Document: 515 U.S. 347115 S.Ct. 2172132 L.Ed.2d 314 CHANDRIS, INC., et al., Petitioners,v.Antonios LATSIS. No. 94-325. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Feb. 21, 1995. Decided June 14, Syllabus * Respondent Latsis' duties as a superintendent engineer for petitioner Chandris, Inc., required him to take voyages on Chandris' ships. He lost substantial vision in one eye after condition that he developed while those went untreated by ship's doctor. Following his recuperation, sailed Germany S.S. Galileo and stayed with ship it was drydock refurbishment. Subsequently, sued Chandris damages injury under Jones Act, which provides negligence cause action "any seaman" injured "in course employment." The District instructed jury Latsis "seaman" if permanently assigned to, or performed part work on, vessel, but time spent could not be considered because vessel then out navigation. returned verdict based solely seaman status. Appeals vacated judgment, finding instruction improperly framed issue primarily terms temporal relationship vessel. It held "employment-related connection navigation" status McDermott International, Inc. v. Wilander, 498 337, 355, 111 807, 817, 112 866, exists where an individual contributes vessel's function accomplishment its mission; contribution is limited particular identifiable group vessels; duration nature; individual's employment regularly exposes hazards sea. also found erred instructing Galileo's count equation. Held: 1. necessary comprises two basic elements: worker's must contribute mission, id., at S.Ct., worker have navigation (or vessels) both nature. Pp. ____. (a) Act heightened legal protections seamen their exposure perils sea, does define term "seaman." However, Court's cases establish principles include land-based workers, 348, 814, depends "not place inflicted . nature seaman's service, member operation navigable waters," Swanson Marra Brothers, 328 1, 4, 66 869, 870, 90 L.Ed. 1045. Thus, maritime workers do become when they happen working aboard lose coverage service takes them ashore. proposed "voyage test"—under any voyage, whose would injuries incurred during voyage—conflicts this status-based inquiry. Desper Starved Rock Ferry Co., 342 187, 190, 72 216, 218, 96 205, Grimes Raymond Concrete Pile Co, 356 252, 255, 78 687, 689-690, 2 737, distinguished. (b) Beyond themes outlined here, been silent precise bear order come within Act's ambit, leaving lower federal courts task developing appropriate criteria distinguish "ship's company" from workers. Those generally require least significant fleet qualify Act. (c) test adopted here has essential requirements. first broad threshold requirement makes all employees who eligible supra, 817. second determines these employment-related make fact entitled benefits. This gives full effect remedial scheme created Congress separates sea-based protection expose Who "member crew" mixed question law fact. A should able consider relevant circumstances bearing activities, taken together, determine whether seaman, ultimate inquiry crew simply employee happens given time. Although merely concept, includes element. spends only small fraction fundamentally therefore regardless duties. An rule thumb less than about 30 percent seaman. figure guideline allows court clearly inadequate On other hand, exclusively examination overall employer, since may change assignment. 2. erroneous. Whether fact-intensive can removed jury's consideration facts will reasonably support conclusion. Based upon record trial failed adequately justify decision remove jury. Moreover, court's charge swept too broadly prohibiting considering purpose. 20 F.3d 45 (CA2 1994), affirmed. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, GINSBURG, JJ., joined. STEVENS, filed concurring THOMAS BREYER, David W. McCreadie, Tampa, FL, petitioners. Lewis Rosenberg, New York City, respondent. Justice O'CONNOR Court. 1 case asks us clarify what navigation," 866 (1991), 46 U.S.C.App. § 688(a). In we addressed type activities perform that, job need transportation-related functions directly aid We now specific tasks undertakes, obtain May 1989, respondent Antonios employed salaried engineer. responsible maintaining updating electronic communications equipment vessels, consisted six passenger cruise Each carried between 12 14 engineers were Latsis, supervising Miami office; ran entire included overseeing vessels' engineering departments, number voyages, planning directing maintenance shore. claimed App. 58; immediate supervisor testified closer 10 percent, 180. 3 Bermuda plan upcoming renovation ship, older vessels fleet. problem right day departure, saw doctor left port. diagnosed suspected detached retina follow standard medical procedure, direct see ophthalmologist emergency basis. Instead, recommended relax until specialist arrived days later. No attempt made transport ashore prompt care means pilot helicopter 11 hours took reach open sea Baltimore, received no further Bermuda. Bermuda, hospitalization surgery. partial success, 75 eye. 4 lasted approximately weeks, resumed Chandris. September 30, Bremerhaven, Germany, placed 6-month After conversion, company renamed Meridian. had back board Meridian continued November 1990, terminated reasons are clear record. 5 October 1991, suit Southern seeking compensatory 688, resulted loss sight provides, pertinent part, "[a]ny shall suffer personal may, election, maintain law, ." conclude meaning statute follows: 6 "[T]he plaintiff either determining Mr. you period she You however, sailing conversion. Also, element being workers." 210. 7 parties stipulated coverage—that contributed missions vessels. Id., 211. did object instructions entirety, contested portion explicitly drydock. favor 213. 8 appealed Second Circuit, judgment remanded new trial. (1994). emphasized longstanding " 'a more permanent ship,' Salgado M.J. Rudolph Corp., 514 F.2d 750, 755 1975), established performed. thought alternate formulation (permanent assignment performance vessel), derived Offshore Co. Robison, 266 769, 779 (CA5 1959), primarily, solely, With understanding language Robison implied, concluded constituted plain error circuit precedent. opportunity requirements, remand 9 met finds (1) helped accomplish mission of, vessel; (2) plaintiff's (3) (4) exposed sea." F.3d, 57. Elsewhere same page, phrased third prong requiring Finally, 55-56. Judge Kearse dissented, arguing erroneous remainder constitute error. 58. granted certiorari, 513 ----, 115 354, 130 309 (1994), resolve continuing conflict among Courts regarding requirements Act.* II Under general prevailing prior statute's enactment, "maintenance cure" employer ship" recover owner "injuries consequence unseaworthiness ship," allowed indemnity master, crew." Osceola, 189 158, 175, 23 483, 487, 47 760 (1903); Cortes Baltimore Insular Line, 287 367, 370-371, 53 173, 174, 77 368 (1932). enacted 1920 bar articulated thereby completing trilogy (unavailable workers) receive "perils See G. Gilmore & C. Black, Law Admiralty, 6-21, pp. 328-329 (2d ed. 1975); Robertson, Approach Determining Seaman Status, 64 Texas L.Rev. 79 (1985) (hereinafter Robertson). Story identified animating purpose behind regime governing observed "are emphatically wards admiralty" peculiarity lives liable sudden sickness climate, perils, exhausting labour." Harden Gordon, F.Cas. 480, 485, 483 (No. 6,047) (CC Me.1823). Similarly, stated Wilander "[t]raditional seamen's remedies 'universally recognized growing peculiar feature compensating offsetting special disadvantages go down ships subjected.'" U.S., 817 (quoting Seas Shipping Sieracki, 85, 104, 872, 882, 1099 (1946) (Stone, dissenting)). 13 leaves determination exactly admiralty's protection. Early intended enacted. Warner Goltra, 293 155, 159, 55 46, 48, 254 (1934). Warner, "a mariner degree, life 157, 47. Norton 321 565, 572, 747, 751, 88 931 (1944), suggested 'every privilege who, like seamen, times labors welfare voyage' Buena Ventura, 243 F. 797, 799 (SDNY 1916)). provided some content 1927 Longshore Harbor Workers' Compensation (LHWCA), scheduled compensation (and exclusive remedy) range excludes master vessel." 44 Stat. (part 2) 1424, amended, 33 U.S.C. 902(3)(G). As several occasions, LHWCA mutually regimes: 'master crew' refinement 'seaman' Act; properly covered Act." 347, 813. Indeed, "it odd true key appears another statute." Ibid. Injured fall neither category still applicable state workers' or, admiralty, tort (which admittedly generous protections). Cheavens, Terminal Injury Death Claims, Tulane 361, 364-365 (1989). 15 Despite language, drawing distinction proved difficult source much litigation—particularly "the myriad men water confront discrete classes employees, rather spectrum ranging blue-water longshoreman." Brown ITT Rayonier, 497 234, 236 1974). struggled over years articulate many varieties often detailed multi-pronged tests Since 1950s, largely definition scope courts. Unfortunately, result, "[t]he mariners shipowners insure against, match judicial review." 6-1, 272. Or, paraphrased Diderot reference body law: 'We labyrinth got it. find our way out.' Johnson John Beasley Constr. 742 1054, 1060 (CA7 1984), cert. denied, 469 1211 (1985); Diderot, Oeuvres Completes 203 (J. Assezat 1875). A. 16 decided attempted Jon foreman sandblasting painting various fixtures piping oil drilling platforms Persian Gulf. His served. Emphasizing presented narrow, 17 surveying history "aid "all 'peculiar vessel' perform," better LHWCA, employee's ibid. although "[i]t transportation doing work." explained "[w]e called details, believe 'contribut[e] mission' captures well important status." 18 dispensing requirement, requisite detail end confusion B 19 urges "labyrinth" focusing seemingly activity-based policy underlying (the sea), anyone "voyage" furtherance Brief 12-17. Such approach, run counter decisions brief survey tortured reject initial appeal such undertake without regard activity engaged injury, nevertheless best furthers goals. Our First, "[w]hether 814; Allbritton, Status Wilander's Wake, 68 373, 387 early fundamental distinction. International Stevedoring Haverty, 272 50, 19, 71 157 (1926), longshoreman stowing cargo, dock waters, Recognizing "for most purposes, word commonly used, stevedores 'seamen,' cannot willingly vary accident stevedore ship." 52, 19. Because formerly rendered crew," (citing Atlantic Transport Va. Imbrovek, 234 62, 34 733, 735, 58 1208 (1914)), concluded, protections. Uravic Jarka 282 238, 51 111, 112, 312 (1931); Jamison Encarnacion, 281 635, 639, 50 440, 442, 74 1082 (1930). 1946, belatedly acted, passing 1927, undercut reasoning Haverty line emphasize traditional remedies. 7, 1045 (1946), acknowledged expressed intention "confine benefits members plying waters substitute recovery rights [the LHWCA]." South Chicago Coal Dock Bassett, 251, 257, 60 544, 547-548, 84 732 (1940). Through therefore, "explicitly den[ied] Swanson, 6, 871. And recognition process culminated statement "[w]ith passage latter, owe allegiance seamen." 21 addition recognizing coverage, jurisdiction admiralty causes cure employment, waters." automatically shore whenever occurs off ship. O'Donnell Great Lakes Dredge 318 36, 63 488, 87 596 (1943), shipowner caused fellow former repairing conduit used discharging cargo. explained: "The such, and, cure, 42-43, 492. "leaves unaffected pursuing shore." 7-8, 872. Braen Pfeiffer Transportation Oil 361 129, 131-132, 80 247, 249, 191 (1959). 22 recognize converse: remain expressly certain "maritime employment" "upon States," 903(a). Director, OWCP Perini North River Associates, 459 297, 103 634, 465 (1983), "working barge actual waters" Hudson River, 300, n. 638, compensated 324, 651. Parker Motor Boat Sales, 244, 244-245, 62 221, 222, 86 184 (1941) (upholding testing outboard motors "was drowned motor boat riding capsized"). These decisions, reflect view LHWCA's scope, indicate soon dock. settled decades interpretation status-based: injured, spite background, STEVENS suggest voyage—and classified purposes voyage. 14; post, __ (STEVENS, judgment). test," relies principally statements designed protect "special hazards" "particular perils" characteristic see, e.g., controlling. 24 difficulty respondent's argument, foregoing discussion clear, repudiated longer injury. coextensive risks. See, Easley Shipbuilding 965 4-5 1992), 506 113 969, 122 124 (1993); Robertson 93 (following overwhelming weight authority taking fails demonstrate done vessel" acknowledging "[s]ome unmistakably extreme form, protections" (footnote omitted)). test" status-based, granting form company. 4-5, 871; O'Donnell, 25 205 (1952), contrary. injury," context reveals "activity" referred laborer undergoing seasonal repairs navigation, despite Harlan's suggestion dissent necessarily construed "to mean nothing person sea," 689, 737 (1958), short per curiam so expansive reading statutory term. Citing normally finder decide, Senko LaCrosse Dredging 352 370, 371-372, 415, 416, 404 (1957); 257-258, 548, reversed inferred light (as ruling motion directed close petitioner's case). Grimes, 253, 688. That nor altered voyage confirmed later Braen, 131, repeated party 'status others (Swanson Bros., [66 871, 1045] ) whom extended 26 avoid 'engrafting classification gloss protean, elusive, arbitrary permit walk into regular duties.' Barrett Chevron, U.S.A., 781 1067, 1075 1986) (en banc) Longmire Sea Drilling 610 1342, 1347, 1980)). evaluating employ 'snapshot' status, inspecting situation instant injury; enduring contemplated jurisprudence." Easley, 5. oscillate forth depending injured. Reeves Mobile Pumping 1247, 1256 (CA3 1994). Unlike ____, terms. rejection consistent interests employers alike predict (and, perhaps importantly employers' obligations, LHWCA) before begins. 27 To say precludes application Southwest Marine, Gizoni, 502 81, 486, 116 405 few months repairman, enumerated occupations encompassed "employee" 902(3), restrict remedy statute. "[w]hile repairman lack repairmen matter law. '[i]t determinative, vessel.' 89, 492 817) omitted). available shipyard spend rest 28 themes, sufficient foreclose principal ambit. have, now, community essentially land-based. C 29 First Circuit apparently develop Carumbo Cape Cod 123 991 (CA1 1941), retained pre-Swanson thing 'member [LHWCA]," 994. "one sort 995. phrase gave restrictive meaning. three elements cases, holding navigation; there ship; appear decisive crew.' Cf. Senko, 375, 418 (Harlan, dissenting) ("According past connection, permanent, company"). Once became "master accepted context. Boyd Ford 948 283 (CA6 1991); Estate Wenzel Seaward Marine Services, 709 1326, 1327 (CA9 1983); Whittington Sewer 541 427, 436 (CA4 1976); Griffith Wheeling Pittsburgh Steel 521 31, 36 423 785, 643 (1976); McKie Diamond 204 132, 136 1953). initially jurisdictions adopt basis inquiry, F.2d, 755, modify tradi- tional somewhat (replacing "more connection" "substantial nature"), major Fifth caseload, wake 769 1959). At rig mounted Gulf Mexico. sustaining award abandoned 31 "[T]here evidentiary jury: evidence workman capacity movement anchorage future trips." 32 Soon modified allow "identifiable fleet" finite common ownership control. Braniff Jackson Avenue-Gretna Ferry, 280 523, 528 (1960). Barrett, 1074; Bertrand Mooring 700 240 1983), 464 1069, 104 974, 212 (1984). formulation, replaced version definitive highly influential well. 95; Miller Patton-Tully Transp. 851 202, (CA8 1988); Caruso Sterling Yacht Shipbuilders, 828 (CA11 1987); Bennett 510 114, 1975). While approaches seem different glance, subsequent developments Circuit's jurisprudence added strictly divide land, determined current employer. 1075. L.Rev., 386; Longmire, 1347 (explaining "should location occupation whole"). noted "performed seventy eighty twenty thirty vessels" "[b]ecause 1076. consistently analyzed percentage question—and declined Palmer Fayard Moving 930 437, 439 Lormand Superior 845 536, 1987), 484 1031, 108 739, 98 774 (1988); cf. Leonard Dixie Well Service Supply, 291, 295 Pickle Oilfield Divers, 791 1237, 1240 1986), 479 1059, 107 939, 989 (1987). appeals varied 1062-1063, modification universally recognized, applied every issue. Bull, Revisited: Practical Guide Determination, U.S.F.Mar.L.J. 547, 562-572 (1994) (collecting cases). requires calls "substantial" "this varies little, all, another," 587, repeatedly creating point work, sporadic," 587-588. D 35 From background emerge contours said giving "seaman," concern statute" use "must read mischief corrected attained." 48. Giving guiding principles, think twofold. "an mission.' 779). protections, extend work. But very broad: "[a]ll Second, give separate transitory sporadic 1B Jenner, Benedict 11a, 2-10.1 2-11 (7th 1994) ("If shown degree regularity continuity, satisfied" persons "doing work," conferred 37 recall issue, duty standard. 356, 818. "[i]f reasonable persons, applying proper standard, differ crew,' jury." 374, 417 fact" final basis"). permitted, crew, above. 38 defining prerequisites preferable focus essence eschew temptation create effectuate congressional purpose, tend ends themselves. formulations Appeals—"more assignment" "connection nature"—are ways getting point: reserved subjected." 882 dissenting). discern substantive differences phrases. view, total weighed relation attendant thereon." Wallace Oceaneering Int'l, 727 432 1984). 39 centerpiece case—that nature—we how import respects below. "does unequivocally substantially connected performs steady, temporally significant, 53. Perhaps intuition, reacting ("duration nature" opposed "duration nature") requirement—or indeed difference two. Nevertheless, respects. 40 agree are. Naturally, substantiality absolute measure. Generally, seems ordinary case: serves experience, departure certainly justified cases. said, necessity specific; depend it." courts, employers, benefit principles. undisputed reveal summary verdict. Palmer, 439. 41 reason limit petitioners contend, Petitioners 14-15. When changes, 1077 (Rubin, ("An member, brief, deciding employment"); 6. For example, imagine situations someone worked employer's shoreside headquarters reassigned classic involves continuous, intermittent, commitment labor denied shortly reassignment, just actually transferred desk company's office hallway claim If receives changed, assessment vessel-related position. 389-390. forecloses STEVENS' paradigmatic lengthy high seas," approach maintains earlier contemplate, immutable never attain. III 42 One remains determination: jurors "[i]n [they could] navigation." did. 43 establishes 354-355, Of course, Yet decide. Butler Whiteman, 271, 734, 754 (1958) (per ); M. Norris, Seamen, 30.13, p. 363 (4th 1985) ("Whether presents trier facts. tried provide consideration"). Removing conclusion, Anderson Liberty Lobby, 477 242, 250-251, 106 2505, 2511, 91 202 (1986), colloquy counsel findings overruling objection instruction. Tr. 432. us, Bremerhaven precedent circuits, cease voyaging, anchor, berthed, dockside," DiGiovanni Traylor 959 1119, 1121 (CA1) banc), 87, 121 (1992), even repairs. Butler, 734; 417; 364 ("[A] returns undergo preparation making trip, likewise moored dock, readiness voyage" (footnotes point, sufficiently West States, 118, 189, 161 (1959), overhaul her seaworthy withdrawn pattern repairs, extensive contracted done." 122, 192. Jersey Sandy Hook Pilots Assn. Halecki, 358 613, 517, (1959); Desper, 191, 218. spending relatively whereas transformed through "major" overhauls renovations not. U.S.F.Mar.L.J., 582-584 Obviously, "major though same." McKinley All Alaskan Seafoods, 980 567, 570 1992). review uncovered little months, oceangoing 571 (17-month-long project involving structural changes navigation); Wixom Boland Manufacturing 614 956 1980) (similar 3-year project); (noting "[e]ven transoceanic liner confined berth periods, kept repair 'crew' "—and "[t]here doubt period, transit employment"). own description suggests modifications quite including removal bottom plates propellers, bow thrusters, main engines, reconstruction boilers, cabins areas 93-94. facts, similar McKinley, possible concerning remained drydock; record, contains stipulations conclusion basis, Even broadly. Instead noting prohibited stay marginally (whether employee). free draw inferences favor. choice permissible jury, worded deprived forbidding all. IV case, points dispute, factfinders disagree submitted might affect outcome affirm remanding 48 remand, manner latter By juries accordingly, 49 ordered. BREYER join, judgment. majority reached engineer, seas performing unprecedented. ignores critical voyage—when encounter sea"—and safe harbor. my always I leave ambiguous, shore-bound day. Accordingly, concur disposition returning trial, directs apply remand. 52 Act,1 law." respondent, employment. occurred, steamship Galileo, Ocean. sea; indeed, correctly noted, "his result peril."2 mere passenger; mission. parlance, then, Galileo. was, character responsibilities began ended port, follows, first, 901, seq. shore-based exempts vessel," 902(3)(G)—a held, 813, (1991). [the] am sure words exclude employee. Surely none single 54 My comports traditionally afforded seamen:3 endorsed Chief Stone's explanation law's favored treatment seamen. Stone wrote: liability negligence, long modern conception contract. it, indemnify resulting unseaworthiness, obligation subjected. They risks dangers discover themselves prove causing 56 "For ward land employees. Reed Canfield, Fed.Cas. 11,641, Sumn. 195, 199: (1832) 'Seamen co-adventurers voyage; wages casualties, artisans home. share fate shipwreck capture. rules discipline sufferings landsmen. great, wise, benevolent built up rights, privileges, duties, liabilities sea-service, belong home pursuits.' 104-105, (dissenting opinion) (citations 57 longshoremen, subject entirely different, usually advantageous, suffered continued: "It throughout attributable Longshoremen harbor class calling creation extraordinary obligations favor, rigid prevented employed; recourse exposed, ascertain court." 105, 882. 59 face merit case. (1952);4 (1958); (1958). extent facially unclear, majority's appropriate. ambiguity seas. Unquestionably, faces associated Incontrovertibly, hence Whatever proximity shoreline, captain decided. Cardozo's (1934), set followed. Explaining tugboat enough affects 'the voyage.' 47.5 apart argument assist vessel—an finally put (1991)—I aware Warner,6 argued contributing position farfetched. leading treatise questioned goes her) be, seaman." Admiralty 331 61 contradicts proposition. opinion, references importance quoted 19th century treatises admiralty: 'The preservation, promote [A]t countries, co-laborers great clothed mariners.' 344-345, 812 (emphasis deleted), quoting E. Benedict, American §§ 278, 241, 133-134 (1850). "An 1883 declared: 'All mariners, name seamen.' Cohen, 239." 346, Summarizing "We explains pre-Jones Congress' land-based/sea-based decisional, directed." thus history, today holds ocean obscures, ignore, faced formulates resolution category. fails, explain why 65 Respondent's "that respecting voyage," inconsistent ante, occupy recognizes contrast, harbor, wrong states 'voyage test' company," readily port acceptable refusing rely one. "indicate dock," Office Programs firm building foundation sewage plant, adjacent Manhattan, waters. ground overlap LHWCA; reversal worker. 67 cites, (1941), involved janitor James near Richmond. widow alternative grounds acting capsized, Virginia compensation. 245, 222-223. Perini, reversing discuss mentioned possibility 19-year "during mutual exclusivity Act," 814,7 asked so, LHWCA-covered cited lend justification purported "walk duties." Ante ____ (internal quotation marks quit possibly jump overboard), status.8 understand argument. employment-related, signs journey intends insurance agent What day, month, year beforehand afterward. 69 Apparently, real walking unable novel construction employers.9 shared concern, implicate least. talking controls knows, less, begin end. And, today, know thereon LHWCA. vice versa) knowledge again, concern—and method status—is occurring 70 oscillating types systems recalls far serious problem: employee" (a longshoremen) Over powerful Holmes, Pacific Jensen, 244 524, 1086 (1917), constitutional grant State workmen's gang plank feet seaward Pier City. Jensen walked unprotected area—the area shoreline. enacting responded progeny extending temporarily excluded landward side line, other. occasion, originally "gap-filling" measure whom, 570, (1944); Davis Department Labor Industries Wash., 317 252-253, 225, 227, 246 (1942); S.Rep. 973, 69th Cong., 1st Sess., (1926).10 "walking coverage" evokes images engendered Jensen—the changing sometimes implicated employed, over. wholly partly engaged, substance. —is completely misplaced. seas, moment destination. ever decided, faithful earning livelihood. sailor voluntarily Jim Hawkins did,11 Billy Budd, impressed against will,12 surely sails, whatever await syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 282, 287, 499. certiorari following question, petition: "What 688?" Pet. Cert. i. argue opening merits raise timely Rule Federal Rules Civil Procedure, narrower "plain error." 12-14. 14.1(a), "[o]nly questions petition [for certiorari], fairly therein, Court," Berkemer McCarty, 468 420, 443, 38, 3138, 3152 82 (1984), 24.1(a) "raise additional substance already presented" petition. Izumi Seimitsu Koygo Kabushiki Kaisha Philips ---- - 114 425, 126 396 Taylor Freeland Kronz, 503 645-646, 1644, 1649, 118 (1992). failure entirety. "Jones Act" Merchant 1920, 1007. "Latsis's sea—in fact, peril sense reliant physician. physician unqualified engages malpractice, killer wave, gale hurricane, calling." 45, unseaworthiness. ch. VI death "he probable navigator future." turning [T]here decedent's death." 190-191, 1916). Earlier Cardozo noted: "In enforcement liberal announced beginning steadily maintained." 156, proposition lower-level "liberal construction" intended, During incorrectly treated pre-LHWCA (1926). 348-349, 814. Or least, passed overturn harsh (1903), disallowed 342, 810-811, aim statute, expand employers. Whereas boarded 1972 Amendment opposite concern—longshoremen schemes expanded encompass piers loading unloading H.R.Rep. 92-1441, 10-11 (1972) U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1972, 4698, 4707, 4708. protected composed amendment appropriately preserved exclusion alter original constructive R. Stevenson, Treasure Island (1883). H. Melville, Budd (1924).

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