Document: 489 U.S. 705 109 S.Ct. 1443 103 L.Ed.2d 734 Wayne T. SCHMUCK, Petitionerv.UNITED STATES. No. 87-6431. Argued Nov. 30, 1988. Decided March 22, 1989. Rehearing Denied May 15, See 490 1076, 2091. Syllabus Petitioner used-car distributor was charged with multiple counts of mail fraud. The indictment alleged that he purchased used cars, rolled back their odometers, and sold them to Wisconsin retail dealers at prices artificially inflated by the low-mileage readings, unwitting dealers, relying on altered resold cars customers prices, consummating transactions mailing title-application forms State behalf buyers. filed a pretrial motion dismiss ground latter mailings were not in furtherance fraudulent scheme and, thus, did satisfy element crime He also moved under Federal Rule Criminal Procedure 31(c) for lesser included offense jury instruction tampering an odometer. District Court denied both motions, after trial, returned guilty verdicts all counts. A Appeals panel initially ruled that, although satisfied crime, requested should have been given "inherent relationship" test, which considers one be another when facts as proved support inference defendant committed less serious exists between two offenses such relate protection same interests proof greater can generally expected require one. However, en banc rejected test favor "elements" whereby is necessarily within only elements form subset charged. Finding odometer are fraud, court affirmed petitioner's conviction. Held: 1. issue Such need not, petitioner contends, essential defraud, but sufficient so long they incident part scheme. Here, may contributed directly duping either or customers, necessary successful passage title turn perpetuation since failure would jeopardized relationship trust goodwill upon whose cooperation depended. Kann v. United States, 323 88, 65 148, 89 L.Ed. 88; Parr 363 370, 80 1171, 4 1277; States Maze, 414 395, 94 645, 38 603, distinguished. Pp. 710-715. 2. must utilized determining appropriate 31(c). 715-721. (a) Rule's language—which provides relevant "[t]he found charged"—supports application approach. That language suggests comparison drawn offenses—and therefore statutory question—whereas inherent approach mandates determination made reference conduct trial regardless definitions offenses. Furthermore, while true requirement greater, dispenses permi ting even if does invariably other, serve legislative goals. Moreover, implicitly equally available prosecution defense, approach—which delays whether sufficiently related until evidence developed—renders mutuality impossible. 716-718. (b) grounded history, demonstrates settled doctrine time promulgation thereafter, incorporated this established practice restating pre-existing law. 718-720. (c) Since involves objective, textual criminal statutes depend inferences introduced it far more certain predictable its than 720-721. 3. entitled instruction. includes knowingly willfully causing altered, any 721-722. 840 F.2d 384 (CA7 1985), affirmed. BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, STEVENS, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. SCALIA, dissenting opinion, BRENNAN, MARSHALL, O'CONNOR, joined, post, p. 722. Peter L. Steinberg, petitioner. Brian J. Martin respondent. Justice BLACKMUN Court. 1 * In August 1983, Schmuck, distributor, indicted Western 12 violation 18 U.S.C. §§ 1341 1342. App. 2 fraud common straightforward Schmuck then automobiles because readings. These car figures, who paid reflecting Schmuck's To complete resale each automobile, dealer from submit Department Transportation his customer. receipt prerequisite completing resale; without it, could transfer customer obtain tags. submission supplied frauds. 3 Before issue—the submissions automobile dealers—were 31(c)1 misdemeanor odometer, 15 1984 1990c(a) (1982 ed.).2 motions.3 After divided Seventh Circuit reversed remanded case new trial. 776 1368 (1985). Although claim judgment acquittal scheme, instructed tampering. applied so-called what constitutes purpose See, e.g., Whitaker, 144 U.S.App.D.C. 344, 349, 447 314, 319 (1971). Under offense, This arises offense. Ibid. Applying concluded protect against entails proving underlying conduct.4 held rational him tampering, yet acquitted too tangential requirements 5 vacated decision ordered reheard banc. 784 846 1986). On rehearing, vote, (1988), defining offenses, adopted instead "elements test" Id., 387. "is terms history 31(c), comports constitutional notice potential conviction separately charged, permits degree certainty harmonizes concept 'necessarily included' where double jeopardy." 388. convicted showing actually absent showing. quali y accordingly, required instruct odometer-tampering 6 We granted certiorari, 486 1004, 108 1727, 100 192 define further scope statute resolve conflict among Circuits over apply purposes 31(c).5 II 7 "The federal purport reach frauds, those limited instances use mails execution leaving other cases dealt state law." 95, 151, 88 (1944).6 however, Pereira 347 1, 8, 74 358, 362, 98 435 (1954). It "incident scheme," ibid., "a step [the] plot," Badders 240 391, 394, 36 367, 368, 60 706 (1916). 8 principally Court's decisions Kann, supra, 1277 (1960), 603 (1974), argues predicated affirmatively assists perpetrator carrying out cannot mailing, here, routine innocent itself, furthering occurs has come fruition, merely tangentially counterproductive creates "paper trail" discovered. Brief 20-24. disagree characterization present description applicable 9 begin considering devising executing defraud based purchase least readings provided tampered odometers. fairly large-scale operation. Evidence indicated had employed man known "Fred" odometers about 150 different cars. Tr. 102-103. marketed these number several whom consistent basis period years. 33-34, 53. Indeed, subject indictment, "P Sales," "Southside Auto." 6-7. Thus, "one-shot" operation single isolated dealer. His ongoing venture. success venture depended continued harmonious relations with, good reputation among, smooth flow customers. 10 circumstances, we believe title-registration fruition effected transfers title. abrupt halt lost faith able resell obtained him. resales relationships naturally various parties. registration-form title, As noted earlier, Pereira, U.S., S.Ct., 363, satisfies here fit description. Locklear, 829 1314, 1318-1319 (CA4 1987) (retail obtaining documents through furthers wholesaler's scheme); Galloway, 664 161, 163-165 1981) (same), cert. denied, 456 1006, 102 2296, 73 1300 (1982); cf. Shryock, 537 207, 208-209 (CA5 1976) (local motor vehicle department's applications headquarters retailer's scheme), 429 1100, 97 1123, 51 549 (1977). 11 Once full flavor appreciated, critical distinctions three delimited Parr, Maze—are readily apparent. defendants corporate officers directors accused setting up dummy corporation divert profits into own pockets. caused checks payable them. cashed local banks, mailed drawee banks collection. supply charges. defendants' reached fruition. "It immaterial them, consummation how bank credited check collect bank." 94, 151. inter alia, having fraudulently gasoline variety products services unauthorized credit card issued school district charges purportedly oil company invoices payment, payment check. Relying went collecting payment. 393, 1184.7 13 Later, allegedly stole roommate's card, headed south winter jaunt, food lodging motels along route placing stolen card. charge fact knew motel proprietor invoice bill owner defendant's checked motel. no way mailings; determined victims ultimately bear loss. 402, 649. 14 served function Maze. intrabank Maze involved little post-fraud accounting schemes, long-term bore ultimate contrast, rationally means indifferent purchasers. reliance our prior limiting simply misplaced. extent draw previous general rule themselves misapprehends precedents. specifically acknowledged "innocent" mailings—ones contain false information—may element. 390, 1183. cases, routine. Carpenter 484 19, 28, 316, 322, 275 (1987) (mailing newspapers). 16 reject contention someday contribute uncovering question times conceived time, later, hindsight, prove return haunt guarantee will risk free. Those pr ceed peril. 17 For reasons, agree III part: charged." above, Courts tests determine when, Rule, Circuit's original formulated 314 (1971): 19 "[D]efendant invoke adduced caveat there 'inherent' i.e., interests, nature crimes, though invariably, presented commission offense." F.2d, 319. 20 "traditional," test. "necessarily included" unless Where requires 21 now adopt noted, application. It, moreover, past which, endorsing particular involving instructions.8 22 First, wording conclusive, supports speaks statutorily defined, appropriately conducted question, mandate, definitions. inclusion greater. While requirement, inclusion: 23 addition, approach, practice, manner inconsistent language. "may guilty" distinguishing request instructions Government defendant. words, equal measure defense prosecution.9 Yet, 24 ancient law Constitution answer contained brought Ex parte Bain, 121 10, 781, 786, 30 849 (1887); Stirone 361 212, 215-217, 270, 272-273, 252 (1960); Miller, 471 130, 140, 142-143, 105 1811, 1817, 1818-1819, 85 99 stricture right U.S.App.D.C., 350-351, 320-321. Were prosecutor placed jeopardy. Specifically, if, mandated permit delayed developed constitutionally indictment. Accordingly, defendant, effect waiving notice, circumstances restraint prevent seeking identical instruction.10 contains thereby gives charge. preserves implicit 25 Second, adoption amended 1944, most recent derivative common-law permitted find "guilty Beck Alabama, 625, 633, 2382, 2387, 392 (1980). Over century ago, Congress codified trials, providing Act June 1872, ch. 255, § 9, Stat. 198, "in causes offence indictment." intended restatement "pre-existing Keeble 412 205, 208, n. 6, 93 1993, 1995, 844 (1973). prevailing informs understanding terms, specifically, limitation 26 clear. Giles 860 (CA9 1944), decided just months before Ninth unequivocably propriety instruction: " 'To impossible commit first lesser.' 861, quoting House State, 186 Ind. 593, 595-596, 117 N.E. 647, 648 (1917). consistently courts. Henry, Me. 561, 564, 57 A. 891, 892 (1904), Supreme Judicial Maine practically universal prevails, verdict being establish element." California People Kerrick, Cal. 46, 47, 77 P. 711, 712 stated: "To fact, embraced legal definition thereof." Marshall, 206 Iowa 373, 375, 220 N.W. 106 (1928); ex rel. Wachowicz Martin, 293 N.Y. 361, 364, N.E.2d 53, 54-55 (1944). Stevenson 162 313, 839, 40 980 (1896), reflects "practically universal" practice. There, holding murder manslaughter predecessor engaged careful former. 320, 841. short, decades thereafter. law," practice.11 27 Third, Because ev dence sides know advance plan strategies accordingly. objective promotes judicial economy clearer permitting appellate courts decide wrongly refused reviewing entire evidentiary record nuances inference. 28 rife confusion. general" "necessarily" case, noted: "These layers analysis add uncertainty case: issues resolved, correct resolution questions judgment, attendant probability differ." 389-390. illustrated here. judges split 1373-1375 (opinion concurring part). context rules procedure, predictability desired, prefer standard applying IV 29 Turning 386. There fraud: (1) devised intending devise (or perform specified acts), (2) executing, attempting execute, acts). altered. Knowingly Compare 1990c(a). V conclude Appeals, 31 ordered. 32 O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 33 today affirms 1341. defrauded purchasers altering selling resale. continuing one, some bought time. When agency. concludes dealers' compliance constitute depended." Ante, 714. my view cases' "for executing" 34 "to post office carry [fraudulent schemes] effect." Durland 161 306, S. t. 508, 511, 709 (1896); 389, 1182, (1960). remedy conduct, jurisdictional hook, reaches "those (1944) (emphasis added). incurs liability. violated point, happens occur—nor predictably occurs. 35 cashing send collection, violate statute, cash . fruition," "immaterial scheme." 400-402, 648-649, declining converted wrongdoer received goods merchants, forward squarely point chose defrauding (to cars), obvious victim been, respect pocketed dealer's money. transaction concerned, inconsequential merchant ever forwarded company. Nor force avoided combining individual saying, does, purchaser occurred stopped trusting future transactions. (That conclusion seems me non sequitur, I accept sake argument.) establishes, most, technically consummated mechanical conveyance occurred. But indispensability mailings, strictly enough statute. example, officials embezzled tax funds course years, plainly officials' bills sent (and thus payments received) every year. 388-392, 1182-1184. Similarly, pay bills—a enable card—we 392-393, 1184-1185. 37 escape precedents case. Assuming concluding pass threatened said taxes Parr. And think particularly significant proposed theory uses. ongoing, urged, difference. "[T]he receive bonuses profits," "the clearing ordinary [the scheme's] prosecution." dissenters agreed. "[T]his," said, "was last Smooth clearances lest intermediate dividends interrupted conspirators called disgorge." 96, 151 (Douglas, dissenting). argument, subsequent banking concerned incidental collateral it." equivalently What Frankfurter observed almost ago remains true: adequate during life matter susceptible geometric determination." 397, 1187 (dissenting opinion). All reason adhere closely possible cases. done today, create problems tomorrow. 1986, felony. Pub.L. 99-579, 3(b), 3311, ed., Supp. V). furthered "matter trial." 12. ins ruction 28. raised objections again close Government's 55-59. denied. 60. order beyond reasonable doubt 189. told reasonably foreseeable. 191. One judge, part, agreed panel's 1373. Compare, (1971) (inherent test), 783 1449, 1451 1986) Campbell, 652 760, 761-762 (CA8 (elements Virgin Islands Joseph, 765 396 (CA3 1985) (same). "Whoever, artifice money property pretenses, representations, promises do according direction thereon, place directed person addressed, thing, shall fined $1,000 imprisoned five both." second board members misappropriated revenues. argued statements, checks, receipts. held, absence levy increased "made imperative command duty imposed 1184. No Whereas direct product district's taxes, id., 387, 1181, Wisconsin's car-registration sell "doctored" Our alters independent acquit reading origins. "developed aid failed Of course, firmly 31(c)'s provision benefits well. recognized suspects doubt, instruction, likely fail give reasonable-doubt standard, resolving doubts 212-213, 1997-1998. availability protects improper Keeble, 214, 14, 1998, abandoned occasion address merits discuss Rule. formally adopting reflect adherence it. focused instructions. simple assault: "[A]n intent bodily injury assault. very much dispute assault option presented." 213, 1998. Sansone 380 343, 352, 1010, 882 (1965) (analyzing 7207, finding 7201).

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