Document: 498 U.S. 103 111 S.Ct. 461 112 L.Ed.2d 449 Raymond J. MOSKAL, Sr., Petitionerv.UNITED STATES. No. 89-964. Argued Oct. 1, 1990. Decided Dec. 3, Syllabus Petitioner participated in a "title-washing" scheme which automobile titles that had been altered to reflect rolled-back odometer mileage figures were sent from Pennsylvania Virginia. After Virginia authorities, unaware of the alterations, issued incorporating false figures, Moskal received "washed" Pennsylvania, where they used connection with car sales unsuspecting buyers. was convicted receiving two washed under 18 U.S.C. § 2314, prohibits knowing transportation "falsely made, forged, altered, or counterfeited securities" interstate commerce. (Emphasis added.) In affirming Moskal's conviction, Court Appeals rejected his contention that, because genuine, inasmuch as officials who them did not know falsity, therefore made." Held: A person receives genuine vehicle titles, incorporate fraudulently tendered readings, those have made" violation 2314. Pp. 106-118. (a) misconstrues doctrine lenity when he contends it is possible read 2314 applying only forged securities, and some courts so it, this should simply resolve issue favor doctrine. The applies situations reasonable doubt persists about statute's intended scope even after resort language structure, legislative history, motivating policies statute. Such factors demonstrate unambiguously conduct. 106-108. (b) Both plain meaning words purpose underlying provide ample support for fraudulent washing titles. quoted are broad enough, on their face, encompass containing since such made contain false, incorrect, information. fact state responsible issuing readings irrelevant, liability depends transporting security unlawful intent scienter physically produces security. construction excluding any "genuine" valid deprives phrase independent statutory terms "forged" "counterfeited," violates established principle court give effect, if possible, every clause word That encompasses documents information also supported by 2314's curbing type trafficking securities its success exploitation commerce avoid detection individual States, title-washing operation. history contains references counterfeit but rollback schemes does require different conclusion, since, choosing securities," Congress sought reach class frauds exploited This has never required permissible application statute be expressly referred history. Moreover, Court's precedents specifically reject constructions limit instances fraud rather than encompassed language. See United States v. Sheridan, 329 379, 390, 391, 67 332, 337, 338, 91 L.Ed. 359; McElroy 455 642, 655, 656, 658, 102 1332, 1339, 1340, 1341, 71 522. 108-114. (c) foregoing reading precluded requiring federal criminal uses common-law term without otherwise defining must generally given meaning. Although, at time enacted relevant many interpreted exclude content, interpretation universal, other having taken divergent views. Where no fixed usage existed common law, more appropriate inquire best accords overall statute, assume, example, adopted followed largest number courts. Congress' general enacting law may prevail over "common-law meaning" rule construction. Since position define content accord 2314—namely criminalize exploits commerce—it far likely view content. 114-118. (d) policy arguments narrowly construing unpersuasive. First, there evidence suggest will deem automatically invalid thereby creating chaos stream commerce—simply punishes introducing into Second, apply range "innocent" transports itself material, conduct satisfies these tests "innocent." P. 118. 888 F.2d 283 (CA3 1989), affirmed. MARSHALL, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, JJ., joined. SCALIA, filed dissenting opinion, O'CONNOR KENNEDY, joined, post, p. ----. SOUTER, took part consideration decision case. Dennis M. Hart, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Stephen L. Nightingale, respondent. Justice MARSHALL Court. 1 case whether knowingly procures "knowing [them] falsely (emphasis added). We conclude does. 2 * scheme. confederates purchased cars rolled back cars' odometers, lower figures. then an accomplice Virginia, submitted authorities. Those officials, played roles scheme: He Virginia; returned. 3 Government indicted each recording figure 30,000 miles true number. Section imposes fines imprisonment anyone who, "with intent, . ., same counterfeited." On appeal, maintained nonetheless thus disagreed, finding " ' "the 'falsely made' prohibit introduction regardless precise method introducer effected lack authenticity." Davis, 283, 285 quoting Mitchell, 588 481, 484 (CA5), cert. denied, 442 940, 99 2881, 61 310 (1979), Huntley, 535 1400, 1402 (CA5 1976), 430 929, 97 1548, 51 773 (1977). 4 Notwithstanding narrowness issue, we granted certiorari divergence among Courts Appeals. 494 1026, 110 1469, 108 607 (1990). Sparrow, 635 794 (CA10 1980) (en banc), 450 1004, 101 1717, 68 209 (1981) (washed within 2314). now affirm petitioner's conviction. II 5 As indicated, securi ties" commerce.1 acknowledges could charged violating provision "altered" But insists violate subsequently because, although participating (and requisite 2314), themselves asserts title authorities do document purports 6 Whether purposes presents conventional construction, determine what have. Moskal, however, suggests shortcut inquiry. Because lenity. See, e.g., Rewis 401 808, 812, 1056, 1059, 28 493 (1971). 7 our view, argument repeatedly "emphasized 'touchstone' 'is ambiguity.' Bifulco 447 381, 387, 100 2247, 2252, 65 205 (1980), Lewis 445 55, 65, 915, 921, 63 198 (1980). Stated level abstraction, course, 8 "provides little atmospherics, leaves open crucial question—almost invariably present—of how much ambiguousness constitutes ambiguity." Hansen, 249 U.S.App.D.C. 22, 30, 772 948 (1985) (Scalia, J.) added), 475 1045 [106 1262, 89 571] (1986). 9 inherently contextual, declined "ambiguous" merely articulate narrow urged Government. 657-658, 522 (1982). Nor deemed division judicial authority sufficient trigger Rodgers, 466 475, 484, 104 1942, 1948, 80 492 (1984). If sufficient, one court's unduly would become binding all courts, including one. Instead, always reserved policies" supra, 2252; see Bass, 404 336, 347, 92 515, 522, 30 488 (1971) (court rely if, "[a]fter 'seiz[ing] thing aid can derived,' "left ambiguous statute," Fisher, Cranch 358, 386, 304 (1805) (Marshall, C.J.)). Examining materials, A. 10 "In determining look first language," Turkette, 452 576, 580, 2524, 2527, 69 246 (1981), giving "words used" "ordinary meaning," Richards 369 9, 82 585, 591, (1962). think readings. sense 11 resists ground merit argument. refers character being transported. perfectly consistent ordinary speak party physical production knew making manner incorporates Indeed, find nexus between actus reus mens rea elements reason infer requirement act itself.2 12 Short way, loss "counterfeited." By seeking valid, essentially equates "counterfeited."3 His 'give stat ute.' YUnited Menasche, 348 528, 538-539, 75 513, 519-520, 615 (1955), Montclair Ramsdell, 107 147, 152, 395, 27 431 (1883); Dept. Public Welfare Davenport, 495 552, 562, 2126, 109 13 Our conclusion Inspired proliferation passing 84 Cong.Rec. 9412 (statement Sen. O'Mahoney), 1939 added pertaining amendment National Stolen Property Act. 53 Stat. 1178. prior decisions recognized "general intent" "broad purpose" curb often 359 (1946), explained 23144 order "com[e] states detecting punishing criminals whose offenses complete utilize channels make successful getaway state's punitive processes impotent." Id., 384, S.Ct., 335. This, concluded, "was indeed most effective ways preventing further frauds." Ibid.; (1982) (rejecting odds "undercut sharply prosecutors effort combat crime commerce"). 14 operations perfect example "further frauds" halt concedes, clear instance involving securities. And facts demonstrate, washes involve precisely sort activities dispersed several elude detection. 15 draws Seizing upon petitioner finds anything schemes." Reply Brief 6. misconceives inquiry failing recognize attack category fraud. At amended Act, constituted still constitute) prevalent form remains, "counterfeit instead chose broader 16 Thus, major Racketeer Influenced Corrupt Organizations "to address infiltration legitimate business organized crime." 2532. Yet, concluded key "enterprise" include businesses associations. Naftalin, 441 768, 775, 2077, 2082, 60 624 (1979) (Securities Act 1933 covers against brokers well investors, "neither nor ever suggested investor protection sole [that] Act" original)). 17 concerning For defendant cashed checks Michigan bank, drawn Missouri account, signature. found proscribed reaching noted primary objective counterfeiters corporate covered check forgeries "done 'little fellows' perhaps aim congressional fire." U.S., 338. "Whether mind primarily small scale transactions Sheridan's," held, "his operation literally purposively. Had intended, exception easily Ibid. explaining stated further: "Drawing [forged] out-of-state presentation, obviously facile way delay defeat apprehension, conviction restoration ill-gotten gain. There sound reasons why wish persons [from reach], very ease escape grasp." 19 similarly blank stolen Ohio buy boat Pennsylvania. Defendant conceded misused "forged innocence yet transported across boundaries. acknowledged "Congress written produce result," id., inconsistent permit "a patient forger [to] evade law," 1339. defendant's becontra dicted predecessors, plea lenity: "[A]lthough 'criminal statutes construed strictly mean narrowest disregard legislature.' Bramblett, 503, 509-510, 504, 508, 594 (1955) (footnote omitted). failed "raise significant questions ambiguity, indicate defined 'interstate commerce' broadly contends." 1341. 20 both Sheridan McElroy, defendants admittedly circulated offering narrower proffered interpretation. present rests cramped words, likewise "[F]ederal fill void local enforcement broadly." Bell 462 356, 362, 2398, 2402, 76 638 (1983) (STEVENS, dissenting) (citation omitted).5 21 To summarize conclusions titles.6 B 22 "[W]here practice meaning." Turley, 352 407, 411, 77 397, 399, (1957). argues equivalent forgery. defined, excluded authentic maintains presumed definition cover disagree reasons. 23 was, fact, "established" law. Rather, appears views American respondent agree Wentworth, F. 52 (CCNH 1882), typifies view. There, prosecuted affidavits obtain pension. sign affidavits, recited therein false. charge perjury affidavit thing; another." 55.7 24 Wentworth view—that "genuinely" purporting content—was universal. Hartman, 490 (ED Mo.1894), procured "notary certificate" falsehoods. Finding fell barring certain writings, judge stated: 25 "I cannot conceive significance make' unless shall statements certificate untrue. 'Falsely' means opposition truth. 'Falsely makes' true. ." 491. 26 Other accepting equation making" "forgery," treated innocent makers. State Shurtliff, Me. 368 (1841), landowner signed deed conveying farm misapprehension pertained land parcel. Although owner held grantee, owner's signature previously agreed parties. 371. concluding explained: "[I]t necessary, [of making] done, whole part, hand charged. It cause procure done." Similarly, re Count de Toulouse Lautrec, 878 (CA7 1900), upheld extradition forgery charges sample copies bond interest coupons printed good faith company's printers. noted: "[T]he establish numerous wherein found, apart manual signing, procurement use writing obligation understood maker." 881 Annot., Genuine Making Instrument Purpose Defrauding Constituting Forgery, 41 A.L.R. 229, 247 (1926). 29 plurality definitions substantially undermines reliance principle. all, presumes accepted undefined prevailed Where, forexample, 'Sound rules exist discover direct Congressional will.' Huddleston 415 814, 831, 94 1272, 39 782 (1974), ex rel. Marcus Hess, 317 537, 542, 383, 87 443 (1943). 412, (1957) (declining assume equated "stolen" "larceny" light varying historic usages "steal" "stolen"). second rejecting recognized, Taylor 575, 2143, (1990), confronted question "burglary," sentence enhancement take rule, burglary purpose. "The arcane distinctions embedded burglary]," noted, "have relevance modern law-enforcement concerns." 593, 2155 360-361, 2401-2402, "takes carries away" provisions Bank Robbery Act). 31 similar here. 2314—namely, conclude, then, C 32 Finally, offers noting thousands year, invalidate incorrect result havoc commerce." Even inclined credit concern narrowing argument—so discern—rests faulty premise. record streams 33 Secondly, contention, too, unfounded. material.8 acting "innocently" engaged concededly 34 reasons, 35 Affirmed. 36 SOUTER 37 whom KENNEDY join, dissenting. 38 Today's succeeds "resolv[ing] Appeals," ante, 106, regarding applicable principles I fear confusion exceed removed. ultimately proposition pursuant includes genuinely be, maker knows someone causes him insert seems me quite extra-ordinary. Surely adverb preceding "made" naturally making, nature product made. An inexpensively painting inexpensive painting. memorandum made"; erroneous "false." 40 One expect general-usage dictionaries separate entry made," falsely" "forged." Webster's New International Dictionary 990 (2d ed. (1945); Third 891 (1961). seeks plausible following locution: "Such information." Ante, 109. word-play transform virtually Thus: building entrance." cry evident fifth forbids "any tool, implement, fitted forging, altering, counterfeiting tax stamps." tools counterfeiting, misrepresentation. 42 maintains, consider render superfluous, offending effect. (1955). sound, limitation ("if possible") observed. distort applied obvious iteration lawyers, alas, particularly addicted—such "give, grant, bargain, sell, convey," "aver affirm," "rest, residue, remainder," "right, title, interest." B. Garner, Modern Legal Usage 197-200 (1987). here, counterfeited," is, respect least, uncontestedly sort. oral argument, dictionary confirm, "counterfeited" thing. 2d, (defining "counterfeit" "forge," listing synonym adjective "counterfeit"), "forge" "counterfeit," "forge"). afoot passage, justification extruding unnatural out iteration. entire counterfeited" self-evidently differing calibrated terms, collection near synonyms describes 43 basis layman's understanding, therefore, today's error. declaring understanding governing criterion, specialized legal long possessed, makes mistake greater consequence. rigid unrealistic standard prescribes establishing meaning, announces ignoring adversely affect future cases. 44 acknowledges, must, employs matter hand, governs. Jackson Morissette 342 246, 263, 72 240, 250, 96 288 (1952): 45 borrows art accumulated tradition centuries practice, presumably adopts cluster ideas attached borrowed body learning convey instructed. case, absence contrary direction satisfaction widely definitions, departure them." 46 Or Frankfurter poetically put it: "[I]f transplanted another source, legislation, brings soil it." Some Reflections Reading Statutes, 47 Colum.L.Rev. 527, 537 (1947). transplant before us Black's Law Ballentine's "false making." former reads follows: "False making. essential element forgery, material alteration involved. Term reference executed substance instrument fictitious, particular something regard truth falsity therein." 602 (6th 1990). 48 486 1948). "Falsely laden Blackstone prejudice man's right." W. Blackstone, Commentaries 245 (1769) prominent 19th-century wrote "[f]orgery, materially defraud, which, might apparently efficacy foundation liability." Bishop, Criminal 523, (5th 1872) distinction "falsity execution" (or making") content" sides Atlantic marking boundary 49 not, forgery; Queen Ritson, L.R. Cr.Cas.Res. 200, 203 (1869). 50 falsely, altering contracts tenor writing, implies paper statement contains." Young, N.H. 266, 270 (1865) original). 1939, portion enacted, Federal using terminology century statutes. E.g., Ky.Penal Laws (1802) ("falsely make, forge counterfeit"); Ind.Rev.Stat., ch. 53, (1843) deface, destroy, alter, forge, Del.Rev.Code, 151 (passed 1852) counterfeit"). More significantly still, formulation employing four appear 2314: counterfeit. 115, counterfeit") (1790); Feb. 8, 1791, Const. Laws, pp. 268-269 Md. Acts 1799, Jan. 1800) March 15, 1805, Perpetual Commonwealth Mass. 277 (1807) Ill.Crim.Code, div. 73 (1827) 1831, Stat., 1726 (1835) Mo.Rev.Stat., Crimes Punishments, Art. IV, §§ 15-16 Me.Rev.Stat., 157 et seq. (1840) Iowa Code, 141 2926 (1851) Nov. 25, 1861, Nev.Laws, 28, (1862) Fla.Rev.Stat., Tit. 2, 7, 2479 1868) makes, alters, forges counterfeits"); Cal.Penal 4, 470 forges, Minn.Gen.Stat., 96, (1879) Wyo.Rev.Stat., 5, 5128 (1899) 1899, Alaska Crim.Code, counterfeit, print, photograph"); Idaho Penal 221, 4937 (1901) Colo.Rev.Stat., 35, 1704 (1908) R.I.Gen.Laws, 609, (1938) Neb.Comp.Stat. 28-601 (1929) counterfeits, prints photographs"). eight formula counterfeit" inclusion document. 231 183, 187-188, 112, 112-113, 58 177 (1913) (dictum); Staats, How. 41, 46, 979 (1850) Starr Mulligan, 59 200 (CA 1932); Smith, 262 191 (Ind.1920); Glasener, 81 566 (SD Cal.1897); Moore, 738 (NDNY 1894); Cameron, Dak. 132, N.W. 561 (1882); 1882); People Kramer, Ill. 304, 185 N.E. 590 (1933); Goucher State, 113 Neb. 352, 204 967 (1925); De Rose People, 64 Colo. 171 (1918); Ford, Ore. 121, 172 802 Territory Gutierrez, N.M. 312, 525 (1906); Bendit, Cal. 274, 901 (1896); Corfield, Kan. 207, (1890); Willson, Minn. 52, (1881). Only disagreed. Mo.1894). (As Part infra, implicitly overruled.) accompaniment three Mann, N.Y. (1878); 266 (1865). am aware, texts Moore Commonwealth, Ky. 630, S.W. 833 (1892); Luttrell 85 Tenn. 232, 886 (1886). minority, however. Detroit Standard Accident Insurance Co., Mich. 14, 222 134 (1928) ("forged"); Dexter Holton Seattle Fidelity & Guaranty 149 Wash. 343, 799 Barron Ga.App. 342, S.E. 214 ("fraudulently make"). Commentators unanimous embrace contents. May's 292 (K. Sears H. Weihofen eds., 4th 1938); Clark Marshall, 394 (3d 1927); 582, 582a (9th 1923); Brill, Cyclopedia 557 (1922). (Contemporary commentators remain R. Perkins Boyce, 418-420 1982); C. Torcia, Wharton's 130-132 (14th 1981); Lafave Scott, 671 (1972).) Jurisprudence annotation published said: "A explains alteration, Am.Jur., Forgery 676. 54 'falsely,' refer contents therein, counterfeit." 678. 55 well-established enacted—indeed, formulary meaning; III 56 Unsurprisingly, discussion, decades passage uniformly Government's contained Melvin 316 647, 648 1963); Marteney 216 760 1954); Martyn 176 610 (CA8 1949); Wright 310, 312 (CA9 Greathouse 170 512, 514 (CA4 57 correctly points later cases hold contrary. Neither observes, earlier line bears endorsement Gilbert 370 650, 1399, 750 (1962), approvingly cited Greathouse, Wright, Marteney, "cases 'forge' spurious fictitious makings." 1404. "[w]here 'falsity lies representation facts, genuineness execution,' forgery." 1404, 763-764. proceed explain, approval cases' necessarily well. holding incompatible today. prosecution 495, counterfeits" obtaining money States. difference here counterfeited") tense words. endorsed refund checks, persons, "Trustee" them. contended represented agency capacity exist, misrepresentation violated. set Gilbert's aside. indictment "forged," term, totality addressed. (as do) recitation central decision. discussion "forges" begins 1847 decided English Regina White 'indorsing bill exchange assumption indorse per procuration, making.' 1402. quotes effect: 62 "Lord East's comments were: 'Forgery denotes (which addition instrument), malo animo, deceit. [The ancient authorities] offence consisting instruments.' 1402-1403 "significant rationale decision, inserting constitute "forgery" requires utterly hold, today, IV ought meanings, inapplicable described above universal." 115. cites annotation. says cases, "has disapproved, followed." (That disapproval, incidentally, Gilbert, descendant involved Hartman.) mentioned annotation, rightly so, discuss falsityof instrument.1 itself, concludes better majority defrauding A.L.R., 231. "Majority opinion" understatement. lists supporting (Kentucky Tennessee) opposing it. minimal "divergence"—by (see 124-125)—is eliminate commentators, frankly abandoned. demand "universal" agreement, "scattered relied Government" contradicted 1403. 66 refusing "Congress' construction." 117. undoubtedly explicitly contradicts another, "ordinary" contested term) prevail. different. What displaces normal according analysis explicit language, question-begging. "broad" was. Was announces, securities"? securities? answer examining used—here, 1790 describe reaffirmed recently 1962 (in ). perverse assuming impose text. approach cites.2 appear. proposed Government, Gilbert: "Nor impressed aimed protecting enough protect statements. Still further, 1403-1404 new accurately "Where divine substitute purpose." V 70 feel constrained mention, though surely superfluous so-called lenity—the venerable "before man punished plainly unmistakably statute." Gradwell, 243 476, 485, 857 (1917) (internal quotation marks also, McNally 483 350, 359-360, 2875, 2881-2882, years ago: "This founded tradition. 'fair warning world understand, intends passed. fair, clear.' McBoyle [51 340, 341, 816] (1931) (Holmes, seriousness penalties, punishment usually represents moral condemnation community, legislatures activity. embodies 'the instinctive distaste men languishing prison lawmaker clearly said should.' Friendly, Mr. Benchmarks, 196, (1967)." 347-349, 522-523, five Circuit approved Gilbert. anything, today: ill-defined override unquestionably art, (to matters worse) unfamiliar imagine. temptation stretch fit evil one, resisted. Chief Marshall wrote: strong indeed, justify departing especially penal act, search intention suggest. authorise say so. dangerous, carry mischief itsprovisions, punish enumerated equal atrocity, kindred character, enumerated." Wiltberger, Wheat. 76, (1820). 74 respectfully dissent. text reads, pertinent part: "Whoever, foreign stamps, counterfeited; "Shall fined $10,000 imprisoned ten years, both." "securities" "valid motor title." 2311. offer construe specified requirement. Cf. 251-252, 243-244, (1952) (implying version "common-law" offense). justifies doing arguing synonymous separately consider—and reject—Moskal's codification (1946 ed.). concede logic, result, distinguishes—solely —the Daly, 716 1499 1983), dism'd, 465 1075, 1456, 79 Daly operated theft ring identified numbers owners cars. extremely ask disapprove distinguish own grounds "[u]nlike situation [car] ownership altered." fathom falsified title—assuming material—would documents, serve goal deceiving prospective contrary, confirmation behavior engaged. trouble suggestion fair notice "entitled rely" wholly (1984) (existence conflicting appeals "review th[e] [defendant are] reasonably foreseeable"). Tenth appeared reasoning ruled 794, 796 (1980) (1981). relates 'genuineness execution content.' F.2d, 796, 760, 763 1954). conflict Sparrow Circuit's certiorari. 1989). challenge finding. presented petition correctness matter. obtained passed off genuine. uttering instrument, "genuine obligations purported promisors, were, instead, instruments," 879, "not fact," 880. misrepresenting (the information). resulting instrument," "purport[ing] solemn voluntary grantor," not. These concept non-genuine neither insertion 117, stands obsolete control "generally contemporary term." Taylor, 596, 2157. discussed length Parts II, alive now) contradict anyway. 2401, (1983), turns ("takes away," larceny) combined went beyond larceny. Here, contrast, classic description (1982), 110, depart interpret "interstate commerce" (McElroy ) "cause transported" (Sheridan

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