Document: 461 U.S. 30 103 S.Ct. 1625 75 L.Ed.2d 632 William H. SMITH, Petitioner,v.Daniel R. WADE. No. 81-1196. Argued Nov. 10, 1982. Decided April 20, 1983. Syllabus Respondent, while an inmate in a Missouri reformatory for youthful first offenders, was harassed, beaten, and sexually assaulted by his cellmates. He brought suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 Federal District Court against petitioner, guard at the reformatory, others, alleging that Eighth Amendment rights had been violated. Because of petitioner's qualified immunity, as prison guard, from liability, trial judge instructed jury respondent could recover only if petitioner guilty "gross negligence" or "egregious failure to protect" respondent. The also charged it award punitive damages addition actual conduct shown be "a reckless callous disregard of, indifference to, safety others." entered judgment on verdict finding liable awarding both compensatory damages. Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. Punitive are available proper case While there is little legislative history 1 Civil Rights Act 1871 (from which derived) concerning recoverable tort liability created statute, availability accepted settled law nearly all state federal courts time enactment. Moreover, this has rested decisions related issues premise Pp. 34-38. 2. A may permitted assess action when defendant's involves plaintiff's federally protected rights, well motivated evil motive intent. common law, now, allows recovery cases not malicious intent, but others. Neither policies nor purposes require departure common-law rule. Petitioner's contention actual-intent standard preferable recklessness because less vague, would more readily serve purpose deterrence future egregious conduct, unpersuasive. Cf. Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 323, 94 2997, 41 789. 38-51. 3. threshold allowing applies even case, such here, where underlying one recklessness. There no merit intent should deterrent served those higher every than instance. rule otherwise, reason depart context 51-55. 663 F.2d 778 (8th Cir.1981), Presson, Asst. Atty. Gen., Jefferson City, Mo., petitioner. Bradley Lockenvitz, Linn, Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. We granted certiorari 456 924, 102 1968, 72 439 (1982), decide whether Western applied correct legal instructing might (1976 ed., Supp. IV).1 Circuit sustained Wade Haynes, (1981). affirm. 2 * Smith, Algoa Reformatory, unit Division Corrections offenders. respondent, Daniel Wade, assigned 1976. In summer 1976 voluntarily checked into Algoa's protective custody unit. disciplinary violations during stay custody, given short term segregation then transferred administrative segregation. On evening Wade's day segregation, he placed cell with another inmate. Later, Smith came duty dormitory, third cell. According testimony, cellmates beat, him. 3 four other guards correctional officials, At evidence showed himself prior incidents violence him inmates. prisoner whom added fighting. made effort find out available; fact same dormitory occupant. Further, few weeks earlier, beaten death shift, duty. asserted defendants knew have known assault likely circumstances. 4 During trial, district directed two defendants. make violation showing "physical abuse base, inhumane barbaric proportions shock sensibilities." Tr. 639. Smith's immunity see Procunier Navarette, 434 555, 98 855, 55 24 (1978), were (defined thoughtless consequences one's act act") flagrant remarkably bad protect"). 641-642. reiterated simple negligence. 644. 5 showing: 6 "In damages, permits jury, certain circumstances, injured person exemplary order punish wrongdoer some extraordinary misconduct, example warning others engage conduct. 7 "If you favor plaintiff, any 8 ". . amount assessed defendant sum believe will deter like conduct." 643 (emphasis added). 9 returned verdicts three remaining It found liable, however, awarded $25,000 $5,000 verdict, (CA8 1981). 10 Court, attacks does challenge correctness instructions question adequacy support II 11 Section derived 1871, 17 Stat. 13. intended create species liability" persons deprived secured rights. Carey Piphus, 435 247, 253, 1042, 1047, 252 (1978); Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 417, 96 984, 988, 47 128 (1976). noted section's U.S., 255, S.Ct., 1048. absence specific guidance, we looked torts (both modern 1871), modification adaptation necessary carry policy statute. 253-264, 1046-52. done contexts arising 1983, especially recurring problem immunities.2 12 correctly concedes "punitive 'proper' ." Carlson Green, 446 14, 22, 100 1468, 1473, 64 15 (1980); Brief Petitioner 8. Although debate about theoretical doctrine latter part last century, courts, including Court.3 likewise generally established individual public officers their misconduct basis defendants.4 See Scott Donald, 165 58, 77-89, 265, 266-68, L.Ed. (1897) (punitive constitutional tort). although precise issue never come squarely before us, occasion once clear our view they indeed, questions availability.5 13 argues, nonetheless, "proper" More particularly, instruction safety. Instead, contends test intent—"ill will, spite, injure."6 9. 14 offers arguments position: first, 1983; second, always required, required here address these turn. III argue either requires Oral Arg. 5-6, 9.7 16 Perhaps surprisingly, significant variation terminological substantive) among American jurisdictions nineteenth century damages—variation exacerbated ambiguity slipperiness terms "malice" negligence."8 Most confusion, seems over degree negligence, recklessness, carelessness, culpable required—not essential. contrary, large majority (also called vindictive smart money) without ill injure. This so stated several occasions, shortly after 1871. Philadelphia, W. & B. Co. Quigley, 62 (21 How.) 202, 73 (1858), diversity libel suit, held erroneous authorized return gave virtually substantive guidance threshold. described thus: 18 "Whenever injury complained inflicted maliciously wantonly, circumstances contumely indignation, limited ascertainment compensation wrong committed aggrieved person. But malice spoken merely doing unlawful injurious act. word implies conceived spirit mischief, criminal civil obligations." Id., 214.9 19 further explained Milwaukee St. Paul Arms, 91 489, 23 374 (1875), railroad collision case: 20 "Redress commensurate [personal] injuries afforded. ascertaining its extent, consider facts relate wrongful defendant, plaintiff; liberty go farther, unless wilfully, result equivalent intentional them. authorized, sake example, give additional require. aggravated motive, rests 21 22 To [assess damages], must wilful entire want care raise presumption conscious consequences." 493, 495 therefore negligence"; concluded too confused mere ordinary provide fair standard. remanded new trial.10 Ten years later, dictum suggested perhaps gross negligence suffice all, least cases: 25 "For resulting neglect duties, discharge interested, juries These considered falling head duties imposed protection life property culpable, deserves punishment." Pacific Humes, 115 512, 521, 110, 113, 29 463 (1885). 26 Minneapolis L.R. Beckwith, 129 26, 34, 207, 209, 32 585 (1889) ("culpable negligence").11 27 lower agreement damage awards did intent; variously standards intent.12 28 today. Restatement (Second) Torts (1977), states: "Punitive outrageous, 908(2) added); id., Comment b. varying terminology, adopted rule, recognizing injure serious negligence.13 itself rules law. As general matter, discern why whose guaranteed violated restrictive remedy asserting cause action. us persuasive contrary. argument, forms, vague. points very nature, compensate party. Newport Fact Concerts, 453 266-267, 101 2748, 2759-60, 69 616 (1981); Electrical Workers Foust, 442 42, 48, 99 2121, 2125-26, 60 698 (1979); 349-350, 3012, 789 (1974). concedes, course, primary Newport, 268, 2760; Owen City Independence, 445 622, 651, 1398, 1415, 63 673 Robertson Wegmann, 436 584, 591, 1991, 1995, 56 554 908(1) (1977). deterrence, contends, cannot achieved sought deterred sufficient clarity enable potential conform avoid proposed sanction. Recklessness indifference, uncertain achieve rationally fairly. can expected know acting injure, being callously indifferent. 31 valid, apply easily suits; hence, hardly presents argument adopting different event, While, arguendo, easier understand particular situations standard, persuaded vague useful. rather precisely better need adequate application. Almost First context, defamation proof "knowledge falsity truth." Gertz, 349, 3011. Our concern threat cases, "inhibit vigorous exercise freedoms," ibid.—a pressing urged case. Yet impose there. Just gives demanded Amendment. fundamentally, certainty interest overlooks distinction between assume officials look mainly shaping premise; assume, hope, most guided primarily law—both devotion duty, avoiding rate, conscientious officer who desires how do job lawsuits actionability exceptional arises assumes substantial numbers damages; seek guide presence constitutes powerful raising 33 high right ("physical sensibilities"). instructed, principle [his] act," Wade. challenged grounds vagueness courts. reasonable properly reserved seeking contrary based content adopt law—that trigger jury's consideration appropriateness Adickes Kress Co., 398 144, 233, 90 1598, 1642, 142 (1970) (BRENNAN, J., concurring dissenting). IV 34 ordinarily argues use explain parties agree difference showings instructions; Hence, erred requiring namely, 35 incorrectly that, simply specified forms equally plaintiff. key feature damages—that right, matter plaintiff proves sufficiently part, left award." D. Dobbs, Handbook Law Remedies 204 (1973) (footnote omitted).14 Compensatory contrast, mandatory; found, appropriate loss.15 entirely accurate award, met (a ultimate fact), merited discretionary moral judgment). 36 argument. liability. Second Restatements pointed "in prosecution antisocial mind, improper tortfeasor element damages."16 Accordingly, usual permit extra showing. Several expressly.17 Many directly addressing congruence thresholds, fault in, infliction emotional distress,18 official figure,19 covered immunity.20 37 makes sense discretion "to [the defendant] outrageous similar future." focus character tortfeasor's conduct—whether sort calls punishment above provided awards. If character, allow assessment become faces demanding actionability. put differently, society deterring punishing invasions though sometimes chooses lesser degrees fault.21 38 good low exposure threatens undermine guard. reasoning much force immunities involved above. overstates extent immunity. protect day-to-day running facility. Wood Strickland, 420 308, 95 992, 43 214 (1975). relies coextensive protects.22 privilege reflects recognition societal protecting uses guard's prisoners charge. Once sphere exceeded, private tortfeasors.23 V 39 hold accord 40 Affirmed. REHNQUIST, THE CHIEF JUSTICE POWELL join, dissenting. determine what culpability constituted "reckless my view, forthright inquiry 42d Congress balanced compel conclusion faith defendant. rejects "wrongful intent" instead show following justifications offered result: "most [decided years] law" "more less" standard; asserts "prevailed enactment 1983"; finally, "absence argument" applying existing statutory remedies local none justifications, taken singly together, supports Court's result. First, decade irrelevant determining Congress, thus, meaning Second, characterization prevailing enacted oversimplified misleading; fact, "evil intent"—and recklessness—was justify Third, inability distinguish court's analogous §§ 1988 precludes adequately assessing implicated decision. Finally, fails utterly grapple cogent criticisms generally. 44 Before examining points, useful briefly fundamental system notion victim—to redress she actually suffered. 3.1 (1973); C. McCormick, Damages (1935). sharp contrast principle, "damages" beyond generous expansive conception anomaly rationalized principally grounds. "are avowed visiting upon defendant." 275 (1935) 3.9, 205 K. Redden, Damages, 2.1 2125, (1979). ground deters violating Ibid. justified "bounty" encourages assert 45 Despite attempted vigorously criticized throughout Nation's history. Countless remark favorite law."1 year enacted, New Hampshire Supreme declared, "The idea [punitive damages] wrong. monstrous heresy. unsightly unhealthy excrescence, deforming symmetry body law." Fay Parker, 53 N.H. 342, 382 (1872).2 Such remarks reflect number deeply reservations regarding summarized here. 46 seen windfall plaintiffs, entitled receive full injuries—but more. Even assuming "fine" penalty state, plaintiff—who hypothesis fully compensated. "quasi-criminal," Huber Teuber, D.C. 590 (1877), imposition unaccompanied types safeguards present proceedings. frequently caprice prejudice jurors. Walther Plein, Damages; Critical Analysis, 49 Marq.L.Rev. 369 (1966). observed 50-51 n. 2126-2127 (1979), employed unpopular defendants," elsewhere "juries wholly unpredictable amounts bearing relation harm caused." 350, alleged outweighed costs—such encouragement unnecessary litigation chilling desirable conduct—flowing ill-defined. Long, Damages: An Unsettled Doctrine, Drake L.Rev. 870 considerations, refuse condone See, e.g., Killibrew Abbott Laboratories, 359 So.2d 1275 (La.1978); Burt Advertiser Newspaper 154 Mass. 238, N.E. (1891) (Holmes, J.); Miller Kingsley, 194 Neb. 123, 230 N.W.2d 472, 474 (Neb.1975); Vratsenes Auto, 112 71, 289 A.2d 66, 68 (N.H.1972); Pererra International Basic Economic Corp., P.R.R. (1967); Maki Aluminum Building Products, Wash.2d 23, P.2d 186, 187 (Wash.1968). Murphy Hobbs, Colo. 541, P. 119 (1884) (no law). Other limit awarded, attorney's fees, Triangle Sheer Metal Works, Inc. Silver, Conn. 116, 222 220 (1966), Riggs Fremont Insurance 85 Mich.App. 203, 270 654 (Mich.App.1978). 48 Nonetheless, states Historically, uniformity Owen, Products Liability Litigation, 74 Mich.L.Rev. 1257, 1283 135 (1976); Ellis, Fairness Efficiency So.Cal.L.Rev. 1, 52-53 (1982) ("the characterized uncertainty stems multiplicity overlapping terms"); Duckett Pool, 84 S.C. 311, S.E. 542, 547 (S.C.1891); Lynd Picket, Minn. 184, 200 (1862). One essential understanding differences various intention inflict unlawful—"express malice," "actual "bad faith," "wilful wrong" "ill will."3 states, careless negligent defendant—"gross negligence," "recklessness," "extreme carelessness."4 set above, connote requirement towards phrases import acts intentionally harmful negligent, unreasonable, basic kind, just degree. Prosser, 185 (4th ed. 1971); 500, comment f (1965). former typically demands actor's subjective purpose, objective determination relative risks advantages accruing behavior. 282. 50 importance reflected court, speaking many said, 51 "[I]n morals, eye vast criminality mistakenly worthy committing wanton malignant spirit, corrupt wicked design." Simpson McCaffrey, Ohio 508, 522 (1844). 52 distinction, motive" involved. Oliver Wendall Holmes identified conduct: "Vengeance imparts feeling blame, opinion, however distorted passion, dog distinguished stumbled kicked." O.W. Holmes, Common (1881).5 54 illuminating examine mind. bottom, Until today, ante, 34-35, 2, adhered, fidelity, scarcely controversial role interpreting intended. That interpreted according construction, 2A Sutherland, Statutory Construction 45.05 (1972), clearly demonstrated relying plain language section. Parratt Taylor, 451 527, 534, 1908, 1912, Maine Thiboutot, 448 4, 2502, 2504, 65 555 635, 1407, (1980). purports pursue yet heavily court decided adjourned, I unilluminating, am unprepared attribute truly foresight think had. earlier relied simple: members lawyers, familiar time. resolving ambiguities enactments Congresses, principles shaped thinking members. academic interest, largely way apparent attempt novel approach discerning deliberated ago, passing reference relating analysis, since plainly albeit indirectly, body. Tenney Brandhove, 341 367, 71 783, 1019 (1951), earliest decisions, phrased legislators immune actions follows: 57 Did statute mean overturn tradition freedom England War carefully preserved formation State National Governments here? subject within activity? 58 recently, 258, 2755, (1981), now understood historical vacuum. important assumption area principles, defenses previously recognized litigation, obtain, absent provisions 59 Likewise, respect reveal device facilitate Congressional intent.6 Decisions 1970s, almost completely rely handed down second half drawing up unambiguously B.R. railroad. There, initially "certain tort," "whenever indignity." 214. discussed previously, 3, supra, relatively foreseeing efforts expand hastened specify type warrant damages: "the difficult expressed malice" explicitly rejected "implied formulation, mandated "spirit" "conceived." 61 requirement, forth depend conceived. focussing words "criminal indifference," 41-42, 9, suggests phrase indicates Quigley unlikely. authority 1870's wrote: thing jurisprudence differ justice man man, holds neither act, suffered influenced producing unintended nature admits distinction; crime proceeds "There criterion guilt men tested. mind criminal. system, probably other, essence offense exist." J. Bishop, Criminal 285-287 (5th 1872). Of notes, crimes conduct; reasons "criminality" confined "criminal" far sensibly interpreted, incorporating possible twist turn reflecting intent." Indeed, much: indifference" meant, incorporate mental justifies sanctions, Plainly decision stand remarkable proposition. 66 careful discussion Day Woodworth, (13 363, 371, 181 (1851), dispels doubts. dismisses treatment "merely sidelight," 213-214, evidently thought otherwise: citing Day, How.), drew perfectly motive. reasoned predicated "malice, wantonness, oppression, outrage conduct," standard: 67 trespass, malicious, add measured recover, design intention, something example. 371 Elsewhere "moral turpitude atrocity." obvious references "wantonness" acted injury. framed background, reading requirement. indicate adhered actions. reversed erroneously negligence." Arms remarking material tort" fixing permitting posed double recovery. acknowledging approved followed. After quoting passage rejecting implied said: 70 [The is] applicable suits personal received through Redress Read strongly "rests" motive," and, "that" class " interpretation squared holding case.7 error condemned term," description, definition." regarded imprecise ill-defined Given this, peculiar read supporting embraced leading written, "is ['recklessness'] 'gross' tended merge take meaning, form note supra. virtual identity standards, dicta "recklessness" alternative "conceived "design intention" injury—is degree, "very careless" step away "relative" "description" unsatisfactory; meant step. abundantly down. Union Telegraph Eyser, 495, (1875) (mem.), Territory Colorado "no below recovered." Reporter explained: [defendant's] omission entitling nothing authorize wilful: rebuts wrong." 496 added).8 electrical wires strung feet across city street Denver real warning, reckless; certainly, occurred, reached conclusion. irrelevant: "intentional needed. Perhaps, minute dissection stray clauses foregoing combined studied refusal confront intention," wrong," shadowy resting Ante. Ninety exhaustive analysis opposite Lake Shore Michigan Southern Railway Prentice, 147 101, 261, 97 (1893), "well-settled," 107, 263, paraphrased "if oppressively, mischief Then, observing "guilty charge damages." addition, quoted, approval, statement Jersey Haines Schultz, A. 488 (N.J.1888): single ground—wrongful penalty. knowledge prerequisite." went [is] [punitive] damages," 111, 264, wrote "wanton, oppressive "unlawful intent," Ibid.; 114, 265. Prentice leaves "well-settled" required.9 76 And, again, 86, 267, (1897), prerequisite Scott, complaint claim analyzed respecting beginning continuing Prentice. repeated contained "Damages defined done, said allowable excess loss, malice, deliberate oppression." 267. point clearer. today fashions 1988, steadfastly refuses follow point. did, violence, 77 rendered preceding immediately attest solid took included will.10 sure, followed broader review uncovers contain "recklessness." And clearly, recent minimal warranting damages.11 78 considerable States belonging awarded.12 margin reveal, Congress. 79 short, examination reveals portrait respects painted lenient, precise, majority's sustained. well-known legislators, supported animus Wilmington, Baltimore "spirit mischief" Among approaches variety Nation. "wickedness," "formed oppress." Thus, adhere consistently previous rules, 80 apart factors mentioned not, been, favored remedy. bound stare decisis,13 often doctrine, worth considering respected commentators field desirability legislatively remedy: "It probable framing model code to-day country unhampered tradition, place." 276 81 deciding heeded advice, itself—which should, starting provides 82 "Every who, color ordinance, regulation, custom, usage subjects, causes subjected, citizen united jurisdiction thereof deprivation privileges, Constitution laws, shall party equity, proceeding redress." 83 Plainly, absolutely reads provision. creates "liab[ility] "Redress" means "reparation satisfaction for, loss this." Oxford English Dictionary (1933). "reparation" "compensation"; punish, compensate. chose singularly inappropriate words: compensation, punishment. statutes roughly contemporaneous illustrate wanted remedy, explicitly. For 198, 207 (1870), express commercial misconduct. False Claims Act, 696, (1863), $2,000 forfeiture misstatements government. remarked, "Where [to difficulty using end." United Mine Patton, 211 742, 749 (CA4 1954). yet, searches vain hint remedy.14 light indications, say foundation precarious, best. diffidence obliqueness granted—if was—it unusual grant views ambiguity, sensible honest infer restrained one, legislature's creating right. surely, ought had—not later. 86 unlike logically consistent justification penal treatment. Morissette States, 342 246, 250-251, 240, 243-244, 288 (1952), "A instinctive child's exculpatory 'But didn't to.' universal persistent mature systems belief human consequent ability normal choose evil." indicated 19th quasi-criminal "wickedness" "evil" accidentally kicking animal. departed "instinctive," "universal persistent" linkage 87 congressional clearcut, resolve needs repeating "favorite law," owing numerous levelled doctrine. course correct, reduce strength arguments, persuasive, blindly mistakes made. 88 Much failings anomalous, counter deep-rooted common-sense notions, harm, windfall, someone already peculiarities limited—not expanded careless, particularly vaguely-defined, elastic free reign biases prejudices juries. 89 random effects performance duties.15 principal themes official's "willingness execute office decisiveness good." Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 1683, 1688, stifling initiative "government govern," Dalehite 346 15, 57, 956, 979, 1427 (1953) (Jackson, dissenting), Precisely suffered, imprecise, poses greater decisive, efficient decision, governmental subjected possibility unlimited caused unquestioned faith: swift demanded, thoughts financial conduct—but limits predict—and duties. fashioned effective Damoclean sword open-ended, standardless today.16 notwithstanding them, distinctions rationale seized proponents covert response system's overt financing litigation." 221 2.4(c) Yet, "covert response" plaintiffs' expenses explicit provision fee costs." By get two—one lawyer. incentives actions, reliance inapposite: fashioning lure litigate vacuum, but, adding incentives, imbalance inducements consequences.17 staggering effect claims workload decried again. torrent frivolous section incapacitate judicial resolution true injustice involved; danger lost sea meritless suits. apparently oblivious silent, inhospitable designed encourage litigation. (1973). flooded colorable claims, regrettable itself, task encouraging litigation.18 bear. 92 unquestioningly transferring recognize exists laws. measures deem sit, do. Edelman Jordan, 415 677 19, 1347, 1363 662 When enforce intrude sensitive areas sovereignty coordinate branches nation, thus implicating values federalism. distorting exist litigating opposed Constitution. 93 dissent. O'CONNOR, REHNQUIST's dissent, write separately REHNQUIST. Both opinions exhaustive, ultimately exegesis REHNQUIST display admirable skills research great musty results significantly goal inquiry: establish existed silent point, familiar. (1978). congressmen imagined cover creating. split existed, strains credulity assumed govern. Particularly resort dictionaries translate late judges twentieth understand, 39-41, 8; 1629, period used inexact contradictory language, 45-47, 12, safely anything divided opinions. battle string citations winner. question, best accords policies. preeminently victims violations. 2760. 590-591, 1995-1996, 254-257, 1047-1048, conceded coupled fees fulfills leaving close chill Constitution, incentive bring ever-increasing flood threatening handle meritorious. concur wholesale condemnation suggestion Part special problems officials. Since counseling outweigh incremental have. Consequently, Rev.Stat. 1979, amended, 1284. relevant part: usage, Columbia, Briscoe LaHue, --- ----, 1108, ---- (1983); (1975); (1974); Pierson Ray, 386 547, 1213, (1951). dissent faults referring construing Its unstated unsupported necessarily freeze permanent whatever current evolve. Post, 65-68; post, 92-93 (O'CONNOR, dissents answer, enacted; controlling, irrelevant. changed substantially intervening (which here), highly reluctant perpetuate now-obsolete 257-258, 1049, (1978) ("[O]ver centuries developed implement compensated fairly defining elements prerequisites recovery, well.") omitted); 231-232, 1641-42, dissenting); Pierson, 1218 (citing "[t]he country"); Wood, 318-319, 999, 9; Tenney, 375, 5, 787, 5. existence 421-422, 990-991. Under dissents' wrongly decided. cited notes infra; (1851); (1858); P.R. (1875); (1885); Barry Edmunds, 116 550, 501, 729 (1886); (1889); (1897). E.g., Nightingale Scannell, Cal. 315, 324-326 (1861); Friend Hamill, Md. 298, 314 (1870); 200-202 (1862); Parker Shackelford, Mo. 68, Rodgers Ferguson, Tex. 544 (1871); see, Stinson Buisson, La. 567, 572-573 (1841); Nagle Mullison, Pa. (1859); Von Storch Winslow, R.I. 24-25 (1880). Brewer Watson, Ala. 299, 307 (1882). also, Lane Yamamoto, Haw.App. 176, 628 634 (Haw.App.1981); Wilson Eagan, 297 146, 148-150 (Minn.1980). municipality (as defendant) accomplished responsible individuals: "Moreover, deterrence. offending official, resources, [§ 1983] advances public's preventing deprivations. prospect commit recurrent office." 269-270, 2761 omitted). Similarly, (1980), Amendment, partly anomalous ones. 1642 257, 11, Johnson Express Agency, 421 454, 460, 1716, 1720, 295 (1975) denying cast doubt "for redress" end ; construction strained; plausible "or "action "suit equity," unwanted technical limitations lurk phrases. Next 1863 1870 expressly remedies. 85-86 such, March 1863, 698, fine fraudulent military stimulate attorneys general. July 8, 1870, 59, treble revised patent code. speculation approve law; moreover, undercut hostile parties. "this doctrine" Act. remarkable, least, May 31, 140 (creating fixed behalf suffering racial discrimination voting registration). 1889 Colo.Sess.Laws (enacting "wanton disregard," five doctrine). debate, lively, one-sided. 521-523, 113-114; Linsley Bushnell, 225, 235-237 (1842); Frink Coe, Greene 559-560 (Iowa 1854); Chiles Drake, Ky. 152-153 200-201 Taylor Grand Trunk 304, 320 (1869), overruled, (1872); Mayer Frobe, W.Va. (1895); Cosgriff Brothers Miller, Wyo. 190, 236-237, 206, 216-217 (1901). Tillotson Cheetham, Johns. 55, 63-64 (N.Y.1808) (Kent, Ch.J.). refer apply. prefer it, confusion surrounds "malice." infra. recognizes, 8-9; Cantrell Forest Publishing 419 245, 251-252, 465, 469-70, York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 280, 710, 726, 686 (1964). appears quite agrees injure" confuses, attempts blend distinct concepts injury, hand, consciousness risk (or unlawfulness) other. instance, base "fundamental distinction" unlawful," versus 60-61 paragraph, inaccurately recharacterizes "acts harmful," "inquiry purpose." 63-64. Consciousness wrongdoing, motive; toward consequences. continues opinion. "intent motive"; refers broadly "subjective state" phrases, includes intent) reasoning. 63, 3; 16, 7; 17. telling, perhaps, citation treatises, (at most) elsewhere. nn. 12. indeed propose reaching wonders 33, meet hard disregarded indifferent subjectively danger. stands authority, then, judgment. Judge's drawn slight alteration manual 576-577; 42-43. dissent's 68-84. particular, "malice," "wantonness," "willfulness" denoted 6, supra (dissent's intent); infra (concerning indifference"). With regard dubious best; "willfulness," "Malice," lawyers hopelessly versatile ambiguous term, carrying broad spectrum meanings. generally, Treatise 394 (3d Berryman, 1903); Cyclopedia Procedure 1666-1669 (1907). 60-64, instances (especially modified "actual" "express," strictly construed law), says meant—actual extreme, malice"—a purely fictional conclusively presumed whenever resulted voluntary sometimes, often, Childers San Jose Mercury Printing 105 284, 289, 903, 904-905 (1894). itself. Goetz Ambs, 28, 32-33 (1858). commonly intent—"that where, 'deliberate mind' 'formed design,' offender grossly recklessly wantonly another's pay example." Press Pub. McDonald, F. 246 (CCA2 1894). Accord, 214, South N.A.R. McLendon, 266, 273-275 (1879); Yerian Linkletter, 135, 138, 70, (Paterson, concurring); Cameron Bryan, Iowa 219, N.W. (1893); considerably law: "Wanton reckless—without Wantonly causelessly, restraint, Wantonness licentious another, rights; due diligence prevent discovery peril, inevitable failure." Encyclopedia 2-4 (2d 1905) (footnotes sentence definition written 292-295 context. Texarkana Gas Electric Light Orr, Ark. 215, 224, S.W. (1894); Welch Durand, 182, 184-185 (1869); Kansas Rice, Kan. 398, 403-404, 817, 820 (1888). action: "Wilful blamable, default expression agent, spontaneous will. this: knows doing, intends agent. wilfully imply life, perform manifest public, interest." 529-535 944-947 Again, bear out. Cameron, Iowa, N.W., 434; Goetz, 32-33; 152-155 Peoria Bridge Assn. Loomis, Ill. 235, 251. 68-69. misreading depends faulty assumption, (post, 68)—a indifference." include surprising "indifference" demonstrably false crime. Not (such homicide), (and, follow), Commentaries 313-322 1872); May, Crimes 30, 233 Beale, 1893); Model Penal Code 2.02 (Tent. Draft 1955). illustrates "with Hopkins Atlantic 18-19 (1857), overruled grounds, Brooke Clark, 105, 112-114 (1882); Meibus Dodge, Wis. 300, 310-311 (1875). cites ("wanton outrageous") precedent Philadelphia exegeting quoted text, them sidelight costs-and-fees presented. imposing "indifference consequences" really consequences," injure." 70-73. textual alchemy untenable. thing, consciousness, supra; 71-72, 7. say, saying, identical rather, "equivalent" deserving 493. explains reference, sentences ibid. confuses Cowen Winters, 929, 934-935 (CCA6 1899); Alabama G.S.R. Hill, 80, So. 90, Memphis C.R. Whitfield, Miss. 466, 494-495 Thirkfield Mountain View Cemetery Assn., Utah 76, 82, 564, 565 (1895). flatly inconsistent reiteration added): "that Try might, transform three-sentence capsulization unreported day. Reporter's summary speak 496, factual affirmative (though insufficient) steps passersby. decision's "conscious indifference"; reaffirmed 563, R.G.R. Harris, 122 597, 609-610, 1286, 1289-90, 1146 (1887). later it. 74-75. M.S.R. corporation employee. respondeat superior, vicarious employer ratified tort. "well settled" announced 263. suggesting 74, omits mention extensive quotations Milwaukee, 112-113, 264-65, approval quotation stating unequivocally own hiring unfit employees, 114-116, 265-66. 71-90, controversy. allegations "intentional, interference" 89, enough, proved, undertook noting unsurprising awardable allegations, often-cited 182 pistol bullet, fired target, ricocheted hit plaintiff: money damages? answer be, founded neglect. immaterial unintentional, ball glanced direction. [I]f objects balls glance endanger wanton, reckless, care, negligent." 185. 1854), stage company employing drunkard driver, saying: proprietor, employment drunken passenger consequence entertained. proprietor carrier kind giving 'intent design' appear." 559 original). Maysville Herrick, refused instruct "willful accident remarking: management train, keeping track repair, negligence; 'reckless passengers,' 'intentional misconduct' agents company." 127 (ellipsis 245-247 1894); Morning Journal Ass'n Rutherford, 513, 514-515 1892); Fotheringham Adams 252, 253-254 (CC ED Mo.1888); 484, SD Ala.1888); Malloy Bennett, 373-374 SDNY 1883); Berry Fletcher, F.Cas. 286, (No. 1,357) (CCD Mo.1870); Arnold, 600, 608, 337, Dorsey Manlove, 553, 555-556 (1860); Florida Navigation Webster, Fla. 394, 419-420, 714, 719 Jacobus Congregation Children Israel, 107 Ga. 518, 853, 855 (1899); Drohn Brewer, 282-283 Citizens' Willoeby, 134 Ind. 569-570, 627, 629 Sawyer Sauer, 470 Goddard Me. 218 494-495, 500 Buckley Knapp, 152, 161-162 Caldwell Steamboat N.Y. 282, 296 Sullivan Oregon Or. 392, 404-406, 517 (1885) (dictum); Rosenzweig, 113 519, 543-544, 545, 552-553 Hart Railroad 427, 435-436, (1890); Haley Mobile O.R. Tenn. 239, 242-243 (1874); 564-565 Earl Tupper, Vt. 275, 286-287 (1873) Borland Barrett, Va. 128, 132-134 Pickett Crook, 358, (1866); Hause, 27, (1871). assertion "solid jurisdictions" 84, untrue. fewer consistently. proposition citations, offer support. controlling significance, tarry analyze case-by-case state-by-state, summarize main themes. unequivocal vein, try equate ours. Some formulations, indicating occur writers. Others questionable Still ruled collateral admissibility faith) purporting classes torts. comparison note, affirmed requiring, discussing adequate. Often category battery torts, presented category, spoke making required. comparatively seem debatable authority. nineteenth-century Admittedly, evidenced listed here) Loch Ridge Corp. Barra, 291 312, 280 745 Sturm, Ruger 594 (Alaska 1979), 615 621, 624 1980), 627 1981); Huggins Deinhard, Ariz. 621 (App.1980); White Brock, Colo.App. 156, 584 1224 Collens Canaan Water 155 477, 234 825 Sheats Bowen, 318 F.Supp. 640 (Del.1970) (Delaware law); Spar Obwoya, 173 (D.C.1977); 290 (Fla.1974); Randall Ganz, Idaho 785, 537 Pendowski Patent Scaffolding Ill.App.3d Ill.Dec. 544, 411 N.E.2d 910 appeal denied (Ill.1981); Meyer Nottger, 241 911 1976); Ford Guarantee Abstract Title 244, 553 254 Pettengill Turo, 159 193 367 (1963); Laundry Machine Industries Horan, Md.App. 97, 412 407 Bailey Graves, Mich. 510, 309 166 Huebsch Larson, 361, 191 433 (1971); Mississippi Power Jones, 1381 (Miss.1979); Stenson Laclede S.W.2d (Mo.App.1977); Butcher Petranek, Mont. 593 743 Berg Reaction Motors Division, N.J. 396, 487 (1962); Robison Katz, N.M. 314, 610 201 (App.), cert. denied, 675, 992 Soucy Greyhound App.Div.2d 112, N.Y.S.2d Newton Standard Fire N.C. 229 S.E.2d Dahlen Landis, (N.D.1981); Leichtamer St.2d 456, 568 Johnston, 591 1260 (Okl.1978); Focht Rabada, 217 Pa.Super. 35, 268 157 (1970); Sherman McDermott, 114 329 195 King Allstate 272 259, 251 Hannahs Noah, S.D. 296, 158 678 (1968); Inland Container March, 529 (Tenn.1975); Shortle Central Vermont Public Service 132 32, 399 Wangen Motor Wis.2d 260, 294 437 908, d (1977); Ghiardi Kircher, Practice 5.38 (1935); 3.4(A) Chuy Eagles Football Club, 595 1265, 1277-1278, (CA3 1979) (en banc). instructed: justly direct 642-643 c (1939); c, poorly chosen illustration Jordan Sauve, 219 448, 247 739 359-360, 45, 46-47 Fletcher Life Cal.App.3d 376, 404, Cal.Rptr. 78, Sere Group Hospitalization, 443 37-38 (D.C.1982); 911, 922 297, 301-302 (1976) Hall Department Stores 292 Ore. 131, 144-145, 637 126, 134-135 1276-1278 banc) (Pennsylvania Woman's Hospital, 527 133, 141-142 (Tenn.App.), (Tenn.1975). Cape Publications, Bridges, 387 (Fla.App.1980); 126 1265 133 (Tenn.1975) (tort conduct). Contra, Knierim Izzo, Ill.2d 73, 174 (1961). Davis Schuchat, U.S.App.D.C. 351, 510 731 (District Columbia Fopay Noveroske, 334 (New Sprouse Clay Communication, 674 (W.Va.1975) (dictum). (Fla.App.1980) (false light). footnote infra, intimate raise. Pirre Developments, 468 1028 (SDNY) (Connecticut aff'd mem., 614 1290 (CA2 1979); Weenig 169 Ind.App. 413, 349 235 Stuempges Parke, (Minn.1980); Snodgrass Headco Industries, (Mo.App.1982); Lear Siegler, 525 (Kan.1981) (Oklahoma victim prove compensable injury." Carlson, correct. reject 92, somehow court—as unseemly dare vigorously. complain loudly been. casts attack meddling thrust —i.e., length call Williams Bone, 185, 259 810, 812 (Ida.1953); Jolley Puregro 702, 939, 946 (1972 Ida.); Cays McDaniel, 449, 283 658 (1955 Ore.); Bank Des Plaines Amco Engr. 451, 335 (1975 Ill.App.). cited, C.J.S. 117(1), 1114, 18.5 Spokane Truck Dray Hoefer, Wash. 1072 (Wash.1891) ("we unsound unfair dangerous practice ."); Roose Perkins, 715 (1879). leave defendant—his motives, intentions, design—was connection akin claim. prefaced qualifiers "express." Barlow Lowder, 492, (1880); Barnett Reed, Penn. (1865); Boardman Goldsmith, 403, 407, Ogg Murdock, 139, 146-147 (1884). intentions motives awarded. 88, 96-97 Kelly 387, 393 Hearst, 160 143, 530, 539-540 (Cal.1911) ("malice motive"); 489-491 Jeffersonville Rogers, 124-125 Curl Chicago, 428-429, (1884); 184 Carli Depot, Street T. 104, Winter Peterson, N.J.L. 524, (1854); 488, 489 (N.J.1888); Causee Anders, 388, 390 (1839); Windham Rhame, Rich. (S.C.Law) standing alone, state: injuries, injurer foresees wills implicitly; foresee rashly consequences, chargeable Wharton, Negligence (1874). "technical," 623 (1901), occurrence action, jurisdiction. seriously otherwise. instructions. Hays Anderson, (1876); Coleman Newsome Ryan, 132, (1877); Morely Dunbar, 183 (1869). slightest lay-persons ill-will, desire "Malice" dictionary published approximate enmity heart; disposition unjustly gratification revenge; spite; mischief." Stormonth's Webster's 804 Worcester's 873 Abbott's (1879) ("a attached popular use"). authorities demonstrate imported contemporaneously "wanton" "wilful" used, together define finds "ambiguity confusion" surrounding terms, concludes disagree. treatise 'wanton' signification. meanings, depending used." 292-293 (1912). "connection [wanton] used," ibid., phrasing Pike Dilling, 539 Wilkinson Drew, 360, 363 (1883); Devine Rand, Boutwell Marr, 607, (Vt.1899). "wanton," considerations suggest proposition, contexts, wilful, Am. Eng.Enc. (3rd 1901). "quasi-criminal" phrase. instruction—as occasionally (1861)—the laymen dissolute intention. 1490 1645 (1860). "Wantonly" "lewdly" synonymous "wickedly." 768 834 predicating wantonness unfounded. examined individually; was, implying unduly simplified. Like 114-117 issue, generalize, again useful, word, voluntarily, purpose," 114. important, seldom, ever, independent injury" "wilfully illegal conduct" typical appeared. these, "[t]o constitute design, 536 (2nd 1905). trespass" misdeed 525-529. "wilfully," knowingly harmed or, alternatively, tortious unlawful. demanded; satisfy relevance seldom justifiably encountered criticism. innocence." Malott, (CA7 Faced appeared self-contradictory reaction juries, requirements statements treatises "wilful," demanded. demonstrate, "Recklessness" "heedlessness" "negligence," synonyms "careless." 832 strict somewhat dangerous—and unreasonable—than (1965); despite f. Undoubtedly, unreasonableness actor, subject. (1882), author marked legally, practically, malice; supposed committed. 716. author, "such evinces others," award. 724 Sutherland does, lack Wise Daniel, 229, 190 746, 747 (Mich.1922), cow kicks face, physical hurt equal kick face hob-nailed boot, 'cussedness' raises outrage, back boot adds materially victim's outrage. employs spite venom administering hurt, expect maliciousness escape Inman Ball, 543, 666 1885) ("To inflicting punishment, appear willful wrongful."). Lahue, (1983) ("No abrogate traditional witness actions." witnesses settled"); ("Tenney Reconstruction restrict historically, policy, accorded categories officials"); 561, 859, ("Although enacting expose intending revocation afforded government officials."); 1048, ("The Members foreign 1871."); 316-318, 998-999, (relying tradition); 553-554, 1217-1218, (1967), Chief Warren wrote, "Few doctrines solidly jurisdiction, Fisher, 335, Wall. 646 (1872)." 421, 990, (1976), "predicated historically interests behind it." "some transforming 43-44 confronting "conscious[ness]" inadvertence. "conscious" reasonableness observed, "When willfullness enters, advertence, inadvertence." Christy Butcher, 153 Mo.App. 397, 401, 1058 (1911). reflection, formulation self-contradictory: considered, probative, They serve, misconduct," choice "wilfully" Felton 699, 875 $1,000 distiller, "Doing omitting Massachusetts "not 'voluntarily,' necessity intention." "evidence willfullness, wickedness amounted criminality." 115, 265-266. ambiguous, Legal "could 1870s, evolved. Addison's trespasses accompanied insult, cruel told 645 continues, "Wherever grievous abuse, aggravation, jury" Addison ways, "an defiance "wantonness willful," detail below, treatise-writer purported say. pattern hornbooks authors articulating accepting Compare Deering, 415, text accompanying G. Field, furnished injurious, thereby willfully injurious. cases. intended, obligations, inferred.") 91, (gross case); Hilliard, 598-599 (detailing prevailing); S. Thompson, 1264-1265 (noting conflicting requirement). Professor Greenleaf, time, Evidence 253 (15th 1892). prevailed minority jurisdictions, concededly purposes, lies scholar, enacted. inferred 716, 724. Judge Maynes' 41. 1634-1635, regard, position infrequently jurors Malone Murphy, 250, 261 (1864) (jury "may cause, it"); Lyon Hancock, 372, (1868) ("Malice circumstances."); Farwell Warren, 467, 472 (1869) ("actuated disregard"); Addair Huffman, 156 592, (W.Va.1973); Columbus Finance, Howard, 178, 327 "fraud, oppression constituting inference deemed Schuman Chatman, Okl. 615, 618 (Okl.1938). appreciate, meeting behavior may, evidence, alone satisfies claimant's proof. Roberts Hiem, 678, 683 (1855) trespass rude, aggravating, insulting manner, circumstances"); (1880) ("it [a public] faith, damages"; "there of" "maliciously, injure"); 374, 378 (instruction "exemplary [are] allowed fraud, oppression" "textbook principle"); (1882) ("Exemplary given, property."); Ward Blackwood, 295, 299-301 (1883) cruelty, hot blood "; cruelty approved); (1860) (holding motives," "willfully unjust oppressive" barred disregard" applied); Calif. 325 372 (1868); California); Doroszka Lavine, 111 575, 150 692 (1930) (reviewing limiting fees); Dibble Morris, 416, 426-427 (1857) ("settled" "vindictive [damages] proportion evinced defendant"); (special ultrahazardous activities); Dalton Beers, (1871) inspired defendant"; "malignant motives" "improper required); Yahoola River Mining Irby, 479 ("bona fide belief" lawfully bars damages); Green 515 accused" 134, (1877) believed breaking business"); (charge wantonness" Moore Crose, 34-35 [and] appellant valid right"); Thomas Isett, Greene's 1848) ("wanton, aggravating injure," needed 1854) carriers); Brown Allen, 306, 311 (1872) malice-in-law reversed; "This erroneous. abrogation justifying unlawful, instruction, visited honestly lawful possession question."); Fuller Chicago N.W.R. 187, force" improper: dependent wrongdoer. is, enmity, malevolence injure."); 546, (Rothrock, J.) harass, oppress, another. wrongful."); Wentworth Blackman, 256-257, (1887) (reversing "malicious "motives," required) (1893) ("willful malicious" necessary); 572 (1841) ("redress proportioned sustained, future, intentions"); Biggs D'Aquin Bros., La.Ann. 21, (1858) "good faith"); (while trespass," wanton," "wantonly" "indicating intent"); (1861) (court approves "wantonly," "under influence plaintiff"); Schindel Schindel, 108, 122-23 commits ought, justice, dealt harshly vicious feelings, ignorantly."); Blocher, 277, 287 (1867); Zimmerman Helser, 274, 278 "unless pretence perpetrating wrong"); 304-307, (1870) ("malice, ill-will corruption" Ellis Brockton 198 538, 1018 (1908) recoverable); Hyatt Adams, 180, 198-199 (1867) (refusal imputed allowable," reversed); ("intention becomes intentional, recovered damage. [But if] wilfulness—a intentionally. exists, available); McKeon (neither "can ever intentionally, willfully, done"); (1862) defendants, knowing exempt, harassing oppressing" him, proved jury] "know[s]" "wrong unlawful"); "properly willful, malicious,—a [plaintiff's] rights"); Whitfield 352 (1866) wrong"; injuriously affect Charleston (actual "modified application, carriers steam"); adopts entirely); (1854) (if maliciously, "maliciously" "from motives"); (N.J.1888) "rest[ ] penalty"; rest Patterson, 705, 706 required"); (1839) "actuated total laws"); Louder Hinson, 369, wreak vengeance" plaintiffs "harass insult them" Mason, 279-280 wicked, corrupt, prompted party] act"); Rayner Kinney, 283, (1863) (exemplary attach 191, 196 (1865) formed damages", termed "unexceptionable"); M'Cabe Morehead, Reps 516 (Pa.1841); Herdic Young, 177 McDevitt Vial, 645, 648-649 (Pa.1889) high-handed oppress Herreshoff Tripp, (R.I.1885) "only (S.C. Law) (where "show[s] recompense "ascertain "malfeasance," pecuniary punishment"; "motive," "intention" dispositive; "malevolently vex plaintiff" approval); Cole Tucker, (1851) exist); Neill Newton, (1859) (failure allege "aggravated misrepresentation deception" Bradshaw Buchanan, 494 (1878) tending appellants actuated [acted] vex, tends Parsons Harper, 64, (dictum; "act damages"); Virginia House, 148 879, 139 480 (1927) ("well reversing "any Virginia); (Since "depend[ acts, admissible ascertain them"; "wickedness wilfullness"); Lombard Batchelder, 558, 511, 512 (Vt.1886) ("malicious," "improper," (Vt.1899) (after governed Hoadley "on account "acted disgrace (approves, "correct rule," "when consequently McWilliams Bragg, 424, 431 ("where vindictiveness Barnes Martin, 245 [of proceeded 183, 186-187 "aggravation, approved; "motive" Hooker 292, 293 (approving injure); Hamlin Spaulding, 364 (defendant serving ulterior object outside administration justice"); 358 (not control animals); Topolewski Plankinton Packing 143 52, 554, 560 (Wis.1910) uniformly punitory [must have] sort"). 1880's 1890's. admittedly 20th Court; well-settled probative subsequent 1983: detailed member bulk ignored; shift attention stood Here, remains 1864 precedent, agreed Greenleaf's "were open inclined only." (1864). Ry. N. 508 140, "revealing." registration, $500 aggrieved. Similar conspicuously conditions comfort derives demonstrates wished party, explicitly, concern, (absent "few men, fit positions, induced accept trusts character."). exclusively unconstitutional complicated. pursues costs: recognize, gravely judgment, serves positions attractive competent, persons. scale values, countless functions increasingly perform. level costs imposes. ignores embraces. single-minded stop recklessness; basis, result, short-term, costly price. unable reason, achieving cost benefits obtained, attorneys' federalism discuss insurance obtained complex dangers accompany thereby. shades official—whether invidious reasons. measure improperly, great. threats area—the services—where efficient, competent servants. fear goal, end, citizens, better. respect, Congress's attitude revealed 1968 illuminating. notably, recoveries $1,000. 3612(c). creates—unfairness comity concerns, alarmingly, open-ended exist. 1988. argue, decide, 3612(c), would. so, derive laws States," concluding sub silentio suitable effect." (This follows available, wherein having held," applying.) If, therefore, conformity Patsy Board Regents, 2557, 172 exhaustion formulation. preclude involve

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