Document: 496 U.S. 444 110 S.Ct. 2481 L.Ed.2d 412 MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF STATE POLICE, et al., Petitionersv.Rick SITZ, al. No. 88-1897. Argued Feb. 27, 1990. Decided June 14, Syllabus Petitioners, the Michigan State Police Department and its Director, established a highway sobriety checkpoint program with guidelines governing operations, site selection, publicity. During only operation to date, 126 vehicles passed through checkpoint, average delay per vehicle was 25 seconds, two drivers were arrested for driving under influence of alcohol. The day before that operation, respondents, licensed drivers, filed suit in county court seeking declaratory injunctive relief from potential subjection checkpoints. After trial, at which heard extensive testimony concerning, among other things, "effectiveness" such programs, applied balancing test Brown v. Texas, 443 47, 99 2637, 61 357, ruled State's violated Fourth Amendment. Court Appeals affirmed, agreeing lower court's findings has "grave legitimate" interest curbing drunken driving; programs are generally ineffective and, therefore, do not significantly further interest; that, while checkpoints' objective intrusion on individual liberties is slight, their "subjective intrusion" substantial. Held: Petitioners' consistent Pp. 448-455. (a) United States Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, 96 3074, 49 1116—which utilized upholding checkpoints detecting illegal aliens—and supra, relevant authorities be used evaluating constitutionality program. Treasury Employees Von Raab, 489 656, 109 1384, 103 685, designed repudiate this Court's prior cases dealing police stops motorists public highways thus, does forbid use here. 448-450. (b) A Amendment "seizure" occurs when stopped checkpoint. See 556, 3082. Thus, question here whether seizures "reasonable." P. 450. (c) There no dispute about magnitude of, States' eradicating, problem. courts below accurately gauged "objective" intrusion, measured by seizure's duration investigation's intensity, as minimal. However, they misread concerning degree generating fear surprise. "fear surprise" considered natural one who been drinking over prospect being but, rather, surprise engendered law-abiding nature particular stop, made roving patrol operating seldom-traveled road. Here, selected pursuant guidelines, uniformed officers stop every vehicle. resulting constitutionally indistinguishable upheld Martinez-Fuerte. 451-453. (d) also erred finding failed part test. This factor—which actually describes "the seizure advances interest"—was meant transfer politically accountable officials choice reasonable alternative law enforcement techniques should employed deal serious danger. Moreover, mistakenly relied Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 1391, 59 660, provide basis review. Unlike case involves neither random nor complete absence empirical data indicating would an effective means promoting roadway safety. And there justification different conclusion than where ratio aliens detected approximately 0.5 percent, compared 1.6 percent detection conducted 1 demonstrated experience. 453-455. 170 Mich.App. 433, 429 N.W.2d 180 (1988), reversed remanded. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, WHITE, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. BLACKMUN, J., concurring judgment, post, p. 455. BRENNAN, dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, joined, 456. STEVENS, BRENNAN joined Parts I II, 460. Thomas L. Casey, Lansing, Mich., petitioners. Stephen Nightingale, Washington, D.C., U.S., amicus curiae supporting petitioners, special leave Court. Mark Granzotto, Detroit, respondents. [Amicus Curiae Information pages 446-447 intentionally omitted] Chief Justice REHNQUIST poses violates Fourteenth Amendments Constitution. We hold it therefore reverse contrary holding Michigan. 2 director, pilot early 1986. director appointed Sobriety Checkpoint Advisory Committee comprising representatives force, local forces, state prosecutors, University Transportation Research Institute. Pursuant charge, advisory committee created setting forth procedures 3 Under set up sites along roads. All passing briefly examined signs intoxication. In officer intoxication, motorist directed location out traffic flow check motorist's driver's license car registration if warranted, conduct tests. Should field tests officer's observations suggest driver intoxicated, arrest made. permitted resume journey immediately. 4 first—and date only—sobriety operated Saginaw County assistance Sheriff's Department. 75-minute checkpoint's each seconds. Two detained testing, third drove without stopping pulled observation influence. 5 On respondents complaint Circuit Wayne Each "is . regularly travels throughout his automobile." Complaint, App. 3a-4a. pretrial proceedings, petitioners agreed implementation pending outcome litigation. 6 inter alia, Art. 1, § 11, Pet. Cert. 132a. appeal, affirmed reason, did consider 445, 180, 185 (1988). Supreme denied petitioners' application we granted certiorari. 493 806, 46, 107 15 (1989). 7 To decide trial performed derived our 357 (1979). As described Appeals, testin volved "balancing state's preventing accidents caused drunk effectiveness achieving goal, level individual's privacy checkpoints." Mich.App., 439, N.W.2d, 182 (citing Brown, 50-51, S.Ct., 2640). three-prong correct determine plan." 182. 8 characterized respect factors "a grave "ineffective" Id., 440, 183, 184. According court, record disclosed disturbing findings, within context analytical framework prescribed determining less intrusive traditional arrests. 185. 9 seek defend judgment favor insisting proper method analysis. Respondents maintain analysis must proceed probable cause or suspicion, rely support language decision last Term 685 said Raab: 10 "[W]here serves governmental needs, beyond normal need enforcement, necessary balance expectations against Government's interests impractical require warrant some individualized suspicion context." 665-666, 1390-1391. 11 argue showing "beyond need" criminal appropriate, have need. 12 But perfectly plain reading cited discussed approval earlier 1116 (1976), way highways. approving aliens, 13 Petitioners concede, correctly view, Tr. Oral Arg. 11; see 3082 ("It 'seizures' meaning Amendment"); Brower Inyo, 593, 597, 1378, 1381, 628 (1989) (Fourth "when termination freedom movement " (emphasis original)). thus becomes "reasonable" 14 It important recognize what inquiry about. No allegations us unreasonable treatment any person after actual detention 559, 3083 ("[C]laim exercise discretion locating subject post-stop judicial review"). pursued courts, instant action challenges generally. address initial associated preliminary questioning officers. Detention more testing may satisfaction standard. 567, 3087. can seriously problem eradicating it. Media reports alcohol-related death mutilation Nation's roads legion. anecdotal confirmed statistical. "Drunk annual toll 25,000[*] same time span nearly million personal injuries five billion dollars property damage." W. LaFave, Search Seizure: Treatise 10.8(d), 71 (2d ed. 1987). For decades, "repeatedly lamented tragedy." South Dakota Neville, 459 553, 558, 916, 920, 74 748 (1983); Breithaupt Abram, 352 432, 77 408, 412, 448 (1957) ("The increasing slaughter now reaches astounding figures battlefield"). 16 Conversely, weight bearing scale—the measure checkpoints—is slight. reached similar subjected brief aliens. 3083. virtually difference between levels effectuation these types checkpoints, seem identical save questions might ask. intensity investigation, 444, 17 With perceived "subjective" motorists, however, found See, 449. first minimize scene. generate motorists. so because demonstrate approaching aware option make U-turns turnoffs avoid basis, deemed subjective unreasonable. 443-444, 184-185. 18 believe stop. clear Comparing cases, said: 19 "[W]e view light intrusion—the concern even fright lawful travelers—is appreciably [United v.] Ortiz, [422 891, 95 2585, 45 623 (1975),] noted: '[T]he circumstances surrounding search far those attending roving-patrol Roving patrols often operate night roads, approach frighten At stopped, he visible officers' authority, much likely frightened annoyed intrusion. 422 894-895 [95 2587-2588].' 20 id, constitutional purposes 21 went proposed Based record, concluded test, failure materially discounted strong implementing think wrong point well. 22 upon based evaluation "effectiveness," factor interest." 51, 2640. passage Experts science disagree several methods apprehending preferrable ideal. analysis, alternatives remains unique understanding responsibility for, limited resources, including finite number 's rather general reference interest" derived, makes clear, line culminating supra. Neither Martinez-Fuerte 660 (1979), providing review, 442, supports searching examination undertaken court. 23 disapproved Highway Patrol effort apprehend unlicensed unsafe vehicles. observed evidence indicated safety "[i]t seems common sense percentage all road very small will order find operator large indeed." 659-660, 1399. involved "kind standardless unconstrained [which] evil discerned previous insisted official circumscribed, least extent." 661, 1400. "cast doubt permissibility roadside truck weigh-stations inspection regulatory others." 663, n. 26, 1401, 26. 24 challenge stops. entered resulted drivers. Stated percentage, alcohol impairment. addition, expert witness testified experience whole, arrests around stopped. 441, 183. By comparison, consolidated showed 0.12 554, 3081. (considering occasion single vehicle) percent. ibid. "record provides picture San Clemente checkpoint," ibid., sustained constitutionality. sum, driving, extent system reasonably advance interest, weighs accordingly reversed, remanded proceedings inconsistent opinion. 26 ordered. 27 judgment. 28 concur 29 fully agree lamentations dangers posed almost everyone drug. add comment remind years since, Perez Campbell, 402 637, 657, 91 1704, 1715, 233 (1971), writing three others (no longer Court) myself, noted "slaughter Nation exceeds wars," "little genuine takes place midst daily travel routes." Tate Short, 401 395, 401, 668, 672, 130 (1971) (concurring statement). Appendix my Perez, 1722, effect period 1900 1969 motor-vehicle deaths exceeded wars. little figures, supplemented decades since 1969, disclose discouraging comparison. am pleased, course, stressing tragic aspect American life. ante, 451. 30 whom MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 31 Today, rejects policy cars inspect intoxication specific intoxicated. stopped." Ante, reasons stated STEVENS II misapplies undervaluing exaggerating roadblocks prevent driving. 3087, (1976) (BRENNAN, dissenting). write separately express few additional points. 32 majority creates impression engages seizures, "dealing highways." case. most possess judged reasonable. Dunaway New York, 442 200, 209, 2248, 2255, 60 824 Only "substantially intrusive," id., 210, 2255 added), typical rule replaced roadblock sufficiently reasonableness judged, presence cause, but gravity concerns served seizure, severity interference liberty." searches vain acknowledgment reason employing minimally intrusive. 33 Indeed, reads minimal ends begins into reasonableness. Once establishes "slight," 451, asserts explanation "weighs program." ignores fact class searches, required Government prove had e.g., 1400, (1979); Brignoni-Ponce, 873, 882-883, 2574, 2581, 607 (1975); Terry Ohio, 392 88 1868, 1883, 889 (1968). Some core component protection arbitrary government action. 654-655, 1396; 577, 3092 dissenting) ("Action merely whatever pique curiosity antithesis standards requisite avoiding abuse harassment"). purpose potentially subjects harassing police. hoped taking step, carefully explain how plan fits framework. 34 Presumably, purports draw suspicionless seizures. demonstrates, 463-466, 471-472, issue reliance unavailing. comparable follow justifies abandoning requirement suspicion. explained justified "[a] tends too heavy allow particularized study given enable identified possible carrier aliens." 557, 3082-3083. difficulty individuals alcohol, intuitively obvious exists. That easier 469-471, insufficient "The needs stand constant tension Constitution's protections certain exercises power. precisely predictability pressures counsels resolute loyalty safeguards." Almeida-Sanchez States, 413 266, 273, 93 2535, 2540, 37 596 (1973). Without proof cannot develop impaired struck protecting "minimally intrusive" 35 immense social cost slight government's efforts losses. hazard guess today's received favorably society, willingly suffer consensus technique laudable never touchstone 36 protect intrusions whose utility 'balancing test' privacy; addition grant zone could breached 'reasonable' requirements probable-cause standard met. Moved momentary aroused fears, officials—perhaps supported citizens—may tempted sacrifice liberty citizen assuage evil. rests principle true society depends recognition 'the right let alone—the comprehensive rights valued civilized men.' Olmstead 277 438, 478 [48 564, 572, 72 L.Ed. 944] (1928) (Brandeis, dissenting)." Jersey T.L.O., 469 325, 361-362, 105 733, 753, 83 720 (1985) part) (footnote omitted). face "momentary evil" today abdicates role protector fundamental right. respectfully dissent. 38 join 39 usually unannounced location. Surprise crucial method. began shortly midnight lasted until a.m. period, participating questioned 124 unsuspecting innocent drivers.1 is, known many during engaged activities. indicate net infinitesimal possibly negative. 40 unconstitutional impede community's remarkable progress reducing highways.2 Because patterned older Maryland, judge gave attention Over years, Maryland 125 checkpoints; 41,000 143 persons (0.3%) arrested.3 man-hours devoted operations inconceivable higher rate achieved conventional means.4 Yet, assumed involve increase year, figure still insignificant comparison 71,000 1984 alone. 97a. 41 Any relationship reduction fatalities substantial impact rates. pointed out: "Maryland comparing statistics using control county. results decreased ten whereas saw eleven decrease; fatal fell sixteen three, doubled year." 443, 184 42 considerations, evident announced 2640, overvalues undervalues citizen's random, investigatory assumes "virtually difference" routine permanent, fixed controlled precedents condemning purposes. (1973); cf. Carroll 267 132, 153-154, 280, 285, 69 543 (1925). 43 * critical preceded fair notice effected Wyman James, 400 309, 320-321, 381, 387, 408 (1971); 3083, (1976); Tyler, 436 499, 513-514, 98 1942, 1951-1952, 56 486 (1978) (STEVENS, judgment). why border search, indeed permanent opportunity entirely, prepare limit, her privacy. 44 available temporary both depend element discovers unexpected familiar startled distressed. She infer, correctly, simply "business usual," likewise again discretionary focus pass chosen point. distinction interior approved casts immediate majority's argument, distinguishing mobile former, room either timing stop—it landscape. latter case, although frequently hours darkness weekends (because blood apt road), extremely broad exact placement roadblock.5 46 significant kind license, identification papers immigration easily standardized unlimited detain slightest ruddy complexion, unbuttoned shirt, bloodshot eyes, speech impediment suffice prolong detention. just consumed glass beer, sip wine, certainly burden demonstrating ability impaired.6 47 Finally, occur daylight hours, invariably night. followed interrogation cursory surely offensive daytime going tollgate. Thus thought Ortiz occurred 894, 2587. 48 These fears not, it, solely lot guilty. 452. abiding necessarily spotless, virtuous unlucky. Unwanted discomforting one's secrets stuff prosecutions. found—by prejudice misfortune—that encounters become adversarial unpleasant good grounds worrying elicit suspicious behavior. Being distressing terrifying, mildly happenstance turn severe. reasons, analogous instead to—and respects than—the investigative held Brignoni-Ponce Prouse. explained: "We detaining ordinary city street major bears greater resemblance permissible secondary near border. regard, note limited-access Border agents type 882-883 2581]; 894 2587, 623] (1975). assume physical psychological visited occupants documents moment occasioned patrol. Both entail signaling moving automobile pull side roadway, unsettling show authority. interfere movement, inconvenient, consume time. create anxiety." 1398. 50 produce challenged 51 productive mechanism justify entail. us, answered Given mechanisms available, adopted, unconvinced incremental contribution spot practice Amendment." 659, 52 unable persuasive analogy taken appellant, pedestrian, area El Paso, high incidence drug traffic" "looked suspicious." 49, 2639. He then convicted refusing identify himself aside conviction him lacked activity. stated: 53 "Consideration weighing 54 implicated undisputed.7 understand placed lesser value importance Texas crossings stake progeny.8 result formulation. 55 already explained, quite blithely asserting are, particularly take night, hallmark regimes ours;9 issue, amount nothing respective evaluations liberty, serious, albeit inevitable, source disagreement.10 position wholly indefensible. resembles business measures profits counting gross receipts ignoring expenses. indicates fraction stopped,11 absolutely represents resources patrols.12 zero, wholesale produced arresting intoxicated 57 adopted endorsed defer, 453-454. rely, does, 2487-2488, there. Colonel Hough, commander leading proponent admitted "very low." Record 87. Instead, Hough maintained mere threat sufficient deter drunk-driving reduce accident rate.13 took program.14 obviously, reduces crime pure deterrence punishing anybody; contrary, highly commendable. One cannot, efficacy crimes avoided. Perhaps wanting, 58 sparse differs markedly Powell's count 17,000 1973, 3081; represented benefit stake.15 Common sense, moreover, suggests checkpoints: smuggling impair ability, noticeably affect unlawful. Drunk-driving, unlike smuggling, absent produces thousands otherwise impossible precedent handful obtained resort hundreds citizens.16 III appears give Although author reiterate description "diaphanous," 666, 1403 (REHNQUIST, dissenting), implicitly adopts characterization. hand, places thumb looking benefits. tampering scales justice resultant tolerance policies alleviate "setting example" possibility prompts observations. First, objections apply host unquestionably permissible. threats human life pressing example, prospective airline passenger, visitor building, metal detector reveal firearm explosive. Permanent, nondiscretionary publicly facilities. concealed weapons obviously represent safety,17 suppose subway passengers detectors, long detectors passenger search.18 Likewise, condition access paying uniformly administered breathalyzer well keep off serve fastest dangerous traffic. procedure case: permanently fixed, users way, free choices neighborhoods targeted thoroughly searched. Random, firearms, drugs, belong, fundamentally category. play privacy, injecting none normally occur. imposition diaphanous intolerable tomorrow. Boyd 116 616, 635, 524, 535, 746 (1886). Second, elaborate, disquieting, publicity stunts. anybody, matter innocent, getting. shock feature: Lieutenant Cotten Police, defense witness, media coverage overwhelming. Quite frankly got benefits controversy checkpoints."19 Insofar seeks dramatize prevention accidents, heed SCALIA's screening program: 62 plausible explanation, Commissioner offered concluding sentence memorandum Customs Service employees announcing 'Implementation example country's struggle national health security.' 12. Or respondent's asserted: 'if agency seriously, agency's depends.' Brief Respondent 36. What better 'war drugs' front war invasion affront dignity? sure, chance harm employee use, world 'clean,' and—most all—will determination eliminate scourge society! unacceptable; impairment making point; symbolism, symbolism worthy abolition unlawful validate search." 686-687, 1401-1402, (dissenting opinion). 63 driven symbolic action—an Unfortunately, transfixed symbol—the illusory countless motorists—when eyes plainly marked 64 Statistical incorporated Steven's dissent declined 1982 1988. 460-461, 2, 467-468, Dept. National Traffic Safety Administration, Fatal Accident Reporting System 1988). departments experimented systems. instance, May 1986, 6a, program, December 1982. 84a. jurisdictions recently decided implement systems 1980's assessing present sole detail; observers. Nevertheless, calls having hand. 82-83. fatality 100 miles traveled steadily 5.2 1968 2.3 span, absolute decreased, steadily, 52,000 47,000 Transportation, 1988, Ch. (Dec.1989) (hereinafter Alcohol well: "Since 1982, crashes decreased. proportion estimated legally ([blood concentration] .10 greater) dropped 30% 24.6% 1982-1988 18%. fatally injured 43.8% 37.5% 1988—a 14% decrease. "During past seven age groups. drop continues year old group. NHTSA 28.4% teenaged drunk, 18.3% 1988." Overview, 2. improvements despite resistance—now ebbing last—to airbags passive restraints, dramatic reductions rate. Administration estimates 5,000 lives saved mandatory belt usage laws enact legislation—even though 50% obey laws. 4, 13. 80a-81a. roughly comparable. ex rel. Ekstrom Ct., 136 Ariz. 663 P.2d 992, 993 (1983) (5,763 driving); Ingersoll Palmer, Cal.3d 1321, 1327, 241 Cal.Rptr. 42, 743 1299, 1303 (1987) (233 screened, Garcia, 481 N.E.2d 148, 150 (Ind.App.1985) (100 operation); McLaughlin, 471 1125, 1137 (Ind.App.1984) (115 Deskins, 234 Kan. 529, 545, 673 1174, 1187 (Prager, (2,000 3,000 made, 140 consumed); Commonwealth Trumble, 396 Mass. 81, 85, 483 1102, 1105 (503 eight arrests, officers); Koppel, 127 N.H. 286, 288, 499 A.2d 977, 979 (1,680 intoxicated). sheriffs Macomb County, Kalamazoo counties combat opinions currently cars, combating utilizing locations consideration "previous week and/or Location Index data," 148a, "specific selection" following criteria: "1. citizens personnel. shall safe afford oncoming sight distance safely come "2. ensure minimum inconvenience facilitate direction "3. Roadway adjoining space portion necessary. "4. Consideration shown Appendixes 'A' 'B.' 149a-150a. criteria open-ended permit target wide variety locations. 107. inappropriate exaggerate relying outdated statistic tertiary source. quotation 1987 edition Professor LaFave's treatise, drawn 1983 review quotes House Report figures. Seizure 1987), citing Note, Curbing Drunk Driver Amendment: Constitutionality Roadblock Seizures, Geo.L.J. 1457, (1983), citing, H.R.Rep. 97-867, 7. BLACKMUN's citation, 455-456 (opinion judgment) own wider mark, usage. recent finds 1988 18,501 involving 4,850 exposure. Of category total (23,351) located student commentator embraced numbers, include sober person. They pedestrians bicyclists killed; account 2,180 persons. presumably intercept tipsy cyclists. 1; 5; 58. dissents touted detail. Almeida-Sanchez, 293, 2550, (1973), wrote: legal ports entry numerous recurring. If hope intercepting entrants maintaining credible deterrent, essential away borders, discover filter attempt move area. checks automobiles vehicular traffic." Then-Justice argued vein that: whole enforcing motor regulations remove demonstrates unlicensed." 1402. "It recall words Mr. Jackson, soon return Nuremberg Trials: 'These [Fourth rights], protest, second-class belong catalog indispensable freedoms. Among deprivations rights, cowing population, crushing spirit putting terror heart. Uncontrolled arsenal government.' Brinegar 338 160, [69 1302, 1313, 1879 (1949)] (Jackson, 273-274, 2540. Walters Assn. Radiation Survivors, 473 305, 371-372, 3180, 3215-3216, 87 220 opinion); Hudson 468 517, 556-558, 104 3194, 3216-3217, 82 393 (1984) Meachum Fano, 427 215, 229-230, 2532, 451 refers expert's "around percent," 455, entire together statistical points percentage. parked able Hough's included exchanges: "Q. true, your effectuating attempting effectuate Plan obtain numbers drivers? "A. correct. Is correct, you aware, states tried getting arrests? Yes, that's understanding. then, Colonel, don't intend get arrested? Deter them driving." 77a. knowledge, study, reviewed, lanes tool successfulness understanding." 82a. Are announcements indication [sic ] goal Well, role, sure. Certainly primary it? related accidents. It's stretch, program? rise technique, wouldn't you? know that." 88-89. informed Defendants obtained." 25. answer, "Deterrence information goals clearly checkpoint." Reply Petitioner 34. claim, directly controvert respondents' argument concession: Even grounds. "Dr. Ross' regarding low corroborated defendants' witnesses, Raymond Police." "Our recognized maintenance traffic-checking effectively substantiality identifies operations. 74-1560, pp. 19-20. highways; offer quick route interior. Routine inquiries smugglers succumb lure forces onto efficient heavily traveled, slowing vulnerable patrols. Cf. 883-885, 2581-2582. "A routes inland always particular, largely deterrent well-disguised regularly." 556-557, 3082-3083 Alcohol-related susceptible campaigns as, armed assault not. An victim: More killed themselves. 1. Skinner Railway Labor Executives' Assn., 602, 634, 1402, 1422, 639 ("[I]f conscious possibilities contributing factor, risk injury substances, unlikely loss employment behavior"). subtracts 10,210 themselves crashes, remain 8,291 somebody (this includes, stepped killed). 15, contrast, 1986 19,257 murders nonnegligent manslaughters. these, 11,360 committed firearm, another 3,850 sort knife. Justice, Sourcebook Criminal Statistics 337 From statistics, someone herself drive assailant driver. libraries, patron submit books, detector. 40. news integral follows: observed, haven't you, campaign regard crackdown you're implementing, positive effect? effect, yes. continue there? Yes. isn't attendant service placing newspapers story? television stories? You anticipate, haul, wane Have ever expect checkpoint? done SAVE Program CARE selective enforcement. Probably great has. question, gotten here? No." 91-92. Point Guidelines brochure describing operation. furnish effects consumption levels, detachable pre-addressed questionnaire." Trial Exhibit A, (Feb.1986). feature. 18.

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