Document: 505 U.S. 577 112 S.Ct. 2649 120 L.Ed.2d 467 Robert E. LEE, Individually and as Principal of Nathan Bishop Middle School, et al., Petitionersv.Daniel WEISMAN etc. No. 90-1014. Argued Nov. 6, 1991. Decided June 24, 1992. Syllabus* Principals public middle high schools in Providence, Rhode Island, are permitted to invite members the clergy give invocations benedictions at their schools' graduation ceremonies. Petitioner Lee, a school principal, invited rabbi offer such prayers ceremony for Deborah Weisman's class, gave Rabbi pamphlet containing guidelines composition civic ceremonies, advised him that should be nonsectarian. Shortly before ceremony, District Court denied motion respondent Weisman, Deborah's father, temporary restraining order prohibit officials from including ceremony. her family attended were recited. Subsequently, Weisman sought permanent injunction barring Lee other petitioners, various Providence officials, inviting deliver future graduations. It appears likely will conducted graduation. The enjoined petitioners continuing practice issue on ground it violated Establishment Clause First Amendment. Appeals affirmed. Held: Including who part an official is forbidden by Clause. Pp. 586-599. (a) This need not revisit questions definition scope principles governing extent accommodation State its citizens' religious beliefs practices, controlling precedents they relate prayer exercise primary secondary compel holding here. Thus, reconsider decision Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 602, 91 2105, 29 745. principle government may accommodate free religion does supersede fundamental limitations imposed Clause, which guarantees minimum coerce anyone support or participate exercise, otherwise act way "establishes [state] faith, tends do so." Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 678, 104 1355, 1361, 79 604. 586-587. (b) here direct performance formal promotional Lee's given his selection participant choices attributable State. Moreover, through advice nonsectarian, he directed controlled prayers' content. That directions have been good faith attempt make acceptable most persons resolve dilemma caused school's involvement, since establish means avoiding establishment with more specific creeds. 587-590. (c) was inspired lesson hands what might begin tolerant expression views end policy indoctrinate coerce. Prayer exercises elementary carry particular risk indirect coercion. Engel Vitale, 370 421, 82 1261, 8 601; Abington School Schempp, 374 203, 83 1560, 10 844. district's supervision control places subtle peer pressure attending students stand group maintain respectful silence during invocation benediction. A reasonable dissenter age could believe standing remaining silent signified own participation in, approval of, rather than respect it. And place student participating protesting. Since adolescents often susceptible pressure, especially matters social convention, no use enforce orthodoxy means. embarrassment intrusion cannot refuted arguing de minimis character, affront those whom meaning, any both real violation objectors' rights. 590-594. (d) Petitioners' argument option excuses inducement coercion itself rejected. In this society, one life's significant occasions, absent herself sense term "voluntary." Also dispositive contention essential these ceremonies because many occasion would lack meaning without recognition human achievements understood apart spiritual essence. position fails acknowledge imperative Weismans conformance compelled also gives insufficient conflict conscience faced choose whether miss conform state-sponsored practice, environment where compulsion high. 594-596. (e) Inherent differences between system session state legislature distinguish case Marsh Chambers, 463 783, 103 3330, 77 1019, condoned exercise. atmosphere legislature's opening, adults enter leave little comment number reasons, compare constraining potential event important attend. 596-598. 908 F.2d 1090 (CA1 1990), KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SOUTER, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinions, STEVENS SCALIA, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE THOMAS, Charles J. Cooper, petitioners. Kenneth W. Starr, amicus curiae, Sandra A. Blanding, respondent. Justice KENNEDY Court. 1 principals city benediction schools. question us clerical consistent Religion Clauses Amendment, provisions Fourteenth Amendment makes applicable full force States districts. 2 * 3 graduated 1989. She about 14 years old. For has Committee Superintendent Schools permit Many, but all, elected include Acting himself daughter, Daniel objected graduation, avail. petitioner class. Leslie Gutterman, Temple Beth El accepted. 4 custom provide entitled "Guidelines Civic Occasions," prepared National Conference Christians Jews. Guidelines recommend nonsectarian composed "inclusiveness sensitivity," though "[p]rayer kind inappropriate some occasions." App. 20-21. principal Gutterman Agreed Statement Facts ¶ 17, id., 13. Gutterman's follows: 5 "INVOCATION 6 "God Free, Hope Brave: 7 "For legacy America diversity celebrated rights minorities protected, we thank You. May young men women grow up enrich liberty America, 9 new graduates guard political process all citizens participate, court seek justice honor morning always turn trust. 11 destiny 12 so live help share 13 "May our aspirations country people, hope future, richly fulfilled. AMEN" 15 "BENEDICTION 16 "O God, grateful You having endowed capacity learning joyous commencement. 17 "Happy families thanks seeing children achieve milestone. Send Your blessings upon teachers administrators helped prepare them. 18 "The now strength guidance them understand complete academic knowledge alone. We must each strive fulfill require all: To justly, love mercy, walk humbly. 19 "We You, Lord, keeping alive, sustaining allowing reach special, happy occasion. 20 21 Id., 22-23. 22 record sparse respects, unfamiliar fixed graduations, referred district "promotional exercises." constrained reference schools, however. High graduations integral American cultural life can confidence describe customary features, confirmed aspects parties' representations oral argument. system, away school, while held premises. Classical attends, 37, 17. parties stipulate attendance voluntary. 41, 18. graduating processional, subject direction sit together, families. assume clergy's There stood Pledge Allegiance remained Rabbi's prayers. Tr. Oral Arg. 38. Even assumption there moment after prayers, two presentations extended much beyond minute each, if that. know stage whole received individual diplomas stage, congratulate 23 board (and United States, supports curiae ) argued short others like profound parents throughout consider due acknowledgement divine deepest people ought expressed addressing difficult us, significance lies heart case. B 24 premises 29, Four days taxpayer next friend Deborah, Island adequate time July 1989, amended complaint seeking find unnecessary address standing, justiciable controversy us. enrolled likely, certain, 38, 25 submitted stipulated facts. petitioners' practice. 728 F.Supp. 68 (RI 1990). applied three-part test set forth 745 (1971). Under described past cases, satisfy governmental (1) reflect clearly secular purpose; (2) effect neither advances nor inhibits religion; (3) avoid excessive entanglement religion. Public Education & Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 773, 93 2955, 2965, 37 948 (1973). actions second test, did either first third. decided, based reading precedents, effects whenever action "creates identification religion, general," F.Supp., 71, when "the endorse over another, general." 72. determined benedictions, even so-called ones, creates power endorses violates determination follow Stein Plainwell Community Schools, 822 1406 (1987), Sixth Circuit, relying 1019 (1983), unconstitutional. upheld constitutionality Nebraska Legislature's opening sessions offered chaplain paid out funds. disagreed Circuit's reasoning believed narrow decision, "limited unique situation legislative prayer," relevance cases. 74. 26 On appeal, Circuit majority Judge Torruella adopted (1990). Bownes joined majority, wrote separate decided practices challenged three parts test. went agree had application cases flawed. He concluded suggesting under rules prayer, excluding mention Deity, F.2d, 1090-1097. Campbell dissented, basis Stein. reasoned ensured representing variety ethical systems present 1099. granted certiorari, 499 ----, 111 1305, 113 240 (1991), affirm. II 27 These dominant facts mark confines decision: object activity fair obligatory, condition receipt diploma. 28 dividing recent citizens. See Allegheny County Greater Pittsburgh ACLU, 492 573, 109 3086, 106 472 (1989); Wallace Jaffree, 105 2479, 86 (1985); 604 (1984). contexts, unconstitutional one. decide reconsidering general constitutional framework efforts measured. Thus accept invitation supra. involvement pervasive, point creating state-directed school. Conducting observance conflicts settled pertaining students, suffices determine dispute that, minimum, Constitution Lynch, supra, S.Ct., 1361; see County, U.S., 591, 3100 quoting Everson Board Ewing, 330 1, 15-16, 67 504, 511-512, L.Ed. 711 (1947). State's today central principles. 30 troubling undenied. official, given; choice State, perspective statute decreed occur. chose participant, rabbi, reason disclosed record, divisiveness member conduct apparent. 31 Divisiveness, course, attend respecting religions, existence necessarily invalidates attempts though, centers around overt where, discuss below, infra, coercive pressures exist alternative allowed fact appearance participation. 32 role clergyman. provided copy Through content prayer. only sanction ignoring instructions back, think representative valued continued reputation effectiveness community incur displeasure regard. cornerstone jurisprudence "it business compose recite program carried government," 425, 1264, 601 (1962), attempted do. 33 Petitioners argue, nothing refute it, good-faith ensure sectarianism flashpoint animosity removed concern understandable, uses ideas images identified foster different sort sectarian rivalry terms neutral. explanation, however, attempting persons, legitimacy undertaking enterprise produce used practical purposes, obliged 34 asked recognize within embrace known Judeo-Christian tradition, which, example, explicit references God Israel, Jesus Christ, patron saint. support, empirical observation, statement picked Campbell's dissent case, emerged tolerated not. Stein, 1409; 1090, 1098-1099 1990) (Campbell, dissenting) (case below); Note, Civil 95 Yale L.J. 1237 (1986). If common defined permits once conflicting faiths express shared conviction ethic morality transcend invention, purpose decent societies advanced. But allow stifle aspire ends, undertake task itself. 35 Amendment's mean too precious proscribed prescribed design preservation transmission worship responsibility committed private sphere, promised freedom pursue mission. forgotten then, define protection objector nonbeliever, same protect interference. James Madison, author Bill Rights, rest opposition sole minority. view was: "[E]xperience witnesseth ecclesiastical establishments, instead maintaining purity efficacy Religion, contrary operation." Memorial Remonstrance Against Assessments (1785), Papers Madison 301 (W. Rachal, R. Rutland, B. Ripel, F. Teute eds. 1973). 36 concerns whose effort monitor perceived inducing reject. Though appear religions divisive assist composing incident students. 1264. caution measure idea against creeds none favored. suggestion strikes contradiction degree made clear bore imprint thus put school-age untenable position. attention desired she 38 endure speech false offensive then counter how pluralistic society insists open discourse towards citizenry. tolerance presupposes mutuality obligation. vision requires ability reject approve, choice. By seniors, doubt required classes assemblies assignments exposing distasteful immoral absurd these. background, odd subjected course educations deemed irreligious, brief, offers return. prevail, overlooks dynamic Constitution. 39 protects quite mechanisms. Speech protected insuring participates, very persuade adopt own. Meese Keene, 481 465, 480-481, 107 1862, 1870-1871, 415 (1987); Keller Bar California, 496 10-11, 110 2228, 2234-2235, (1990); Abood Detroit Education, 431 209, 97 1782, 52 261 (1977). method protecting reverse. debate prime Framers antithetical all. Free Exercise embraces close parallels prohibition forms intervention affairs precise counterpart provisions. Buckley Valeo, 424 92-93, n. 127, 96 612, 669-670, 46 659 (1976) (per curiam ). explanation history inspiration state-created puts grave belief assurance real, imposed. 40 lessons urgent modern world 18th Century written. One timeless exercises, disavows duty sphere inviolable people. compromise deny tradition forfeit urge secure protections themselves. 41 As observed before, heightened See, e.g., 307, 1616, 844 (1963) (Goldberg, concurring); Edwards Aguillard, 482 578, 584, 2573, 2578, 510 Westside Bd. Ed. Mergens, 226, 261-262, 2356, 2377-2378, 191 (1990) (KENNEDY, concurring). Our decisions District, recognize, among things, limited context pronounced there. 661, 3137 judgment part). What believers seem request nonbeliever employ machinery orthodoxy. 42 look circumstances phenomenon work. undeniable well or, least, Invocation Benediction. indirect, compulsion. Of culture signify adherence simple others. desire join objection sign age, perception being forced pray manner allow, injury less real. many, most, comfort dissenter, told signifies mere respect, conventions, milieu 43 Finding objectors participating, implies, affected mature adults, not, Research psychology peers conformity, influence strongest convention. Brittain, Adolescent Choices Parent-Peer Cross-Pressures, Am.Sociological Rev. 385 (June 1963); Clasen Brown, Multidimensionality Peer Pressure Adolescence, Youth Adolescence 451 (Dec.1985); Clasen, Eicher, Perceptions Pressure, Conformity Dispositions, Self-Reported Behavior Among Adolescents, Developmental Psychology 521 (July 1986). constitutes unacceptable constraint acknowledges 44 government's action, why setting, is, concede, brief concentrate joining message, meditate let mind wander. similar ones said character. authority. reason, greater minutes consumed Assuming, must, parent object, and, promulgating sect lessen offense isolation objectors. At best narrows number, worst increases affront. ----. 45 stipulation amicus, center lacks persuasion. Law reaches formalism. say teenage formalistic extreme. True, elect commencement renouncing diploma; shall point. Everyone knows occasions. rule beside Attendance decree, yet apparent "voluntary," absence forfeiture intangible benefits motivated youth years. Graduation closest celebrate success mutual wishes gratitude impressing person right diverse parts. importance rely argue permitted, becomes reasons fail. Their contention, considerable constraints recognition, however Government's interest compliance demonstrates inconsistency argumentation. classmates While addressed contingency rejects balance urged forbids exact conformity price calculus commands. 47 student. essence regard civic, objector, take unilateral compromising scruples, electing turns conventional analysis head. tenet resisting remain closing compelling analogous classroom Just 430, 1266, 224-225, 1572-1573, found legislation permitting voluntarily excused daily shield invalidation, voluntary legal save 48 Legislature (1983). considerations raised respects arguments considered Marsh. obvious differences. far distinction placed reliance upholding 792, 3336. Today's different. retain contents program, speeches, timing, movements, dress, decorum Bethel Dist. Fraser, 478 675, 3159, 92 549 state-imposed character selected combine state-sanctioned left submit. violation. remains delicate fact-sensitive one, parallel relied context. 49 hold every implicating invalid few offensive. People nonreligious messages, alone show sometimes anger nonconformity. But, exaction withstand improper singular student, objecting avoid. 50 area necessity line-drawing, determining dissenter's infringed 51 realistic create dangers designed prevent directly substantially involve favoring meaningful impact. true great consequences small beginnings, adjudication willingness threat shadow." 308, 1616 heritage lacked abiding values adherents student's precepts higher law enforce. hostility aspirations, oath so. relentless all-pervasive exclude aspect become inconsistent 306, 1615 educational process, instances values, interaction matters, presented found, induced conform. No suggests done here, 53 stated, 54 Affirmed. 55 O'CONNOR join, concurring. 56 Nearly half century review refinement distilled understanding: Government promote affiliate doctrine organization, obtrude internal institution. mandates reached 57 reviewed challenge (1947).1 Relying Court's prior analysis, Black outlined touchstone jurisprudence: Neither Federal pass laws aid prefer another. Government, openly secretly, organization vice versa.2 "In words Jefferson, clause intended erect 'a wall separation church State.' " Everson, 16, 511, Reynolds 98 145, 164, 244 (1879). dissenters agreed: . spheres civil authority comprehensively forbidding form religion." 31-32, 519-520 (Rutledge, dissenting, Frankfurter, Jackson, Burton, JJ.). 58 Students aloud Regents: "Almighty dependence Thee, beg Thy parents, Country." 422, 1262. Black, writing again prestige control, Although "denominationally neutral" "its [was] voluntary," precept 59 year later, invalidated government-sponsored (1963). day Baltimore, Maryland, Township, Pennsylvania, began Bible, recitation Lord's Prayer, both. After thorough concluded: "[T]he eight times score point, consistently withdrew thereof. stated enactment? advancement inhibition enactment exceeds circumscribed Constitution." 222, 1571. 60 Because held, therefore, 223-224, 1572-1573. 61 Five reiterated "may aid, foster, theory another militant opposite." Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 104, 89 266, 270, 228 (1968). 'If [the effect] Constitution.' 107, 272 (quoting 1571). Arkansas aided preventing teaching evolution, 62 1971, Chief Burger found: "Three tests gleaned cases." 2111. survive challenge, "[f]irst, second, finally 612-613, 2111 (internal quotation marks citations omitted).3 Lemon, basic resolving disputes.4 63 Application straightforward. "no doubt" "invocation God's blessings" "is activity." Engel, 424, 1263. solemn avowal supplication Almighty. nature religious." Ibid. "plac[ed] stamp approval" 429, 1266. ably demonstrates, "compose[s] prayers," selects planned, supervised advancing promoting religion.5 teach prohibits. 64 I developed precedents. holds "in exercise." Ante, 594. proof necessary prove violation, sufficient. indication endorsing 65 enough restrain practices: engage either. 305, repeatedly recognized predicated 223, 1572; 229, 1575 (Douglas, 72, 2498, (1985) (O'CONNOR, judgment) ("The [in Schempp ] acknowledged implicit statutory schemes, expressly turned sponsoring manifestly exercise" (citation omitted)); Comm. 786, 2972, (1973) ("[P]roof [is] element claim Clause"). proscribes "conveying convey message favored preferred," 593, 3101, (1989) quotations omitted) (emphasis original), actually "impos[e] activity."6 261, 2378, 66 Clause's prohibitions derives purposes. encompasses distinct guarantees—the prohibiting thereof—both securing liberty.7 vigorous enforcement clauses, "promote assure fullest possible nurture conditions attainment end." jeopardize conscience. diminishes believe. Representative Carroll explained congressional Clause: are, nature, peculiar delicacy, bear gentlest touch hand." Annals Cong. 757 (August 15, 1789). gone coercion, liberty," concurring), entails grand scale; compact generations democracy strong community—both safeguarding liberty. "Our fathers perfectly sincere Church patriotic, religious, respective functions entirely separate." Liberty, Essays Speeches Jeremiah S. (C. ed. 1885) (Chief Commonwealth Pennsylvania).8 69 mixing government, participate. When imprimatur conveys exclusion adhere beliefs.9 premised created equal asserts prefers some. Only "[a]nguish, hardship bitter strife" result "when zealous groups struggl[e] obtain approval." 1266; 622-623, 2115-2116; Aguilar Felton, 473 402, 416, 3232, 3239, 87 290 (Powell, concurring).10 Such struggle "strain breaking point." Walz Tax Commission, 397 664, 694, 90 1409, 1424, 697 (1970) (opinion Harlan, J.). 70 arrogates affairs, abandons obligation guarantor democracy. Democracy nourishment dialogue dissent, trust ultimate above deliberation. appropriates truth, "transforms rational into theological decree." Nuechterlein, Boundaries Permissible Accommodation 99 1127, 1131 Those disagree longer questioning reproach. 71 warned ends "exceed commission derive Tyrants. submit governed themselves, derived them, slaves." (1785) Complete 300 (S. Padover, 1953). Democratic last long proclamation replaces persuasion medium exchange. 72 Likewise, "[r]eligion flourishes purity, Gov[ernment]."11 309. "make room wide needs man deem necessary," Zorach Clauson, 343 313, 679, 683, 954 (1952), align favors sect, disadvantage obvious, fear "taint[ed] corrosive secularism." Grand Rapids Ball, 373, 385, 3216, 3223, 267 (1985). compromised figures reshape religion's purposes; reformed largesse brings regulation.12 Keeping minimizes enables "flourish according zeal appeal dogma." Zorach, 683. 73 understandings fears underlie jurisprudence. democratic fusion regime. thrive vibrant prosper bound secular. animating behind adoption end, prohibited endorsement sponsorship, active coerced 74 convinced misguided, today. Accordingly, affirming Appeals. "aid another," religions." Today reaffirm principle, settings matter nondenominational be. generically Theistic sponsor line precedent historical depart. 75 acts generally others.1 readings neutral." More recently, (1985), Alabama moment-of-silence passed "returning schools," 57, 2490, encourage deity. underlying examined crucible litigation, unambiguously select all." 52-53, 2487-2488. conclusion, 76 "derives individual's conscience, worthy product faithful, forestalling intolerance extends Christian sects—or 'religions'—to encompass disbeliever uncertain." 53-54, 2488 (footnotes omitted). Texas Monthly, Inc. Bullock, 489 890, (1989), struck down tax exemption benefiting periodicals; worked discrimination sects, preference publications kinds "effectively belief." 901 (plurality opinion); 28, 907 (BLACKMUN, ("A dissemination offends understanding hence constitutionally intolerable"). Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 81 1680, 982 (1961), provision Maryland requiring declare 'belief God,' 489, "neither impose requirements non-believers .," 495, 1683. (1968) neutrality nonreligion"); 216, 1568, ("this rejected unequivocally another"); 319-320, 1622 (Stewart, (the applies "to Jew Agnostic, Atheist, Buddhist Freethinker"). 78 law. Here, elsewhere, stick discard Arizona Rumsey, 212, 2305, 2311, 164 (1984); Payne Tennessee, 501 2597, 115 720 (1991) (SOUTER, Some "nonpreferential" promotion challengers originally Framers, "[t]he irreligion providing nondiscriminatory Wallace, 106, 2515 (REHNQUIST, dissenting); Cord, Separation State: Historical Fact Current Fiction (1988). position, convincing warrant reconsideration law; indeed, textual development powerful supporting following Everson. 80 arrived Congress series proposals amend Constitution, read abridged account worship, national established, manner, pretext, infringed." 434 (1789). Madison's language long. sent Select House, changed established law, 729. Thence proposal Whole, dissatisfied Committee's proposed Samuel Livermore New Hampshire: "Congress touching infringing conscience." 731. Livermore's anything broader version, Corporation Presiding Christ Latter-Day Saints Amos, 483 327, 2862, 273 (1987) (upholding certain obligations laws). House rewrote amendment sending Senate, adopting, recorded debate, Fisher Ames Massachusetts: establishing thereof, Documentary History 136 (Senate Journal) (L. Pauw 1972); 765 Perhaps, further reflection, Representatives thought expansive, perhaps, historian suggested, simply worried "satisfy demands wanted something specifically establishments L. Levy, (1986) (hereinafter Levy). know; arguably religion" enjoyed others, deliberately extending "religion" general. sequence Senate's treatment proposal, House's response confirm meant nonpreferential September 1789, Senate ultimately First, briefly entertained language: Sect Society History, 151 Journal). rejecting minor amendments ibid., dropped altogether identical "rights conscience," ibid. With debates, prompted changes, tell six circle narrowest yet: articles mode 166. along versions proposed. accepted work version called joint conference committee, agreed. conferees won out, persuading final text Clauses: thereof." remarkable unlike earliest drafts prevailing "a religion," "one sect," "articles faith."2 84 Implicit preferential weight evidence appreciated. Laycock, "Nonpreferential" Aid 902-906; Levy 91-119. cf. T. Curry, Freedoms 208-222 note, vividly familiar colonies general, assessments incidents ostensibly ecumenical establishments. 1-62. Virginia Statute Freedom, written Jefferson sponsored captured separationist measures. Condemning nonpreferentialist, broadly guaranteed frequent place, ministry whatsoever," Act Establishing Freedom Founders' 84, 85 (P. Kurland Lerner 1987). Forcing citizen would, rewards, proceeding approbation personal conduct, additional incitement earnest unremitting labours instruction mankind." 84. later added, "religion Govt. mixed together." Letter Livingston, 1822, 105, 106. Framers' experience underscores observation prominent commentator, confining "requires premise extraordinarily bad drafters—that thing different, language." 882-883; Liberties Union, Chapter, 647-648, 3130, presume, conclusive contrary, embraced judgment.3 balance, contradicts warrants C me, sufficient nonpreferentialist animates my judgment. nonpreferentialism "sectarian" be, measure, muster. Simply enquiry, nonpreferentialists courts comparative theology. hardly imagine amenable competence federal judiciary, avoided possible. nicely nonpreferentiality judged text, BLACKMUN pertinently observes, ante, 604, 5, drew exhortation "[t]o humbly" straight King Micah, ch. 8. undefinable similarities sacred closely identify former latter concede breach Micah's sufficiently generic believers, still embodies straightforwardly premise, Many Americans themselves Theistic; some, several Deists plea country's moral good. condemn subjecting to, say, Anglican liturgy explain non-Theistic constitutional. 88 Nor solve problem "diversity" views; inevitably, wholly judgments relative frequency each. fact, prospect worse criticizing presidential proclamations, messages tends, time, recommendation standard predominant sect." "Detached Memoranda," Wm. Mary Q. 534, 561 (E. Fleet 1946) Memoranda" judiciary willingly arena battle centripetal leading pluralism votes. extensive forbid affirmations observance. appreciate "coercion" 655-679, 3134-3146 J.); McConnell, Coercion: Lost Element Establishment, L.Rev. 933 abandoning view, readily permit. extratextual original odds inherent existing fundamentally course. Over years, declared invalidity noncoercive conveying endorsement. forbade display nativity scene property; contesting dissent's creche accepting whatever proclaimed, five Members Christianity. 589-594, 598-602, 3098-3101, 3103-3105. classrooms (for not), "convey[ed] activities schools." 61, 2492; 67-84, 2495-2504 judgment). Cf. 431, 1267 ("When power, financial belief, officially approved plain. purposes go that"). (1968), barred Darwin's evolution because, obviously enacted singularly purpose. 2583, (statute "creation science" "endorses Amendment"). whereby parochial instruct matters; scheme receive subsidize instruction, symbolic union [program] threatens public." 397, 3230; opinion) (tax belief"); (exemption "engaged communication messages"). drawn lines. They cannot, showing successful claim. Like "due" "unreasonable" searches seizures, "respecting pellucid. virtually everyone bans traditional sense, massive through, means, comprehensive schemes taxation. 1-62 (discussing early States). follows rejection simpler "establishing favor ban 612-614. 94 added word "respecting" foreclose interference see, Amar, Rights 100 1131, 1157 sweeps words, "everything like" establishment, 558, incorporation, establishment.4 649, 3130 sweep broad characterized military chaplains "establishments." 558-559; 624-625, 6. insist "coercive" features easily square text. just "prohibiting Yet nonadherents "support exercise," 659-660, 3136 J.), violate Employment Div., Dept. Human Resources Ore. Smith, 494 872, 877, 1595, 1599, 108 876 (under "government affirmation belief"), citing 488 (1961); (compelling "free Religion"), quoted 82, literal render virtual nullity, counsel essentially conceded presuppose much; Abington, clauses apparent—a attended." 922 ("If clause, adds exercise"). ornament 216-217 (1986), resort. Without presume attribute setting framed, ratification, conformity. canvassing, yield argument, reveal consensus raise stare decisis challenging presumption particularly assessments, special antipathy exhaust establishment. Indeed, opposed appropriation 623-626 hated temper rhetoric distinctions action. When, criticized Virginia's assessment bill, invoked An assessment, wrote, forces donate "three pence" but, broadly, signal persecution. degrades rank Citizens opinions bend Legislative authority." 83. saw collector's participation, impair contend Presidents included inaugural Thanksgiving Day addresses, ignores proclamations controversial founding generation, published thoughts belie President steadfastly refused kind, Clauses. Thomas Miller (Jan. 23, 1808), 98. explaining Reverend Miller, effectively anticipated, rejected, position: "[I]t recommend, prescribe fasting indirectly precluded authority, sanctioned penalty disregard it; indeed fine imprisonment, proscription perhaps opinion." 98-99 original). 101 condemning "recommending" demean opinion," condemned what, terms, call accordingly construed endorsement, observance.5 impersonal addresses inflicting "proscription diffuse expressions 102 During office, thanksgiving amid turmoil War 1812, four 562, 54. Upon retirement, essay "establishment" money chaplains, 558-560,6 "[r]eligious Executive recommending thanksgivings fasts shoots root reviewed. Altho' recommendations only, imply agency, making delegated rulers." 560. Explaining Govt regarded possessing advisory Constituents capacities," freights ones: associated occasion, function assumed power." 562 (footnote failure keep pace face erase admitted backsliding, wartime inconsequential mitigate impropriety. ibid.; Livingston 10, 1822), 105. writings suggest mild variations interpretation generation. brand separationism stronger embodied So characterization subsidies "establishments," 624, courts, expansive practices. (1983) (legislative chaplains); Katcoff Marsh, 755 223 (CA2 1985) (military chaplains). sure, leaders Republic engaged separationists criticized. hire institutional 788, 3334, Washington Adams unapologetically marked "public prove, best, worst, they, politicians, ideals backs next. "Indeed, 1787 bills 'paper parchments' laudable sentiments, practice." Kurland, Origins 839, 852 Sometimes fared better. Ten proposing Alien Sedition Acts, measures patently standards. Congress's determinative, merely relevant, gut current censorship. unable respectable body supported considerably consistency preclude reexamining am considering proscriptions. III concept self-revealing, invested content: nonreligion 3103-3105; judgment); 2582-2583; Rapids, 389-392, 3225-3227; Formal, Substantive, Disaggregated Neutrality Toward De Paul 993 2111, favoritism foundation jurisprudence, ensuring irrelevant citizen's community, 594, 3101; 82-83, demeaning embrace, Now, Republic, (10 aspiration liberty, standard. neutral ever taking account. "accommodate" relieving interfere callings. Sherbert Verner, 398, 1790, 965 Contrary some,7 disbelief. everyday life, routinely share. Orthodox lunch pains kosher restaurant; atheist hurry Amish steering horse-drawn carriage. acting, for, expressing merit perceives taken likewise. Most devotional crucial lives idiosyncratic eyes nonadherents. definition, nonadherent's vantage consequently, fail cuts across sensibilities, does, sides government. circumstances, accommodating reveals unnecessarily offend Welsh 398 333, 340, 1792, 1796, 308 opinion). freeing Native peyote use, Drug Enforcement Administration Miscellaneous Exemptions, C.F.R. § 1307.31 rituals, Church, such; centrality Americans. 1135-1136 Whatever else permissible requirement clear: lift discernible burden 601, 51, 3105, 51; 631-632, 3121-3122 Bishop, 348, 2875 18, 18-19, 8, 901, 57-58, 45, 45. 663, 2, 3138, Concern individuals regulatory justify solicitude unburdened rules; gratuitous lights sees crossed complain omitting "burden" invest rite passage significance, feelings organize privately baccalaureate company likeminded affirm beliefs, sponsorship reasonably instance, fairly commentator brought "precisely want approves value costs minorities." Summary Synthesis: Crisis Geo. Wash.L.Rev. 841, (1992).8 deflect conclusion "acknowledgments" life. like, rarely noticed, ignored effort, conveyed medium, particular, inhabit pallid zone worlds captive audience respected difference trivial serious Realizing contemporaries unlikely seriously forgo chaplainship, suggested "[r]ather step landmarks legitimate precedent, better apply aphorism non curat lex. ." 559; logic winking armed strike near core However "ceremonial" flatly THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, THOMAS dissenting. 114 Three Terms ago, recognizing light "[g]overnment policies accommodation, acknowledgment, [that] heritage." affirmed understandings." "[a] implementing consistency, invalidate longstanding traditions proper Clause." 657, 670, 3135, 3142, me today's conspicuously bereft history. prohibits public-school Court—with nary doing so—lays waste old component celebrations generally. instrument destruction, bulldozer engineering, invents boundless, boundlessly manipulable, psychological promises Durham insanity defense. U.S.App.D.C. 228, 214 862 (1954). shows forcefully volumes argumentation Nation's protection, fortress possibly changeable philosophical predilections Justices deep foundations historic 116 Holmes' page worth volume logic," York Trust Co. Eisner, 256 345, 349, 506, 507, 963 (1921), recognized, "compor[t] contemporaneous guarantees." 673, 1359, draw impermissible accords faithfully reflects Founding Fathers." 294, 1609, (Brennan, "[H]istorical sheds draftsmen mean, applied" 790, 3335, beginning [while] ., import interpretation" Comm'n City, 681, 1417-1418, 117 Nation replete featuring petition. Illustrations amply 674-678, 1359-1361; 786-788, 3333-3334; 100-103, 2512-2514, 446-450, 3, 1275-1277, (1962) dissenting), oblivious restricts "preservation sphere," 589, 118 From origin, proclamations. Declaration Independence, document marking birth "appeal[ed] Supreme rectitude intentions" avowed firm Providence." address, swearing office George President: 119 peculiarly omit fervent supplications Almighty Being universe, presides councils nations, providential aids supply defect, His consecrate liberties happiness instituted purposes." Inaugural Addresses (1989). characteristic feature since. prayed address: Infinite Power destinies universe lead favorable your peace prosperity." prayer: 121 "I need, too, led fathers, Israel old, native land planted flowing necessaries comforts life; covered infancy providence riper wisdom goodness ask you enlighten minds servants, guide councils, whatsoever good, peace, friendship, nations." 122 Similarly, 123 guardianship regulates dispensed rising devout past, hopes future." 28. 124 Bush, Washington, inauguration bow heads, President. 346. 125 celebration likewise dates back Washington. recounted proposed, proclaim acknowledging hearts favours God.' proclaimed November 26, 'offe[r] Great Lord Ruler Nations, beseech pardon transgressions. .' 1360, (citations 126 Proclamations—with theme prayerful God—has adhered almost nn. 3; 2512-2514 dissenting). 127 branches long-established events. detailed Congressional opened chaplain's Congress. 787-788, 3334. Honorable Court" Marshall. C. Warren, 469 (1922). 128 addition exists exercises. account, public-high-school took Connecticut 1868—the month, happens, vehicle States) ratified—when "15 seniors Norwich Academy marched Sunday suits dresses hall waited majestic music prayers." Brodinsky, Commencement Rites Obsolete? Not All, 10-Week Study Shows, Updating Policies, Vol. p. (Apr. 1979). obliquely describing "customary features" 583, respondents contest, "as [school] widely established." H. McKown, Activities (1931); 5. 129 presumably beliefs" "psychological coercion." regarding holiday displays, come "requir[e] scrutiny commonly interior decorators judiciary." Jewish Chicago, 827 120, (Easterbrook, decorating rock-hard science compared practiced amateurs. "[r]esearch psychology" bearing disguise realm judges doing. "coerced" incoherent. 130 identifies "dominant facts" says dictate ruling 586. relevant true. 131 declares students' "attendance [invocation benediction] obligatory." exactly "fair sense"? According participation," 588, psychologically obligated silence" 593. assertion—the linchpin —is intriguing says. Durer-like pay utter "Amen," pray. (Perhaps intensive research matters.) claims silence." added). Both halves disjunctive (both amount terms) attention. 132 latter: notion sits "respectful (when standing) somehow joined—or joined—in ludicrous. vulgar age. surely "our conventions," coarsened chair shout obscenities assented everything presence. exposed (despite "subtle pressures," 588) sit, absolutely decision. fanciful dissenter," head class bowed "could it," entertain pointedly declining rise. 133 nonparticipating graduate "subtly coerced" stand! remotely "participation" (or "appearance participation") others." (Much former, think, except proverbial town meeting, votes standing.) inference progress, "reasonable ? Quite obviously, cannot. add, moreover, observances virtue (including schools) cultivate—so displaying mistaken trumps fostering 134 manifests careful consideration had, observe, hint disapproval, Allegiance, immediately preceded invocation? 583. can, West Barnette, 319 642, 1178, 1187, 1628 (1943). revised Barnette phrase "under God," recital invocation, coerced, moments thereby, in) Pledge. Must therefore classroom) Pledge; observe silence—when wished Logically, project bulldozer. 135 concludes supposed refrains "mature adults" may. transition adolescence adulthood. vote. Why, treat first-graders? Will soon distinguishes immature adults? fac[t]" "[s]tate "Direct[ing] sound summoning directing acolytes cross, unroll Torah. professing "delicate fact-sensitive" 597, "prescribing benediction." false. All acting graduations; two-page flyer, Jews, giving inclusive How transformed charges "directed [Rabbi Gutterman's] "monitor 590, 'compose prayers,' pervasive," 587, fathom. drafted, edited, screened censored mouthpiece officials. 137 distortions harmless error: assertion "enforc[ing] orthodoxy," 592, ring hollow ought. 138 deeper flaw lie wrong answer state-induced "peer-pressure" coercion; lies, rather, hinge question. hallmark penalty. Typically, required; lawfully perform sacraments; dissenters, tolerated, array disabilities. colony Virginia, England ministers rites England; Sabbath, tithed ministers, taxed building repairing churches. 3-4. 139 level interference). sake scholars argued, 1790 acquired meaning—"financial generally, taxation"—that reflected "general multiple" single church. 8-9. Independence earlier, day, has, aberrations, Holy Trinity 143 457, 226 (1892), ruled religion—even present, ersatz, psycho-coercion present—where sectarian, specifying details benevolent, omnipotent Creator world, differ divinity Christ). proposition Gutterman—with legally them—violated States. characteristically pen Abraham Lincoln himself. 140 quarrel "guarantees expanding backed penalty—a happily, career disciples Blackstone Freud. Government; events "[s]peech coercive; listener likes." 141 discussion revealing extravagant "for purposes," sense," 598, Beyond parties, voluntary, indicate discipline. Contrast with, Barnette: Schoolchildren Allegiance; resulted expulsion, threatened expelled child reformatory criminally inclined juveniles, prosecution incarceration) causing delinquency. 629-630, 1181. characterize allegedly "practical" equivalent sanctions well, analysis. 142 relies "school prayer" 592. compel, psycho-journey. constitute exception rule, 633-636; fall ceremony). Second, occurs (i.e., penalty) provides backdrop. emphasized "prescribed curricular school." 1572 Engel's school-prayer there—which room," 1266 involved "indirect pressure," 1267, backdrop opt-out procedure sufficed dispel resulting mandatory utterly devoid finally, inherently instructional there—where emulation models children's susceptibility (1987)—might upbringing children: "Families entrust education children, purposely advance family." Ibid.; Pierce Sisters, 268 510, 534-535, 571, 1070 (1925). Voluntary graduation—a one-time friends relatives present—can concerns. IV religion-clause bedeviled (so speak) formulaic abstractions from, positively long-accepted traditions. Foremost (1971), well-earned criticism 655-656, 3134 Kennedy, 636-640, 2605-2607 (Scalia, 108-112, 2516-2518 (Rehnquist, 426-430, 3245-3247, (O'Connor, Roemer Works, 426 736, 768-769, 2337, 2355, 179 (WHITE, irrelevance interment byproduct lamentable Unfortunately, replaced suffers double disability roots people's infinitely expandable psychotherapy 144 Another jurisprudential disaster Given able June, half, authorities abstains screaming protest seemingly needed announcement, insertion Program, rise benediction, assumed, rising, recited, proceed done, generously bestowed country. 145 146 reader Mr. interests side. inconsequential. were, apparently thinks purely avocation indulged secret, pornography, privacy one's room. never been. denominations felt blessing individuals, "protection Providence," societies; Washington's Proclamation "Great Nations." deprecate deride displays unmistakable clarity 147 involves community's milestones lives, bold banish thousands land, make. abstract frustrating preferred imposing coercion," feeling exclusion, nonbelievers. Rather, age-old show, doubt. 148 add observation: founders knew fearsome generate dissension strife. nothing, toleration—no, affection—for seek. Needless shame deprive opportunity, encouragement, voluntarily. Baptist Catholic heard inspiring patriotic inoculated bigotry prejudice replicated. unifying mechanism, spare seems minimal inconvenience sitting nonparticipation, senseless unsupported 149 foregoing dissent. syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Lumber Co., 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. earlier involving touched (1879), Davis Beason, 299, 637 (1890), bigamy. Jefferson's letter Danbury Association "almost authoritative declaration effect" 164. penned famous lines built State." tenets, modes 342, 300. Bradfield Roberts, 175 291, 121, 168 (1899), construct hospital caring poor patients, although managed sisters Roman Church. reasoned: "That non-sectarian corporation, incorporated powers, convert corporation body." 298, 124. Finally, 1908 spirit Constitution" Indians using money, education. Quick Bear Leupp, 210 50, 81, 690, 700, 954. articulated examples paradigmatic prohibits: 'establishment religion' least this: profess disbelief punished entertaining disbeliefs, non-attendance. amount, large small, levied institutions, called, organizations versa. Ed., prong, entanglement, focus Comm'n, 674, 1414, (1970), harkens example Everson: "Neither 511. Madisonian other's influence. 298-312 Padover rested Lemon. (1990), Equal Access Act, unlawful access wishing meetings. 248-253, 2370-2373 262, 2378 (Marshall, failed vigorously factors. promotes Judeo-Christian. benediction: Book Prophet matter, anytime "When plain." (1962). 40, 523 (" 'Establishment' 'free exercise' correlative coextensive ideas, facets freedom"); 227, 1574, 2486, (The "first immediate destroy degrade religion"); McCollum 333 461, 649 (1948) ("[T]he rests lofty aims sphere"). person's community. Direct approach sends outsiders, accompanying insiders, community." 69, 2496 concurring) Sigmund Freud way: calls love, hard unloving belong it." Freud, Group Analysis Ego strongly "Memorial Remonstrance" bill funds teachers: "It Distant form, Inquisition differs degree. step, intolerance." 303. lost engender divisiveness. "Of issues ACLU takes on—reproductive rights, discrimination, jail prison conditions, abuse kids police brutality, name few—by volatile Aside abolish death penalty, elicits threats." Parish, Violates Utah (June/July 1991). primarily churches expounded initially Roger Williams. "[W]ordly corruptions consume sturdy fences wilderness maintained." M. Howe, Garden Wilderness (1965). "[B]ut contracts alliance hesitate commits error sacrifice welfare; obtaining claim, risks rightfully own." Tocqueville, 315 (H. Reeve transl. 1900). fully write separately nonetheless independent resolution case: denomination Forty-five announced strayed: Larson Valente, 456 1673, (1982) (subjecting strict scrutiny). commentators targeting "an" clearer articulation 11-12 indefinite article seen wished, aptly "religion." Religion: False Claim About Original Intent, 875, 884-885 Aid). JUSTICE partly post-ratification (but all) ceremonial breaches 630-631, cited treaty provision, signed authorizing subsidization priest Kaskaskia Indians. 103, 2514. proves much, nothing. 915. furnish valuable contemporary language, serve, blind eye principle. 626. (1947), unanimously Due Process doing, 14-15, 511; Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303, 900, 903, 1213 (1940) (dictum). Member disincorporating "coercive": "Thus, recommendatory violation." Brief 34. wordplay. "proscription" was, recommendation. willing dilute until left. "coercion," normal prerequisite Madison's, 625, diverged speeches. 22-23 supra note 3. Homer nodded. letter. Tenth "what another." restrict officer. event, exclusively structural mediating powers Governments. entail make, certainly reject, incorporation erroneous. palpable Constitutional principles." 558. sat committee (1988), insisted approbation, deviation immunity jurisdiction] Congs., appointed Chaplains, Natl. Treasury." Review Indiana Security 450 707, 726, 1425, 1436, 624 (1981) Choper, Amendment: Reconciling Conflict, U.Pitt.L.Rev. 685-686 (1980); 668-669, 1411, (1970); 414, 1799, 1800, result); 83, 2504 chosen speakers criteria, (not actor) individually harder Witters Services Blind, 474 481, 748, 846 singling beneficiaries criteria. Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 274-275, 269, 277, 440 (1981); Walz, 696, 1425 J.) ("In critical circumference encircles institutions natural perimeter"). invoke benefit lead.

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