Document: 483 U.S. 825 107 S.Ct. 3141 97 L.Ed.2d 677 James Patrick NOLLAN, et ux., Appellantv.CALIFORNIA COASTAL COMMISSION. No. 86-133. Argued March 30, 1987. Decided June 26, Syllabus The California Coastal Commission granted a permit to appellants replace small bungalow on their beachfront lot with larger house upon the condition that they allow public an easement pass across beach, which was located between two beaches. County Superior Court writ of administrative mandamus and directed be struck. However, State Appeal reversed, ruling imposition did not violate Takings Clause Fifth Amendment, as incorporated against States by Fourteenth Amendment. Held: 1. Although outright taking uncompensated, permanent, public-access would Clause, conditioning appellants' rebuilding granting such lawful land-use regulation if it substantially furthered governmental purposes justify denial permit. government's power forbid particular land uses in order advance some legitimate police-power purpose includes use concession owner, even property rights, so long furthers same advanced justification for prohibiting use. Pp. 831-837. 2. Here Commission's access-easement cannot treated exercise since does serve related requirement. Of those put forth protecting public's ability see assisting overcoming perceived "psychological" barrier using preventing beach congestion—none is plausible. Moreover, access requirement unrelated regulation—that part comprehensive program provide arising from prior coastal decisions—is simply expression belief interest will served continuous strip publicly accessible beach. free its "comprehensive program" exercising eminent domain paying easements, compel residents alone contribute realization goal. 838-842. 177 Cal.App.3d 719, 223 Cal.Rptr. 28 (1986), reversed. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, POWELL, O'CONNOR, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, filed dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, joined, post, p. ----. BLACKMUN, STEVENS, Robert K. Best, Sacramento, Cal., appellants. Andrea Sheridan Ordin, Los Angeles, appellee. Justice SCALIA Court. 1 Marilyn Nollan appeal decision could grant permission rebuild transfer property. (1986). court rejected claim violates Ibid. We noted probable jurisdiction. 479 913, 312, 93 286 2 * Nollans own Ventura County, California. A quarter-mile north Faria Park, oceanside park recreation area. Another area, known locally "the Cove," lies 1,800 feet south lot. concrete seawall approximately eight high separates portion Nollans' rest historic mean tide line determines lot's boundary. 3 originally leased option buy. building bungalow, totaling 504 square feet, time rented summer vacationers. After years rental use, however, had fallen into disrepair, no longer out. 4 purchase conditioned promise demolish it. In do so, under Cal.Pub.Res. Code Ann. §§ 30106, 30212, 30600 (West 1986), were required obtain development Commission. On February 25, 1982, submitted application proposed existing structure three-bedroom keeping neighborhood. 5 informed been placed calendar, staff recommended subject bounded one side, other side. This make easier get Park Cove. protested condition, but overruled objections recordation deed restriction easement. App. 31, 34. 6 3, petition asking invalidate condition. They argued imposed absent evidence have direct adverse impact agreed, remanded case full evidentiary hearing issue. Id., at 36. 7 remand, held hearing, after made further factual findings reaffirmed It found new increase blockage view ocean, thus contributing "a 'wall' residential structures" prevent "psychologically . realizing stretch coastline exists nearby every right visit." 58. also private shorefront. 59. These effects construction house, along area development, cumulatively "burden traverse shorefront." 65-66. Therefore properly require offset burden providing additional lateral beaches form similarly 43 out 60 permits tract land, 17 conditioned, 14 approved when regulations place allowing remaining involved shorefront 47-48. 8 supplemental violated ruled favor statutory grounds, finding, avoid "issues constitutionality," Act 1976, Cal.Pub.Res.Code § 30000 seq. authorized impose conditions replacement single-family home only where sea. 419. court's view, record adequate basis concluding create or cumulative 416-417. Accordingly, 9 appealed Appeal. While pending, satisfied tearing down bought notify action. 10 reversed disagreed Court's interpretation Act, finding whose floor height bulk more than 10% replacing access. 723-724, Cal.Rptr., 31; 30212. Constitution reasoning earlier Appeal, Grupe v. Comm'n, 166 148, 212 578 (1985). case, project contributed need access, standing created there indirect relationship exacted contributed, sufficiently burdens constitutional. Cal.App.3d, 723, 30-31; Grupe, supra, 165-168, 587-590; Remmenga 163 623, 628, 209 631, dism'd, 474 915, 106 241, 88 250 established situation respect house. 722-723, 30-31. failed because, although diminished value lot, deprive them all reasonable 30; 175-176, 595-596. Since, Appeal's constitutional obstacle erred mandamus. this raising question. II 11 Had available permanent rather agreeing we doubt taking. To say appropriation landowner's premises constitute (as BRENNAN contends) mere use," 848—849, n. words manner deprives ordinary meaning. Indeed, principal assure government able conveyance just interests, pays them. J. Sackman, Nichols Eminent Domain 2.1[1] (Rev. 3d ed. 1985), id., 5.01[5]; 1.42[9], 6.14. Perhaps because point obvious, never confronted controversy us rule it, our cases' analysis effect action leads conclusion. repeatedly that, reserved owner exclude [others is] 'one most essential sticks bundle rights are commonly characterized property.' " Loretto Teleprompter Manhattan CATV Corp., 458 419, 433, 102 3164, 3175, 73 868 (1982), quoting Kaiser Aetna United States, 444 164, 176, 100 383, 391, 62 332 (1979). observed results "[a] physical occupation" property, itself others, U.S., 432-433, 9, S.Ct., 3174-3175, "our cases uniformly extent occupation, without regard whether achieves important benefit has minimal economic owner," 434-435, 3175-3176. think "permanent occurred, rule, individuals given fro, real may continuously traversed, though individual permitted station himself permanently premises.1 12 argues while might ordinarily Constitution's prohibition any individual's "exclu[ding] way [any navigable] water whenever purpose," Art. X, 4, produces different result here. Post, 847-848; 855, 857. There number difficulties argument. Most obviously, sought here naturally described navigable (from street sea) it; least highly questionable text prima facie before us. Even does, several suggest BRENNAN's clause erroneous, easements must proceed through power. See Bolsa Land Co. Burdick, 151 Cal. 254, 260, 90 P. 532, 534-535 (1907); Oakland Water Front Co., 118 160, 185, 50 277, (1897); Heist Colusa, 841, 851, 213 278, 285 (1984); Aptos Seascape Corp. Santa Cruz, 138 484, 505-506, 188 191, 204-205 (1982). (None these specifically addressed argument allowed cross water, provision meant what believes, hard why invoked.) 41 Op.Cal.Atty.Gen. 39, (1963) ("In spite sweeping provisions [Art. 4], injunction therein Legislature give liberal interpretation, few reported adopted general trespass tidewaters commerce, navigation fishing"). light uncertainties, fact BLACKMUN notes, 865, should assuredly take ourselves resolve question law first instance. See, e.g., Jenkins Anderson, 447 231, 234, 1, 2124, 2127, 65 86 (1980). That doubly inappropriate pre-existing asserted quiet title action, Points Authorities Support Motion Writ Administrative Mandamus, SP50805 (Super.Ct.Cal.), 20, Commission, possessing itself, probably bring. Cal.Code Civ.Proc.Ann. 738 1980).2 13 Given, then, requiring uncompensated becomes conveyed issuing alters outcome. recognized "substantially advance[s] state interests" "den[y] economically viable his land," Agins Tiburon, 255, 2138, 2141, Penn Central Transportation New York City, 438 104, 127, 98 2646, 2660, 57 631 (1978) ("[A] 'taking' reasonably necessary effectuation substantial purpose"). Our elaborated standards determining constitutes "legitimate interest" type connection satisfies former advance" latter.3 clear, broad range requirements. 260-262, 2141-2142 (scenic zoning); supra (landmark preservation); Euclid Ambler Realty 272 365, 47 114, 71 L.Ed. 303 (1926) (residential Laitos & Westfall, Government Interference Private Interests Public Resources, Harv.Envtl.L.Rev. 66 (1987). among permissible "psychological barrier" developed shorefront, congestion assume, deciding, so—in unquestionably deny (alone, reason produced conjunction construction)4 impede purposes, unless interfere drastically supra. serves refusal issue agree. Thus, attached protected notwithstanding house—for example, limitation, width restriction, ban fences—so exercised police assumed could) altogether, Moreover (and come closer facts present case), consisted viewing spot passersby sighting ocean interfere. requirement, constituting considered permit, protect surely include end. If designed accomplish taking, strange conclude alternative accomplishes not. 15 evident propriety disappears, substituted utterly fails end prohibition. When nexus eliminated, forbade shouting fire crowded theater, dispensations willing $100 treasury. can core State's safety, meet stringent speech, adding which, legitimate, inadequate sustain ban. Therefore, though, sense, tax contribution shout lesser speech ban, muster. Similarly here, lack original converts something was. then becomes, quite simply, obtaining valid purpose, payment compensation. Whatever outer limits takings context, short, "an out-and-out plan extortion." J.E.D. Associates, Inc. Atkinson, 121 N.H. 581, 584, 432 A.2d 12, 14-15 (1981); Brief Amicus Curiae 22, 20. 439, 17, 3178, 17.5 III 16 claims concedes much, creates contributes. accept, discussion, test how close "fit" required, find untailored standards. contention contrary essentially turns play word "access." found, "visual access" turn (along development) desire people who drive past creating also, process altogether clear presumably potent enough psychological barrier, beaches, "access" alleviated "lateral Rewriting eliminate makes nothing impossible understand already walk reduces obstacles lowers helps remedy caused therefore purposes.6 conclusion consistent approach taken question, exception courts. Parks Watson, 716 F.2d 646, 651-653 (CA9 1983); Bethlehem Evangelical Lutheran Church Lakewood, 626 P.2d 668, 671-674 (Colo.1981); Aunt Hack Ridge Estates, Planning 160 Conn. 109, 117-120, 273 880, 885 (1970); Longboat Key Lands End, Ltd., 433 So.2d 574 (Fla.App.1983); Pioneer Trust Savings Bank Mount Prospect, 22 Ill.2d 375, 380, 176 N.E.2d 799, 802 (1961); Lampton Pinaire, 610 S.W.2d 918-919 (Ky.App.1980); Schwing Baton Rouge, 249 304 (La.App.), denied, 259 La. 770, 252 667 (1971); Howard JJM, Inc., 301 Md. 256, 280-282, 482 908, 920-921 Collis Bloomington, 310 Minn. 5, 246 N.W.2d 19 (1976); ex rel. Noland St. Louis 478 363 (Mo.1972); Billings Properties, Yellowstone 144 Mont. 33-36, 394 182, 187-188 (1964); Simpson North Platte, 206 Neb. 240, 292 297 (1980); Briar West, Lincoln, 172, 291 730 Associates Longridge Builders, Bd. Princeton, 52 N.J. 348, 350-351, 245 336, 337-338 (1968); Jenad, Scarsdale, 18 N.Y.2d 78, 271 N.Y.S.2d 955, 218 673 (1966); MacKall White, 85 App.Div.2d 696, 445 486 (1981), 56 503, 450 1025, 435 1100 (1982); Frank Ansuini, Cranston, R.I. 63, 68-69, 71, 264 910, 914 College Station Turtle Rock 680 802, 807 (Tex.1984); Call West Jordan, 614 1257, 1258-1259 (Utah 1980); Board Supervisors City Rowe, 216 Va. 128, 136-139, S.E.2d 199, 207-209 (1975); Jordan Menomonee Falls, Wis.2d 608, 617-618, 137 442, 447-449 (1965), 385 87 36, (1966). Littlefield Afton, 785 596, 607 (CA8 1986); National Association Home Builders al. Amici 9-16. irrational. version argument, absence, person looking toward road structures including nearby. If, sees passing repassing dry sand behind home, he realize somewhere vicinity. 849-850. based opposite wall houses completely blocked all. 57-59. proposes, certain suffice. share confidence "should little difficulty future utilizing expertise demonstrate specific access," 862, today's decision. Amendment's Property pleading compliance cleverness imagination. As indicated earlier, describe abridgement "substantial advanc[ing]" interest. inclined particularly careful about adjective actual lifting context heightened risk avoidance compensation stated objective. 20 left, regulation: 21 "Finally, notes repass benefits Beach Tract applicants decisions. lots undergo redevelopment." 68. coast. well good idea, establish residents) compelled realization. Rather, program," wishes, "public Const., Amdt. 5; wants pay 23 Reversed. 24 whom MARSHALL joins, dissenting. 25 Appellants construct dwelling both diminish visual move tidelands. concluded "buildout," individually cumulatively, threatens shore. encroachment assurance shoreline gain ocean. finds illegitimate power, maintains imposed. 26 problem imposes standard precision discredited better century. Furthermore, cramped standard, directly responds development. Finally, review factors deemed significant implicates none concerns underlying Clause. struck effort respond intensified coast, behalf landowners expectations disrupted. has, windfall expense public. 27 unreasonable withstand analysis. First, demands degree exactitude inconsistent reviewing rationality welfare citizens. Second, nature identical precise appellants, plainly satisfied. A. dispute encompasses authority (1978); Gorieb Fox, 274 603, 675, 1228 (1927). now commonplace "could rationally decided measure achieve Minnesota Clover Leaf Creamery 449 456, 466, 101 715, 725, 659 (1981) (emphasis original).1 employed preservation chosen, denied request remained requested development.2 Instead, accommodate overall amount coastline. Appellants' reduce restricting increased community facilities, moving diminution thereby preserve balance requesting ensure "lateral" access: parallel reach tidelands expert fairly attend interests. 29 fault regards insufficiently tailored address reduction blocks tells us, seeks concludes, acted irrationally. Such narrow conception rationality, judicial arrogation legislative authority. "To scientific criterion intolerable supervision hostile basic principles Government." Sproles Binford, 374, 388, 585, 76 1167 (1932). Cf. Keystone Bituminous Coal Assn. DeBenedictis, 480 470, 491, 21, 1232, 1245, 94 472 (1987) ("The read courts calculate suffered excess received"). ago declared various forms property: 30 "Each interferes way, extent, owner's dominion over All reasons arisen recent times great concentration population urban communities vast changes complexity problems modern city life. legislatures councils, deal practical standpoint, qualified determine necessity, character, perplexing require; conclusions disturbed clearly arbitrary unreasonable." Gorieb, (citations omitted). 31 charged legislature virtue participation Zone Management (CZMA) program, "exercise effectively [its] responsibilities zone implementation management programs wise resources zone," U.S.C. 1452(2), for, inter alia, coas[t] purposes." 1452(2)(D). discharge flexible manner. interests accept tradeoffs: ways means enhanced. determined formalizes judgment, tradeoff net insistence fit each parcel coast penalize flexibility, hampering fulfill trust mandate. 32 demand assumption possess expectation regarding attempted disrupt. fact, precisely reverse: interlopers. considerably antedates Article Constitution, 1879, declares: 33 "No individual, partnership, corporation, claiming frontage tidal lands harbor, bay, inlet, estuary, State, shall nor destroy obstruct water; enact laws provision, waters always attainable thereof." 34 threaten disruption settled expectations. Where landowner her used exclusively dictates wishes purpose. deserves less deference 35 Congress expressly CZMA "[i]n competing urgent priority natural systems zone, local institutional arrangements planning regulating areas inadequate." 1451(h). puzzling characterizes "non-land-use justification," ante, ----, 'provide redevelopment.' (quoting 68). determination types jeopardize essence responsible planning. unreasonably demanding hamper innovative efforts increasingly fragile national resource.3 B 36 unusual match easily dissipate impression homes shore only. requires exceptional imaginative powers plausible average front phalanx imposing residences, likely open numerous sand, conveys message persons go away look tidelands, observe signs proclaim sand. public—is unrealistically limited measures chosen mitigate 37 second flaw exaction fundamental. assumes concerned incorrect.4 report support "[t]he applicants' blockage, 65-66 added). possibility use" "due encroaching immediately adjacent 'block' build-out impacting quality beachfront." 59 38 prepared replete references threat resulting seaward high-tide constantly shifting. report: "The fluctuates during year depending seasons accompanying storms, below line." 67. result, boundary owned privately stable one, very near 61. largest, mark; "[d]uring period suffers erosion, appears either beyond seawall." Expansion "increase potential causing impacts shoreline." 62. explained: 39 placement conflicts boundary/buffer situations intimidate seek disputes parties exact ownership located. clouded title, conflict entities 61-62. 40 approval formal declaration ensuring shifting character presence enjoyment right.5 "located unique due protective devices fluctuating crafted build, expansion disrupt historical sea.6 wrong desirous assuming added responsibility closely monitoring reveals rational conceivable standard. 42 not, course, insulate challenge, "regulation goes too far taking." Pennsylvania Mahon, 260 393, 415, 158, 67 322 (1922). Conventional underscores implausibility holding, demonstrates California's underlie jurisprudence. claim, regarded regulation, especially investment-backed Central, 124, 2659. approval, allows continue intrusion minimal. mark. 46. widest 61, within seawall. Passage 8-foot-high rocky visible passage farther intrusiveness dedication sidewalk exactions development.7 shifts throughout year, up seawall, occur appellant's passive active recreational chose intrusive alternative: repass. 370.8 PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 74, 83, 2035, 2042, 64 741 (1980), "unreasonably impair [the] property." tenable merely 44 relevant acknowledged rested "state construed strangers." 81, 2041. acting right. ---- Constitution). guaranteeing states explicit directive projects, 30212 judiciary 171-172, 578, 592-593 perimeter enforcement Constitution. 45 unilateral interest, responded proposal intensify themselves submit application, approval. aware initiated property; intensive challenge. 46 Examination reinforces occurred. Allowing exchange classic instance "reciprocity advantage." Coal, 160. one-story, 521-square-foot two-story, 1,674-square-foot residence two-car garage, covering 2,464 obviously significantly increases much valuable construction. program. confines restrictions approving developments.9 members requests Ultimately, injury flawed rests entitlement obligation approve, argue ameliorate improvements. novel somehow cognizable, significant. "[T]he anticipated gains traditionally viewed compelling property-related interests." Andrus Allard, 51, 66, 318, 327, 210 48 With expectations, being crossing edge axiomatic, source strands rights. "[A]s proposition[,] is, left develop administer." Hughes Washington, 389 290, 295, 438, 441, 530 (1967) (Stewart, concurring). Borax Consolidated, Ltd. 296 10, 23, 29, 80 (1935) ("Rights tideland, sovereignty matters law"). explicitly "frontage" "navigable purpose." 4. provides save exceptions "[p]ublic nearest roadway provided projects." 1986). Interpretative Guidelines fulfillment duty 362. At request, proposals Family 48. family early century, lessees [including Nollans] interfered Tract, re-pass shore." exclusion strand were. Given affairs, deprived desiring 49 concede exclude, notice afterward. respect, similar Ruckelshaus Monsanto 467 986, 104 2862, 81 815 (1984). Monsanto, respondent trade data Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) registration pesticides. company claimed agency's disclosure accordance regulatory statute constituted conceded law. agency confidentiality purposes. inform released, stated: "If, despite data-consideration data-disclosure statute, requisite receive registration, hardly EPA acts disclose submission." 1006-1007, 2874-2875. 51 respondent's relinquish unconstitutional receipt benefit: submitted, voluntary submission applicant advantages called 1007, 2875. 53 similarity obvious. 1976. 1979 projects Tract. citizens 1972, reflected judgment represented 'the advantage living doing business civilized community.' 67, 328, 422, (Brandeis, dissenting). "authorized [appellants' permit] submission," 2875, and, demonstrates, objective developments of, to, force factor overwhelming disposes question." 1005, 2874.10 54 Standard indicates employs unduly restrictive neither affected raise concern. invalidates represents adjustment 55 foregoing Imposition drawn intensifies Under normal eminently reasonable. accepting quid pro quo benefits, movement prospect fluctuation line. ensures deter consideration traditional absence claim. periphery almost enjoyed build garage law, did, continued Fortunately, ultimate general. preliminary study Senior Agent Attorney General's Office belongs 85.11 Since completed "without proposing land." 45. obtained prescriptive 86.12 "no intended foreclose opportunity adjudicate [appellants'] acquired use." 420. 58 general, Neither briefs highlighted project. defending emphasized preserved, understandable, relied justified exercises future, alerted apparently I believe acknowledge record's documentation presenting avoids problem. Nonetheless accounting system insensitive increasing intensity many calls far-sighted, takes account interdependence development.13 scholar noted: "Property exist isolation. Particular parcels tied another complex ways, accurately inextricably network relationships usefully defined by, boundaries legal accustomed dealing. Frequently, upon, border user." Sax, Takings, Property, Rights, Yale L.J. 149, 152 (1971) (footnote 61 declared: key effective protection [is to] develo[p] unified policies, criteria, standards, methods, processes dealing decisions significance." 1451(i). call focus areas. agencies considerable flexibility responding desires guarantees encouraged regulate shoreline. today opposite, overruling substituting Its suited reality resource 20th hope aberration, broader vision ultimately prevails.14 dissent. 63 implicate public-trust doctrine. certainly issue, Nor base arguments disagree rigid correlation pursuant burden. country faces creative solutions. "eye eye" mentality. anomaly based. (1981). my adequately generally difficult. particular, diminishes decreases sense losses counteracted, part, permitting Traditional compels reveals, nonexistent No diminished. purchased decades. For reasons, respectfully 68 69 debate illustrates extremely concerning estate. Intelligent, well-informed officials faith validity regulation. wisest lawyers uncertainty scope Yet, remarkable First English Glendale Angeles 304, 2378, 96 (1987), governments price necessarily vague 70 dissent San Diego Gas Electric Diego, 621, 1287, 551 brand rule.* He mistake majority believes automatically rise pecuniary liability "temporary 653-661, 1304-1309. Notwithstanding unprecedented chilling drafting implementing environment welfare, six Members recently endorsed proposal. Church, write identify severe tension dramatic expressed encouraging resources. 846-848. like hat donned wore am persuaded position prevailed solace planners still guessing react next that. shortsighted one. Like prevails." Ante, 864. 72 holding analysis, opened public, addition required. (1979), doctrines navigational servitudes. course involved, right-of-way suggests announcement intention public" walking 857-860. cites (1984), peculiar proposition alter giving Government's benefit," 2875 added), insecticide confer license secrets contained application. 1007-1008, 2875-2876. Bowen Gilliard, 587, 605, 3008, 3019, 485 But one's property—even subjected requirements—cannot remotely "governmental benefit." And (or of) entail yielding establishing "exchange," occurred Monsanto. altered begun implement policy. So owners compensating them, understood transferred conveying Contrary 843, opinions applied equal claims. contrary, verbal formulations field different. achieved, 'could ' objective." relies principally substantive cases, Williamson Lee Optical Oklahoma, 348 483, 487-488, 75 461, 464-465, 99 563 (1955), Day-Brite Lighting, Missouri, 342 421, 423, 405, 407, 469 (1952), adopt. language gives disbelieve) challenges, challenges identical; Amendment identical. Goldblatt Hempstead, 369 590, 82 987, 130 (1962), appear assume inquiries same, later cases. singled bear attempt problems, landowners, otherwise valid, Equal One "to bar forcing fairness justice, borne whole." Armstrong 364 40, 49, 1563, 1569, 1554 (1960); 656, 1306, (BRENNAN, dissenting); 123, 2658, (1978). challenge expect regime kind leveraging produce waives leading goals purportedly lenient (but nontradeable) restrictions. importance eliminating prohibition, positively militates practice. 'increase tidelands,' location disputes, inherent others mandatory sort "buffer zone" street. buffer well, "no-man's land" off neighbors (which here) creation except shift land. true distinctive demarcation applies convenient reference point, made-up (1955) ("[T]he logically aims evil hand correction, thought correct it"); (1952) ("Our plain sit super-legislature weigh wisdom legislation decide policy expresses offends welfare. [S]tate experiment techniques; entitled welfare"). suggestion otherwise, threshold uniform addressing term 'police power' connotes time-tested conceptional limit Except substitution familiar 'reasonableness,' refrained announcing criteria. statement Lawton Steele, 133, [14 499, 501, 385] (1894), today: '[I]t appear, first, [government] interference; second, accomplishment oppressive individuals.' strict precision, often said 'debatable questions reasonableness .' E.g., 388 [52 1167] (1932)." 594-595, 990-991, (1962). 991 (upholding citation Carolene Products 144, 154, 778, 784, 1234 (1938), upheld "if affords it"). Connolly Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation, 475 211, 1018, 89 instance, reviewed Corporation R.A. Gray 717, 2709, 601 Gray, turn, Usery Turner Elkhorn Mining 428 2882, 752 (1976). rejecting Congress' "Although surprising indeed discover unconstitutionally assets employers involved." 223, 1025. phraseology differ slightly case—e.g., advance," "reasonably to," (1978), minor differences cannot, obscure inquiry same. observing founded identified analytical framework values approaches utilized provisions. different, Riverside Bayview Homes, 121, 455, 459, 419 (1985): "A engaging 'take' sense: all, existence implies granted, leaving desired. owner. Only 'economically viable' occurred." 179, 392, dredging marina: "We slightest refused ground impaired petitioners' agreement comply appropriate promotion navigation." list cited approach, vindicate consists involving subdivision Dedication, surrender than, pertaining hinder trail bay. posted warnings passage, resistance unlike practice, conduct operated contended offsetting project, as, blocking evaluate review, substitute best Access (Shoreline) state: recognizes freely delineated distinguished Thus 'need' set P[ublic] R[esources] C[ode] 30212(a)(2) measured terms buffers generated development." 358-359. "is property," 839, 6. generalized Beach. Unlike typical clearly, constant. frequently acknowledges easement," nonetheless faults feature. seawalls irrelevant. Bellefontaine Neighbors J.J. Kelley Bldg. 460 298 (Mo.Ct.App.1970); Allen Stockwell, Mich. 488, 178 N.W. (1920). Shultz Kelley, Subdivision Improvement Requirements Guarantees: Primer, Wash.U.J.Urban Contemp.L. occasion 25-foot-wide accessway "protect privacy owners." 363. advice selecting permitted: "Pass Repass. topographic constraints site dangerous, habitat adversely impacted encroach structure, guidelines, run accessway. Because severely enjoy areas, site, warrant landowner." 370. distinguishable, "government "cannot 'government benefit.' 836, proffered distinction persuasive. Both hold regulation; sell Obtaining benefit" suggesting property" privileged status, curious By labor theory see, Locke, Second Treatise Civil 15-26 (E. Gough, 1947), superior chemical formulae came Monsanto's efforts. Agent's "based observations, presently, most, waterward [lies] Mean High Tide Level, fall sovereign category ownership." "Based experience investigation date revetment 3822 Pacific Coast Highway, Beach, revetments built community, owned, impliedly dedicated 86. Appeals 1985, "Since 42,000 units jurisdiction addition, pressure expected 85% lives miles coast." 167, 589, 1451(c) (increasing zones "have resulted loss marine resources, wildlife, nutrient-rich ecological systems, decreasing space erosion"). afforded latitude fear "If denies 'taking,' violation. dissenting) propose once effected entity commencing ending chooses rescind amend regulation." 658, 1307.

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