Document: 538 U.S. 84 SMITH ET AL.v.DOE AL. No. 01-729. Supreme Court of United States. Argued November 13, 2002. Decided March 5, 2003. Under the Alaska Sex Offender Registration Act (Act), any sex offender or child kidnaper incarcerated in State must register with Department Corrections within 30 days before his release, providing name, address, and other specified information. If individual is at liberty, he local law enforcement authorities a working day conviction entering State. was convicted single, nonaggravated crime, provide annual verification submitted information for 15 years. an aggravated offense two more offenses, life verify quarterly. The offender's forwarded to Public Safety, which maintains central registry offenders. Some data, such as fingerprints, driver's license number, anticipated change whether has had medical treatment afterwards, are kept confidential. aliases, photograph, physical description, identification numbers motor vehicles, place employment, date birth, conviction, length conditions sentence, statement compliance Act's update requirements cannot be located are, however, published on Internet. Both registration notification retroactive. Respondents were offenses. released from prison completed rehabilitative programs Although passage, respondents covered by it. After initial registration, they required submit quarterly verifications notify changes. respondents, along wife one them, also respondent here, brought this action under 42 U. S. C. § 1983, seeking declare void them under, inter alia, Ex Post Facto Clause, Const., Art. I, 10, cl. 1. District granted petitioners summary judgment. Ninth Circuit disagreed relevant part, holding that, because its effects punitive, violates Clause. Held: Because nonpunitive, retroactive application does not violate Pp. 92-106. (a) determinative question legislature meant establish "civil proceedings." Kansas v. Hendricks, 521 346, 361. intention impose punishment, that ends inquiry. If, enact regulatory scheme civil further examine statutory so punitive either purpose effect negate State's deem it civil. E. g., ibid. ordinarily defers legislature's stated intent, ibid., only clearest proof will suffice override intent transform what been denominated remedy into criminal penalty. See, e. 92. (b) Legislature's create civil, nonpunitive regime. first considers statute's text structure, Flemming Nestor, 363 603, 617, asking indicated expressly impliedly preference label other, Hudson States, 522 93, 99. Here, states finding offenders pose high risk reoffending, identifies protecting public law's primary interest, declares release certain about agencies assist safety. This already determined imposition restrictive measures adjudged dangerous legitimate governmental objective. S., 363. nothing face suggests sought anything than designed protect harm. Id., contrary conclusion Constitution's inclusion need purposes administration. Where legislative restriction incident power health safety, considered evidencing exercise power, add punishment. supra, 616. Other formal attributes enactment, manner codification procedures establishes, probative see, 361, but open debate case. provisions codified Health, Housing Code, confirming statute intended measure. Cf. fact Code Criminal Procedure dispositive, since location labels do themselves one. See States One Assortment 89 Firearms, 465 354, 364-365, n. 6. contains many involve Court's altered implementing procedural mechanisms require trial court inform defendant and, if possible, period required. That strengthened aside duty register, itself mandates no procedures. Instead, vests authority promulgate regulations agency charged enforcing both laws. Also telling adopted contain safeguards associated process. By contemplating distinctly procedures, clearly criminal, sanction. Ursery, 518 267, 289. 92-96. (c) show, much less proof, Alaska's scheme. In analyzing effects, refers seven factors noted Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 168-169, useful framework. First, scheme, necessary operation, regarded Nation's history traditions statutes fairly recent origin measure, or, least, did traditional means punishing. Respondents' argument Act, particularly provisions, resembles shaming punishments colonial unpersuasive. contrast those punishments, stigma results display ridicule dissemination accurate record, most public. posts Internet alter conclusion. Second, subject affirmative disability restraint. It imposes restraint, resemble imprisonment, paradigmatic Hudson, 104. Moreover, obligations harsh sanctions occupational debarment, held nonpunitive. Contrary Circuit's assertion, record evidence led substantial housing disadvantages former would have otherwise occurred. unavailing court's assertion periodic requirement imposed disability. face, these updates made person. system parallel probation supervised rejected because, probationers releasees, free move where wish live work citizens, supervision. While registrants after their facial features, borrow car, seek psychiatric treatment, permission so. Third, promote aims might deter future crimes dispositive. id., 105. erred concluding retributive. differentiate between individuals multiple offenses single offense, broad categories reporting requirement's corresponding reasonably related danger recidivism, consistent Fourth, rational connection purpose, advanced alerting community. may narrowly drawn accomplish imprecision suggest "sham mere pretext." 371 (KENNEDY, J., concurring). Fifth, excessive respect purpose. determination legislate class, rather dangerousness, render punitive. Hawker New York, 170 189, 197. 357-368, 364, distinguished. wide excessive, given general mobility population. here best choice possible address problem seeks remedy, chosen reasonable light meets standard. Finally, remaining Mendoza-Martinez — regulation comes play scienter behavior applies crime little weight 97-106. 259 F. 3d 979, reversed remanded. KENNEDY, delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, THOMAS, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. 106. SOUTER, judgment, 107. STEVENS, dissenting 110. GINSBURG, BREYER, joined, 114. 1 CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR NINTH CIRCUIT. 2 John G. Roberts, Jr., argued cause petitioners. With him briefs Jonathan Franklin, Catherine Stetson, Cynthia M. Cooper, Bruce Botelho, Attorney General Alaska. 3 Solicitor Olson amicus curiae urging reversal. brief Assistant McCallum, Deputy Dreeben, Patricia A. Millett, Leonard Schaitman, Mark W. Pennak, Wendy Keats. 4 Darryl L. Thompson respondents. Verne Rupright.* 5 JUSTICE KENNEDY Court. 6 requires authorities, We decide punishment prohibited 7 * A 8 enacted (Act) May 12, 1994. 1994 Sess. Laws ch. 41. Like counterparts termed "Megan's Law." Megan Kanka 7-year-old Jersey girl who sexually assaulted murdered neighbor who, unknown victim's family, prior convictions against children. gave impetus laws mandatory community notification. 1994, Congress passed Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children Sexually Violent title 17, 108 Stat. 2038, amended, 14071, federal funding States' adoption sets minimum standards state programs. 1996, every State, Columbia, Federal Government some variation Megan's Law. 9 law, our concern case, components: system. 41, 12(a). "sex kidnapper physically present state" (if incarcerated) liberty). §§ 12.63.010(a), (2000). Prompt mandated. still prison, release; 12.63.010(a). identifying information, vehicles access, postconviction history. 12.63.010(b)(1). He permit photograph fingerprint him. 12.63.010(b)(2). 10 12.63.010(d)(1), 12.63.020(a)(2). 12.63.010(d)(2), 12.63.020(a)(1). police department moves. 12.63.010(c). knowingly fails comply prosecution. 11.56.835, 11.56.840. 11 18.65.087(a). 12.63.010(b), 18.65.087(b). following available public: "the kidnapper's description[,] [and] convicted, [the update] . located." specify make nonconfidential B 12 Doe I II sexual abuse minor, offense. pleaded nolo contendere abused daughter years, when she ages 11; entered plea 14-year-old child. 1990 passage Jane Doe, Rev. 1979, U.S.C. Clause Article 1, Constitution Due Process Fourteenth Amendment. judgment agreement Appeals scheme; but, disagreement despite intent. consequence, Otte, 979 (2001). certiorari. 534 1126 (2002). 13 time we claim constitutes forbidden framework inquiry, well established. "ascertain `civil' 361 (1997). "`so State's] intention' `civil.'" Ibid. (quoting Ward, 448 242, 248-249 (1980)). "ordinarily defer intent," "`only proof' penalty," 100 (1997) 249); see 361; 290 (1996); 365 (1984). 14 Whether "is all construction." (internal quotation marks omitted); consider structure determine 617 (1960). punish satisfy ex post facto challenge without inquiry considerable deference accorded courts "must ask legislature, establishing penalizing mechanism, other." 99 omitted). Legislature expressed objective itself. found reoffending," identified "protecting offenders" "primary interest" law. "release safety." As observed examined postincarceration confinement offenders, "a historically regarded." "[n]othing harm." 16 cast doubt upon nature declared pointing out lists Brief 23 (citing 12). rejecting terminating benefits deported aliens, safety citizens," "as punishment." 616 189 (1898)). repeated principle upholding requiring forfeiture unlicensed firearms double jeopardy challenge. enacting provision, "`was concerned widespread traffic availability whose possession thereof interest.'" 364 Huddleston 415 814, 824 (1974)). goal "plainly remedial punitive." 364. These precedents instruct us even justice system, pursuit 17 103; case debate. "Health, Code," 18, (the "objective proceeding evidenced placement [State's] probate code, instead code" (citations omitted)). procedure seem point opposite direction. factors, though, provision sanction though authorizing code. 364-365. demonstrated Congress' "intention additional sanction," observing "both labeled `penalties.'" 18 same rationale here. Title (where located) disposing recovered seized property, 12.36.010 et seq. (2000); confidentiality victims witnesses, 12.61.010 seq.; governing security accuracy 12.62.110 actions, 12.72.010 actions writs habeas corpus, 12.75.010 seq., "independent proceeding[s]," Hannagan, 559 P. 2d 1059, 1063 (Alaska 1977). relate administration, partial code sufficient support 19 implement amended Rules concerning acceptance pleas judgments. rule now "infor[m] writing Act] can court, required." Rule Crim. Proc. 11(c)(4) Similarly, written judgments kidnapings set lesser period." 12.55.148(a) 20 policy alert consequences conduct When up logical persons clear unambiguous notice penalties noncompliance. imprisoned). Timely adequate serves apprise responsibilities ensure Notice important, enforced penalties. methods available, effective part colloquy conviction. Invoking process aid regime 21 Our 12.63.020(b), 18.65.087(d) 17.30.100 (enforcement drug laws); 18.70.010 (fire protection); 28.05.011 (motor road safety); 44.41.020 (protection property). leads infer envisioned implementation administrative. "distinctly procedures," "indicate[d] sanction." 289 omitted; alteration original). 22 conclude, Appeals, refer 168-169 (1963), migrated jurisprudence, earlier origins cases Sixth Eighth Amendments, Bill Attainder Clauses. nn. 22-28. apply various constitutional contexts, said "neither exhaustive nor dispositive," 249; 365, 7, "useful guideposts," analysis whether, scheme: punishment; restraint; promotes purpose; 24 historical survey decides likely select deemed tradition, recognize such. "are origin," 3d, 989, argue, particular, period. 33-34 Earle, Curious Punishments Bygone Days 1-2 (1896)). 25 indeed inflict disgrace. Humiliated "to stand signs cataloguing offenses." Hirsch, From Pillory Penitentiary: Rise Incarceration Early Massachusetts, 80 Mich. 1179, 1226 (1982); Friedman, Crime Punishment American History 38 (1993). At times labeling permanent: murderer branded "M," thief "T." R. Semmes, Maryland 35 (1938); Massaro, Shame, Culture, Law, 1880, 1913 (1991). aim suffer "permanent stigmas, person community." Ibid.; 40; 1228. serious banished, could neither return original nor, reputation tarnished, admitted easily new T. Blomberg & K. Lucken, Penology: Control 30-31 contend compulsory publicize associate life. 26 Any resemblance early is, misleading. whipping, pillory, branding inflicted pain staged direct confrontation Even lacked corporal component, shaming, humiliation, banishment, involved They fellow citizens face-to-face expelled 20, 35-36, 51-52; 1912-1924; 39-40; 30-31. contrast, Law treat truthful furtherance On contrary, tradition insists indictment, trial, sentence. Transparency essential maintaining ensuring integrity, rights accused. publicity adverse defendant, running mild personal embarrassment social ostracism. resulting integral 27 acknowledged subjects shame, humiliation increasing proportion extent publicity. And geographic reach greater times. facts principal own humiliate offender. Widespread access efficacy attendant collateral consequence valid regulation. 28 Web site shame by, say, posting comments underneath record. An take step going Safety's site, proceed registry, then look desired analogous visit official archive records forcing appear visible badge past criminality. makes document search efficient, cost effective, convenient citizenry. 29 next "affirmative restraint." 168. inquire how felt restraint minor indirect, unlikely (forbidding participation banking industry); De Veau Braisted, 144 (1960) union official); (1898) (revocation license). restrain activities pursue leaves jobs residences. 31 distinguish followed grounds issue there specific "narrow," confined particular professions, whereas employed [respondents] completely unemployable" "employers want loss business learns hired offenders." 988. conjecture. Landlords employers background checks prospective employees tenants force. occurred through use routine landlords. 7-year suffered hostility damage became 987-988. event, individual's domain. 32 lasting painful impact offender, flow matter underlying accessible members precautions dealing registrant. 33 reasoned reaching conclusion, misapprehension, albeit created during below, 984, 4. representation erroneous. statute, And, conceded oral us, indication in-person appearance Act. Tr. Oral Arg. 26-28. 34 terms imposed. 987. force, due consideration, reject Probation entail series allow supervising officer revocation infraction. generally Johnson 529 694 Griffin Wisconsin, 483 868 (1987). features (such growing beard), subjected prosecution failure, separate objections raised requirement, questions resolved, concerns beyond scope opinion. suffices say program restraints violation concedes crimes. seize proposition argue deterrence 37. proves too much. number imposing "To hold presence deterrent renders `criminal' ... severely undermine Government's ability engage regulation." 105; 292; 36 incorrect conclude retributive appears measured wrongdoing, posed." 990. true, differentiates 12.63.020(a)(1) categories, 37 "[m]ost significant" factor 290. acknowledged, "public communit[y]." 991. concede, turn, "this alternative valid, rational." 38. contend, lacks "narrowly purpose." simply close perfect fit advance. rely relation relied large propositions: first, regard dangerousness; second, places limits 991-992. Neither persuasive. 39 provides recidivism. findings grave over rate recidivism among dangerousness class. posed "frightening high." McKune Lile, 536 24, (2002); ("When reenter society, type rearrested rape assault" Dept. Justice, Bureau Justice Statistics, Offenses Offenders (1997); Recidivism Prisoners Released (1997))). 40 preclude making categorical should consequences. upheld challenges burdens assessment. Veau, 160; Hawker, Hawker: "Doubtless, violated thereafter reform become possessed good moral character. But kind universal ...." 41 decision rely, 39, contrary. Hendricks involuntary (and potentially indefinite) "particularly individuals." 357-358, magnitude assessment appropriate. condition registration. context dispense predictions assess basis accurate, nonprivate registrants' violating prohibitions duration excessive. Empirical research molesters, instance, shown "[c]ontrary conventional wisdom, reoffenses occur several years release," late release." National Institute Prentky, Knight, Lee, Child Sexual Molestation: Research Issues 43 Appeals' reliance unavailing. highlighted "world-wide" "[b]roadcas[t]" indiscriminate manner. 992. explained, passive one: warns displayed commit act another prosecution." http://www.dps.state.ak.us/nSorcr/asp/ (as visited Jan. 2003) (available Clerk file). Given population, throughout D. Schram Milloy, Community Notification: Study Characteristics (1995) (38% recidivist Washington took jurisdictions previous committed). 44 excessiveness jurisprudence determining remedy. 45 conduct, was, crime. beginning point, concern. responsibility predicated violation. 46 examination reversed, remanded proceedings 47 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici reversal California rel. Lockyer Mr. Lockyer, California, Robert Anderson, Chief General, Jo Graves, Senior Stan Cross, Supervising Janet Neeley, Ken Salazar, Colorado, Alan Gilbert, Donald Quick, Matthew Holman, Rigsby, Corporation Counsel Attorneys respective follows: Pryor Alabama, Napolitano Arizona, Richard Blumenthal Connecticut, Brady Delaware, Butterworth Florida, Thurbert Baker Georgia, Earl I. Anzai Hawaii, James Ryan Illinois, Steve Carter Indiana, Carla J. Stovall Kansas, Albert B. Chandler III Kentucky, Ieyoub Louisiana, Joseph Curran, Maryland, Thomas Reilly Mike Moore Mississippi, Jeremiah (Jay) Nixon Missouri, McGrath Montana, Don Stenberg Nebraska, Frankie Sue Del Papa Nevada, Philip McLaughlin Hampshire, David Samson Jersey, Madrid Mexico, Eliot Spitzer Wayne Stenehjem North Dakota, Betty Montgomery Ohio, Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Hardy Myers Oregon, Michael Fisher Pennsylvania, Anabelle Rodríguez Puerto Rico, Charles Condon South Carolina, Barnett Paul Summers Tennessee, Cornyn Texas, Shurtleff Utah, William H. Sorrell Vermont, Iver Stridiron Virgin Islands, Christine O. Gregoire Washington, Darrell V. McGraw, West Virginia, Doyle Wisconsin; Council Governments al. Ruda Crowley. amici affirmance Civil Liberties Union Lawrence Lustberg, Steven Shapiro, Joshua Dratel; Citizens Penal Reform, Inc., Andrew McCullough; Electronic Privacy Information Center Marc Rotenberg; Massachusetts Committee Services Carol Donovan; Office Defender Peter Garcia, Z. Buncher, Brian Neff, Lehrich, Edward Barocas; Service Columbia Klein, Samia Fam, Corinne Beckwith. Lucy Dalglish Gregg Leslie Reporters Freedom Press curiae. 48 concurring. 49 join (ASORA) write separately, reiterate "there [an implementation-based] challenge" jurisprudence. Seling Young, 531 250, 273 (2001) (THOMAS, judgment). limited actually statute. 273-274 ("[T]o result being applied according terms, improper implementation"). stated, categorization accomplished examining face." 50 ASORA 51 "[i]nformation contained confidential disclosure except description vehicle AS 12.63 18.65.087(b) 52 considering strayed qualification, concur. 53 54 agree amount majority different path mine, concur 55 says, two-step enquiry including applying so-called Kennedy-Ward test, consequence; behind preferred classification substance, focusing effects. (1980); (1963). proof'" based able overcome categorization. 249 (1960)). continue think, heightened burden sense points 113-114 (SOUTER, me characterization way. 56 designate "civil," cases, heavily Allen 478 368 (1986). important indicator, matters air, although section code's 18.65.087 (2000), occurs procedure, 12.63.010. What more, guilty plea, (2002), perhaps significant, mandated element actual 12.55.148 32(c) looking enforcement, 103, obliged, least initially, police, (c), obtained agency, force characterization, way asserting character 57 indicators likewise directions. To start shows prevent repeat investigation reported 1; Petitioners 26, 13. Ensuring course, fundamental goal, Salerno, 481 739, 747 (1987), analyses. But, time, naive further, pervasive attitudes toward infra page 110, Weaver Graham, 450 (1981) (Ex "arbitrary vindictive legislation"). uses touchstone, probably sweeping significant people real threat community, feed suspicion something on; outpace aims, room ulterior revisit crimes, ones. Kennedy, 169. 58 support, too, severity offenders' names, photographs, addresses, ostracize convicts. thus bears used disable living normally accepts explanation way, ante, 99, more. Its all, send message heard, selecting corpus penal broadcasting warning. Selection statement, affects common sometimes carries harsher consequences, exclusion housing, harassment, harm.* 59 me, indications above weighed rough equipoise. Certainly justify "`clearest substance judgment), affirmatively show clarity valid. tips scale presumption constitutionality gives benefit like one, alone seriously "less debarment" inHudson 93 (1997), (1960), (1898). 100. true proscription onerous practical listed registry. Pataki, 120 1263, 1279 (CA2 1997) (noting "numerous instances harm aftermath notification—ranging shunning, picketing, press vigils, ostracism, eviction, threats violence, attacks, arson"); Verniero, 119 1077, 1102 (CA3 ("The documents families experienced profound isolation reaction notified. Employment employment opportunities jeopardized lost. similar fate. Family relationships destroyed strained. Retribution private, unlawful violence while incidents `vigilante justice' common, happen frequency justifiably fear them"); Amici Curiae 7-21 (describing incidents). 60 01-729 01-1231.* 61 raise 01-1231 Connecticut's 62 opinions fail deprive constitutionally protected interest liberty. liberty implicated, seems colorable claim. Meachum Fano, 427 215 (1976). Proper therefore begin consideration freedom. 63 severe whom apply. Alaska, served sentence extensive employer, plate model car current photo, once year report moves, updated Registrants shave beards, color hair, events authorities. Much placed registrant's webpage "Registered Offender." His street employer page. 64 duties comparable criminals periods parole. "[w]idespread access," (opinion 01-729), constantly stigmatizing effect. (providing examples threats, assaults, widely available). my unquestionably affect Wisconsin Constantineau, 400 433 (1971). 65 peradventure unique share three characteristics, aggregate (1) constitute deprivation (2) everyone (3) criminals. Unlike cited, 66 sure, deny privileges (upholding prohibition felons waterfront unions); doctors felony practicing medicine). Those distinguishable each burden, barred paid fines NLRB Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co., 388 175, 191-192 (1967). doctor permitted practice medicine longer competent e.g., N. Ann. 45:1-21 (West Supp. 2002). 67 Likewise, 346 commitment committed violent someone authorize "`mental abnormality personality disorder predatory acts violence.'" 352. Nor predicate commitment. (Kansas' incompetent reason insanity mental disease defect). disagree respects standing anyone eligible 68 No often manipulate multifactor tests wholly dissimilar involving aspects sanctions, never persuade else commits else, impairs person's 69 prohibits addition tried legislation enacted. recognizes, "recidivism concern" supposed justification Ante, 105 01-729). underlies "three strikes" Ewing 11. Reliance highlights flagrant protections afforded Double Jeopardy Clauses Constitution. 70 think equally clear, publish category defendants. Looking future, adequately justified retribution deterrence. fairness, judges include sentences preceding Thus, postenactment 71 Accordingly, believe publication permissible component legislation, long provided trial. disposition Connecticut 01-1231, respectfully dissent [This 01-1231,Connecticut Safety 1.] 72 BREYER joins, dissenting. 73 SOUTER carefully explains, unclear conceived measure 107-109 resolving ranks purposes, demand proof" guided neutrally evaluate (listing "[a]bsent conclusive [legislative] statute"); cf. 115 (BREYER, judgment) ("[I]n theory, variety hand.").1 74 Measured Beyond doubt, involves STEVENS spell out, intrusive offenders; exposes registrants, aggressive community-wide 109, judgment); 111-112 (STEVENS, 01-1231). 75 Furthermore, forms parole; regimen, permits Offender," calls mind mark shunned. 01-1231); 109 76 Telling observes, alone, "touchstone" triggering obligations. 112-113 touchstone adds impression retributively targets guilt, i.e., "revisit[s] [more it] prevent[s] ones." 77 Tending acknowledge, ranked disabilities restraints. 603 (termination accrued payable resident aliens); (civil mentally ill offenders). "punitive aspects." (1996). 78 ultimately balance 38, purpose: 102-103 (majority opinion). notably exceeds dangerousness. keyed qualified aggravated. exorbitant: perpetual reporting, changed. 90. meriting heaviest whatever possibility rehabilitation: shorten period, demonstration rehabilitation incapacitation.2 However plain currently poses remain long-term monitoring inescapable humiliation. 79 example, charge nine successfully program, gained program's apparent low reoffense. subsequently remarried, established business, reunited family. custody daughter, rehabilitated. 983 (CA9 2001). rested evaluations very re-offending" "not pedophile." Notwithstanding strong rehabilitation, four per year, publicly Offender" rest Satisfied ambiguous effect, incompatible affirm Appeals. TheMendoza-Martinez "[w]hether scienter, operation deterrence, [nonpunitive] rationally connected assignable it, assigned." 168-169. For reasons seeante, 109-110, find citations (1898), 103-104 opinion), convincingly responsive point.

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