Document: 420 U.S. 770 95 S.Ct. 1284 43 L.Ed.2d 616 Robert E. IANNELLI et al., Petitioners,v.UNITED STATES. No. 73—64. Argued Dec. 17, 1974. Decided March 25, 1975. Syllabus Each of the eight petitioners, along with seven unindicted coconspirators and six codefendants, was charged conspiring to violate (18 U.S.C. § 371), violating, 18 1955, a provision Organized Crime Control Act 1970 (Act) aimed at large-scale gambling activities; each petitioner convicted sentenced under both counts. The Court Appeals affirmed, finding that prosecution punishment for offenses were permitted by recognized exception Wharton's Rule. Under Rule an agreement two persons commit particular crime cannot be prosecuted as conspiracy when is such nature necessarily require participation its commission, in case being deemed have merged into completed offense. Held: Petitioners properly punished violating 1955 statute, it clear Congress enacting intended retain offense independent curb combating organized crime. Pp. 777-791. (a) Traditionally been considered constitute separate crimes, this has poses dangers quite apart from substantive general principle immediate end do not merge upon proof latter. 777-782. (b) Rule—which traditionally applied adultery where harm attendant commission confined parties requires concerted criminal activity—has current vitality only judicial presumption absence contrary legislative intent. 782-786. (c) Here intent existed, drafting manifested awareness distinct might end, well desire provide number discrete weapons battle against 786-789. (d) requirement 'five or more persons' element reflects no than limit federal intervention cases interests are substantially implicated, leaving local law enforcement efforts small-scale activities. 789-790. 3 Cir., 477 F.2d 999, affirmed. James McLaughlin, Pittsburgh, Pa., petitioners. Mark L. Evans, Washington, D.C., respondent. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 This consider Rule, doctrine enunciating crimes which sanctions may imposed. 2 * tried six-count indictment alleging variety offenses. charged, inter alia, conspiring1 statute making five conduct, finance, manage, supervise, direct, own business prohibited state law.2 offenses,3 counts.4 Third Circuit prosecuion offenses, 999 (3 Cir. 1973). We granted certiorari resolve conflicts caused courts' disparate approaches application conspiracies 1955. 417 907, 94 2600, 41 211 (1974). For reasons now stated, we affirm. II owes name Francis Wharton, whose treatise on identified fundamental rationale: 4 'When idea plurality agents logically necessary, conspiracy, assumes voluntary accession person character aggravated agents, maintained. . In other words, says, 'a combination between effect shall called, if effected, certain name,' lawful call some name; offense—e.g., adultery—shall punishment, evade limitation indicting conspiracy.' F. Criminal Law 1604, p. 1862 (12th ed. 1932).5 5 numerous courts, state6 federal7 alike. It also Court,8 although had previous occasion carefully analyze justification proper role law. 6 classic formulation dismissed before trial. description indicates that, applicable, 'cannot maintained,' ibid., conclusion echoed Anderson's recent formulation, see n. 5, supra, statements well, Gebard v. United States, 287 112, 122, 53 35, 37, 77 L.Ed. 206 (1932); States Katz, 271 354, 355, 46 513, 70 986 (1926). Federal courts earlier adhered literal interpretation thus sustained demurrers indictments. See New York C. & H.R.R. Co., 146 298, 303—305 (CC SDNY 1906), aff'd, 212 481, 29 304, 613 (1909); Dietrich, 126 659 Neb.1904). More recently, however, differed over whether initial dismissal indictment. Greenberg, 334 F.Supp. 1092 (ND Ohio 1971), Figueredo, 350 1031 (MD Fla.1972), rev'd sub nom. Vaglica, 490 799 (CA5 1974), cert. pending, Scaglione 73 1503, District Courts preliminary motions dismiss indictments violation case, 339 171 (WD Pa.1972), Kohne, 347 1178, 1186 held Rule's purposes can served equally effectively permitting charge instructing jury conviction precludes conspiracy. 7 likewise disagreed 'third-party exception,' renders inapplicable involves cooperation greater required Gebardi U.S., 122 6, S.Ct., 37. present concluded third-party because involved offense, 2d view shared Second Circuit, Becker, 461 230, 234 (1972), vacated remanded grounds, 903, 2597, 208 (1974).9 Seventh reached opposite result, reasoning since covers activities involving persons, inapplicable. Hunter, 478 1019, denied, 414 857, 162, 38 107 (1973). 8 odds even question ever applies holds does. supra; Clarke, 500 1405 (1974), 925, 1121, 394 (1975). Fourth Fifth Circuits, hand, declared does not. Bobo, 974 (CA4 1973), pending Gray 231; Pacheco, 489 554 73—1510. 9 As brief indicates, history charges fully supports Circuit's observation 'rather rule, (it) concept, confines delineated widely diverse fashion courts.' F.2d, 986. With diversity views mind, turn examination III A. 10 crimes. Conspiracy inchoate essence unlawful act. See, e.g., Feola, 671, 1255, 541 (1975); Pinkerton 328 640, 644, 66 1180, 1182, 90 1489 (1946); Braverman 317 49, 53, 63 99, 101, 87 23 (1942).10 Unlike arise single transaction, Heflin 358 415, 79 451, 407 (1959); Prince 352 322, 403, 370 (1957), subsequent normally punishable 643, 1181.11 Thus, most sentences imposed act accomplishment end. Callanan 364 587, 81 321, 312 (1961); Pinkerton, Carter McClaughry, 183 365, 22 181, 236 (1902). Indeed, harshly purpose. Clune 159 590, 16 125, 40 269 (1895). 11 consistent rationale long line decisions rests very repeatedly those 12 'This settled derives reason things dealing socially reprehensible conduct: collective agreement—partnership crime—presents potential threat public individual delicts. Concerted action increases likelihood object will successfully attained decreases probability individuals depart their path criminality. Group association often, normally, makes possible attainment ends complex one could accomplish. Nor danger conspiratorial group limited toward embarked. Combination likely unrelated original purpose formed. sum, generates aim enterprise.' 593—594, 325. 13 Jackson, friend Krulewitch 336 440, 445, 69 716, 719, 93 790 (1949) (concurring opinion), observed: 'The basic evil itself, independently any seeks accomplish.' Dennis 341 494, 573, 71 899, 1137 (1951) opinion). Rabinowich, 238 78, 88, 35 682, 684, 59 1211 (1915). B 14 historical difference led consistently attribute tacit purpose—in inconsistent expression—to maintain long-established distinction essentially different,—a practical importance easily overestimated.' Ibid.; Callanan, 594. announces principle. 15 traces origin decision Pennsylvania Supreme Shannon Commonwealth, Pa. 226 (1850), court ordered brought after State failed obtain Prominent among concerns voiced possibility force defendant undergo lesser failing prove greater. court's holding concern, stating 'where concert constituent part done, fornication adultery, party acquitted major indicted minor.' Id., 227—228. first reported based principles double jeopardy, 198 (2d 1852), indicated context.12 Subsequently, Wharton come broader application. seventh edition rule repeated similar form today. Commonwealth said rather source. 634 (7th 1874). 17 Court's discussions elaborated precise instances, simply described terms used treatise. But Holte, 140, 271, 504 (1915), sole felt compelled specifically applicability declined adopt expansive definition scope. advanced bar female Mann Act. Rejecting contention, adopted narrow construction tht focuses statutory requirements evidence offered elements trial: committed without woman's consent; instance, she drugged taken force. Therefore impossible concurrence necessary bigamy duelling them apply.' 145, 272. 19 emerged time contours process active formulation. felony remained matter uncertain resolution.13 That issue settled, currently stands (1946). If serve rational context modern must precisely identified. C 20 prior indicate broadly formulated rest Pereira 1, 11, 74 358, 364, 98 435 (1954); 643 1182.14 Instead, presumption, contrary. offenses—adultery, incest, bigamy, duelling—are characterized congruence who participate offense,15 consequences themselves society large. 987. Finally, attends appear pose kinds threats avert.16 cannot, example, readily assumed produce agreements engage pattern conduct. Cf. 21 conduct proscribed significantly different applied. restricted agreement. Largescale seek elicit additional persons—the bettors—who neither nor results it. Moreover, need same An endeavor enterprise involve played appreciably roles, level culpability varies significantly. might, therefore, appropriate prosecute owners organizers operations but participants fairly maintained enter generate endeavors. shown Part IV hereof, provides documented testimony activity, agents. cases, closer relationship exists activity. therefore presents thought guard against, automatically Legislature remain consummation latter.17 absent contrary, proved.18 legal commands less respect extended byond logic significant differences characteristics gave rise counsel attributing weight erects. important, aid determination intent, defer discernible judgment. inquiry. 24 1970, Pub.L. 91—452, 84 Stat. 922, 923, 'to eradication strengthening tools evidence-gathering process, establishing new penal prohibitions, providing enhanced remedies deal engaged crime.' content dedication pursued addition provisions facilitate discovery activities, passed relatively severe penalty provisions. Title X, codified §§ 3575— 3578, identifies harsher sentencing treatment 'dangerous special offenders,' initiate, supervise patterns derive substantial portions income activities.19 3575(e). 25 Major principal focus congressional concern. Large-scale enterprises seen source funds S.Rep.No.91—617, pp. 71—73 (1969).20 VIII enacted give Government weapon, weapon strike crime's revenue: illegal gambling.' 71. declaring law, penalties obstruct facilitating these 1511. 26 identification 'special offenders' X speaks specific felonies during course activity And utilized discourage corruption officials enterprises. 1511.21 27 'gambling activities' pointedly avoids reference agreement, essential identifying reach 1511, prohibits conspiracies. Viewed context, light references throughout extensive consideration Act, think significant. crafted piece legislation. Had foreclose prosecuting 371 merging prosecutions would so explicitly. chose instead define manner fails invoke underlie 28 find merit argument represents attempt reveals designed restrict implicated. findings accompanying VIII, note following support assertion jurisdiction all cf. Heart Atlanta Motel 379 241, 258, 85 348, 258 (1964); Katzenbach McClung, 294, 377, 290 (1964). did not, choose exercise power fullest. Recognizing matters extend 'those illicit proportions.' S.Rep.No. 91—617, (1969). accordingly conditioned they operation excess 30 days attain gross revenues $2,000 day. 1955(b)(1)(iii) (1970 Supp. III).22 Thus 'concerted activity' concern avoid combated efforts. legislation, there basis relying result plainly evident 'independent curb' available use strategy Gore 357 386, 389, 78 1280, 1282, (1958). conclude, structure manifest unmistakable judgment outweighs merger V expressing conclusions imply should prompt prosecutors convictions every judges sentence imposes sanction Those fall within sound discretion each, rendered accordance facts circumstances case. conclude traditional options. Neither persuade us 31 Affirmed. 32 DOUGLAS, dissenting. 33 petitioners tried, multiple-count various connection participating 'illegal business,' 371. On constitutional I hold simultaneous statutes stand. CC 34 my Double Jeopardy Clause forbids rooted jeopardy avoiding multiple prosecutions. 395, 192—193, (1902), later cases1 confine protection prohibiting cumulative absolutely identical, permit consisted largely conversations transactions. Government's theory Iannelli central figure who, through employees received bets, arranged payoffs, parceled out commissions. established, view, 'syndicated gambling,' kind relied establish apparently, enduring continued, provable acts established transactions defendants liability statutes. 36 circumstances, prosecutor instrument punishment. dissenting 395—397, 1285—1287, (1958), three sale narcotics. To place hands arbitrary increase Here, Gore, observe '"fundamental series preferred,'" id., 396, 1286, quoting Regina Elrington, Cox C.C. 86, 90, 688, 696 (1861). 37 Apart Clause, reverse ground intend acts. remains separable crime, both, assumption address defining adequately checked prosecutions.2 separability only, discerning teaches itself evils addressed found unless clearest statement demands fits justifying inference convictions. creates added 922. title directed carried large organizations, hierarchical having system institutions.3 Most devoted altering powers procedures institutions existing offenses.4 Only few prohibitions primary Among appears heading 'Syndicated Gambling.' Section included defined least 'conduct, of' enterprise. resources combat enterprises, 'so continuous national concern.'5 39 Conviction satisfies, social supposed address. wager viewed harmful scale forms Where violated, almost invariably found. referring matter, created perpetuated coordination characterize sensibly context. All majority seems concede acknowledges 'presumption (crimes) proved.' Ante, 786. concludes authorized 'explicitly excluded.' 789. implicitly concedes silent conviction.6 infer silence intention is, think, departure 'presupposition our doubts code imposition punishment,' Bell 349 81, 83, 75 620, 622, 99 905 (1955). adhere principle, 'ancient strictly construed,' 602, 330, 703 (1961) (Stewart, J., dissenting). suggests, ante, 784, enhance 'owners organizers' enterprise, alone 'lesser participants.' suggestion, Congress. syndicated include varying degrees authority7 set maximum accordingly. 42 enhancement 3575—3578. These authorize augmented imprisonment years, offender,' 3575(b). Some procedural obstacles provisions, questions raised thereby, litigated Courts.8 Nothing majority's position. 'Special 3575(e), includes furtherance 'conspiracy applicable laws ..' language apparent. Though 'pattern conduct' focusing offenders.9 transactions; yet doubt 'pattern.' notion Sentence increased 3575 judge 'dangerous,' 3575(f). 3575(a) '(i)n fact alleged dangerous offender trial (or) disclosed enhancing sentence, 3575(b), appellate review, 3576. 'improving rationality, consistency, effectiveness testing concepts limiting guiding discretion,'10 undercut authorizing add If, 'carefully legislation,' 789, leave differentation offenders scheme expressly created. 44 Conspiracy, prosecution, preparatory merges acquits charge. allude charge,11 he suggest count until deliberation suggestion; instructions charges. error corrected merely vacating count; Milanovich 365 551, 728, 773 (1961), convict larceny receiving stolen goods. impermissible remedy 45 '(T)here way knowing instructed wife guilty (or, conceivably, neither).' 555, 730. 47 STEWART MARSHALL join opinion. 48 BRENNAN, 49 965 (1955), '(w)hen leaves Judiciary task imputing undeclared will, ambiguity resolved favor lenity.' 622. agree DOUGLAS '(s) context,' 795, best intended. situation, Bell's lenity. dissent. statue brought, 371, pertinent part: 'If conspire either defraud agency thereof purpose, fined $10,000 imprisoned both. .' III) '(a) Whoever conducts, finances, manages, supervises, directs, owns $20,000 '(b) section— '(1) business' means which— '(i) political subdivision conducted; '(ii) business; '(iii) period thirty revenue '(2) 'gambling' pool-selling, bookmaking, maintaining slot machines, roulette wheels dice tables, conducting lotteries, policy, bolita numbers games, selling chances therein. Petitioner additionally mailing paraphernalia, 1302, using fictitious bookmaking Postal Service. 1342. counts, term probation. probationary conviction. Iannelli's equal length violations concurrently. concurrently violation. exceeds states simply: 'An commission.' R. Anderson, Procedure 89, 191 (1957). People Wettengel, Colo. 193, 198, 58 P.2d 279, 281 (1935); Purcell, 304 Ill.App. 215, 217, N.E.2d 153, 154 (1940); Robinson State, 229 Md. 503, 184 A.2d 814, 820 (Md.Ct.App.1962). Zeuli, 137 845 (CA2 1943); 659, 667 Neb. 1904); Sager, 725, 727 1931). complete 121—122, (1932): 'Of class say contemplated community here (T)hose hold, punished, coo perative action, indictable common statute.' (Citations omitted.) 642, 1181, (1926); 272, represent circuit's view. 725 1931), consummated two. determined precluded explicit. inferred Direct Sales Co. 319 703, 711 713, 1265, 1269—1270, 1674 (1943). reliance perhaps tended obscure directed. Note, Developments 72 Harv.L.Rev. 920, 933—934 (1959). Nonetheless, serves distinguish aiding abetting which, often fact, (1954), well. 11—12, 364. always early misdemeanor, object. then misdemeanor trials. distinctions diminished, concept lost eventually disappeared. generally 589—590, 322—323, sources cited sixth manner: 'It recently Pennsylvania, lies man woman adultery. learned ingredient act, conspiracy; peculiar authority beyond belongs.' 2321, (6th 1868). previously noted, indicating actually invalid. H. Carson, Conspiracies Agreements Found American Cases, published Wright, (1887). When perpetrated, Carson 'futile.' Ibid. treatises difficulty posed notes '(t)he technical old pleaders, sinks meet' 2294, 637 critical observing 'with little reason.' He discussed approvingly English beginning reflect committed. 638—639. subsequently disposition apportion 1344, (8th 1880), Button, Q.B. (Ad. E., N.S.) *929, 116 Eng.Rep. 720 (1848). Ashe Swenson, 397 436, 1189, 469 (1970), afford reprosecution acquittal, expressed Shannon. apply while it, 'matchmaker'—the third conspired principals encourage 193 (1957); Clemenson, 123 Iowa 524, 526, N.W. 139 (1904). supporting enhances presented legislature preclude dimension Comment, Gambling Act: Odds L.Rev. 452, 460 (1973); Law, 10, 956. Our IV, infra, unnecessary decide persons. 775. note, seem By terms, reaches persons.' minimum involved. 21, infra. anomalous subsume other. Commentators examined underlying premise avert. 15, 456; 955. apparent 227. Chief Gibson noted: confederacy constituted regard quality incur guilt agreed passive subject battery, him breach peace. preconcerted encounters, said, reputation prowess sometimes purchased gentlemen fancy. suicide drowning hanging concert, according method Parisian roue s, though ridiculous improbable. nothing adultery—were bound treat becoming gravity, provoke smile—or improbable deliberately postpone opportunity appease unruly appetites. subtile premises conclusion; subtilty analysis treating it.' test articulated Blockburger 284 299, 52 180, 76 306 (1932), function impose arising transaction. determining imposed, examine ascertain 'whether not.' 182. applying reveal, see, (1958); Tobacco 781, 788—789, 1125, 1128—1129, 1575 (1946), satisfied, notwithstanding overlap supra. satisfied 364; (1942); Morrison California, 291 82, 92—93, 54 281, 285—286, 664 (1934), contained fashion, establishment statute. business.' 1955(a). overt much easily. innocent nature, provided furthers Yates 354 333—334, 1064, 1084, 1356 Braverman, trial, real problem avoidance dual analogous treated manner. J. Moore, Practice 31.03 1975). 461—464. Additionally, IX, 1961 1968, prevent infiltration legitimate affecting interstate commerce obtained investment capital racketeering 1962. IX 1963, affords civil prevention correction, including district divestiture acquired reasonable restrictions future 1964. 'Law unanimously greatest ranges 'numbers' off-track horse betting .. cities groups exists, operators organization. 'Most large-city controlled members elaborate hierarchies. 'There accurate ascertaining States. Estimates annual intake varied $7 $50 billion. Legal racetracks $5 billion, believe wagering races, sporting events totals $20 billion year. Analysis profit high one-third $6 While Commission accuracy figures, conservative estimates leaders.' Report President's Enforcement Administration Justice, Challenge Free Society 188—189 (1967). Senate initially sweeping prohibition. version 'two thereof, S. 30, 91st Cong., 1st Sess., 802 Discussions hearings reveal intentionally chosen broadest coverage provision. hoped 'schemes' 'conspiracies' enable unable requisite knowledge Hearings Subcommittee Laws Procedures Committee Judiciary, criticized House Subcommittee, asserted too vague. ser. 27, 498 (1970). bill schemes, aware larger anticipated standard met ordinarily business-type considerably magnitude indicate, usually small proportion total legislation practice sporadic insignificant monetary proportions. prey systematically citizens concern.' S.Rep.No.91 617, E.g., Morgan Devine, 237 632, 641, 712, 714, 1153 (1915); 643—644, (1915): 'For confederate combine together cause gravest character, outweighing, injury public, mere deliberate plotting subvert laws, educating preparing conspirators further habitual practices. secrecy, rendering difficult detection, requiring discovery, adding punishing discovered.' 36—41 (1969) (hereinafter Report). convening grand juries, Titles VI prosecutor's ability witnesses. designated offenders. 73. 1511 'obstruct narrowly 'official employee' governmental unit. here, 40—41; H.R.Rep.No.91—1549, Kelly, 384 1394 Mo.1974); Duardi, 874 Edwards, 617 Fla.1974). Repeated virtue positions organization, undetected 87—88; 61—62. 83. explained: theoretically people (participants) more. possible, too, underway four, still planned ultimately make five, never five.' Tr. 2505.

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