attract cameras." 1117-1118. But viewing interpretation one. declaration, sign, hit' *2625 widely referring marijuana." 24. She believed "display construed personnel, parents witnessing use"in 25; ibid. ("I members group put felt [school] displaying. material advertises promotes drugs"). Morse. least interpretations demonstrate sign advocated First, imperative: "[Take] bong hits ."a equivalent, "smoke marijuana" "use drug." Alternatively, viewed celebrating use"bong [are good thing]," "[we take] hits"and discern meaningful distinction between outright advocacy promotion. Guiles Marineau, 461 320, 328 (C.A.2 2006) (discussing present describing "a banner"). gains plausibility given paucity alternative meanings might bear. best come up "meaningless funny." 1116. dissent similarly refers sign's "curious," post, 2643, "ambiguous," ibid., "nonsense," 2644, "ridiculous," 2646, "obscure," "silly," 2649, "quixotic," "stupid," Gibberish surely possible one, dismissing meaningless ignores undeniable mentions "credible uncontradicted explanation messagehe wanted get television." Post, 2649. description motive banner; what says. going fulfill ambition appearing unfurling presence teachers Elsewhere opinion, emphasizes importance political need foster "national debate serious issue," 2651, suggest speech. even argues conveys sort message. Contrary dissent's suggestion, 2650-2651, over criminalization possession. IV thus becomes may, consistent restrict may. made "First rights, applied environment, available students." U.S., 733. involved wear black armbands protest Vietnam War. learned plan adopted wearing armbands. several *2626 wore suspended. 504, sued, claiming been violated, agreed. suppressed unless will "materially substantially disrupt discipline 513, essential facts quite stark, implicating concerns heart Amendment. engage speech, using "disapproval hostilities truce, views known, example, influence adopt them." 514, Political course, "at core designed protect." Virginia Black, 538 343, 365, 123 1536, 155 535 (2003). interest discerned underlying "mere desire avoid discomfort unpleasantness always accompany unpopular viewpoint," "an urgent wish controversy which result expression." 509, 510, That enough justify banning silent, passive unaccompanied disorder disturbance." 508, This Court's next 549. Matthew Fraser delivering before employed called elaborate, graphic, explicit sexual metaphor." 678, 3159. Analyzing Appeals disruption, disciplining Fraser. 679-680, reversed, holding "School entirely within imposing sanctions response offensively lewd indecent speech." 685, mode analysis clear. attuned content Fraser's citing "marked `message' [Fraser's] 680, also reasoned boards determine "what manner classroom inappropriate." 683, Cf. 689, 3159 (Brennan, J., concurring judgment) ("In case, ensure orderly manner. suggestion attempted regulate disagreed express"). decide case. For purposes, distill basic principles. demonstrates settings." Had forum outside context, protected. Cohen California, 15, 91 1780, 29 284 (1971); 682-683, however, circumscribed *2627 environment." Second, set absolute. Whatever approach employed, certainly "substantial disruption" prescribed 271, 4, 562 (disagreeing proposition there "no difference Fraser," noting based showing disruption). recent concerned "expressive activities parents, perceive bear imprimatur 562. Staff newspaper sued chose publish articles. analyzed favor evidence disruption classwork discipline. 795 F.2d 1368, 1375 (C.A.8 1986). "educators offend exercising editorial control style school-sponsored expressive long related legitimate pedagogical concerns." 273, Kuhlmeier does believe bore imprimatur. nevertheless instructive confirms both principles cited above. acknowledged "even though government censor similar And, like rule restricting speech.[2] Drawing cases, Fourth context "while children assuredly `shed gate,' nature appropriate Vernonia 47J Acton, 515 646, 655-656, 115 2386, 132 564 (1995) particular, requires easing restrictions searches authorities ordinarily subject." Jersey T.L. O., 469 325, 340, 105 83 720 (1985). Vernonia, 656, 2386 ("Fourth less than Fourteenth different elsewhere. ."); Pottawatomie Cty. Earls, 536 822, 829-830, 122 2559, 153 735 (2002) ("`special needs' inhere context"; *2628 "[w]hile schoolchildren shed enter schoolhouse, elsewhere; `reasonableness' inquiry disregard schools' custodial tutelary responsibility children") 2386; citation internal Even more point, recognize deterring "importantindeed, compelling" interest. 661, 2386. Drug cause severe permanent damage health well-being young people: years physical, psychological, addictive effects severe. Maturing nervous systems critically impaired intoxicants mature ones are; childhood losses learning lifelong profound; grow chemically dependent quickly adults, record recovery depressingly poor. And course drug-infested visited users, entire body faculty, process disrupted." 661-662[, 2386] (citations Just five ago, wrote: problem Nation's youth hardly abated since 1995. fact, suggests grown worse." 834, 5, 2559. remains today. generally 1 National Institute Abuse, Institutes Health, Monitoring Future: Survey Results Use, 1975-2005, Secondary About half American 12th graders used illicit drug, third 10th one-fifth 8th graders. 99. Nearly four past month. 101. 25% schoolers say offered, sold, property year. Dept. Health Human Services, Centers Disease Control Prevention, Youth Risk Behavior SurveillanceUnited States, 2005, 55 Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report, Surveillance Summaries, SS-5, p. 19 (June 9, 2006). Congress declared part job educating provided billions dollars support state local drug-prevention programs, Brief Amicus Curiae 1, required receiving federal funds Safe Drug-Free Schools Communities Act 1994 certify prevention programs "convey [is] wrong harmful." 20 7114(d)(6) (2000 ed., Supp. IV). Thousands throughout countryincluding JDHShave aimed effectuating 17-21. Those know peer pressure single important factor leading drugs," likely norms appear tolerate behavior. 840, 2559 (BREYER, concurring). Student teachers, poses particular challenge working protect abuse. *2629 "special environment," governmental stopping abusereflected myriad boards, including JDHSallow regard warned prohibit "undifferentiated fear apprehension disturbance" mere viewpoint." danger here far palpable. concern prevent issue here, embodied policy, 92-95; 53a, extends well beyond abstract controversy. Petitioners urge us broader proscribable "offensive" term Reply 14-15. think stretches too far; read encompass fit definition "offensive." After all, much perceived some. offensive, Although accusing doing "serious violence Amendment" authorizing "viewpoint discrimination," 2645 (opinion STEVENS, J.), concludes "it targeted viewpoint discrimination unique setting," 2646. Nor understand falls short inviting "imminent" lawless action. 2646 ("[I]t rigid imminence requirement ought relaxed schools"). recognizes issues close instead enjoy 2643. Stripped rhetorical flourishes, then, constitutes promotion view does. contrary relatively narrow justifies sounding bugle. * principals difficult job, vitally suddenly unexpectedly actor acton spot. promoted usein policyand failing act send powerful charge, how require contributes dangers. remanded proceedings opinion. ordered. THOMAS, concurring. today decides *2630 join full. write separately my standard (1969), Constitution. states "Congress shall law abridging previously observed, originally sorts speech; instead, "[t]here certain well-defined narrowly limited classes punishment never raise Constitutional problem." Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 571-572, 62 766, 86 1031 (1942); Cox Louisiana, 379 536, 554, 85 453, 13 471 (1965). view, history education understood, schools. colonial exclusively private, proliferated early 1800's. By ratified become common. Reese, America's Public Schools: From Common "No Child Left Behind" 11-12 (2005) (hereinafter Reese). If having free-speech expected 19th-century respected enforced them.[1] They not. A During era, private tutors offered opportunities children, managed classrooms iron hand. Butts Cremin, History Culture 121, (1953) Butts). schooling arose, part, poor afford Kaestle Vinovskis, Apron Strings ABCs: Parents, Children, Schooling Nineteenth-Century Massachusetts, 84 Am. J. Sociology S39, S49 (Supp.1978). Because initially created substitutes schools, developed 1800's, doubted government's ability did. Like counterparts, places freewheeling debates exploration competing ideas. Rather, instilled common values" taught them self-control. Reese 23; A. Potter G. Emerson, Schoolmaster: Manual 125 (1843) ("By contributes, insensibly, generate spirit subordination lawful power self-control, habit postponing indulgence greater future D. Parkerson Parkerson, Emergence Countryside 6 (1998) Parkerson) (noting activists, Benjamin Rush, "help[ed] innate selfishness individual"). values presenting ideas *2631 strict 274-275. behavior considered disrespectful wrong. 65 idleness, talking, profanity, slovenliness). Rules etiquette enforced, courteous demanded. 40. meet objectives, absolute obedience. C. Northend, Teacher's Assistant Hints Methods Discipline Instruction 44, 52 (1865) consider judiciously governed, order prevails; strictest sense propriety manifested towards teacher, each other. omitted)).[2] short, earliest taught, listened. commanded, obeyed. rely solely persuade; relied maintain order. B Through legal doctrine loco parentis, enforce rules, order.[3] Rooted English law, parentis governed obligations Blackstone, Commentaries Laws England 441 (1765) ("[A parent] delegate parental life, tutor schoolmaster child; portion parent committed viz. restraint correction, necessary answer purposes employed"). Chancellor James Kent noted acceptance 19th century. 2 Kent, *205, *206-*207 ("So person child delegated instructor, better accomplish purpose education"). 1837, principle schools: "One sacred duties train qualify becoming useful virtuous society; duty effectually performed command obedience, stubbornness, quicken diligence, reform bad habits teacher substitute parent; exercise duties, *2632 invested power." State Pendergrass, N.C. 365-366, (1837). Applying judiciary reluctant interfere routine business administration, allowing Sheehan Sturges, 53 Conn. 481, 483-484, 841, 842 (1885). Thus, schooling, considerable discretion disciplinary matters: "To th[e] desirable ends [of teaching self-restraint, civic virtues], master necessarily discretionary power. must govern pupils, slothful, spur indolent, restrain impetuous, stubborn. give commands, punish disobedience. What punishments imposed, largely master, none defined board." Patterson Nutter, 78 Me. 511, 7 274 (1886).[4] review shows well. Courts routinely preserved interests goals. Vermont corporal "Old Jack Seaver" Lander Seaver, 32 Vt. 114, (1859). follows: "[L]anguage scholars stir subordination, heap odium disgrace master; writings pictures placed evil corrupt language, images thoughts frequent school; acts tend directly impair usefulness welfare master. consent universal custom deemed offences. Such preservation order, decency, decorum 121. Similarly, California Appeal expulsion criticized administration unsafe building "because possibility fire." Wooster Sunderland, 27 Cal. 51, 52, 148 P. 959 (1915). appropriate, stated, intended discredit humiliate eyes tended 55, P., 960. Likewise, Missouri "rule forbade profane language [and] quarrelling" reasonable, Deskins Gose, Mo. 485, 487, 488 Indiana distracting demonstrations breach deportment." Vanvactor State, 113 Ind. 276, 281, 15 N.E. *2633 341, 343 (1888).[5] almost way. merely imposition excessive physical punishment. area, split. line specified wholly malice injury. E.g., Boyd 88 Ala. 169, 170-172, So. 268, 269 (1890) (allowing liability "punishment inflicted immoderate excessive, induced malice, wickedness motive"). Another intervene excessive." Lander, 124. lines struck excessively harsh; questioned substantive Sheehan, A., 842; Gardner 632, 635 (1853); Anderson 40 Tenn. 455, 456 (1859); Hardy James, 5 Ky. Op. 36 (1872).[6] effected sea change extending traditional bounds. arose Determining new "[W]here finding engaging forbidden materially requirements operation prohibition sustained." 509[, 733] Accordingly, student's process, fundamental speak minds (or armbands)even matters objectionable. Ibid. ("[The school] able show caused something viewpoint"). Black dissented, criticizing "subject[ing] *2634 country whims caprices loudest-mouthed, maybe brightest, 525, emphasized "[T]axpayers premise age learn, teach." 522, "surrender[ed] system 526, Of Tinker's reasoning conflicted judiciary's role relation parentis. Perhaps reason, scaled back standard, rather aside ad hoc basis. 677, contained holding. permitted objectionable ("A place sexually monologue unsuspecting audience teenage students"). Signaling partial break left regulation schools.[7] (1988), exception activities. characterized newspapers curriculum" "[e]ducators over" forms expression. refused standard. 272-273, Instead, activities, regulations "reasonably Today, creates another exception. continue distance ourselves neither overrule nor offer operates Ante, 2626-2629. am afraid jurisprudence now says except don'ta continuously litigation administrators. petitioners prevail simpler reason: Constitution free education, seriously suggested "freedom speech" encompasses Early total obedience respect *2635 deferred violating rules. Several points clear: (1) treated identically; (2) imposed limits types (3) tremendous violations dealt slurs profanity. criticism withstand scrutiny. repeatedly impose substance played analysis. weightier matters, instance creating fire hazard. Wooster, Cal.App., 52-53, 959. Yet find safety. sure, faces challenges faced idea treating century little imperative requiring allow Parents Hamilton Regents Univ. Cal., 293 245, 262, 197, 79 (1934) ("California drafted attend university. seeking insisting excluded 197 (Cardozo, seek redress legislatures; home them; simply move. challenged process. democratic regime, substituted judicial oversight day-to-day affairs attempt ground original Amendment.[8] *2636 malleable standard: inhibit "substantially interfere[d] 733 Inherent application calls interference 517-518, (Black, dissenting) (arguing fact Historically, districts calls. usurped judiciary. utterly ignored (including one) create exceptions central premise. confusion fixing returning accept subscribe Kuhlmeier's alternative. Local courts, "legitimate" relat[e]" interests. prophet son prophet," proved prophetic. name undermined "Once society judgment, trusted defiance, disrespect, daily occurrences many Dupre, Should Have Rights? Keeping Order Schools, Geo. Wash. L.Rev. 49, 50 (1996). look example: asserts utter "[g]ibberish," ante, 2625, open call elevate impertinence status protection farcical indeed "surrender dissenting). erodes realm adding patchwork dispense altogether, opportunity, ALITO, KENNEDY joins, (a) goes observer interpret (b) provides restriction plausibly commenting issue, wisdom war legalizing medicinal 2649 (STEVENS, correctly reaffirms recognition *2637 correct permits threatens concrete disruption," out in-school regulated actors settings. mean grounds already recognized holdings addition allows use; vulgar middle program; essence own is, articles publication official organ. restrictions. endorse broad advanced interferes "educational mission." 21; 6. manipulated dangerous ways, occurs. mission" elected appointed faculty. result, missions inculcation whatever groups. include solidarity soldiers families outlaw mission. world peace ban buttons expressing troops signified approval war. license suppress disagreement expressed. argument, therefore, strikes very invaluable beneficent institutions, are, after organs State. agents State; stand shoes parents. fiction pretend authorityincluding hearto authorities. assume delegation somehow strips Most realistically, choice occurs school. treat officials, relevant nongovernmental *2638 altering usual rest theory characteristic setting. threat safety attendance expose threats otherwise face. Outside ways monitor persons associate. threatening individuals situations. guidance, movements choose spend severely restricted. compelled quarters harm. Experience danger. settings, strongly presents violence. Brandenburg Ohio, 395 444, 1827, 23 430 (1969) (per curiam). due features leads step actual erupts. 508-509, Speech serious, obvious. details, grave reaches permits. extension. JUSTICE BREYER, dissenting part. merits. bars monetary damages more. Resolving presented unwise unnecessary. focuses specific defined: May when? surrounding views. school-related banners (with kind irrelevant inappropriate message) attention seems unlikely undermine hold, does, "schools *2639 use" (and "schools" "restrict use") matter. 2622, 2629. holding, restrictions, raises host concerns. that, theoretically drugs, authorize viewpoint-based Illegal substances. underage consumption alcohol? Moreover, unclear regarding extends. conversation lunch period glaucoma sufferers smoke relieve pain? deprecating commentary antidrug film shown school? mixed other, political, content? If, "LEGALIZE BONG HiTS," receive majority's rule, "encouraging 2622 (emphasis added). laws existing laws. Legal instances alike. "drug satisfying why sui generis. harmful true, itself constitute harms. real war, metaphorical declined opportunity draw subject-matter-based lines. West Bd. Barnette, 319 624, 63 1178, 87 1628 (1943) (holding recite Pledge Allegiance World War II). decline avoids pitfalls, risk significant efforts unfurls (carrying effort capture cameras? Nothing? conduct, setting, pale. official, knowing adolescents often test acceptable behavior, (for offending classmates) establish gone far. Neither (confiscating banner) reason ("drug speech"). lawyers police officers; demand fully intricacies jurisprudence. majority rightly out, circumstances quick decision. 2629 spot"). consideration terms infra, 2623-2626. All regardless outcome determination, unusually portentous. *2640 must. instances, "guidance" future. guidance today's makes "restrict" "illegal "take steps" "safeguard" encourages 2625. Beyond "steps" outings, explain "restrict[ions]" be. Nor, narrow, easy practically valuable guidance. known schoolteachers judges; degree flexible respond challenges; relationship special. detailed supervision becomes, engender disputes Consequently, larger numbers courthouse. wishes turn judge's chambers into office. resolving fractious question, presents, "qualified immunity." 23-28. fits perfectly saying diminish bringing adverse consequences identified. More importantly, adhere obligation avoiding unnecessary questions. Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 347, 56 466, 80 688 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring) ("The pass although properly record, disposed of"). defense immunity" employee employee's violates statutory known." Harlow Fitzgerald, 457 800, 818, 102 2727, 73 396 (1982). "all incompetent knowingly law." Malley Briggs, 475 335, 1092, 271 (1986). Qualified applies entitles confrontation confrontation, indicated armband War, school;" *2641 containing elaborate metaphor; contributions newspaper, imminent disruption. None governs "clear" 1124 because, Circuit's cf. sponsored hence guide inquiry. 1123. unlike Circuit, described tests complex apply. See, e.g., ex rel. 326 ("It discrimination"); Baxter Vigo Corp., 26 728, 737 (C.A.7 1994) (pointing "cast extent retain setting"). Indeed, divides reverses determination) prior unclear. relative ease ground, thereby deciding underscores lift "order battle" decisionmaking lower Saucier Katz, 533 194, 201-202, 121 2151, 150 272 (2001). Saucier, wrote courts' "first alleged." 200, 2151. Only violation, abandon Saucier's order-of-battle rule. Scott Harris, 550 1769, 1780-1781, 167 666 concurring); Brosseau Haugen, 543 596, 160 583 (2004) Sometimes unnecessarily questions, wasting resources. poorly presented. immunize incorrect review. longstanding "not questions constitutionality adjudication unavoidable." Spector Motor Service, Inc. McLaughlin, 323 101, 105, 152, 101 (1944). last point warrants amplification. produce differing opinions. Were immunity, unanimous, concedes 2643 J.). "cardinal restraint" "if more, *2642 more." PDK Labs., Enforcement Admin., 362 786, 799 (C.A.D.C.2004) (Roberts, judgment). tempts binds resist temptation. bind Regardless, generated commentators judges. Leval, Judging Constitution: Dicta Dicta, 81 Y. U. Rev. 1249, 1275 (2006) (calling puzzling misadventure dictum"); Dirrane Brookline Police Dept., 65, 69-70 (C.A.1 2002) (referring uncomfortable exercise" depend kaleidoscope yet developed"); Lyons Xenia, 417 565, 580-584 (C.A.6 2005) (Sutton, While justified contending develop, 201, overstated overruling prohibited judges passing judge-made procedural stare decisis weak. Payne Tennessee, 501 808, 828, 111 2597, (1991) ("Considerations decisis" weakest "involving evidentiary rules"). Finally, Members misguided. County Sacramento Lewis, 523 833, 859, 118 1708, 140 1043 (resolving "question unresolved"); Bunting Mellen, 541 1019, 1025, 124 1750, 158 636 (SCALIA, denial certiorari) ("We determinations insulated else drop pretense ordering case"); 210, 2151 (GINSBURG, two-part imposes holds potential confuse"); Siegert Gilley, 500 226, 235, 1789, 114 277 (KENNEDY, ("If plain plaintiff's allegations insufficient asserted, reverse tell trial appellate first"). end failed experiment now. remaining objection alone. plaintiff damages; injunction expunge suspension records. actions, relief. Wood Strickland, 420 308, 314, 6, 95 992, 43 214 (1975). With claim, constitutionality, conceivably, remains. doubt, remain. request, reviewed 10-day superintendent, *2643 turn, reduced eight days appeal. independent supported official's instruction, failure office "defiant behavior," "belligerent attitude" finally reported. 65a. "were" "concede" protected,. remainder excused." 66a. upshot board's refusal erase non-speech-related grounds. counsel oral "would pursue" relief prevailed Tr. Oral Arg. 46-48. probability request Ashwander, 466 concurring), remand initial consideration. SOUTER GINSBURG join, dissenting. barely mentioned sheds revelatory motives (JDHS). residents rare chance national television. explained, curious message"BONG JESUS"to crews' attention. nationwide evaluation remove attention-grabbing proclaimed "Glaciers Melt!" pulling protecting exposure ambiguous statement oblique demands indeed, laboring uncontroversial propositions: first, settings 2625-2628; second, valid terribly interest, 2627-2629. protected unquestionably willing pressing deter supports JDHS's willful "advocates *2644 minors." gross non sequitur unremarkable propositions remarkable conclusion persuade anyone anything. protects neither, upholdingindeed, laudinga disagreed. December 1965, engaged controversial "divided few ever have." 524, Having planned symbol opposition country's involvement Vietnam, calling armband. "[t]he banned disturbance petitioners." censorship feared disturbances. disturbances school," justification lack foundation Harlan cast anti-disruption proving motivated "by for permitting dominant opinion." Two cardinal animate Harlan's dissent. particularly depends speaker, rigorous burden justification: "Discrimination presumed unconstitutional. targets matter, speakers subject, blatant. Viewpoint egregious form discrimination. abstain regulating motivating ideology perspective speaker rationale restriction." Rosenberger Rector Visitors Va., 819, 828-829, 2510, 700 (citation *2645 punishing someone provoke harm seeks avoid. 449, curiam) (distinguishing advocacy" "incitement action"). However modify affirmed continuing vitality. viewpoint. Certainly sustained" omitted)). recognized, "regulation remote Saxe College Area 240 211 (C.A.3 2001) (Alito, J.) fashions trivializes rests. ("[S]chools [may] use"). invites stark unabashedly ascribed 25a viewpoint, incidentally, disavowed, 28. Unlike Tennessee Athletic Assn. Brentwood Academy, 551 2489, 168 166, 2007 WL 1773196 (2007), 2637-2638 (ALITO, upholds meted listener's (or, likely, misunderstanding) speaker's "If bedrock Government finds disagreeable." Texas Johnson, 491 397, 414, 109 2533, 342 (1989). "promoting 2629, comes nowhere action." Brandenburg, 447, 1827. Encouraging increase likelihood listener try censorship: "Every denunciation tends measure Condonation enhances probability. Expressions add Advocacy law-breaking heightens further. however reprehensible morally, denying incitement indicate *2646 upon." Whitney 357, 376, 47 641, 71 1095 (1927) No maintains (much ridiculous sign) vanishingly small category consequences. advocacy, borrow Holmes, "ha[s] starting conflagration." Gitlow 268 652, 673, 45 625, 69 1138 (1925) (dissenting opinion). rejects twin foundations unusual scourge environment Whether sensible matter carving uniquely harsh treatment inimical Amendment.[1] 2650-2651. sake concededly adequately "any minors "is tutelary, exercised adults," 655, (1995), conventional restricted "incit[e] action," (1986) ("[T]he settings"). thing obscure theme party subjectively and reasonablythinks tantamount advocacy. Masses Publishing Co. Patten, 244 F. 535, 540, (S.D.N.Y.1917) (Hand, sharply "agitation, such" direct unlawful conduct). paramount between, hand, non-disruptive expresses preferred conduct. gloss general tolerant speech: "Students disturbed constitutionally guaranteed assemble peaceably opinions, privately publicly, infringe premises *2647 program offends 53a; 2623 part). absolutely banner's paraphernalia "willful[ly]" anyone's interfered programs.[2] face, wide berth "to [his] opinions" amount "advoca[cy]" hypothesis, insofar scrupulously preserves adequate space stake, "sweep[s] great variety indefinite characterization" "too application." Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 60 900, 1213 (1940). Therefore, insisted connection consequences, supposed stands otherwise-abstemious demanding showing, punts. Figuring punts tricky; [it] employ[s] clear," 2626. occasion, deferring "reasonable" advocacy.[3] times, thinks advocacy.[4] Either way, indefensible. defers ostensibly abdicates responsibility. beliefs parties, otherwise, dictated strange narrowest 447-448, *2648 perceptions deserved protection.[5] peculiar alien law. Abrams 250 616, 17, 1173 (1919), conviction Russian "rebels, revolutionists, anarchists," 617-618, 17 omitted), leaflets distributed "incite, provoke, encourage resistance States," 617, Holmes' dissentwhich emphatically carried daynever inquired reasonableness States' effort. ridiculed judgment: "nobody suppose surreptitious publishing leaflet unknown man, immediate opinions hinder success arms appreciable tendency so." 628, 17. Thomas Collins, 516, 315, (1945) Rutledge, overturned union organizer restraining forbidding exhorting workers. doing, workers organizer's "pu[t] mercy varied hearers consequently inference drawn intent meaning." 315. 543, (1965), vacated civil leader's disturbing peace, Baton Rouge sheriff "deem[ed]" "appeal sit counters `inflammatory.'" asked sheriff's in-person, on-the-spot "reasonable." obscene profane; satisfied pervasive innuendo studentsindeed, person." Bose Corp. Consumers Union Inc., 499, 104 1949, 502 (1984) ("[I]n raising examination whole sure intrusion field expression" omitted)).[6] *2649 independently JESUS" objectively amounts words, suchthat refutes itself. feeble divine hidden strong that. 2625 (positing mean, alternatively, "`[Take] hits,'" "`bong thing],'" "`[we hits'"). televisionis intend said anything.[7] takes imagination "cryptic" (the characterization, mine, 2624-2625) slanting Admittedly, drugs) dumb. brains gate, dumb notion actually average dumbest implausible. believes proscribed novelty position, articulates point. wedged obtuse marijuana, subtle ambiguous. abundant precedent, announces today, implicated, tie speaker," Federal Election Comm'n Wisconsin Right Life, 2652, ___ L.Ed.2d 1804336, *17 "when defining qualifies functional equivalent censorship," 2674. go strained reading quixotic Among things, hamhanded, categorical deaf unfettered debate, high-school use.[8] *2650 S.Ct. ("[Students] confined sentiments officially approved"). stupid censorship, everywhere forgiven zipping mouths lest 2639 Consider, too, draws alcohol evenhandedly "substances (expressly "`drugs'" alcoholic beverages"). tragic consumptiondrinking causes fatal accidents misuse marijuanathe comparable preventing reasoning, whenever mentioning beer, anything risky teenagers? hard flying "WINE SiPS bannerwhich pro-alcohol messagethe breathtaking sweep would. began silly, nonsensical inventing cloth contain latent identified categories deserving othersfighting obscenity, commercial few. Rather reviewing discussing categories, mention personal recollections influenced profoundly remembered stages, opinion" unpatriotic, treason. prosecution demonstrated Grant Park 1968 Democratic Convention Chicago, Dellinger, 472 340 1972), *2651 vilification vocal opponents Julian Bond, Bond Floyd, 385 116, 339, 235 (1966). armbands, "start founded. force insistence "our risk; hazardous freedomthis openness that strength independence vigor Americans live permissive, disputatious, society." know, then-dominant etched stone. Reaching further, current general, antimarijuana reminiscent beverages ordinary commerce, condemned moral fervor ensuing slowly rapid shift Americans' progressed state-by-state years. 1920's 1930's secretly thousands law-abiding patrons bootleggers speakeasies, literally millions users marijuana,[9] voters uses product,[10] lead me wonder disapproval silencing Surely experience wary dampening suggesting however inarticulatelythat tax persevere futile entirely. answers discussion countervailing Whitney, 377, 641 Abrams, 630, (Holmes, dissenting); 512, minority's be, full frank costs benefits wiser suppression unpopular. respectfully NOTES [1] BREYER reaching inadequate us. shields money only. 13. BREYER's proposed dispose claims, claims remain unaddressed. around problem, hypothesizes suspensionthe target relief"may grounds." hypothesis below, raised belied [2] inconsistency Commission 1804336 overlooks Kuhlmeier: "applied 3159; discussed above, Life. until ratification constitutions included guarantees expanded. Const., Art. I, 9 (1849); (1818); (1816). college level, students: model fostered institutional faculty inside classroom. lived worked vast array one-sided mirrored situation emphasis hierarchical stemmed medieval Christian theology privileges afforded university corporation." Note, 44 Vand. 1135, 1140 (footnote [3] My elementary secondary education. age. Stevens Fassett, 281 (1847) "liab[le] punishment" "present[s] pupil, received instructed master"); Mizner, Iowa 248, 250-252 (1876) (same); 484, 843 (1885) (same). 18 minor 1117, (C.A.9 2006), inconsequential. [4] Cooper McJunkin, 290, 291 (1853) (stating seem cling despotism discarded else"). [5] being requested teachers. Helston, Ill.App. 300, 305-307 (upholding boy information defaced building); Sewell Defiance School, Ohio St. 89, complete allotted time). [6] nominally, continued applicability 654, ("Traditionally unemancipated self-determination. guardians. them" omitted)); 684, ("These obvious acting childrenespecially captive audiencefrom explicit, indecent, [7] Distancing approach, quoted Black's Tinker. 686, [8] "[i]t argued gate. unmistakable years." bold chiefly relies Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 67 1042 (1923) (striking German). However, 396, note "challenge [has] State's prescribe curriculum institutions supports." 402, 625. operated notably, chief Lochner 198 45, 25 539, 49 937 (1905), 399, criticized, Haulers Assn., Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Management Authority, 1786, 655 (2007). nker Pierce Society Sisters, 571, 1070 (1925). either. 571. really enforced. Consider difficulty monitoring conversations cafeteria. "on premises," contemplates. separate applicable "social trips," 58a, event" prom) "class trip." regarded" use"); 2624 (explaining "Principal one"); (asking 2636 ("[A] drugs"); (observing "[w]e view" "Frederick's unprotected ascertaining shield liability, 202, (2001) relevant, dispositive determining officer confronted"). interpreter listener, legislature. "[d]eference legislative finding" inherently "cannot limit stake," function commands statute legislation consonant Constitution." Landmark Communications, Virginia, 435 829, 843, 844, 1535, (1978); 378-379, declaration] preclude enquiry whether, conditions existed validity Whenever alleged invaded, defendant exist danger; danger, any, imminent; apprehended stringent interposed legislature"). legislatures deference "clear danger," 379, blithely defer principal. affirming "for Relay." 62a. Alaska. 1975 Alaska's constitution possess ounces Ravin 537 P.2d 494 (Alaska). 1990, undo voting ballot initiative recriminalizing Initiative Proposal 2, §§ 1-2 (effective Mar. 3, 1991), 11 Stat., 872 (Lexis referendum tested. subsequently Noy P.3d (Alaska 2003). meantime, decriminalizing 1998 Ballot Measure 8 (approved Nov. 1998), 882 (codified Stat. 11.71.090, 17.37.010-17.37.080), rejected decriminalized possession amnesty convicted marijuana-related crimes, 2000 (failed 7, 2000), 886. [9] Gonzales Raich, 545 21, 31, 2195, 162 (citing estimate spent $10.5 billion purchase marijuana"). [10] 2195 nine purposes").

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