Document: 471 U.S. 261 105 S.Ct. 1938 85 L.Ed.2d 254 Richard WILSON and Martin Vigil, Petitionersv.Gary GARCIA. No. 83-2146. Argued Jan. 14, 1985. Decided April 17, Syllabus Respondent brought an action in Federal District Court under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 against petitioners, a New Mexico State Police officer the Chief of Police, seeking damages for deprivation respondent's constitutional rights allegedly caused by unlawful arrest brutal beating officer. The complaint was filed two years nine months after claim purportedly arose. Petitioners moved to dismiss on ground that barred 2-year statute limitations Tort Claims Act. denied motion, holding providing 4-year period "all other actions not herein otherwise provided for" applied State. On interlocutory appeal, Appeals affirmed denial motion dismiss, but held appropriate 3-year personal injury actions. Held: Section claims are best characterized as actions, hence correctly applicable such Pp. 266-280. (a) rather than state law governs characterization purposes. This conclusion is supported federal interest uniformity having firmly defined, easily rules. language 1988 be adjudicating civil shall "conformity with laws United States, so far suitable," directs matter should treated question. Only length period, related questions tolling application, governed law. interpretation also instruction only apply "so same inconsistent with" 368-271. (b) A simple, broad all limitation purposes, differing evaluations depending upon varying factual circumstances legal theories presented each case, fits statute's remedial fairly construed directive select, State, one most claims. interests uniformity, certainty, minimization unnecessary litigation support Congress favored simple approach. 271-275. (c) In this purposes nature remedy ensuring borrowed discriminate remedy. involving injuries minimizes risk choice would serve vindicated 1983. 276-279. 731 F.2d 640 (CA10 1984), affirmed. Bruce Hall, Albuquerque, N.M., petitioners. Steven G. Farber, Santa Fe, respondent. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 case we must determine enforceable Civil Rights Act 1871,1 which codified its present form 2 January 28, 1982, respondent States "money compensate him his guaranteed Fourth, Fifth Fourteenth Amendments Constitution he suffered were acts omissions [petitioners] acting color law." App. 4. alleged 27, 1979, petitioner Wilson, officer, unlawfully arrested respondent, "brutally viciously" beat him, sprayed face tear gas; had notice Officer Wilson's "violent propensities," failed reprimand committing unprovoked attacks citizens; Vigil's training supervision Wilson seriously deficient. Id., at 6-7. 3 contained 41-4-15(A) Act.2 petitioners' decision Supreme squarely provides "the closely analogous cause action"3 1983, therefore commenced courts. DeVargas v. Mexico, 97 N.M. 563, 642 P.2d 166 (1982). addition Act, statutes conceivably could claims: 37-1-8, "for person or reputation any person";4 37-1-4, for."5 If either these longer applies claim, timely filed. 4 ruling concluded Court's controlling because right being federal, state, law."6 After reviewing various approaches question, "§ based statute."7 Because there no specific governing claims, residual statute, Mexico. court certified appeal 28 1292(b).8 5 Tenth Circuit accepted appeal. 2. argument before three-judge panel, set reargument entire court. unanimous en banc opinion, order denying complaint. (1984). 6 Appeals' reasoning slightly different from Court's. It agreed law, conclusive F.2d, 643, 651, n. 5. reviewed Courts Appeals,9 even though encompass wide variety fact situations theories, "[a]ll values issue selecting section served articulating uniform describing essential underlying claims." 650. Distilling essence action, every is, reality, "an rights," "[h]enceforth, [the] circuit will uniformly purposes." 651. Accordingly, actions.10 followed time. 7 acknowledged odds DeVargas. commented extensive conflict Appeals: courts vary widely methods they characterize criteria evaluate applicability particular claim. actual process used select varies sometimes panel panel." 643. "Few areas stand greater need rules does subject periods limitations." Chardon Fumero Soto, 462 650, 667, 103 2611, 2621, 77 74 (1983) (REHNQUIST, J., dissenting). Thus, conflict, confusion, uncertainty concerning important, ubiquitous, compelling reasons granting certiorari. 469 815, 79, 83 We find persuasive, affirm. 8 * Reconstruction Acts do contain actions11—"a void commonplace statutory Board Regents Tomanio, 446 478, 483, 100 1790, 1794, 64 440 (1980). When has established time settled practice been adopt local if it policy so.12 1988, implicitly endorsed approach respect Acts. 9 1988,13 follow "a three-step process" determining 10 "First, look 'so suitable carry [the criminal statutes] into effect.' [42 1988.] rule exists, undertake second step considering application 'common modified changed constitution statutes' forum state. Ibid. third asserts predominance interest: 'inconsistent States.' Ibid." Burnett Grattan, 468 42, 47-48, 104 2924, 2928, 82 36 11 principally involves process: selection appropriate,"14 analogous"15 12 "most appropriate" analogous" answer three questions. first consider whether applies, next decide way, evaluated differently individual case. Finally, pending limiting principle. Although text neither nor pellucid questions, parts inquiry are, final analysis, construction. II 13 Our identification correct source properly begins 1988.16 Congress' suitable." mandate implies resort law—the process—should undertaken principles exhausted. derived elements purpose it. These, course, matters Since available application,17 14 1988: requirement emphasizes interest" borrowing process, taken whole. U.S., 48, S.Ct., 2928.18 Even when assist enforcement remedy, adopted responsive whenever impaired." Sullivan Little Hunting Park, Inc., 396 229, 240, 90 400, 406, 24 386 (1969). importation policies primary office provision 1988; rather, designed assure neutral enforce among them surely did intend assign legislatures role formative function defining characterizing action. 15 claims,19 generally recognized problem "is ultimately question Auto Workers Hoosier Cardinal Corp., 383 696, 706, 86 1107, 1113, 16 192 (1966) (§ 301 Labor Management Relations 1947, 29 185).20 DelCostello Teamsters, 151, 2281, 76 476 (1983), example, recently declined convinced another better reflected balance have preferred between substantive repose.21 So here, "firmly rules," see Chardon, 2621 dissenting), intended measured standards.22 concluding bound III "brought distance time" "utterly repugnant genius our laws." Adams Woods, Cranch 336, 342, 297 (1805). Just determinations cannot made when, passage time, memories witnesses faded evidence lost. circumstances, wrongdoers entitled assume their sins may forgotten. 17 serves repose. Of promote By adopting incorporates State's judgment proper repose embodied However, differs fundamental respects, best, rough approximation point favor protecting valid outweighed prohibiting prosecution stale ones." Johnson Railway Express Agency, 421 454, 463-464, 95 1716, 1721-1722, 44 295 (1975). 18 way useful recall uniquely incursions claimed authority secured Nation." Mitchum Foster, 407 225, 239, 92 2151, 2160, 32 705 (1972). high unique make accord sweep language."23 can "override certain kinds laws," Monroe Pape, 365 167, 173, 81 473, 476, 492 (1961), events, "supplementary might have," McNeese Education, 373 668, 672, 1433, 1435, 622 (1963), precise counterpart 196, 5, 488, (Harlan, concurring). Therefore, purest coincidence," ibid., common provide equivalent remedies; analogies those causes imperfect.24 19 light, practical considerations help explain why purpose. experience predicated analysis facts demonstrates inevitably breeds time-consuming foreign central 1983.25 Almost favorably analogized more ancient common-law forms limitations. us, alleges injured who excessive force out arrest. arguably distinct tort false arrest, assault battery, injuries. Moreover, arising special authorizing recovery torts agents. 20 catalog numerous diverse topics subtopics: discrimination public employment basis race exercise First Amendment rights,26 discharge demotion without procedural due process,27 mistreatment schoolchildren,28 deliberate indifference medical needs prison inmates,29 seizure chattels advance sufficient opportunity heard30—to identify few.31 depend theory counsel almost always argue, considerable force, State,32 multiple often case.33 There reason believe sanctioned statute. 21 enacted, unlikely actually foresaw diversity new embrace. simplicity admonition consistent assumption uncomplicated task judges, lawyers, litigants, uncertainty, unproductive ever-increasing litigation. legislative create effective obstructed limitations, scarce resources dissipated useless collateral matters.34 22 national "has warrant displacement actions," 489, 1797, within entirely principle 1988.35 conclude IV 23 exhaustively ways Circuit, alternative available. 650-651. agree historical catalyst 1871 campaign violence deception South, fomented Ku Klux Klan, decent citizens political rights. See Briscoe LaHue, 460 325, 336-340, 1108, 1116-1118, 75 96 (1983). debates chronicle alarming insecurity life, liberty, property Southern refuge authorities extended authors outrageous incidents: 25 "While murder stalking abroad disguise, while whippings lynchings banishing visited unoffending American citizens, administrations found inadequate unwilling corrective. Combinations, darker night hides them, conspiracies, wicked worst felons devise, gone unwhipped justice. Immunity given crime, records tribunals searched vain redress." Cong. Globe, 42d Cong., 1st Sess., 374 (1871) (remarks Rep. Lowe).36 26 violation rights, hoped restore peace justice region through subtle power enforcement. 27 atrocities concerned plainly sounded tort. Relying premise establishing 187, 484, identifying immunities defendants, 330, 1113; City Newport Fact Concerts, 453 247, 258, 101 2748, 2755, 69 616 (1981); Pierson Ray, 547, 553-557, 87 1213, 1217-1219, 288 (1967). As noted, however, encompasses range potential analogies, infringements liberty. Among unquestionably considered remedies than, breach contract. unifying theme Amendment37 unequivocally recognizes equal status "person" jurisdiction several States. Constitution's command "persons" accorded full privileges citizenship; deprived protection laws. person. Fourth succinctly explained analogy persuasive: 30 "In essence, creates where injury, emanate sense, well-founded results 'personal injuries.' " Almond Kent, 459 200, 204 (CA4 1972).38 31 Had expressly focused decided today, conferring general relative scarcity enacted makes catchall later many itself Chapman Houston Welfare Organization, 441 600, 617-618, 99 1905, 1915-1916, 60 508 (1979). few Maine Thiboutot, 448 1, 4-8, 2502, 2504-2506, 65 555 (1980), involve much more. include Government Amendment: "fundamental liberty justice" Bill "lie base institutions."39 These guarantees possessed civilized society, people legislature.40 33 satisfied wrongs committed officials. very ineffectiveness led enact place.41 independently duplicates parallel 476. General sounding tort, constitute major part total volume today,42 probably enacted. ever was, be, fixed respect. V 34 view person." N.M.Stat.Ann. 37-1-8 (1978). 35 ordered. POWELL took consideration 37 O'CONNOR, dissenting. 38 Citing "practical considerations," today decides jettison venerable instead "simple, Ante, 272. Characterization I agree, But justification, longstanding awareness it, abandoning declaring regardless differences characteristics, narrow class Court, purporting conform letter abandons embodies. respectfully dissent. 39 state-law traces lineage M'Cluny Silliman, Pet. 270, L.Ed. 767 (1830), Campbell Haverhill, 155 610, 217, 280 (1895), O'Sullivan Felix, 233 318, 596, 58 980 (1914). opinions "Congress . have, provision, prescribed limitation, [was] adduced," supra, 322, 597, similar nature" "intended enforced manner like jurisdiction," 616, 219. With explicitly that, absent 40 wherein govern said trial disposition cause." 1988. 41 consistently interpreted instructing furnish States." See, e.g., (1980); Robertson Wegmann, 436 584, 98 1991, 56 554 (1978); Cf. (1966). described behind borrow period: 43 "Although necessarily arbitrary, allowed instituting suit reflects value ones. relying wisdom setting limit claim." 1721-1722. supra; Bell Morrison, 351, 360, 174 (1828) (Story, J.) (statutes guard "stale demands, true transaction forgotten"). Plainly traditionally deferred some purely arbitrary imposition conveniently limit. For legislature's defamation written contract grounded evaluation characteristics relevant realistic life expectancy adversary's reasonable expectations Kubrick, 444 111, 117, 352, 356, 62 259 (1979); York Central R. Co., 380 424, 426-427, 1050, 1053-1054, 941 (1965). Pa.Cons.Stat.Ann. (Purdon, vol. covering §§ 101-1700, 1981), pp. xvi-xvii. (limitations revised "to modern conduct, heavily unwritten evidence, relatively short bring faded"). 45 Despite vocal criticism "confusion" created individualized Appeal continued genus Gashgai Leibowitz, 703 (CA1 1983); McClam Barry, 225 U.S.App.D.C. 124, 697 366 overruled grounds, Brown 239 345, 742 1498 (1984); Blake Katter, 693 677 (CA7 1982); White Parcel Service, 692 (CA5 Kilgore Mansfield, Ohio, 679 632 (CA6 Polite Diehl, 507 119 (CA3 1974) (en banc); Miller Overland 231 Kan. 557, 646 1114 (1982); Sena School Bus Co. Fe 26, 639 (N.M.App.1984); Arquette Hancock, 656 S.W.2d 627 (Tex.App.1983); Moore McComsey, 313 Pa.Super. 264, A.2d 841 (1983); Leese Doe, 182 N.J.Super. 1166 (1981). recognized: 46 "The possible unlimited, ranging police brutality school desegregation cases. To impose disregard judgments states While system reference limits perfect operation, preserves about what nature." Note, Choice Law Under U.Chi.L.Rev. 494, 504 (1970). 47 majority concedes "[b]y action." 271. Yet posits, serious attempt explanation, fundamentally "any imperfect." identifies—§ 1983's "uniqueness," "high purposes," "supplementary" nature—in determination single inflexible "wide diversity" embraces. 275. 48 Thus hardly backward look, leaves century precedent. (1895). Inspired litigation," suddenly discovers fact, escaped drafters Acts, referred principles. Groping discern done "expressly today," "believes" rights." 278. 49 all-purpose appealing; all, compensable violence, deception, broken promises, person's pocketbook, person, dignity, plausibly "personal injury." sweeping all. candor, perceived simply seized legislate takes number bills proposed recent Congresses standardize enactment, see, S. 436, 99th Sess. (1985); 96th H.R. 12874, 94th 2d (1976), normally interpret persuasive indication concerns dictate unitary rule. Ford Motor Credit Milhollin, 555, 565, 790, 796, 63 (1980) ("[C]aution temper judicial creativity silence"); 593, 1996, 11; 704, 1112. 50 well co-opting legislation, effectively forecloses Were now formulate detailed scheme drawing regarding timeliness suits assault, libel, contract, disputes, on, Supremacy Clause blunt instrument announced supersede fine-tuning. Presumably, today's pre-empt legislation generous mandates invariably apply. 1982), plaintiff enjoyed benefit Indiana's 5-year foreclosed comparatively meager 679-680. 51 exchange accrued, collective legislatures, Pet., gains half measure uniformity. heretofore wisely disavowed warranting "displacement actions." 1797; 584-585, 11, 1991-1992, 11. True, means period. promise illusory. achieving statewide symmetry fresh problems asymmetry moment practitioner. Any lawyer knows occur splendid isolation; usually joined facts. end, saves judges practitioners headaches, since 150 routine prerequisite noted: 52 "We intent enacting establish identical facts." Kan., 560-562, P.2d, 1116-1118. 53 Accord, Such inevitable result decision. newly Pennsylvania companion Springfield Township Knoll, 288, 2065, 275, libel slander year, Pa.Cons.Stat. 5523(1) (1982), still years, 5524(2). More puzzling still, remain litigable six years. 5527(2). sort half-baked poor substitute careful analogy. 54 Today's resolve confusion banish lower lacks magical conjure natural order. adopts literally ink Circuit's dry. four handed down day valiant fix Circuit. Kansas supplied "injury another," Hamilton 730 613 1984); Utah Mismash Murray City, 1366 (1984) (selecting Utah's residuary injury). Colorado defied minted supplying McKay Hammock, 1367 resolved dilemma both "irrelevant" Colorado's 1370. cases demonstrate, guarantee obligingly supply match abstract little relevance scheme. 55 Professor Mishkin remarked choice-of-law rules, call 'uniformity' necessity "desire revolt complexities federated system." Mishkin, Variousness "Federal Law": Competence Discretion National Rules Decision, U.Pa.L.Rev. 797, 813 (1957). Hart, Between Law, Colum.L.Rev. 539-540 (1954) (we wit deluded little-minded assumptions symmetrical organization charts," id., 542). Though admittedly "uncomplicated," ante, nevertheless feature handled daily litigants rely 1866, incorporated [forum] State," forgo legislating simplistic entrust integrating system. reverse scholarly flawed directly operative "Be Senate House Representatives America assembled, That who, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage subject, subjected, privileges, shall, contrary notwithstanding, liable party equity, proceeding redress. ." Stat. 13. provides: "Actions governmental entity employee forever barred, unless date occurrence resulting loss, death. "Under [§ 41-4-12]. 41-4-12 forth ]. 41-4-15, 564, 166, 167 (1978) ("Actions [must brought] years"). 37-1-4 ("all specified Cert. 42. 43-44. "When district judge, making appealable section, substantial difference immediate materially ultimate termination litigation, writing thereupon, discretion, permit order, ten days entry 643-648. issued Kansas, Utah, Colorado. 1984) (applying "injuries another"), cert. pending, 83-2131; limited limitations), 83-2140; kind law"). retroactively bar "plaintiffs' effect commenced." Jackson Bloomfield, 652, 655 1984). Runyon McCrary, 427 160, 180-182, 2586, 2599-2600, 415 (1976); 1112, (1966); Chattanooga Foundry & Pipe Works Atlanta, 203 390, 397-398, 65, 66-67, 241 (1906); McClaine Rankin, 197 154, 158, 410, 411, 702 (1905); 617, 220, Title provides, part: conferred provisions Title, 'CIVIL RIGHTS,' 'CRIMES,' persons vindication, exercised conformity effect; adapted object, deficient necessary punish offenses held, cause. 462, 1721, 13, supra. virtually chronological interrelated tolling, revival, application." 464, 1722; 657, 2616, 1795. Occidental Life Insurance EEOC, 432 355, 367, 2447, 2454, 402 (1977) ("State devise mind, duty frustrate interfere implementation policies"). address arose treble-damages antitrust 283, 15b. penal reasoned authority. Moviecolor Limited Eastman Kodak 80, (CA2), denied, 368 821, 39, (1961); Fulton Loew's, 114 F.Supp. 676, 678-682 (Kan.1953); Electric Theater Twentieth Century-Fox Film 113 937, 941-942, (WD Mo.1953); Wolf Sales Rudolf Wurlitzer 506, 509 (Colo.1952). 709, 1115 (WHITE, dissenting) ("[T]he silence read automatically putting imprimatur Rather, supplements fulfills policy, requires"). "Nevertheless, elsewhere clearly closer statutes, stake practicalities significantly vehicle interstitial lawmaking, hesitated turn away 171-172, 2294-2295. 1797 ("[T]his 'borrowed' tardily proceedings") (emphasis added). weight view. (opinion below); McNutt Duke Precision Dental Orthodontic Laboratories, 698 1983) 1981); Pauk Trustees University N.Y., 654 856, 865-866, (CA2 1981) 1983), 455 1000, 102 1631, 71 866 Clark Musick, 623 89, 91 (CA9 1980) Williams Walsh, 558 672 1977) Beard Stephens, 372 685, 688 1967); Kosikowski Bourne, 659 105, 108 1983). extent occasion, preference comity obligation. Price, 787, 801, 1152, 1160, 267 cf. Griffin Breckenridge, 403 88, 97, 1795, 338 (1971). adoption somewhat arbitrary; losing "infer oriented, thereby undermining belief dealt fairly." comprehensive annotation publication popular practicing concludes "uncertainty, lack suits." Annot., A.L.R.Fed. 548, Biehler, Limiting Right Sue, Drake L.Rev. Comment, 1976 Ariz. L.J. 97; Notes, Wayne 61 E.g., Cleveland Education Loudermill, 470 532, 1487, 84 494 Bishop Wood, 426 341, 2074, 341 (1976). Ingraham Wright, 430 1401, 711 (1977). Estelle Gamble, 429 285, 251 Lugar Edmondson Oil 457 922, 2744, 73 482 Flagg Bros., Inc. Brooks, 149, 1729, 185 BLACKMUN summarized 1983: area, relied challenge required loyalty oaths, prevented wearing armbands protest Vietnam. restrain prosecutions Louisiana's Subversive Activities Communist Control Law. utilized NAACP organization's advise Negroes bans advertising spending education activities charities. welfare recipient hearing benefits terminated Along line, confirmed recipients utility service [and] employees seek redress discharge. mandatory maternity leave restrictions social security benefits. list includes challenges vote, poll taxes white primaries unequal apportionment schemes. age males females sale beer, marry one's choice. And successful efforts mental patients prisoners achieve freedoms institutional walls." Blackmun, Protection Individual Rights, Will Statute Remain Alive Fade Away? Madison Lecture Nov. 1984 (to published in) N.Y.U.L.Rev. 19-20 (1985) (footnotes omitted). compare McGhee Ogburn, 707 1312, 1313 (CA11 (2-year Florida statute), Rhoden, 629 1099, 1104 (4-year statute); Hines Covington, Ky., 667 565 1982) (1-year Kentucky Garner 1144, 1148 1972) (5-year Whatley Department 673 873, 877 (20-year Georgia Wooten Sanders, 572 500, 501 1978) statute). banc), officers mace, coerced pleading guilty offenses, automobile towed away. 1-year coerced-plea 6-year goods towing Chambers Omaha Public District, 536 222, 227 (CA8 1976); 689-690 1967). human level, costly parties. Plaintiffs just delay filing wrongly postulated Defendants calculate contingent liabilities, knowing confidence delicts lie Second Ninth Circuits emphasized importance 866; 92; Smith Cremins, 308 190 1962). Garmon Foust, 668 400 (CA8) 456 998, 2283, 1294 321 Stoughton); 332 (Rep. Hoar); 369-370 Monroe); 389 Elliott); 412-413 E. Roberts); 428 Beatty); 436-440 Cobb); 516-517 Shellabarger); 606 (Sen. Pool); Osborn); 691 Edmunds). "All born naturalized thereof, reside. No abridge States; deprive property, law; deny Const., Amdt. 1. McCausland Mason County 649 278, 279 (CA4), 454 1098, 671, 70 179-182, 2598-2600, (1976) (affirming reliance injuries" 1981 claim). Hebert Louisiana, 272 312, 316, 103, 104, 270 (1926); Powell Alabama, 287 45, 67, 55, 63, 158 (1932); Duncan 391 145, 148, 88 1444, 1446, 491 (1968). "It citizen owes allegiance expect demand property. compelled rest inherent undeniable protect citizens. contains express grant coupled imperative injunction exercise." 322 Stoughton). 339 Kelley); 367-368 Sheldon); 382 Hawley); 475-476 Dawes); Wilson); 276-277. Also history Patsy Regents, 496, 503-505, 2557, 2561-2562, 172 240-242, 2161-2162, (1972); 671-672, 1435-1436, (1963); 172-180, 476-480, Center Courts, Caseload Statistics Database,

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