Document: 528 U.S. 377120 S.Ct. 897145 L.Ed.2d 866 JEREMIAH W. (JAY) NIXON, ATTORNEY GENERAL OF MISSOURI, et al. , PETITIONERSv.SHRINK MISSOURI GOVERNMENT PAC No. 98-963. Supreme Court of the United States Argued October 5, 1999 Decided January 24, 2000 Syllabus Respondents Shrink Missouri Government PAC, a political action committee, and Zev David Fredman, candidate for 1998 Republican nomination state auditor, filed suit, alleging that statute imposing limits ranging from $275 to $1,075 on contributions candidates office violated their First Fourteenth Amendment rights. gave Fredman $1,025 in 1997, $50 1998, represented that, without statutory limitation, it would contribute more. alleged he could campaign effectively only with more generous than allowed. On cross-motions summary judgment, District sustained statute. Applying Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U. S. 1 (per curiam) court found adequate support law proposition large raise suspicions influence peddling tending undermine citizens' confidence government integrity. The rejected respondents' contention inflation since 's approval federal $1,000 restriction meant limit statewide not be constitutional today. In reversing, Eighth Circuit had articulated applied strict scrutiny standard review, held demonstrate compelling interest contribution at issue were narrowly drawn serve interest. Treating Missouri's claim avoiding corruption or perception caused by candidates' acceptance as insufficient itself satisfy scrutiny, required demonstrable evidence genuine problems resulted amounts greater limits. It ruled State's was inadequate this purpose. Held: is authority comparable candidates, those need pegged precise dollar approved Buckley. Pp. 5-18. (a) held, inter alia, Federal Election Campaign Act provision placing annual ceiling independent expenditures linked specific infringed speech association guarantees Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth, but upheld other provisions limiting individuals any single per election. P. 5. (b) addressing claim, explicitly both intermediate communicative action, see O'Brien, 391 367 similar applicable merely time, place, manner restrictions, see, e.g., Adderley Florida, 385 39 instead referred generally "the exacting Amendment," S., 16 . then drew line between contributions, treating expenditure restrictions direct restraints speech, id., 19, saying, effect, left communication significantly unimpaired, id. 20-21. flagged difference impacts rights, 22; also 28, later made distinction explicit, Comm'n Massachusetts Citizens Life, Inc., 479 238 259-260. Thus, under involving significant interference associational rights survive if demonstrated regulating means "closely drawn" match "sufficiently important interest," S, 25 though amount "fine tun[ed]," 30. While did attempt parse distinctions standards limits, clear such bore heavily thus proceeded understanding limitation surviving abridgement challenge well. prevention appearance constitutionally sufficient justification issue. Id. 25-28. 5-10. (c) defending its statute, espouses same interests preventing it. Even there no serious question about legitimacy these interests, which underlie bribery antigratuity statutes. Rather, respondents take State task failing justify invocation empirical actually corrupt practices among voters unrestricted must have been exerting covertly corrosive influence. void, however, want evidence. quantum needed heightened judicial legislative judgments will vary up down novelty plausibility raised. demonstrates dangers large, suspicion are neither novel nor implausible. See 27 n. 28. wrong arguing has "supplemented" holding new requirement governments enacting recited harms real, conjectural, rely principally Colorado Comm. Comm'n, 518 604 This never accepted mere conjecture carry burden, deals government's burden parties, principal opinion expressly distinguished 615-618. event, case does present close call requiring further definition whatever evidentiary obligation may be. Although record show Legislature relied findings introduced cited lower courts prior related ballot initiative enough substantiation congressional concerns reflected counterpart law. Moreover, although majority votes do not, such, defeat protections, vote adopting attested public necessary combat thereof. A extensive documentation might petitioners showing own cast doubt apparent implications here. However, nearest they come challenging conclusions academic studies contradicted studies. 10-15. (d) There various arguments limitations so different kind essentially adequacy statute's tailoring purposes. Here, Buckley, supra 21, indication dramatic adverse effect funding campaigns associations, prevented amassing resources effective advocacy. Indeed, became effective, able funds run campaigns, still amass impressive war chests. buttressed petitioners' last election before 97.62 percent all contributors auditor $2,000 less. assuming affected respondent Fredman's ability wage competitive campaign, one individual point system suppressed advocacy unconstitutional Court's supporting suffice answer variant today differ Buckley' s owing decided. Respondents' assumption set minimum threshold dollars adjusted loss purchasing power now well above lines Missouri, fundamental misunderstanding case. specifically $1,000, amount, minimum, asked whether low impede 21 Such being test, subsequent cases cannot truncated narrow dollar. 15-18. 161 F. 3d 519, reversed remanded. writ certiorari united states appeals eighth circuit Souter, J., delivered Court, Rehnquist, C. Stevens, O'Connor, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. concurring opinion. opinion, Kennedy, dissenting Thomas, Scalia, Justice Souter Court. issues (1976) adjustment inflation, define scope permissible We hold regulation, dollars. 2 * 1994, enacted Senate Bill 650 (SB650) restrict office. Mo. Rev. Stat. 130.032 (1994). Before even stricter immediately. Appeals initiative's Amendment, Carver Nixon 72 633, 645 (CA8 1995), cert. denied, 1033 (1996), upshot previously dormant 1994 took effect. Adams 520 1998). 3 As amended imposes $250 depending specified size constituency. 130.032.1 (1998 Cum. Supp.); 3d, 520. particular challenged here reads 4 "[t]o elect an governor, lieutenant secretary state, treasurer, attorney general, [[t]he person shall exceed] thousand dollars." 130.032.1(1) Supp.). 5 baselines each even-numbered year, "by multiplying base year cumulative consumer price index ... rounded twenty-five-dollar years 1, 1995." 130.032.2. When suit filed, ranged high (including auditor) where population exceeded 250,000, representative fewer 100,000 people represented. 520; App. 37. 6 sought enjoin enforcement statute1 violating (presumably free association, equal protection, complaint state). committee another 1998. campaign. Supp. 2d 734, 737 (ED 7 742. Valeo "in integrity government." 2d, 738. 740 8 nonetheless enjoined pending appeal, 151 763, 765 (1998), ultimately Finding " `articulated review,' bound "that interest." 521 (quoting 637). treated brought when elective accept contributions" scrutiny. 521-522. Relying precedent, Russell Burris 146 563, 568 (CA8), 525 1001 (1998); Nixon, 638, 9 "some place. 10 "[T]he noted perfidy uncovered financing 1972... But we unwilling extrapolate examples time `large' some really exist." 521-522 (citations omitted). 11 thought presented State, affidavit co-chairman legislature's Interim Joint Committee Finance Reform passed, material fact contributions. Ibid .2 12 Given number Commission, E. Feigenbaum & J. Palmer, Law 98 granted review congruence Circuit's decision 1121 (1999). reverse. II 13 matters raised curiam), included claims finance legislation Fourteenth. 1971, 86 3, Amendments 1974, 88 1263, limited (and limits) 18 608(b)(1), (3) (1970 ed., IV); 13. Until struck down, placed candidates. 608(e) violations regulations, constitutional. 14 Precision relative rigor pretense curiam To sure, O'Brien (1968), (1966); Cox Louisiana, 379 536 (1965); Kovacs Cooper, 336 77 (1949). distinguishing tests, discussion added `the guarantee fullest most urgent application precisely conduct office,' 15 Monitor Patriot Co. Roy, 401 265, 272 (1971)). then, 19 suffered little limits: "[A] upon group entails marginal contributor's engage communication. serves general expression his views, communicate underlying basis support. quantity contributor increase perceptibly contribution, rests solely undifferentiated symbolic act contributing. At most, provides very rough intensity candidate. money give organization involves restraint communication, permits evidenced way infringe freedom discuss issues." 20-21 (footnote 17 said, unimpaired. right. "precludes associations amplifying voice adherents," 22 (thus interfering adherents ibid .), "leave become member assist personally association's efforts behalf candidates," ibid. ; say many words govern affecting said 238, 259-260 (1986): "We consistently require less spending." has, plain ever readily hurdles them. Cf. 604, 610 (1996) (opinion J.) (noting law, "[t]he mostly imposed limits" (emphasis original)). "significant interference" (internal quotation marks omitted), regulation 30.3 make right speak. 24-25. consequently abridgment well, satisfied review. 20 corruption," "constitutionally justification," 25-26: "To extent given secure quid pro quo current potential holders, our democracy undermined... "Of almost concern danger actual arrangements impact stemming awareness opportunities abuse inherent regime financial contributions... Congress legitimately conclude avoidance improper `is critical eroded disastrous extent.' Civil Service Letter Carriers, 413 548, 565 (1973)). 23 National Conservative Political Action Comm., 470 480, 497 (1985) ("Corruption subversion process. Elected officials influenced contrary obligations prospect gain themselves infusions into campaigns"); Right Work 459 197, 208 (1982) "directly implicate electoral process, and, less, responsibility citizen successful functioning process' Automobile Workers, 352 567, 570 (1957)); Nat. Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 788 26 (1978) ("The importance governmental [corruption] doubted"). 24 speaking "improper influence" "opportunities abuse" addition arrangements," recognized confined officials, extending broader threat politicians too compliant wishes contributors. These obvious points behind recognition address "to action" ways "blatant specific" bribery. 28 .4 B flows munificent claimed, which, after all, anti-gratuity morals equate more, bribes, spoke "inherent office, 27, source "almost equal" improbity, countering was, indeed, entire overbreadth perfect sense. Leave impropriety unanswered, cynical donors tune jeopardize willingness part democratic governance. Democracy works "only faith who govern, shattered appointees activities arouse malfeasance corruption." Mississippi Valley Generating Co., 364 520, 562 (1961). objectives reconsideration task, did, deeply disturbing surfacing 1972 problem [of corruption] illusory one." ourselves marshal concern, "a abuses" detailed Appeals's decision, described how corporations, well-financed groups, rich illegal existing others reached least verge 519 821, 839-840, nn. 36-38 (CADC 1975). revelations parties why tend identify big donation exemplifies speak what minimum.5 came `demonstrate conjectural,' Brief Treasury Employees, 513 454, 475 (1995) (in turn quoting Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. FCC, 512 622, 664 (1994))), (1996). deal charged failure real risk corruption, 616 ), "limitations directly corruption" are. 615. case, fact" "coordination expenditure" kept "from assuming, absent convincing contrary, [a expenditures] substantial system." 617-618. goes hand toe toe. 29 Buckley,6 regarding Proposition preserve history, 738, Senator Wayne Goode, co-chair stated buy votes,' 47. newspaper accounts inferences impropriety. 6. One report questioned treasurer's use certain bank banking business institution contributed $20,000 Editorial, Central Issue Trust, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Dec. 31, 1993, p. 6C. Another much receipt $40,000 brewery bank. Mannies, Auditor Race May Get Too Noisy Ignored, Sept. 11, 4B. 633 (1995), itself, while invalidating imposed, identified $420,000 northern investment bank, three scandals, including "accused sponsoring exchange kickbacks," former pleaded guilty charges conspiracy misuse property, 642, 10, indicted using workers' compensation fund benefit And certainly here: "[A]n overwhelming 74 determined thereof." 882 901, 905 (WD Mo.), rev'd, 1995); 7. 30 might, course, here, closest indicate result changes positions. 41; Smith, Money Talks: Speech, Corruption, Equality, Finance, Geo. L. 45, 58 (1997); Faulty Assumptions Undemocratic Consequences Reform, 105 Yale 1049, 1067-1068 (1995). Other studies, way. Reply Respondent Bray 4-5; Sorauf, Inside 169 (1992); Hall Wayman, Buying Time: Moneyed Interests Mobilization Bias Congressional Committees, 84 Am. Pol. Sci. 797 (1990); D. Magleby Nelson, Chase 78 (1990). conflict publications, absence reason think respondents, sometimes work system, existence corresponding voters. C 31 Nor spite striking resemblance purposes.7 "[t]here [law] dramatic[ally] associations," committees advocacy." period "candidates elected [have been] quite campaigns," 740, chests," 741.8 elections (before relevant went effect), 741; 34-36.9 assume (no small contributor, him election), 32 1976. seem Missouri. held. 33 below legislatures regulate. indicated above, outer asking "amas[s] advocacy," asked, words, radical render ineffective, drive sound candidate's level notice, pointless. dollar, go mount likely forthcoming. Judge Gibson put it, dictates functions Consumer Price Index. (dissenting opinion). D 34 dissenters reasoning evades Thomas chides us "hiding behind" post 13, Kennedy faults seeing routine analysis" facing describes consequences 1. Each dissenter overrule thinks should same. 35 supposed decide request overruled; furthest reach decisions already books enhanced beyond required, mistaken. III 36 logic sufficiency judgment is, accordingly, reversed, remanded proceedings consistent 37 ordered. NOTES: sued members Ethics County prosecuting attorney. Chief Bowman invalid because severely tailored Comparing considered "[a]fter $1,075, $525, compare twenty-two ago," "can regarded `too allow meaningful participation protected association.' 522-523 Day Holahan 1356, 1366 1994), 1127 (1995)). Ross, join portion Bowman's 523. dissented panel's decision. Ibid. quoted language addressed correlative challenge. classifying Roberts Jaycees 468 609, 623 (1984) ("Infringements [the associate expressive purposes] justified regulations adopted unrelated suppression ideas, achieved through restrictive freedoms"); NAACP Button 371 415, 438 (1963) subject within regulate can Alabama ex rel. Patterson 357 449, 460-461 (1958) ("[S]tate curtailing scrutiny"). relaxed, suggest like suffers favor incumbents over challengers. 23-24. protection squarely faced. incumbent's advantages leveraged something powerful veterans upstarts, -35. Since relax standard, argument, note nothing gives stronger argument made. 210 ("Nor second-guess determination prophylactic measures evil feared"); (1978); California Medical Assn. 453 182, 194-195 (1981) "served process restrained"); Against Rent Control/Coalition Fair Housing Berkeley, 454 290, 296-297 (" exception rule activity Amendment. relates undue "); 500 (observing constitutional, noting "deference long recognized"). Renton Playtime Theatres, 41, 51-52 (1986) city, ordinance, produce generated cities, city relies reasonably believed addresses"). Two amici insufficiently narrow, light disclosure requirements laws mechanisms dealing threats apprehensions. Pacific Legal Foundation Amici Curiae 23-29. notion anti-bribery "deal blatant attempts action," "Congress surely entitled partial measure, ceilings concomitant reality permitting unlimited identities fully disclosed." curiam). understood hand, "focu[s] contributions--the aspect actuality identified--while leaving persons expression, actively volunteering services, resources." view differently involve restricted access auditor. Similarly, data showed 1.5 contribu- tors 1992 aggregate excess $2,000. 35. 38 Stevens concurring. suggests soft tolerated misguided fresh examination Congress' enactment Acts 1971 1974 resolution response beginning, therefore, I simple point. property; speech. 40 Speech inspire volunteers perform multitude tasks trail, battleground, football field. Money, meanwhile, pay hired laborers tasks. follow, measure accomplish goals ideas achieve results.1 41 Our Constitution heritage properly protect individual's making her property. Governmental viewed either "deprivations liberty" property," Moore East Cleveland, 431 494, (1977) (S tevens judgment). Telling grandmother she property provide shelter grandchild--or hire mercenaries grandchild's office--raises Because participate opportunity liberty adequately explain invalidate Act. 42 Reliance invalidation functional equivalent candid reliance doctrine substantive due two prevailing opinions Cleveland one's gladiators, "speech proxy," merits protection. pleases. Unless, prohibition entirely forecloses channel paid petition circulators. See, Meyer Grant, 486 414, (1988) ("Colorado's circulators restricts fundamental, perhaps economical avenue discourse, one-on-one protects appellees' advocate cause select believe doing"). 43 Breyer whom Ginsburg joins, 44 accuse weakening They adopt "strict scrutiny" "balance[s] away freedoms." Post J .). dissent oversimplifies faced context. takes difficult turns lopsided dispute censorship. Under cover fiction accompanying formula, absolute arbiter best left, main, branches. write separately ought problem, choice correct. 45 If believes diminishes us, wrong. lies heart particularly careful, precise, where, lie sides legal equation. For place strong presumption against constitutionality, sort often accompany scrutiny." expect mechanical tests associated scrutiny"--the "compelling interests" "least means"--will resolve statutes pose. 77, 96 (1949) (Frankfurter, concurring) (objecting, context, "oversimplified formulas"); Eu San Francisco Democratic 489 214, 233-234 (1989) ( concurring); Illinois Bd. Elections Socialist Workers Party, 440 173, 188-189 (1979) (Blackmun, (same). 46 matter concern--not (it not); enables Through associates himself cause, helps message agrees, win attracting similarly minded 24-25 Both stake. 47 seek process--the society democratically translates concrete action. 26-27; Burroughs States, 290 534, 545 (1934) (upholding 1925 Corrupt Practices emphasizing safeguarding process); Burson Freeman, 504 191, 199 (1992) (plurality opinion) (recognizing preserving process). largest aim democratize bring bear Reynolds Sims, 377 533, (1964) context apportionment, "demands" "an equally voice"). doing so, build broaden support, encouraging open presupposes. Mills Alabama, 384 218-219 Whitney California, 274 357, 375-376 (1927) (Brandeis, A. Meiklejohn, Free Its Relation Self-Government 24-27 (1948). 48 service objectives, degree. deny contribution's size. prevent (alone others) views ways. Instead, supporters money, fairer democratic. 49 circumstances, constitutionality out recognize used interpreted contrary. example, concept elements order enhance others." -49. taken literally. few drowning many--in Congress, debate, Art. I, 6, every Member express views. Or elections, tolerates numerous access, electorate. e.g. Storer Brown, 415 724, 736 (1974). Regardless, clear, statement automatically seeks debate forbid account competing just mentioned. 50 circumstances--where implicates complex ways--the closely scrutinized refrained employing test presumes unconstitutionality. balanced interests. practice burdens proportion salutary effects (perhaps, necessarily, clearly superior, alternative). Where legislature institutional expertise, as, field defers judgments--at deference evils say, insulate approach implicated, privacy, Frisby Schultz, 487 474, 485-488 (balancing privacy expression); Rowan Office Dept. 397 728, (1970) (same), listeners viewers, 180, 192-194 (1997) viewers cable operators); Columbia Committee, 412 94, 102-103 (1973) ("Balancing involved broadcast media great delicacy difficulty"); Red Lion 395 367, 389-390 (1969) (First Communications Commission enable others), 198 -211 (weighing vote); Anderson Celebrezze, 460 780, 788-790 (1983) (same); 730 (1974) ("[T]here fair honest"). problems. Kingdom Eur. H. R. Rep. (European Ct. Human Rights 1998) (demanding proportionality context); Libman Quebec (Attorney General) R.(4th) (Canada 1997) sui generis ," J.), overstates 51 uphold reasons agree understands problem--the integrity, democratization--better we. defer spending threatens respect solution, limit, increases reputation-related media-related incumbency thereby insulates legislators (or 378, 1976 dollars), question. information presented--the type issue; post-reform; indexes inflation--I disproportionate harm. plaintiff, sufficiently widespread. (like setting eligibility requirements, Jenness Fortson, 403 431, 442 (1971)) conceivable challengers Undue insulation practical matter, inferred makes unsuccessful 52 outlined cases. 4-5. embodying flexibility hand. After seems leave branches broad enact form "soft money." 57 65, 85-109. says proposed reforms reduced-price time. presuppose delegated interpret law's basic purposes, despite disagreements exercised 619-621 (whether claimed "independent "coordinated expenditure"); accord, 648-650 dissenting). Alternatively, prove possible reinterpret aspects post- experience stressed 2-5 opinion), contribution/expenditure line, independently wealthy whose campaigns. 53 am ? Suppose denies leeway comprehensive solutions posed finance. reconsider With 54 dissenting. 55 lasting course depends. Yet defining controlling applying presented, indifferent. analysis acceptable protester hand-scrawled sign, City Ladue Gilleo, (1994), demonstrators sidewalk, Grace, 461 171 (1983), driver taped motto license plate disagreed message, Wooley Maynard, 430 705 (1977). Surely unacceptable announcing suppresses essential prevalent forms 56 facts, cavalier dismissal appropriate. justifications stare decisis rest capacity, responsibility, acknowledge missteps. duty face adverse, unintended flowing decisions. respect, submit us. perpetuates compounds distortion resulting intervention concerned voter role politics. Amidst atmosphere skepticism, hardly inspires abandon rigors traditional structure. asks evaluate favors officeholders supported usually funneled parties. pays heed. compromise invented stage enter system. covert forced underground, devise elaborate methods rising costs. preferred method conceal purpose Soft amounts, so-called advocacy, advertisements promote attack positions urging defeat. Briffault, Advocacy: Redrawing Elections/Politics Line, Tex. 1751, 1752-1753 unrestricted, 42-44, straightforward candidate, full prompt evaluation public, not. Thus mocks unfortunate, suspect evolved deliberate choice; unhappy origins earlier decree accepting half (limiting contributions) rejecting expenditures) created misshapen distorts meaning irony impose name ground reject wooden formula deeper, however. By operation rule, oppose selling first. money. immunizes erroneous ruling change. Rulings caution immunity correction forum unrestrained melancholy history wake shows happen intervene dynamics inventing artificial scheme own. 59 sense unimportant. appears Mr. outsider chance. Yet, binding outdated $1075 press faces back tells status unless first familiar. 60 defend extension times, recites interested contributes What examine substitute encouraged, funded my creates replaced. mentioned: beneficiaries mask Second, indirect accountability confusing, dispiriting, voter. disaffection distrust cites spread discourse. worked. 61 My colleagues majority, respectful submission, disservice jurisprudence whole principles tell grave worse surfaces operation. pass 62 Among facts declines emergence cyberspace reported simultaneously payment. judge officeholder overstepped longer trust detached neutral judgment. far immediate assess performance leaders hidden world 63 Officeholders dilemma easy resolve: exercise soliciting continued loyalty constituents always coincide Edmund Burke captured tension Speeches Bristol "Your owes you, industry only, judgment; betrays serving sacrifices your opinion." Burke, Hon. 130 (J. ed. 1867). Whether discharge duties proper beholden reelection think, constant alone citizens conscientious themselves. answers, one: open, robust, honest, unfettered ever-changing environment. 64 reflection written, insightful careful precedents. ensuing chapter does, conclusion sort. now, possibility legislature, concentrate official rather fundraising. express, questions confronted scheme, foreclose outset. reform, if, based so. reexamination half-way house eliminated. allowed obstruction imposed. suffices passing 65 reasons, agreement file separate dissent. 66 Scalia 67 ratifying sweeping repression adopts analytic fallacies flawed Unfortunately, content adhere precedent. guise proceeds weaken enfeebled afforded end, employs balance freedoms. 68 errs step takes, 635-644 part), error, patently unconstitutional. 69 begin unassailable: primary object 218 375 T. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations *422; Z. Chafee, (1954); Bork, Neutral Principles Some Problems, Ind. (1971); Sunstein, Now, Modern 304-307 (G. Stone, Epstein, Sunstein eds. 1992). Founders self-governing depends information. receive most--during "The value efficacy government] knowledge comparative demerits trust, freedom, consequently, examining discussing respectively." Madison, Report Resolutions (1799), Writings James Madison Hunt 1906). 70 start foundational openly disagrees them--it solidly embedded 223 ("[T]he `has application' uttered during office" (1971))); Brown Hartlage, 456 special vitality traditionally American democracy--the campaign"); Garrison 64, 74-75 ("[S]peech concerning affairs essence self-government"). them abandons nearly century, extended "speech," false defamatory statements, filing lawsuits, dancing nude, exhibiting drive-in movies nudity, burning flags, wearing military uniforms.1 Not surprisingly, Courts followed lead concluded protects, begging, shouting obscenities, erecting tables refusing wear necktie.2 sort, today's curious anomaly. Whatever confident integral Republic today, going avoid protecting below, generate caps, core met utmost skepticism strictest 71 bottom, majority's refusal apply discounting foundation tenuous beginning erode intervening years. remains fails upholding limitations, explained "represent theoretical diversity speech," "entai[l] communication," (quoted ante 6). drawing distinction, premise contributing differs qualitatively "[w]hile spent voters, transformation someone contributor." 21. 196 `speech proxy' contributor] protection"). 73 faulty ab initio ignored kinds disseminated: "Even expenditure, go-between facilitates dissemination spender's message--for instance, advertising agency television station. differentiate expenditure. extra proxy chain. again, form, substance." 638 -639 part) 75 And, inasmuch speech-by-proxy disconnected realities with, surprising firmly 480 (1985), aside represent recognizing obviously hearing organizations add voices message; otherwise 495. Though diminish contributors' cases, disseminate giving controlled others. contributing, policy politics articulated. short, "they aware however justly feel good sense, effectually promoted [another] themselves." Federalist 35, 214 (C. Rossiter 1961) (A. Hamilton). 76 Without assistance remainder rationales founder. Those rationales--that "quantity contribution," 6), candidate," "[a] support," 6)--still protected. contentions simply ignore ensure messages convey. Absent denigration "proxy fall apart.3 reasonable.4 largely focused driven. supports) tends himself. offer wishing partake expression. ready-built, convenient communicating amplify messages. Furthermore, leader organization--the candidate--has self-interest efficiently expending maximizes disseminate. Individual understandably realize "may discourse spending, donee productive individual." Republican, 636 part). 261 ("[I]ndividuals regard personal direction").5 "d[o] issues," ignores distinct Nation's civic dialogue.6 depriving relegate donors' modes Additionally, curtails participation. affluent, costs taking advertisement, handing leaflets street, standing front hand-held sign participating debate." 43, (1994) J.). completely failed choices partaking quintessentially activities. mandates presume speakers, government, know it." Riley Federation Blind N. C., 781, 790-791 (1988). 79 denigrated contributors, purported plight nevertheless disregard justification. suppress ("[C]ontribution candidates"); id ., [contribution] incumbents"). have, donations "mak[e] enhancing present, receive, process." CBS, 396 (1981). 299 ("Placing plainly impairs expression"). abstracted exclusively funding. ("There campaigns") 15-16); (There "no advocacy' 21)). 80 unsupported "is designed intended remove arena discussion, putting voiced hands hope capable citizenry polity belief comport dignity rests." Cohen 15, (1971) (emphases added). Sweezy New Hampshire, 354 234, 250 (1957) ("Our built association"); Richmond Croson 488 469, 493 ("As past, `rights section are, terms, guaranteed individual. established rights' Shelley Kraemer, 334 (1948))). American, Americans en masse. provided suppressing aggregate) succeed reaching voting public. fly system--liberty vested safeguards democracy. detrimental petitioner lacks incumbency, recognition, wealth, managed attract relatively dedicated supporters: forbids silencing competition overall. Arkansas Ed. Television Forbes, 523 666, 692 (1998) dissenting) minor affect outcome election); cf. Button, `All channeled programs major History amply proved virtue minority, dissident groups ' 250-251 opinion))). 81 view, leaves determine speak, use, inform persuade. ratification wrest error. 82 Today, blindly pausing consider collapse remaining premises deprived support.7 ignoring shortcomings, less--much less--than Just says. employ `closest scrutiny.' Patterson, (1958)). (The belied actions, deployed fashion superlative instructs. 640 -641, fact).) reviews scrutiny," 7, obscure ad hoc balancing Apart endorsement rejection 5-6, effort deviation Denver Area Telecommunications Consortium, 727, 774 ("Reviewing fairly categorical rules keeps starch moments daily cries loudest said"). 83 stop revision labels. hiding discredited invoking extend departure begins compelling-interest jurisprudence. qualify "compelling" area reducing corruption. -26. repeatedly word "corruption" "[p]erversion destruction favour." Oxford English Dictionary 974 (2d 1989). Webster's Third International ("inducement (as official) considerations bribery) commit violation duty"). forth "large holders." corruption: contributions." 27. Later, expenditures, yet again "dangers arrangements." 45. (referring commitments"); (corruption "post-election return" contributions). mentioning transactions, terms abuse," "potential 47, influence," 29, "attempts "buy[ing] acquires preceding references arrangements. Almost decade reiterated individuals: 85 "Corruption hallmark : favors." "giving favors" synonym 498. 87 contrast, separates roots new, far-reaching speech-suppressing) definition, perversion anything original purity." supra, 974. Dictionary, ("a pure correct"). purity, casting aspersions "politicians contributors." Ante 9. "But `corruption' consist told assurance." Presumably, mean attachments constituent groups.9 "harm" namely, regulated equalize citizens. 48-49. bothering elaboration, justification, vague unenumerated smother refashioning requisite precision tailoring, representing fiat "do[es] standard." 4. ratifies sweep $5,000 dollars). -29, 35-36. approves 1995 dollars) committees. (Supp. 1999). disparity caps pronounced inflation. Adams, 523, according Index, purchases third decided). tailoring. (Missouri's "striking [in their] "). drastically subjected individuals, districts fathom $251 pose "secur[ing] ." 26. levels drawn," 25), undertakes defense. 89 reworks track 17. also, (claiming `are chests' 741 1998))). quickly deviates persuading because, "97.62 less." statistical anecdote offers refuge comfort. initial statistic assurance reduced funds. conspicuously revealing percentage (At -22, 23, 26, 27.) reveal, position remain indefensible. incorrect-- i.e., reduce speech--then calm unaffected collapses. correct-- i.e. seeking get missed capped)--then falters. help maintains, meager benefit. undercuts defense corruption.10 90 ill-advised illiberal approach, unsurprising forma hunt proves futile. yardstick effectiveness 1061 fret matters. vests government--whether courts--but people. IV 91 republican warrants requires Foundation, 207 (1999) judgment); -641 92 assert aimed Petitioners 26-28. noted, "preventing legitimate restricting finances." 496 -497. clumsily allegedly serve. crudely massively overinclusive, prohibiting wish cap risk. 642 `Where involved, blunderbuss prohibits innocent directed minority innocent' Appellants O. 1975, Nos. 75-436 75-437, pp. 117-118)). Martin Struthers, 319 141, 145 (1943) (Though blind criminal activities, [it] useful [to] engaged accordance tradition discussion"). Bribery bar targeted `deter exposing publicity.' 202 ). fact, laws. Ann. 130.041, 130.046, 130.057 93 find rooting comes infringement liberties, undesirable deterred vast precedents ordinance door-to-door distribution handbills. "burglars frequently canvassers," 144, "useful discussion," 145. observing easily methods." Id 147. 781 (1988), fees professional fundraisers. assertion defrauded antifraud "we presume[d] officers [we]re ready enforce," 795, fundraisers disclose information, acknowledging requirement: "If efficient fraud, reaffirm emphatically permit sacrifice efficiency." Schneider (Town Irvington), 308 147, 162 (1939) littering. Amongst punishment throw papers streets"). 94 dictate reaches. punish generalized tremendous along V 95 unjustifiably discounts strictly scrutinize inhibition competition, respectfully York Times Sullivan, 376 254 (1964); (1963); Barnes Glen Theatre, 501 560 (1991) opinion); Erznoznik Jacksonville, 422 205 (1975); Eichman 310 Schacht 398 (1970). Loper Police 999 699 (CA2 1993); Sandul Larion 119 1250 (CA6 1997); World Family Now Miami Beach 175 1282 (CA11 1999); Hartford Education Assoc Board 838 1977). gesture, auxiliary falter. receives expresses "intensity accorded expressions intensity. 25-26 (protecting obscenity stress point). Equally unavailing "does support." regularly given. (sign reading "For Peace Gulf"); Tinker Des Moines Independent Community School Dist., 393 503, 510-511 (black armband signifying opposition Vietnam war). ("Even unadorned valuable process"). Hurley Irish-American Gay, Lesbian Bisexual Group Boston, 515 557, 569 ("[A] succinctly articulable condition asserts "[m]oney (concurring contends mercenaries" gladiators," 2. propositions 414 ban payments finding monetary restrain would-be payors remained 418. appellees expression" "limit[ing] convey hours audience reach." 422-423. out. ban, regulate, gladiators retained. (holding charity fundraiser); Secretary Md. Joseph Munson 467 947 Teachers Hudson, 292 .) restrains government-compelled exactions money); Abood Detroit Ed., 209 resort speech" dismiss challenges regulations. examined committee's committee); 769 "spend[ing] publicize [political] views"). speaking--and "significantly unimpaired," ante, 7--an mode [individuals'] doing." Meyer, Glickman Wileman Brothers Elliott, 457, "First touting [one's] wares sees fit"). unsound. candidates." 7). essence, alternative channels open. peculiar muster opportunities. Spence Washington, 418 405, 411 (Although prohibition's "minuscule trifling," appropriate places abridged plea place' 163 (1939))). Texas Johnson, 491 397, 416 (1989); Kusper Pontikes, 51, (1973). pursuing interest, choose unnecessarily liberty." Id., 58-59. Implicitly, downplays argument. reprints block paragraph -21). Tellingly, complete sentence quote final sentence--which happens rationale. ("While contributor"). proffered Amendment: equalization -49 (governmentally "wholly foreign Amendment"); (mounting "provid[e] spending"). Framers inevitable faction infest faction, explained, "There removing causes faction: one, destroying existence; other, opinions, passions, interests." 1961). Contribution example method, contemptuously dismissed: "It truly remedy disease. Liberty air fire, aliment instantly expires. folly abolish liberty, life, nourishes annihilation air, animal imparts fire destructive agency." harnessed good, ensuring government. Rather repressive "cure" endorses, armed remedy. consists relief supplied principle, sinister regular vote." 80. overlooks quantitative undercut create bother following imposition total combined five offices cut half, falling $21,599,000 $9,337,000. 24-28. Significantly, races decreased. overall plummeted percent, $14,249,000 $1,625,000. Most importantly, mention contested, four vying 1992. enacted, contested. Overall, primaries fell 11. conclusively (although undeniable strongly result), picture rosy.

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