Document: 501 U.S. 808 111 S.Ct. 2597 115 L.Ed.2d 720 Pervis Tyrone PAYNE, Petitionerv.TENNESSEE. No. 90-5721. Argued April 24, 1991. Decided June 27, Rehearing Denied Sept. 13, See U.S., 112 S.ct. 28. Syllabus Petitioner Payne was convicted by a Tennessee jury of the first-degree murders Charisse Christopher and her 2-year-old daughter, assault upon, with intent to murder, Charisse's 3-year-old son Nicholas. The brutal crimes were committed in victims' apartment after resisted Payne's sexual advances. During sentencing phase trial, called his parents, girlfriend, clinical psychologist, each whom testified as various mitigating aspects background character. State Nicholas' grandmother, who that child missed mother baby sister. In arguing for death penalty, prosecutor commented on continuing effects Nicholas experience upon family. sentenced murder counts. Supreme Court affirmed, rejecting contention admission grandmother's testimony State's closing argument violated Eighth Amendment rights under Booth v. Maryland, 482 496, 107 2529, 96 440, South Carolina Gathers, 490 805, 109 2207, 104 876, which held evidence relating victim impact victim's family are per se inadmissible at capital hearing. Held: erects no bar prohibiting from considering "victim impact" personal characteristics emotional family, or precluding such To extent they contrary, Gathers overruled. Pp. 817-830. (a) There numerous infirmities rule created Gathers. Those cases based two premises: particular harm caused does not general reflect defendant's "blameworthiness," only "blameworthiness" is relevant decision. Booth, supra, 504-505, S.Ct., 2533-2534. However, assessment defendant has long been an important factor determining appropriate punishment, simply another method informing authority about harm. excluding evidence, 504, 2533-34, misread statement Woodson North Carolina, 428 280, 304, 2978, 2991, 49 944, must be treated "uniquely individual human bein[g]." As Gregg Georgia, 153, 203-204, 2909, 2939, 859 demonstrates, language intended describe class could received, but i.e., any relevant, nonprejudicial material, see Barefoot Estelle, 463 880, 898, 103 3383, 3397, 77 1090. § misreading precedent unfairly weighted scales trial. Virtually limits placed may introduce concerning own circumstances. See, e.g., Eddings Oklahoma, 455 104, 114, 102 869, 877, 71 1. legitimate interest counteracting prevents it doing so. Similarly, fairness prosecution requires rejection Gathers' extension prosecutor's argument, since, Amendment, this given attorney broad latitude argue reflecting client's personality. 506-507, 2534-2535, also erred reasoning would difficult, if impossible, rebut without shifting focus hearing away victim. mere fact tactical reasons might prudent defense makes case different others party faced sort dilemma. Nor there merit concern voiced 506, permits find defendants whose victims assets their communities more deserving punishment than those perceived less worthy. Such generally offered encourage comparative judgments kind, designed show instead uniqueness being. event introduced so unduly prejudicial renders trial fundamentally unfair, Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause provides mechanism relief. Darden Wainwright, 477 168, 179-183, 106 2464, 2470-2472, 91 144. Thus, properly conclude assess meaningfully moral culpability blameworthiness, should have before evidence. 817-827. (b) Although adherence doctrine stare decisis usually best policy, inexorable command. This never felt constrained follow when governing decisions unworkable badly reasoned, Smith Allwright, 321 649, 655, 64 757, 760-761, 88 L.Ed. 987 particularly constitutional cases, where correction through legislative action practically Burnet Coronado Oil & Gas Co., 285 393, 407, 52 443, 447, 76 815 (Brandeis, J., dissenting), involving procedural evidentiary rules. decided narrowest margins, over spirited dissents challenging basic underpinnings; questioned members later decisions; defied consistent application lower courts, see, Huertas, 51 Ohio St.3d 22, 33, 553 N.E.2d 1058, 1070; and, heretofore stated, wrongly decided. 827-830. 791 S.W.2d 10 (Tenn.1990), affirmed. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, WHITE, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, WHITE Part II O'CONNOR MARSHALL, dissenting BLACKMUN, STEVENS, J. Brooke Lathram, Memphis, Tenn., petitioner. Charles W. Burson, Nashville, respondent. Attorney Gen. Dick Thornburgh, Washington, D.C., amicus curiae, supporting respondent, special leave Court. Chief Justice REHNQUIST court. 1 we reconsider our holdings 440 (1987), 876 (1989), bars during penalty 2 petitioner, Payne, counts one count commit first degree. He murders, 30 years prison assault. 3 offenses 28-year-old Christopher, daughter Lacie, three lived together Millington, Tennessee, across hall Bobbie Thomas. On Saturday, 1987, visited Thomas' several times expectation return mother's house Arkansas, found home. visit, he left overnight bag, containing clothes other items weekend stay, hallway outside apartment. With bag cans malt liquor. 4 passed morning early afternoon injecting cocaine drinking beer. Later, drove around town friend friend's car, them taking turns reading pornographic magazine. Sometime p.m., returned complex, entered Christophers' apartment, began making advances towards Charisse. became violent. A neighbor resided directly beneath Christophers, heard screaming, " 'Get out, get out,' she telling children leave." noise briefly subsided then began, 'horribly loud.' police "blood curdling scream" Brief Respondent. 5 When officer arrived scene, immediately encountered leaving building, covered blood appeared 'sweating blood.' confronted responded, 'I'm complainant.' Id., 3-4. asked, 'What's going up there?' struck dropped tennis shoes, fled. 6 Inside horrifying scene. Blood walls floor throughout unit. lying kitchen. Nicholas, despite wounds inflicted butcher knife completely penetrated body front back, still breathing. Miraculously, survived, until undergoing seven hours surgery transfusion 1700 cc's blood—400 500 estimated normal volume. Lacie dead. 7 kitchen legs fully extended. She had sustained 42 direct defensive arms hands. 41 separate thrusts knife. None 84 individually fatal; rather, cause most likely bleeding all wounds. 8 Lacie's near mother. suffered stab chest, abdomen, head. weapon, knife, feet. baseball cap snapped arm elbow. Three liquor bearing fingerprints table body, fourth empty landing door. 9 apprehended day hiding attic home former girlfriend. descended stairs attic, stated arresting officers, "Man, I aint killed woman." According "a wild look him. His pupils contracted. foaming mouth, saliva. very nervous. breathing real rapid." scratches chest. It determined stains matched types. search pockets revealed packet residue, hypodermic syringe wrapper, syringe. bloody white shirt, nearby dumpster. At took stand overwhelming relatively uncontroverted against him, harmed Christophers. Rather, asserted man raced him walking Christophers lived. gotten himself when, moans tried help victims. testimony, panicked fled sirens noticed clothes. guilty verdicts 11 presented four witnesses: father, Thomas, Dr. John T. Huston, psychologist specializing criminal court evaluation work. Thomas met church, time being abused husband. caring person, devoted much attention children, affected marital difficulties. said come love miss "behaved just like father loved kids." did drink, nor use drugs, inconsistent character these crimes. 12 Huston low score IQ test, "mentally handicapped." neither psychotic schizophrenic, polite prisoner ever met. parents prior record arrested. They history alcohol drug abuse, worked painter, good son. 13 mother, Mary Zvolanek. asked how sister, responded: 14 "He cries mom. doesn't seem understand why And sister Lacie. comes me many week asks me, Grandmama, do you my tell yes. says, I'm worried Lacie." App. 30. 15 experience, stating: 16 "But know alive. same room. conscious. eyes open. responded paramedics. able directions. hold intestines carried ambulance. So knew what happened sister." 9. 17 "There nothing can ease pain families involved case. Bernice Carl that's tragedy. basically Mr. Mrs. Zvolanek, will live rest lives. obviously Jo. But something 18 "Somewhere down road grow up, hopefully. He's want happened. type justice done. your verdict, provide answer." 12. 19 rebuttal stated: 20 "You saw videotape morning. You carry mind forever. talk cruel, atrocious, heinous, picture always into mind, probably 21 . 22 ". No Jo because chance up. Her life taken age old. So, won't high school principal anybody take prom. there—there kiss night. night pat goes off bed, sing lullaby. 23 24 "[Petitioner's attorney] wants think reputation, people things daddy her. little Jo, grandparents here. brother mourns every single playmate is. watch cartoons one. These go especially burden forever." 13-15. 25 26 affirmed conviction sentence. (1990). rejected constituted violations applied (1989). characterized "technically irrelevant," concluded "did create constitutionally unacceptable risk arbitrary imposition harmless beyond reasonable doubt." S.W.2d, 18. 27 comments "relevant [Payne's] responsibility guilt." 19. explained "[w]hen person deliberately picks out drawer proceeds twenty-eight-year-old one-half year old son, room, physical mental condition boy dead surely 'blameworthiness.' violation "was Ibid. 28 We granted certiorari, 498 ----, 1031, 1032 (1991), prohibits 29 robbed murdered elderly couple. required state statute, prepared interviews son-in-law, granddaughter. statement, described victims, set forth members' opinions characterizations defendant, submitted sentencing. imposed penalty. sentence appeal highest 5-to-4 vote made clear admissibility case-by-case basis, except "relate[d] circumstances crime." 507, n. 10, 2535, 10. later, extended announced statements regarding qualities 31 its analysis observation 'uniquely bein[g],' 2533-2534 (quoting 944 (1976)), therefore Constitution make individualized determination whether executed 'character crime.' 502, 2532 Zant Stephens, 462 862, 879, 2733, 2744, 235 (1983)). while decision mandated immediate crime considered, factors irrelevant unless "some 'personal guilt.' 2533 Enmund Florida, 458 782, 801, 3368, 3378, 73 1140 (1982)). presents "factors unaware, kill," concluded, "blameworthiness defendant." 505, 2534, 2534. Evidence character, observed, "could well distract task [of] light accused that, relates "directly crime," id., "it creates impermissible manner." 32 causes result charged understandably law, both elements offense punishment. equally blameworthy solely acts differing amounts "If bank robber aims gun guard, pulls trigger, kills target, put death. If unexpectedly misfires, not. guilt identical, greater." 519, 2541 (Scalia, dissenting). true respect defendants, participates robbery, reckless disregard life; robbery participated results victim, subjected second imposed. Tison Arizona, 481 137, 148, 1676, 1683, 95 127 (1987). 33 principles guided sentencing—as opposed liability—have varied times. book Exodus prescribes Lex talionis, "An eye eye, tooth tooth." 21:22-23. England continent Europe, recently 18th century regarded quite minor today offenses. Writing century, Italian criminologist Cesare Beccaria advocated idea "the fit "[w]e seen measure injury done society." Farrer, Crimes Punishments, 199 (London, 1880). 34 Gradually list punishable diminished, legislatures grading severity accordance criminal. offense, rather precisely fixed legislature, prescribed terms minimum maximum, actual judge. increasing importance probation, imprisonment, part penological process, some States California developed "indeterminate sentence," incarceration almost entirely authorities courts. pendulum swung back. Federal Sentencing Guidelines, went effect provided precise calibration sentences, depending number factors. relate subjective acts. 35 Wherever judges recent discretion impose sentence, consideration exercise discretion: 36 "The significance Anglo-American jurisprudence is, then, prerequisite sanction. harm—one judges—is seriousness standard meted out." S. Wheeler, K. Mann, A. Sarat, Sitting judgment: White-Collar Criminals 56 (1988). 37 Whatever prevailing philosophy, free consider wide range material. Williams New York, 337 241, 69 1079, 93 1337 (1949). federal system, observed judge appropriately conduct inquiry scope, largely unlimited kind information consider, source come." United Tucker, 404 446, 92 589, 591, 592 (1972). Even context sentencing, joint Justices Stewart, Powell, Stevens (1976), petitioner's attack Georgia statute "wide scope allowed presentence hearings." 38 "We wisely chosen unnecessary restrictions approve open far-ranging argument. arguments prejudice preferable restrictions. desirable possible decision." 39 Maryland report felony include statement" 498, 2530-2531. Congress have, years, enacted similar legislation enable defendant. present admitted pursuant enactment, purpose been. While evidence—designed portray crime—is origin, hardly unconstitutional. 399 78, 90 1893, 446 (1970) (upholding constitutionality notice-of-alibi least states dating 1927); DiFrancesco, 449 117, 142, 101 426, 66 328 (1980) double jeopardy challenge Act representing considered attempt specific problem tendency 'to mete sentences organized management personnel' "). 40 cannot preclude sentencer 'any evidence' proffers support death." (1982). Skipper 476 1, 1669, (1986). Thus 2534 2991). even suggested preceding entitled consideration, receive wholly apart committed. quoted received. Any doubt matter dispelled comparing above, handed Woodson. has, think, trial; virtually circumstances, barred either offering glimpse life" "chose extinguish," Mills 486 367, 397, 108 1860, 1876, 100 384 (1988) (Rehnquist, demonstrating loss society resulted homicide. reasoned excluded thus creating 'mini-trial' character." 2534-2535. already relevance additional phase, expert future dangerousness trials, rules extant levels anticipate unprivileged weight factfinder, benefit cross examination contrary opposing party." 1090 (1983). echoes community 8, 8. matter, however, kind—for instance, killer hardworking, parent deserves murderer reprobate "uniqueness being," whatever resulting be. facts excellent illustration this: showed work, mentally handicapped individual, perhaps not, most, significant contributor society, nonetheless 43 Under primary defining fixing punishments commission crimes, establishing procedures trials rests States. laws respecting punishments, procedure course subject overriding provisions Constitution. Where imposes crime, limitations process. 44 "First, threshold below context, establish rational criteria narrow decisionmaker's judgment meet threshold. Moreover, societal consensus disproportionate imposing offense. Second, limit sentencer's circumstance decline respect, discretion, allow McCleskey Kemp, 279, 305-306, 1756, 1774-1775, 262 45 But, noted Ramos, 992, 1001, 3446, 3453, 1171 (1983), "[b]eyond deferred choice substantive determination." 46 "Within defined enjoy traditional prescribe punished." Blystone Pennsylvania, 494 299, 309, 110 1078, 255 remain free, others, devise new remedies needs. Victim form question, authorities. wrong stating leads majority case, serves purposes. 144 Courts adduced illustrative murder. 47 now view "[T]he in, reminding too represents unique family." 517, 2540 (White, dissenting) (citation omitted). By turning "faceless stranger trial," 821, 2216 (O'Connor, deprives full force prevent having necessary determine proper 48 example potential unfairness. girlfriend affectionate, caring, abuser drugs alcohol, murders. extremely IQ. related contrast, description—in response question—that misses argues commands jury's aside testimony. illustrated poignantly killing caused; unfair allowing bear considers unfairness pronounced "[i]t affront civilized race say parade witnesses praise background, deeds Defendant (as case), limitation relevancy, bears of, imposed, victims." indicated holding barring jury. Human nature capable lawyers trying juries try convey jurors underlying events are, were, living beings, gained lost verdict. aegis broadest personality, Petitioner's that. For discussed reject view—expressed Gathers—that permit similarly cost stands convicted. reaffirm expressed Cardozo Snyder Massachusetts, 291 97, 122, 54 330, 338, 78 674 (1934): "justice, though due accused, accuser also. concept strained till narrowed filament. keep balance true." 50 chooses prosecutorial subject, bar. legitimately reason treat differently treated. adhere stop short overruling cases. Stare preferred promotes evenhanded, predictable, development legal principles, fosters reliance judicial decisions, contributes integrity Vasquez Hillery, 474 254, 265-266, 617, 624-625, 598 Adhering "is wise matters applicable law settled right." 406, (1932) Nevertheless, "this precedent." 665, 765, (1944). command; principle policy mechanical formula latest Helvering Hallock, 309 106, 119, 60 444, 451, 604 (1940). "correction impossible." 447 Considerations favor acme property contract rights, interests involved, Swift Co. Wickham, 382 111, 116, 86 258, 261-262, 194 (1965); Oregon ex rel. Land Board Corvallis Sand Gravel 429 363, 97 582, 550 (1977); 405-411, 446-449 dissenting); Title Ins. 265 472, 621, 68 1110 (1924); Genesee Fitzhugh, How. 458, 1058 (1852), opposite Applying past Terms overruled whole previous decisions.1 underpinnings decisions. 813, 2212 (O'CONNOR, 395-396, 1875-1876, St. 3d 1070 (1990) ("The dissenters interpret footnotes demonstrates uncertainty area") (Moyer, concurring). Reconsidering now, be, overruled.2 accordingly affirm Tennessee. 53 Affirmed. KENNEDY join, concurring. 55 view, proceeding. decide jury, including community. quick petitioner chose (REHNQUIST, remind Given potentially kinds shield practices inherently cruel offend deemed 'cruel unusual.' 2216, (1989) Certainly strong account faceless Just true. Most enabling Ante, 821. possibility inflammatory justify prophylactic, admitted. Trial courts routinely exclude inflammatory; improperly admitted, appellate carefully review error prejudicial. 57 merely decides bar." 827. If, witness' remark infects proceeding render seek relief Amendment. 58 That line crossed witness grandmother. brief. cried didn't moved testimony—who been? brief inflame passions crime: stabbed bled death; 2-year repeated knife; 3-year survived—only unavoidable familiarity vicious attack, Zvolanek's deprived 59 violate earlier scene included slashed corpses deserved sought lifeless bodies videotape, beings. remarked again lullaby attend permissible. "Murder ultimate act depersonalization." All Political Committee et al. Amici Curiae 3. transforms hopes, dreams, fears corpse, thereby person. deciding give agree prohibit choosing admit addressed evidence—opinions notes today's decision, reach issue 2611, 2. express conduct. introduced, Accordingly, join Court's opinion. 61 II, 62 * correctly observes injustice requiring exclusion aggravating (1982); Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 98 2954, 973 (1978) (plurality opinion). previously belief latter requirement combined remainder jurisprudence, unworkable. Walton 497 3047, 511 (SCALIA, judgment). abandoned, True enough, parity between broadly still, People (within guarantees) constitutes aggravation mitigation crime. 63 MARSHALL's strenuous virtues writings MARSHALL himself. doctrine, reminded us, 'an imprisonment reason.' Guardians Assn. Civil Service Comm'n York City, 618, 3221, 3241, 866 (1983) (MARSHALL, International Boxing Club Inc., 348 236, 249, 75 259, 266, 99 290 (1955) (Frankfurter, dissenting)). reason, absolutely basis text, historical practice, logic. '[t]he jurist concerned public confidence acceptance system however admirable resolute was, sense operates, far known, diminish itself.' Flood Kuhn, 407 293, 4, 2099, 2117, 728 (1972) (dissenting opinion) Szanton, Decisis; Dissenting View, Hastings L.J. 394, 397 (1959)) (internal quotations Booth's stunning ipse dixit, crime's unanticipated consequences "irrelevant" 503, 2533, conflicts keen enough voice nationwide "victim's rights" movement. Today, demands us "special justification"—beyond significantly harms egregiously wrong—before absolved exercising "[p]ower, reason," post, 844. fair. fact, enshrine power notion plainly inadequate place sole once attracted five votes. 65 seems difficult themselves ardent apostles decisis. anything administrative convenience, precedents expectations democratic disturbed hard genuine regard honoring well. which, holding, announces novel rule, unchallenged pronounces Law Land—such explicit overruling, approached great caution. suggest, compromised fundamental values joins, 67 addressing categories proceedings (1989): revealing individuality survivors.1 categories, believe knowledge, tradition standing alone, culpability. Indeed, today, ante, 819-821, 519-520, 2541-2542 817-820, 2214-2216 clear, traditionally categorized penalized according consequenses specifically intended, conditions unknown acted. 502-503, 2532-2533, survivors productive "arbitrary capricious" results, insofar contemplated condemnation comprehends elements. element merited insufficient mistaken. survivors, predicated it, verdict impermissibly passion, deliberation. Cf. Penry Lynaugh, 492 302, 319-328, 2934, 2947-2952, 256 (capital 'reasoned response' ") Brown, 479 538, 545, 837, 841, 934 (1987) concurring)); Gholson 675 F.2d 734, 738 (CA5 1982) ("If executed, reliable evidence"). ignorant details, guard risk, judge's control consistently ground object necessary, appeal. 178-183, (1986) (due process governs sentencing); Serhant, 740 548, 551-552 (CA7 1984) (applying purportedly "inflammatory" victim-impact statements); Lesko Lehman, 925 1527, 1545-1547 (CA3 1991); Coleman Saffle, 869 1377, 1394-1396 (CA10 1989), cert. denied, 834 (1990); Rushing Butler, 868 800, 806-807 1989). command systems perform "duty painstaking care," obligation "never exacting case." Burger 483 776, 785, 3114, 3121, 638 70 supra,2 further blanket prohibition consequential execution, "circumstances 2532, question known kill, details knowledge duty "in bein[g].' (1976) Powell JJ.)). assumption data impact, calculated, presumably considered. uniqueness, words, specifics thought it. hold, setting require anticipation detailed foreknowledge exhaust category morally fact. One murderers blameworthiness identified itself foreseeable actions." 2533. Murder consequences. happens, distinct individuals, happens behind. Every knows, endowed competence responsibility, homicidal behavior himself, close associates, "survivors," suffer deprivations ciphers, valueless fungibles, appreciate web relationships dependencies live, islands, individuals spouses friends dependents. raise death, necessarily threatens association distinctly hurt. characteristics, exact identities needs survive, way obscure "unique" group consequence successful inevitable. 72 foreseeability killing's imbues relevance, cf. 328, 2952 (death "), realized originally run foreseeable. defensible penalizing murderer, criminals, common entails. failure lenity invitation option mitigation, 113-114, 876-877, 604, 2964-2965, (1978), imbalanced here, majority's conclusion, unusual excluded. 827 ("if bar"); 515-516, 2539-2540 (WHITE, (nothing unusual' otherwise unconstitutional legislature's hearings"); 816-821, 2213-2216 823-825, 2217-2218 74 overrule question. rely sets threatens, terms, produce guarantee diminished case's promise defendants. 2532-2533. conclusions interaction facts. First, although prompted introduction systematically restriction kill applies derived presented. customarily disclosed Third, determines determine, recommendations about, hypothetical illustrate serious practical problems standard. Assume minister, unidentified wearing clerical collar, walks street church office errand, wife adolescent wait parked car. stranger, What Booth? child, let alone watching. Yet widow testify saw, pretend bystander. succeed tried. too. kept knowing errand church. deceive relationship, usual standards afford factfinders surrounding narrowly material itself. claims contextual occupation yet, stage, jurors' minds stage. raises dilemma guilt-phase changed supposedly evaluating seriously reduce comprehensibility depriving described. hand, objective attained empaneled. major States, suppose adding requirement. vulnerable charge lead results. hypothetical, existence, Yet, screamed "Daddy, out," drawn gun, daughter's survivorship admissible strict killing, aware kill. Resting fortuity arbitrary. status quo unsatisfactory produced other, small import, law." Welch Texas Dept. Highways Public Transportation, 468, 494, 2941, 2957, 389 sure, "inexorable command," 405, 446-447, "considered practice [has] [been] apply rigidly [cases] nonconstitutional cases," Glidden Zdanok, 370 530, 543, 82 1459, 1469, 671 (1962). Burnet, 405-407, 446-447; Patterson McLean Credit Union, 491 164, 172-173, 2363, 2370-2371, 105 132 carries persuasive departure supported justification." Arizona Rumsey, 467 203, 212, 2305, 2310-2311, 81 164 (1984). 79 justification promises deliver, unresolved tension An influence extraneous costly erroneous us. recede false promise, this. decided, calling compound original error, precedent. (1965);3 Continental T.V., Inc. GTE Sylvania 433 36, 2549, 568 (1977);4 173, 2370-2371. Following here Therefore, partial 80 BLACKMUN dissenting. Power, currency decisionmaking. Four ago, five-Justice 5-4 vote, rebuffed ruling ago. expressly invited respondent renew overrules credits views Neither underwent change last years. Only personnel did. dispatching graves, ominously suggests extensive upheaval store. Renouncing commitment conception judiciary impersonal judgments," Moragne Marine Lines, 398 375, 403, 1772, 1789, 339 (1970), declares discard liberty recognized reaffirmed votes disagree. implications radical exception staggering. sends signal scores established liberties ripe reconsideration, inviting defiance rewards Because owes particular, dissent. 83 Speaking constituted, Brennan rationale 504-509, 2533-2536; 810-811, 2210-2211. majorities recognized, core 'individualized determination' guilt' channel 'so minimize capricious action.' quoting (1983); (1982), 189, 2932-2933, (joint JJ.); accord, 810, 2210. explained, violates principle. Where, ordinarily unaware admitting predicates unrelated [the] 2534; position foresee conduct, arbitrariness. probative value outweighed inherent capacity draw illicit considerations eloquence grief 505-507, 8; continue persuasive, improve Powell's Brennan's exposition them. discussion supposed deficiencies margin, convincingly answered Brennan.1 85 impression lengthy rehearsing issues outcome turn who—the dissenters—had better land. forward extraordinary showing historically demanded precedents. clearly showing. striking feature assertion need try. ought moment consequence. repeatedly stressed fidelity governed law," Akron Center Reproductive Health, 416, 420, 2481, 2487, 687 172, 2370, ("[I]t indisputable self-governing within Judicial Branch, entrusted sensitive fashioning preserving jurisprudential discretion.' Federalist, p. (H. Lodge ed. 1888) (A. Hamilton)"); Appeal Concerned Corporators Portsmouth Savings Bank, 129 N.H. 183, 227, 525 A.2d 671, 701 (Souter, ("[S]tare 'is essential decision-making reconciled revision becomes will, unpredictable results,' Thornburgh American College Obstetricians Gynecologists, 747, 786-787, 2169, 2192-2193, 779 87 Consequently, departed justifications advent "subsequent changes law" undermine decision's rationale, 2370-2371; "to bring [a decision] agreement newly ascertained," 412, 450 become "detriment coherence consistency 2371. claim bases suggest undercut developments period discredited "any appear caprice emotion," Gardner 430 349, 358, 1197, 1204, 393 (1977) opinion), larger postulate political morality rest. 89 assert "have courts," 830, feeble sincerely expect anyone claim. contention, points O'CONNOR's dissent division among prohibited characteristics. 2212. That, course, resolved cites THE CHIEF JUSTICE's 395-398, contain word "[in]consistent application" Finally, refers divided disposing (1990), dism'd improvidently granted, (1991). Obviously, sufficient demonstrate Reports obliged reconsider. takes detective work discern since Gathers: personnel. candidly explains contingency, universally understood warrant precedent, Florida Health Rehabilitative Services Nursing Home Assn., 147, 1032, 1036, (1981) (STEVENS, concurring); Mitchell W.T. Grant 416 600, 636, 94 1895, 1914, 406 (1974) (Stewart, Mapp 367 643, 677, 1684, 1703-1704, 1081 (1961) (Harlan, 824, "Considerations acme," explains, involved[;] rules." 828 (citations addition, "Booth dissents" thereafter "questioned Court." 828-829. Taken together, legitimate, elevate truncation astonishing. limiting protection "cases rights," 828, essentially implementing protected Bill Rights reexamination. Taking criterion overruling—that margin "over dissen[t]," 829—the continued vitality literally depend proclivities comprise Metro Broadcasting FCC, 2997, 445 (authority government broadcast licenses minority applicants); Grady Corbin, 495 2084, 548 (right Double Jeopardy twice conduct); supra (Eighth right instructions nonunanimous Paradise, 480 149, 1053, 203 promotions remedy racial discrimination hiring); Ford 399, 2595, 335 insane); (reaffirming abortion Roe Wade, 410 113, 705, 147 (1973)); Aguilar Felton, 473 402, 3232, (1985) (Establishment governmental financial assistance parochial schools).2 impoverished possibly inform function. Contrary suggests, structure commercial activity parcel judgments." 1789. function respects critical adjudication entitlements. enforcement frequently rein forces politics, lay compliance directives understands "principles founded individuals." 265, 624, (1986).3 STEVENS "stron[g] presumption validity" "recently cases" thread mantle affords individual. unpopular beleaguered individual—not power—who greatest stake 153-154, 1036-1037 (concurring Carried logical debilitated destroy resolve authoritatively abiding without. shows precedents, respectfully actors bind. 634, 1913 signaling willingness fresh 829, invites policies hope reverse disposition nicely illustrates strategy defiance. disguise contempt Summing reaction concluded: "It Offering explanation distinguished Gathers—for obviously, none offer—the perfunctorily declared [of decisions]." clearer declined bound precedents.4 Far condemning blatant applauds denigration "an race," finds confirmation by" 826. imagine complete abdication historic defending supremacy pronouncements liberty. Cooper Aaron, 358 1401, (1958); Hutto Davis, 454 370, 703, 706, 556 (1982) (per curiam) ("[U]nless wish anarchy prevail followed misguided be"). exacts authoritativeness pronouncements, short-sighted effecting order. III Today's charts unmistakable course. reconstruction overturning face value—and offers not—then preview broader far-reaching Cast condemned society's Tomorrow's minorities, women, indigent. Inevitably, campaign resurrect yesterday's "spirited squander legitimacy protector powerless. dramatic decades. trivialization represent sharp break Our whatsoever conclusion sheds culpability, emotions reason. Until tends sympathies admissible. convenience store clerk cold armed immoral recognize inadmissible. Evenhanded constraint advocate (1949), precede Relying "both colonies nation," 246, Black accorded determination. Notably, guilt, fullest characteristics." 247, 1083. "Victim unheard consisted proof indictment. Almost Williams, reviewed (1978). plurality prevented "from considering, factor, aspect 2965 (emphasis deleted). offender entire acknowledges origin," Insofar concerned, appearance 1987 2529. 'the crime,' 2532-2533 112, 875-876, 3378-3379, totally served irrelevant. 1082. emotion. 362, 1206-1207, (opinion J.). searched vain sanctioning relying opinions, abandons older Nation itself, ventures uncharted seas irrelevance. Lockett, 2964-2965 Burger, C.J.), recognizes respond 825-826.1 classic non sequitur: bad, constitute circumstance. equated flawed premise conclusion. inaccurate. designate sufficiently cabin discretion. even-handed incorrect. grants certain protect overreaching disproportionately powerful State. prove doubt. re Winship, 1068, 368 (1970). Rules favor. example, propensity reputation law-abiding nature. Fed.Rule Evid. 404(a). desirable, permitting guidance, enhance used flaws, arbitrarily capriciously. unforeseeable "personal guilt" 825, 3391 ("[P]roportionality nexus blameworthiness"); 1683-1684, heart retribution offender"); quantity quality unguided central "where afforded grave spared, suitably directed limited action." 2932, JJ.). Open-ended "principled distinguish [cases], [i]s not." Godfrey 433, 1759, 1767, attempts "consideration [sentencing] discretion." 820. misleading inaccurate fails differentiate determinations wrongful definitions guidelines. correlation area, identification appropriate.2 suggestion indirect basis. 113 offer examples influenced felon occurs felony, dies attempted classified punishments. 819. drives intoxicated vehicular homicide actions fortune anyone. 516, 114 scenarios, reflected ad hoc post manner authorized majority. enhanced advance legislature severe scenario, reasonably life. each, scrutiny rationality. well-defined destroying punished severely. scenarios foresee, committed, explanation, another. Unlike elucidated relies, offends manner. 116 material," 820-821 added), foreseen. citation Geor- gia hearings," 2939 holding. endorsed "[s]o 2939-2940. Irrelevant distracts encourages emotion prejudices 117 apparent inability highlighted misunderstanding undesirable risks 2535. insupportable "tactical" "dilemma" allows distracted base life-or-death whim caprice. IV 118 validate 'a extinguish,' [108 384] dissenting)." 830-831 Instead, responsible array blameworthy. SOUTER accountable "[e]very 'survivors,' 838 (SOUTER, juror knows apprise actually Its "divert record, 119 Arguing alternative, sometimes 840. ideal basing unattainable empaneled 841. assumes 120 SOUTER's unwarranted. contours hearings offender, purposes indirectly Wigmore, (P. Tillers rev. 1983). horrible absent error. deal brought indicates affect 121 reaching difference. defendants' Constitution's proscription proscribe sentences. V 122 married somehow justifies divorces incomprehensible me. Also 823; proposition obvious support. obvious, differ differences identify worthy others. invidious motives accept plea bargain black. 366, 1805-1806, 123 current popularity crime-ridden assume cure cancer strength "victims' movement, greeted enthusiasm large thoughtful citizens. tragedy danger "hydraulic pressure" Holmes described,3—and influences deliberations legislatures—has played role hear case,4 pausing affirming rationale,5 resolution involved. Today sad institution. Perez Campbell, 402 637, 1704, 233 (1971) (overruling Kesler Safety, 369 807, 641 (1962)); Dunn Blumstein, 405 995, 274 Pope 193 573, 817 (1904)); Lehnhausen Lake Shore Auto Parts 356, 351 (1973) Quaker City Cab 277 389, 553, 927 (1928)); Miller California, 413 15, 2607, 419 Named "John Cleland's Memoirs Woman Pleasure" General, 383 413, 975, (1966)); Dakota Pharmacy Snyder's Drug Stores, 414 156, 379 Liggett Baldridge, 278 105, 57, 204 (1929)); Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 1347, 662 Shapiro Thompson, 394 1322, 600 (1969)); Zarate, 918, 2462, 803 (1972); Sterrett Mothers' Children's Organization, 409 809, 68, Taylor Louisiana, 522, 692, 690 (1975) Hoyt 159, (1961)); Michelin Tire Corp. Wages, 423 276, 535, Low Austin, Wall. 29, 517 (1872)); Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, 425 748, 1817, 346 Valentine Chrestensen, 316 52, 920, 1262 (1942)); National League Cities Usery, 426 833, 2465, 245 Wirtz, 392 2017, 1020 (1968)); Orleans Dukes, 427 297, 2513, Morey Doud, 354 457, Y77 1344, 1485 (1957)); Craig Boren, 190, Goesaert Cleary, 464, 198, 163 (1948)); Complete Transit Brady, 274, 1076, 326 Spector Motor Service, O'Connor, 340 602, 508, 573 (1951)); Shaffer Heitner, 186, 2569, 683 Pennoyer Neff, 714, 565 (1878)); Revenue Washington Stevedoring Cos., 435 1388, 682 Puget Sound Tax Commn., 302 90, 72, (1937)); Scott, 437 82, 2187, Jenkins, 420 1006, 250 (1975)); Hughes 441 322, 1727, (1979) Geer Connecticut, 161 793 (1896)); Salvucci, 448 83, 2547, 619 Jones 362 257, 725, 697 (1960)); Commonwealth Edison Montana, 453 609, 2946, 884 Heisler Colliery 260 245, 237 (1922)); Illinois Gates, 213, 2317, 527 Texas, 378 108, 1509, 723 (1964)); Pennhurst School Hospital Halderman, 465 89, 900, (1984) Rolston Missouri Fund Comm'rs., 390, 599, 721 (1887)); Assortment Firearms, 354, 1099, 361 Coffey 436, 437, 684 (1886)); Garcia San Antonio Metro. Auth., 469 528, 1005, 1016 (1976)); Miller, 471 130, 1811, Ex parte Bain, 781, 849 Daniels 327, 662, Parratt Taylor, 451 527, 1908, (1981)); Batson Kentucky, 79, 1712, Swain Alabama, 380 202, 759 (1965)); Solorio 435, 2924, 364 O'Callahan Parker, 395 Transp., Parden Terminal Railway Alabama Docks Dept., 377 184, 1207, Baker, 485 1355, Pollock Farmers' Loan Trust 157 429, 673, (1895)); Abbott, 401, 1874, 459 Procunier Martinez, 396, 1800, 224 (1974)); Smith, 794, 2201, 865 Simpson Rice (decided Pearce ), 711, 2072, 656 Healy Beer Institute, 324, 2491, 275 Joseph E. Seagram Sons, Hostetter, 35, 1254, 336 Collins Youngblood, --- 2715, Kring Missouri, 221, 506 (1883); Thompson Utah, 170 343, 620, 1061 (1898)); Acevedo, 1982, ---- (1991) Arkansas Sanders, 442 753, 2586, (1979)). third characterization brevity confine references alone. Department Safety three-judge district U.S.C. 2281 (1970 ed.), alleged statutory pre-emption law. "§ play Supremacy construction ultimately implicated." 115, 261. disagreed finding 264-265 upshot abundantly clear: purview 2281"). "[t]wo interpretations [that] jurisdiction. indicate, suits enjoin ground, channeled resting 'supremacy' grounds fall statute." 125, 266 (footnote Rather extend incorrectly Kesler, 126-127, 266-267. Arnold, Schwinn 388 365, 1856, 1249 (1967), "[u]nder Sherman Act, [per ] unreasonable manufacturer restrict areas persons article traded parted dominion it." 379, 1865. retailers transaction sale, ban, arrangement "rule reason" analysis. reconsidered "continuing controversy confusion, scholarly journals courts" sale/nonsale distinction Schwinn. 47-56, 2556-2561. proceeded reexamination "that sale nonsale transactions situation other. remains expanded abandoned reason." 2561. "no expanding rule" "assessment charged." 2539-2540, 818-819, 2214-2215, Nothing unremarkable observation. species harm—namely, associated independent offense—in (emphasizing "relate[s] crime"); 509, 12, 2536, noncapital crimes). departs sentencers "[to] tak[e] 825. pointed capital-sentencing "death 'punishment sanctions,' unavailing infer settings treatment 303-304, 305, 2990-2991, 2991-2992, discounts evidence," protests, "makes dilemma." 823. 518, 2540-2541 Unsurprisingly, tautology unresponsive different" varieties evidence—but prejudicial: prospect unappealing; task—determining replete prohibitions types prejudice. Fed. 404, 407-412. anomalous undue regime demands. contends "deprives murder." recycled S.Ct, 520, 2542 817-818, 2214-2215 begs Before define permissible answer exerting illegitimate "moral force" directing Based too, "endangered precedents" list: Rutan Republican Party Illinois, 2729, (First denied employment affiliation); Peel Registration Disciplinary Comm'n, 496 2281, advertise specialization); Zinermon Burch, safeguards aimed assuring voluntariness oneself hospital); James 493 307, 648, 676 (Fourth illegally obtained impeachment witness); Rankin McPherson, 378, 2891, 315 employee importance); Rock 44, 2704, (Fifth Sixth hypnotically refreshed behalf); Gray Mississippi, 2045, 622 (rejecting applicability qualified" jury); Maine Moulton, 477, (Sixth counsel informant-codefendant preparing strategy); Metropolitan theory Tenth immunity regulation); Pulliam Allen, 466 1970, obtain injunctive officials). owe text interpreting 2218. rarely plain self-executing; invariably, develop mediating doctrines order lawmaking, embodied following "text" Constitution; explain substitute legitimize measures Note, Harv.L.Rev. 1351-1354 Equally purported harmless. court's available" "inhuman brutality" evident mandatory aggravated murder; "brutal" Roberts 325, 3001, 974 (1976); (1976). follows deem automatically assessing Clemons 1441, 725 shown outweigh 21-22. pass analysis, failed address dictated Outside grandmother 17. impossible extrapolation SCALIA accurately Booth: "Recent outpouring popular 'victims' rights'—a phrase describes proponents feel amount innocent society. Many citizens one-sided hence unjust pressures reality suffering produced—which (and alone) deems penalty." 2542. relies "found rights' movement." 834. consequences" "significantly system," ibid., untenable measured "arbitrary" apparently authorize assassination President Vice President, §§ 1751, 1111, Congressman, Cabinet official, Justice, head executive department, 351, policeman active duty, Md.Ann.Code, Art. 413(d)(1) notice ensure legislatively Northern Securities 197, 400-401, 486-487, 679 (1904) (Holmes, [111 1032] Rust Sullivan,

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