Document: 408 U.S. 665 92 S.Ct. 2646 33 L.Ed.2d 626 Paul M. BRANZBURG, Petitioner,v.John P. HAYES, Judge, etc., et al. In the Matter of PAPPAS, Petitioner. UNITED STATES, Petitioner, v. Earl CALDWELL. Nos. 70—85, 70—94, 70—57. Argued Feb. 22, 23, 1972. Decided June 29, Syllabus The First Amendment does not relieve a newspaper reporter obligation that all citizens have to respond grand jury subpoena and answer questions relevant criminal investigation, therefore afford him constitutional testimonial privilege for an agreement he makes conceal facts jury's investigation crime or conduct his source evidence thereof. Pp. 679—709. No. 461 S.W.2d 345, Kentucky Court Appeals judgment in unreported case Branzburg Meigs; 358 Mass. 604, 266 N.E.2d 297, affirmed; 70—57, 434 F.2d 1081, reversed. On Writ Certiorari Kentucky. Supreme Judicial Massachusetts. United States Ninth Circuit. Edgar A. Zingman, Louisville, Ky., petitioner 70—85; Robert C. Ewald, on briefs. E. Barrett Prettyman, Jr., Washington, D.C., petitioner, Commonwealth 70—94; William H. Carey, New Bedford, Mass., Solicitor Gen., Erwin Griswold 70—57; David Wilson, Peterson, Asst. Attys. Bradford Reynolds, Beatrice Rosenberg, Sidney Glazer, Edwin Schroeting, respondents John Hayes others W. Fisher, brief. Joseph J. Hurley, Atty. respondent, Quinn, Walter Mayo III, Lawrence T. Bench, Deputy Anthony G. Amsterdam, respondent Caldwell Jack Greenberg, James Nabrit Charles Stephen Ralston, York City, Bennett Turner, San Francisco, Cal., as amicus curiae urging affirmance 70—85 Sol. Gen. Griswold, B. Briefs amici 70—57 reversal 70—94 were filed by Alexander Bickel, Haven, Conn., McKay, Floyd Abrams, Daniel Sheehan, Corydon Dunham, Clarence Fried, Alan Hruska, S. Rifkind, Dean, Edward Wallace, Times Co., Inc., others; Don Reuben, Gunnels, Steven L. Bashwiner, Thomas F. Ging., Chicago, Ill., Chicago Tribune Co.; Arthur Hanson, American Newspaper Publishers Assn.; Irving Leuchter, Newark, N.J., Guild, AFL-CIO, CLC. Corrigan, Cleveland, Ohio, brief National District Attorneys Association 70 57 70—94. cruiae Irwin Karp, Authors League America, Inc.; Theodore Pierson Laurent Scharff, Radio Television News Directors Earle K. Moore Samuel Rabinove, Office Communication Church Christ others. Leo Larkin, Stanley Godofsky, Sheehy, Washington Post Co. Richard Schmidt, Society Editors Roger Clark, Press Photographers Melvin Wulf, N. Halvonik, Wirin, Fred Okrand R. Sperber, Los Angeles, Civil Liberties Union Opinion Mr. Justice WHITE, announced THE CHIEF JUSTICE. 1 issue these cases is whether requiring newsmen appear testify before state federal juries abridges freedom speech press guaranteed Amendment. We hold it not. 2 * writ certiorari Meigs, brings us two judgments Appeals, both involving Branzburg, staff Courier-Journal, daily published 3 November 15, 1969, Courier-Journal carried story under petitioner's by-line describing detail observations young residents Jefferson County synthesizing hashish from marihuana, activity which, they asserted, earned them about $5,000 three weeks. article included photograph pair hands working above laboratory table which was substance identified caption hashish. stated had promised reveal identity makers.1 Petitioner shortly subpoenaed jury; appeared, but refused identify individuals seen possessing marihuana persons making marihuana.2 A trial court judge3 ordered rejected contention reporters' statute, Ky.Rev.Stat. § 421.100 (1962),4 Constitution, §§ 1, 8 Constitution authorized refusal answer. then sought prohibition mandamus same grounds, denied petition. Pound, 345 (1970), modified denial rehearing, Jan. 1971. It held abandoned argument supplemental memorandum tacitly based Constitution. also construed affording newsman refusing divulge informant who supplied with information, statute did permit refuse events observed personally, including identities those observed. 4 second arose out later January 10, 1971, described use drugs Frankfort, reported order provide comprehensive survey 'drug scene' 'spent weeks interviewing several dozen drug users capital city' some smoking marihuana. number conversations unnamed recounted. Subpoenaed Franklin 'to matter violation statutes concerning sale drugs,' moved quash summons;5 motion denied, although issued protecting revealing 'confidential associations, sources information' 'answer any concern pertain act, commission actually (him).' Prior time slated jury, arguing if forced go regarding informants disclose information given confidence, effectiveness would be greatly damaged. once again requested writs, reaffirming its construction 421.100, rejecting claim privilege. distinguished States, 1081 (CA9 1970), 'misgivings' decision, asserting represented 'a drastic departure generally recognized rule are privileged Amendment.' characterized fear ability obtain news destroyed 'so tenuous not, opinion this court, present abridgement within meaning term used States.' 5 review we granted writ.6 402 942, 91 1616, 29 109 (1971). 6 re Pappas, originated when television newsman-photographer Providence, Rhode Island, office Massachusetts, station, called Bedford July 30, 1970, report civil disorders there involved fires other turmoil. He intended cover Black Panther conference at group's headquarters boarded-up store. found streets around store barricaded, ultimately gained entrance area recorded photographed prepared statement read one leaders p.m.7 asked received permission re-enter area. Returning 9 o'clock, allowed enter remain inside headquarters. As condition entry, Pappas agreed anything saw heard except anticipated police raid, 'on own,' free wished. stayed hours, no wrote otherwise what occurred while there. Two months later, summoned Bristol Grand Jury answered name, address, employment, outside headquarters, taken place there, claiming afforded protect confidential their information. summons served upon him, directing give such knows relating matters may inquired behalf . Jury.' His grounds judge who, noting absence statutory newsman's ruled heard, decision Massachusetts.8 record include transcript hearing quash, nor specific answer, expected nature testimony, likelihood securing means.9 Court, however, took 'judicial notice July, serious street barricades, exclusion public certain streets, fires, similar told arguments gunfire streets. assume appropriate effort discover indict responsible acts.' 607, 299 reaffirmed prior Massachusetts holdings privileges 'exceptional' 'limited,' stating '(t)he principle 'has right every man's evidence" usually been preferred, Commonwealth, countervailing interests. Ibid. holding Circuit supra, 'adhere(d) view exists privilege, either qualified absolute, jury.'10 612, N.E.2d, 302—303. Any adverse effect dissemination virtue being deemed only 'indirect, theoretical, uncertain.' Id., 302. concluded citizen summoned, written material required, reasonable inquiries.' 303. nevertheless noted subject supervision presiding judge, duty prevent oppressive, unnecessary, irrelevant, improper inquiry investigation,' ibid., insure witness' Fifth rights infringed, assess propriety, necessity, pertinence probable testimony progress.11 burden witness establish impropriety asked. affirmed Pappas. 1619, 110 7 Caldwell, subpoenas Northern California assigned Party black militant groups. duces tecum February 2, ordering bring notes tape recordings interviews publication officers spokesmen aims, purposes, activities organization.12 Respondent objected scope subpoena, between counsel Government attorneys resulted continuance. March 16, omitted documentary requirement simply employer, Times,13 ground unlimited breadth fact secret destroy relationship 'suppress vital freedoms driving wedge distrust silence media militants.' App. 7. argued incursion freedoms' should permitted 'in compelling governmental interest shown here—in Caldwell's appearance jury.' supported memoranda publishing concerns affidavits unfavorable impact reporters juries. opposition each affidavits. These documents investigating, among things, possible violations statutes, 18 U.S.C. 871 (threats against President), s 1751 (assassination, attempts assassinate, conspiracy assassinate 231 (civil disorders), 2101 (interstate travel incite riot), 1341 (mail frauds swindles). recited officer made publicly televised declared '(w)e will kill Nixon' threat repeated subsequent issues newspaper. 66, 77. Also referred various writings Party, December 14, '(i)n role vanguard revolutionary struggle Panthers picked up guns,' quoting Chief Staff declaring that: 'We advocate very direct overthrow way force violence. By picking guns moving because recognize oppressive recognizing know solution armed (sic).' 62. indicted 3, uttering threats life President efforts secure crimes through immunization allegedly associated Party. April 6, Application 311 F.Supp. (NDCal.1970), 'every person jurisdiction government' bound properly summoned. 360 (emphasis original). Nevertheless, accepted respondent's extent issuing protective providing whatever publication, 'shall required received, developed maintained professional journalist course gather media.' disclosure until showing overriding national cannot alternative means.' 362. Subsequently,14 expired, new convened, ad testificandum May 1970. filed, and, stipulation parties, submitted record. repeating provisions pursuant 22 subpoena. show cause why contempt. Upon further committed contempt complied court's expiration jury. 10 appealed order,15 1970). Viewing all, rather than permissible interrogation, first determined provided newsmen; view, like deter communicating future censor avoid subpoenaed. Absent reasons withhold it. held, reasons, that, absent special necessity Government, attendance meeting something potential flow public. States' petition certiorari.16 II 11 Petitioners claims put: often necessary agree publish part revealed, both; confidences so measurably deterred furnishing publishable detriment protected Although do absolute official interrogation circumstances, assert unless sufficient believing possesses has unavailable sources, need sufficiently overide claimed invasion interests occasioned disclosure. Principally relied emphasizing importance guarantees individual development our system representative government,17 decisions action justified 'compelling' 'paramount,'18 precedents establishing justifiable goals achieved unduly broad means having unnecessary speech, press, association.19 heart gathering resulting outweighs obtaining information.20 12 question significance assembly country's welfare. Nor suggested quality protection; without protection seeking news, could eviscerated. But involve intrusions assemby, restraint restriction publish, express implied command prefers withhold. No exaction tax publishing, penalty, criminal, related content here. forbidden restricted; seek law. attempt require indiscriminately request. 13 sole into crime. Citizens constitutionally immune subpoenas; neither provision protects average disclosing confidence.21 is, exempt obligations confidences, reluctant furnish newsworthy future. This asserted said make compelled suspect position them. 14 clear invalidate incidental burdening result enforcement general applicability. Under cases, valid laws serving substantial enforced others, despite imposed. emphasized publisher immunity application laws. invade liberties others.' Associated NLRB, 301 103, 132—133, 650, 656, 81 L.Ed. 953 (1937). Press, news-gathering disseminating organization, requirements Labor Relations Act. Oklahoma Publishing Walling, 327 186, 192—193, 66 494, 497—498, 90 614 (1946), where applying Fair Standards Act business abridge See Mabee White Plains 178, 511, 607 (1946). 326 65 1416, 89 2013 (1945), similarly overruled assertions precluded Sherman organization. Cf. Indiana Farmer's Guide Prairie Farmer 293 268, 276, 55 182, 184, 79 356 (1934); Citizen 394 131, 139, 927, 931, 148 (1969); Lorain Journal 342 143, 155—156, 72 181, 187—188, 96 162 (1951). Likewise, subjected nondiscriminatory forms taxation. Grosjean 297 233, 250, 56 444, 449, 80 660 (1936); Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 112, 63 870, 874, 87 1292 (1943). 15 prevailing impunity everything desires publish. regulate published, circulate knowing reckless falsehoods damaging private reputation subjecting itself liability damages, punitive even prosecution. Sullivan, 376 254, 279—280, 84 710, 725—726, 686 (1964); Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 74, 85 209, 215, 125 Curtis Butts, 388 130, 147, 1975, 1987, 1094 (1967) (opinion Harlan, J.,); Monitor Patriot Roy, 401 265, 277, 621, 628, 28 35 punished circumstances. Craig Harney, 331 367, 377—378, 67 1249, 1255—1256, 1546 (1947). 16 guarantee access available generally. Zemel Rusk, 381 16—17, 1271, 1280—1281, 179 (1965); 403 713, 728 730, 2140, 2148—2149, 822 (1971), (Stewart, J., concurring); Review Thomas, 254 883, 885 (CA3 1958); Assns. Valente, 308 N.Y. 71, 77, 123 777, 778 (1954). example, sustained Government's validate passports Cuba though 'render(ed) less wholly country.' U.S., S.Ct., 1281. ban constitutional, speak carry unrestrained information.' 17, 1281.22 17 Despite hampered, regularly excluded proceedings, own conferences, meetings bodies gathered executive session, organizations. Newsmen scenes disaster excluded, prohibited attending trials restrictions assure defendant fair impartial tribunal. Sheppard Maxwell, 384 333, 86 1507, 600 (1966), reversed conviction failed adopt 'stricter rules governing courtroom newsmen, Sheppard's requested,' neglected insulate witnesses 'effort control release leads, gossip officers, witnesses, sides.' 358, 359, 1520. '(T)he might well proscribed extrajudicial statements lawyer, party, witness, divulged prejudicial matters.' 361, 1521. Estes Texas, 532, 539 540, 1628, 1631—1632, 543 Rideau 373 723, 726, 83 1417, 1419, 663 (1963). thus surprising great weight authority normal appearing answering investigation. At common law, courts consistently existence authorizing See, e.g., Ex parte Lawrence, 116 Cal. 298, 48 124 (1897); Plunkett Hamilton, 136 Ga. 72, S.E. 781 (1911); Clein State, 52 So.2d 117 (Fla.1950); Grunow, N.J.L. 235, 1011 (1913); People ex rel. Mooney Sheriff, 269 291, 199 N.E. 415 Joslyn People, Colo. 184 375 (1919); Adams 46 F.R.D. 439 (SD Tex. 1969); Brewster Boston Herald-Traveler Corp., 20 416 (D.C.Mass.1957). Annot., A.L.R.3d 591 (1966). 1958, gatherer exempted suit, Garland Torre, 259 545 (CA2), cert. 910, 237, (1958), almost uniformly since occasional dicta circumstances presented here, excused. Goodfader, 45 Haw. 317, 367 P.2d 472 (1961); Taylor, 412 Pa. 32, 193 A.2d 181 (1963); State Buchanan, 250 Or. 244, 436 729, 392 905, 88 2055, 1363 (1968); Murphy Colorado (No. 19604 Sup.Ct.Colo.), 365 843, 802, 810 (1961) (unreported, discussed Haw., 366, P.2d, 498 (Mizuha, dissenting)). applied presumption Bryan, 339 323, 331, 724, 94 884 (1950), outweighed trial, possesses. opinions typical few recent form Knops, 49 Wis.2d 647, 183 N.W.2d 93 (1971) (dictum); Alioto Cowles Communications, C.A. 52150 (ND Cal.1969); Witnesses, 322 573 Cal.1970); Dohrn, Crim.No. 69—3808 (Cook County, Cir.Ct.1970). 19 much rooted ancient dual function determining believe unfounded prosecutions.23 proceedings mandated institution prosecutions crimes, 'its prerogatives long centuries Anglo-American history.' Hannah Larche, 363 420, 489—490, 1502, 1544, 1307 (1960). (Frankfurter, concurring result). provides '(n)o shall capital, infamous crime, presentment indictment Jury.'24 adoption method preferring charges shows high instrument justice.' Costello 350 362, 76 406, 408, 100 397 (1956). systems procedure differ themselves, many constitutions plays important effective law overwhelming majority States.25 Because task inquire Existence return well-founded indictments, investigative powers necessarily broad. 'It inquest, body inquisition, whose inquiries limited narrowly propriety forecasts doubts particular accusation crime.' Blair 273, 282, 39 468, 471, 979 (1919). Hence, historic, id., 279—281, 470—471, essential task. longstanding 'the evidence,' common-law, (1950); Blackmer 284 421, 438, 252, 255, (1932); Wigmore, Evidence 2192 (McNaughton rev. 1961), particularly applicable proceedings.26 pvivilege varying breadth,27 done so, none statute.28 Until now unofficial Federal self-incrimination. create another interpreting grant enjoy. decline do.29 aimed security property fundamental government, important, process. records us, perceive basis ensuring insufficient override consequential, uncertain, insisting reporters, citizens, put trial. 21 conclusion involves newspapers type acquire, threaten vast bulk relationships sources. address themselves Only implicated possess concerned subpoenas. Nothing indicates large percentage falls category never has, performing citizen's preference anonymity actual presumably product desire escape prosecution, preference, understandable, hardly deserving protection. frivolous assert—and cases—that Amendment, otherwise, confers license violate stealing wiretapping conduct, news. Neither immume, testifying other, reach far invading reprehensible persons. To contrary proposition 23 'Is it, wrong implies frustrate defeat discharge duties performance depends. suffices say however complete things discuss them, right, enjoyed human society, restraints separate wrong-doing.' Toledo 247 402, 419—420, 38 560, 564, 62 1186 (1918).30 24 Thus, seriously entertain notion source, thereof, theory better write Insofar undertook witnessed, presents question. threatening witnessed 25 There situations engaged suggesting illegal frequently receive tacit source's name suppress wishes published. Such entangled They job personal safety dishonor embarassment. 26 diminished aid irrational, silent matter. unclear how informers data indicate rely deal sensitive exposure silenced ordinarily, must subpoenas,31 fails demonstrate significant reaffirms common-law newsmen. Estimates inhibiting willingness disclosures widely divergent speculative.32 difficult canvass views themselves; surveys topic chiefly predicted behavior viewed light self-interest interviewees.33 Reliance mean dry objects testifying, prosecution insist. Also, symbiotic unlikely inhibited subpoena: quite often, members minority political cultural group relies heavily propagate views, publicize magnify Moreover, characteristically experienced dealing informers, methods interference administration justice. little indicating avoiding security, safety, peace mind, worse position, think be, risked placing trust officials reporters. doubt informer sincerely interested always prospect authorities charged his. 27 Accepting fact, undetermined nevertheless, reason, talk identification accept undisclosed, unverified take precedence over pursuing prosecuting deterring note reporter, informant, independently reluctance objection shield inquiry, usefulness More obvious agreements recommend standpoint policy. Historically, raise 'hue cry' felonies authorities.34 Misprision felony—that concealment felony 'which man knows, assented (so become) principal accessory,' Blackstone, Commentaries, *121, crime.35 Congress passed Stat. 113, amended, 1114, 146, 684, still effect, defining misprision: 'Whoever, knowledge cognizable conceals soon known military (guilty misprision).' 4.36 30 apparent history England, looked favor. deserves encomium, denigrating citizen, informer, him. 31 Of course, abide equivalent exemption ordinary function. Private favored context, '(f)reedom sanction repression interests.' 20, 1425. 32 convinced virtually impenetrable shield, beyond legislative judicial control, forged operated unaccountable public, pose expectations privacy, equally well-intentioned pay betray employer associates. elected appointed utilizes proper informers. purpose furtherance enforcement. recognizes communicate law-enforcement preserving anonymity, encourages perform obligation.' Roviaro 353 53, 59, 77 623, 627, 639 (1957). 34 enjoy Their desired trials; concealed critical case. 60—61, 62, 627—628, 629; McCray Illinois, 386 300, 310, 1056, 1062, (1967); Smith 390 129, 748, 749, 956 Alford 282 687, 693, 51 218, 220, 75 624 (1931). Clearly, impervious judiciary unmask continue profit private, hands. retain options informer's benefit prevent. admonished reporter's undermine collect disseminate lesson teaches us. previously, 1958. From beginning country informants, flourished. existing obstacle retention press.37 36 currently multiplied,38 mutual tension officialdom increased, reporting styles changed, more seeks groups dissident organizations suspicious officials. developments, true, treacherous far-reaching interpretation fastening nationwide courts, juries, everywhere. response investigations, places categories reach. 37 rests infringement broader achieve purpose, see cited n. 19, supra. deal, abused function, committee 'expose(s) sake exposure.' Watkins 354 200, 1173, 1185, 1273 'prob(ing) relation need.' DeGregory Attorney General Hampshire, 383 825, 829, 1148, 1151, 292 forcing wholesale names organizational affiliations germane determination committed, cf. NAACP Alabama, 357 78 1163, 1488 (1958); Button, 371 415, 328, 405 Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 412, 480 (1960), characteristic secrecy undue rights. Fed.Rule CrimProc. 6(e). power responsibility adequately discharged. 364, 409, 18, State's 'paramount' justify indirect rights, met indicated, implements appears calling manner 'bears achievement justification.' 525, 417. If test government 'convincingly interest,' Gibson Florida Legislative Investigation Committee, 372 539, 546, 889, 894, 929 (1963), (1) extirpating traffic drugs, forestalling assassination President, preventing community disrupted violent endangering property; (2) stories Pappas' admitted others—because likely supply help determine had, indictment. Similar considerations dispose preliminary appearance, can determination. offective includes investigatory respect end call best suited 'When problem society's thorough extensive investigation.' Wood Georgia, 370 375, 392, 82 1364, 1374, 569 (1962). 'is fully clue run down examined find committed.' Stone, 249 138, 140 (C.A.2 triggered tips, rumors, proffered prosecutor, jurors. 408. after proceeding made. 40 impossible conceive examination stopped laid formally object ascertain indicted.' Hale Henkel, 201 43, 65, 370, 50 652 (1906). 41 Hendricks 223 313, (1912); 283, 979. reason excused arriving initial determinations. 42 here conditional, absolute; showings need, testify. Presumably, reduce instances appear, predicting advance difficult. implications issuance compulsory process hearings. newsmen's unmasked whenever determines situation justifies satisfactory problem.39 For suffice. 43 unwilling embark journey uncertain destination. practical conceptual difficulties order. Sooner define questionable traditional doctrine liberty lonely pamphleteer uses carbon paper mimeograph just metropolitan latest photocomposition methods. 573, 574 Cal.1970). Freedom 'fundamental right' confined periodicals. embraces pamphlets leaflets. historic connotation comprehends sort affords vehicle opinion.' Lovell City Griffin, 303 450, 452, 58 666, 669, 949 (1938). Mills 214, 219, 1434, 1437, 484 (1966); 111, informative representatives organized performed lecturers, pollsters, novelists, academic researchers, dramatists. Almost author accurately contributing jury.40 44 instance testify, embroiled factual legal determinations predicate appearance: Is committed? useful confidence? Could elsewhere? outweigh privilege? end, considering interest, inextricably distinguishing value enforcing different investigations legislature declined make, represent considered judgment, suspect, liable judges, branch, uphold accordance oaths. level, desirable fashion standards narrow evil discerned refashion experience dictate. merit leaving legislatures free, limits, conditions problems relations areas. goes saying, powerless bar responding construing absolute. 47 addition, pragmatic disposal powerful mechanisms communication helpless harassment harm. Furthermore, urged true—that hope gain suffer subpoenaing juries—prosecutors loath risk little. level already fashioned set connection trials.41 major step direction herein move. prove resolve disagreements controversies Finally, earlier protections, instituted conducted good faith, resolution Amendment.42 Official undertaken purposes disrupt justification. motions quash. expect forget operate limits Fifth. III turn, therefore, disposition said, follows during good-faith fortiori true demonstrates 'compelling need' testimony. Other instance. affirmed. Here, directly about. defined narcotic 218.010(14) (1962), unlicensed possession compounding punishable fine imprisonment. 218.210 'saw unlawful marijuana conversion hashish,' S.W.2d, 346. presumed narcotics research Meigs. ommission crimes. 'meager,' confidence. affirm subject, testimony.' 614, 303—304. So ordered. 53 Judgment reversed; 54 POWELL, concurring. I add emphasize seems me Court's holding. safeguarding Certainly, hold, STEWART's dissenting opinion, 'annex' 'an arm government.' solicitude repeatedly assurance effort, believed media—properly untrammeled fullest sense terms—were able themselves. indicated concluding portion states tolerated. believes faith remedy. Indeed, bearing remote implicates legitimate enforcement, entered. judged striking balance conduct. societal case-by-case accords tried adjudicating questions.* short, DOUGLAS, dissenting. 59 black, Francisco attitudes confidence in-depth articles 60 tapes covering members. held. communications satisfied interest.' appeal dismissed opinion. 61 Shortly thereafter impanelled substantially identical one. appeal, vacated jeopardized interest' interrogation. 'derived part' obtained 'within confidence.' 361. commonly journalists, indispensable work gathering, analyzing, 64 thereby impaired journalist's gather, analyze, finally, delimiting severely impair damage militants, them; abilities findings Government. Cir., 1081. my qualifies himself complete, for, involvement stands barrier. Since futile invoking And, voluntarily invoke questions. basic (which investigating committees, 1273; Alabama Patterson, 463, 1172, 1488; 929; Baird Bar Arizona, 6—7, 702, 705—707, 639; Stolar, 657) yield unprinted 68 starting point pretty marks range lies. Times, functions takes amazing balanced needs conveniences government.1 My belief 'balancing' Bill Rights. casting terms, repudiated timid, watered-down, emasculated versions 69 close late Meiklejohn:2 'For understanding principles keep crucial difference rights' governed powers' governors. And point, title 'Bill Rights' lamentably inaccurate designation ten amendments. Powers Rights.' Second Amendments limit subordinate agencies due regard paid 'rights' governed.' Tenth 'powers' people abridgment established servants. field 'rights,' 'due law.' 'powers,' process' irrelevant.' 71 '(s)elf-government exist insofar voters acquire intelligence, integrity, sensitivity, generous devotion welfare theory, ballot assumed express,'3 '(p)ublic discussions issues, together spreading unabridged agents. Though govern we, deeper sense, Over governing, power. sovereign power.'4 follow stake One people, ultimate governors, of, privacy beliefs regardless strange Ancillary generate testing beliefs. regard, status student affirmatively pursued empirical enlarge intellectual viewpoint. self-government succeed immersed steady, robust, unimpeded, uncensored continuously critique, rebuttal, re-examination. respect, news-gatherer integral becomes critical. 73 compete Congressional needed. While congressional committees powers, 197, 1184: 'Clearly, abridging assembly. reviewed, lawmaking. solely adjunct invoked lawmaking.' 74 belief, ideology, religious practices, social philosophy, pale rightful expression translated action. West Virginia Board Education Barnette, 624, 642, 1178, 1187, 1628; 705—707; 657. association. '(i)nviolability association preservation association, espouses beliefs.' 462, 1172; 405. 565, 903: associational entire spectrum ideology art, journalism, teaching, religion. (G)overnment probing intimacies spiritual myriad societies country, served. barrier newspapers, churches, clubs, societies, unions, political, economic, social, philosophical, views.' (Concurring opinion.) (Emphasis added.) consistent sometimes absolutes banner 'clear danger' test,5 influence formula,6 men penalized harmful unpopular years regulation 'narrowly drawn,'7 merely 'rational' concerned.8 paring diluting penalizing viewpoint; regulating perhaps exercising undoubted proclaim classroom park. blare forth sound truck rolling village city a.m. distinction drawn Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303—304, 900, 903, 1213 stand: concepts, act. but, be.'9 brought exposing Yet today effectively permits guise allowing elicit 'factual sure, couched terms extracting recollection interviews, remains respective answers guided preconceptions Panthers. shaped Unlike random bystander, hypothesis, tidy segregating subjective objective facts. blanket associations twisted relaxed all. Holmes Abrams 616, fate coined Schenck 47, 247, 470. Eventually, formula watered danger 'not improbable.' Dennis 341 510, 857, 867, 95 1137. Brandenburg 395 1827, 1831, 430. compelling-interest pliable clear-and-present-danger test. Perceptions worth objectives change composition intensity politics times. Uphaus Wyman, 1040, 1090, sustaining compel participants summer camp, Brennan dissented 'it patent really subordinating demonstrated State.' 106, 1059. majority, self-preservation ..' 81, 1046. That world 'make believe,' Uphaus, overthrown. Today's impede wideopen robust ideas counterthought fosters success intelligent self-government. Forcing retarding effects ear pen press. Fear dissidents openly trusted accountability editors critics restrained pens. mandatory bases story. preferred scheme, enable money, apart class, fulfillment public's know. paraphrase Meiklejohn. Knowledge informed decisions. 717, 2143, (concurring opinion), 'The serve governed, bare secrets inform people.' order; trend rulers—the bureaucracy police—is radical arrest hostile audience. Feiner York, 340 315, 303, 295. Yet, Terminiello 337 4, 896, 1131, 'function invite dispute.' went say, indeed induces unrest, creates dissatisfaction are, stirs anger. Speech provocative challenging. strike prejudices profound unsettling presses acceptance idea.' removed cabals regime; truth live forces society operate. explore investigate events, going on, expose influences work. higher regime. Its projects anxiety bureaucracies, departments, government. whole bear reporter. Unless victim intrigue aggression. attempted exposure, enlighten ended. sanctions settled main pass releases departments issue. reply one's greater event police. Even most trustworthy withstand relentless badgering jury.10 replete weighty telling sanctity information.11 When deny protection, deprive needed affairs Nation way. Madison said: 'A popular acquiring Prologue Farce Tragedy; or, both. forever ignorance: Governors, gives.' (To Barry, Aug. 1822). Writings 103. (G. Hunt ed. 1910). clog gathering. signal publishers exercise caution obtain. Without account criticism. Entrenched quick crash unfriendly commentators.12 E.g., 686; 125; Pickering Education, 391 563, 1731, 811; Gravel 606, 2614, 583. intrusion domain symptomatic disease society. pervasive. suffocate causes. Those power, politics, want perpetuate Now fences tradition broken down, victims. designed precisely tragedy. reverse Hayes, 665, 2646, dissent Caldwell.[725] STEWART, whom BRENNAN MARSHALL join, crabbed reflects disturbing insensitivity independent impression guide POWELL'S enigmatic gives flexible future, holds invites independence attempting annex journalistic profession Not press' functions, will, am convinced, run, harm respectfully dissent. 97 stems full underlies Constitution's 660; 269, 720, 686,1 us.' Time, Inc. Hill, 385 374, 389, 534, 543, 456.2 98 Enlightened choice citizenry ideal open premised,3 enhance self-fulfillment widest incontestable precondition mighty catalyst awakening affairs, corruption employees informing occurrences 1631, 543; 484; Grosjean, 449. aggregations burgeon size pressures conformity mount, obviously continuing variety reportage, criticism, preserve maximizing encouraging diversity expression. 99 keeping tradition, central democracy. 449; 270, 720. corollary free-press curtailed assembled disseminated. have, approval, Near Minnesota, 283 697, 625, 1357; 822, distribute see, 949; Marsh 501, 265; Martin Struthers, 141, 862, 1313; printed matter, Lamont Postmaster General, 301, 1493, 398. 101 unnecessarily cut off impermissibly compromised. Accordingly, dimensions, exist. 179.4 Note, Right Gather Information, Col.L.Rev. 838 wrote: both.' 103 B 102 implies, source. simple logic predicates recognized: news; confidentiality—the promise aspects kept record—is creation maintenance informants; (3) unbridled power—the protecting, way, compulsary divulging today. mission, print handouts. Familiarity background final 'news' captive mouthpiece 'newsmakers.'5 104 confidentiality prerequisite productive informants. An officeholder superior; member bureaucracy, associates; dissident, scorn All valuable discourse, yet willing relate trusts, excessive reprisals censure unorthodox views. motives shades Talley California, 362 60, 536, 559; 480; 1488.6 105 analyzing news.'7 Commentators confidentiality.8 nondisclosure types gathering.9 106 unchecked clearly giving uncertainty lead 'self-censorship.' 149—154, 216—219, 205; 279, 725. arises, traditionally imposed limitations powers. Antell, Modern Jury: Benighted Supergovernment, A.B.A.J. 153 (1965). Part II, infra. 107 After today's sure off-the-record subsequently revealed newsman. public-spirited fearful wrongdoing, must, choose risking remaining silent. 108 speculate contact controversial refuses violating profession's ethics10 impairing resourcefulness discloses Again, commonsense deterrence occur buttressed concrete evidence. deterrent self-censorship impressively Caldwell.12 Individual reporters13 commentators14 effects. Surveys verified especially areas officials, financial figures, dissidents, in-depth, reporting.15 Department 'compulsory limiting right.'16 contradicting offered briefs impairment cannot, proved scientific precision, demand. Obviously, requires confidentiality. pinpoint nondisclosure. demanded rest elaborate studies demonstrating conceivable exist; proof exact potentially affected action, dissuaded engaging activity. 111 Rather, asked, implicitly, rational (the action) activity), regularity, i.e., de minimis. 244—245, 446—447; Burstyn, 343 495, 503, 781, 1098; Sweezy 234, 248, 1203, 1210, 1311 (plurality opinion); 461—466, 1171—1174; 150—154, 217—219; 523 524, 416—417; 538—539; Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 485 486, 250—251, 231; Cramp Public Instructions, 368 278, 286, 275, 280, 285; 431—438, 337—341, 405; Legislation 555—557, 898 899, 277—278, 724—725; Freedman Maryland, 380 51, 734, 739, 649; 292; Elfbrandt Russell, 11, 16—19, 1238, 1240 1242, 321. determination, towards 'indispensable liberties' 461, 1171; Bantam Books, inc. ,372 58, 631, 637, 584, '(f)reedoms heavy-handed frontal attack, stifled subtle interference.' Bates, 523, 416.17 Once threshold satisfied, competing unconstitutional freedoms. 112 belonged affect adversely (of NAACP) pursue admittedly advocate, induce withdraw dissuade joining consequences 462—463, 1172. Talley, invalid ordinance forbade circulation handbill distributor's 'no tend restrict expression.' 538. inherent censor's discretion overbroad statute. 781. 113 Surely analogous securely grounded above, calls 'speculative.' ante, 694. source.18 certainly matters. 114 shirk values embedded await unequivocal—and unattainable—imprimatur studies.19 record, elsewhere, overwhelmingly supports premise regularity relationships.20 115 dialogue inevitably impoverished. Posed Amendment's administer justice fairly effectively. serves functions: examine crimes' stand prosecutor accused, charge founded credible dictated malice ill will.' 373, 652. U.S 281, 979; 375. person's Amendment,21 Fourth Amendment,22 evidentiary law.23 Blair, self-incrimination inquiries, 'some shielded policy, knows.' 471 supplied). 844, 'presupposes real protected.' 332, 731. 118 surely I. purely even, bottom, partner relationship.24 nothing democratic decisionmaking serves, thereby, honor 'profound commitment debate uninhibited, wide-open.' 721. 119 efficient begin 'delicate vulnerable' nature, 433, 338, transcendent functioning safeguards. 120 erected safeguards means, pierce association.25 previous Rights Witnesses unreasonable search seizure. abridged.' 188, 1179, 1273. stated: carefully circumscribed tends impinge highly ideas.' 245, 1209 opinion). 121 'carefully' circumscribing heavy justification impaired. 'consistently freedoms.' 341. validity intrudes convincingly 894 Sweezy, supra; Watkins, 122 impinges importance' 'convincingly' 'substantially related' sought. Governmental inquiry. supra.26 Gibson, supra.27 destructive liberties. 488, 252; Louisiana Gremillion NAACP, 366 293, 296—297, 1333, 1335 1336, 301.28 requirements, policies reflected numerous arising contexts. militate vague laws, needlessly discourage activity.29 'broadly stifle achieved.' Shelton, 252.30 'Of investigation—must proceed 'step step,' totality, adequate foundation intrude curtail inhibit interfere rights.' 557, 899. apply cases. legislature, played Rumely, 41, 544, 770; Barenblatt 109, 111—112, 1085, 1115, 'power (encompassing) defects economic enabling remedy them.' 187, 1179. Similarly, individuals, prime focus sphere, mass electronic vices vagueness overbreadth manifest exhibited acts, Wilson 221 538, 771; 316, 394; Johnson, 1233, 1546, materiality relevance relaxed. Holt 218 1021; 397. Investigatory Body, Harv.L.Rev. 590, 591—592 (1961).31 For, 'need commencing rumors groundless.' 126 law;32 rights; information.33 127 made, ignore issued. government's triggered, move 128 crux rejection observation 'where subpoenas.' 691 misleading construct. conduct' 'information 691, 693. extraordinarily weak needless injury law.34 129 'related' truism aims served, 130 Both 'probable cause' 'alternative means' mediating conflict concerns, infra.35 delicate accommodation. Better judgments, difficult, simplistic stultifying absolutism adopted denying cases.36 131 error profound. advancing justice, think, goal. entrusted responsibility, problems. reports sad paradox become cease witness; import. subscribe anomalous result, antagonistic can, complementary, 'breathing space.' 338. 132 deciding receives compulsion exercised 'until 1086. approved request specification 'subject, inquiry.' 1085. 133 correct. require. 134 fraud swindles) specified. But, exception, commit, crimes.37 single exception relates allegation leader, Hilliard, violated 1969. returned indictment, investigated Window Glass Workers, D.C. 287 219; Dardi, 330 336.38 probably laws,39 pursued.40 135 case, appeared questions, privileged. F.2d, 1088. it,41 jeopardize leading severance public:42 'Appellant affidavit (beyond unnecessary) true—and apparently dispute it—appellant's barren performance—one Jury. appellant's capacity sense. cost excusing slight, competition jeopardized. 137 'If ever arise (where threatened mere investigation) occasion Considering embodied order, occasions seem unusual. asking too here.' 1089. 138 ruling correct particularized rare prima facie curtailed. stated, contradiction, nonconfidential articles.43 refute assertion, would, facts, 'barren performance.' aspect confine appropriately observed: '(T) .' 1090. 139 Caldwell.44 vacate remand inconsitent expressed contained following paragraph: "I don't I'm letting you story,' (one informant) quietly. 'To narcs (narcotics detectives) mad, guess. That's reason.' However, Larry changed.' 4. Foreman questions: '#1. 12, 13, Marijuana, 1969? #2. Novebmer producing compound Hashish?' 6. Judge Miles Pound. Hon. successor provides: 'No petit tribunal, agent agents, Assembly, county body, procured radio broadcasting station employed, connected.' Petitioner's Motion Quash argued: Jury, person, presently enjoys culture. him; newsman; vitally hampered inevitable quashed media, culture entailing Branzburg's apearance totally excuse entering room. behind closed doors room, destroyed. surrounds introduces uncertainties minds betrayal confidences.' 43—44. Appeals' Meigs announced, rehearing Pound attention (1970). amended adding footnote, 346 Supplemental Memorandum oral argument. Petition Prohibition Mandamus, Opposition granting writs. indicates, complementary Petition, dealt primarily phrase 'source 421.100. passage abandonment follows: 'Thus, controversy continues Legislature issue, decided citing Professor Wigmore times debated, spoken. Legislature.' somewhat unclear, surrounding discussion irrelevant enacted discussion, analyzed interpreted expansively. interpret abandoning argument, preserved review. films Attorney. superior interlocutory Mass.Gen.Laws, c. 30A 231, (1959). text refusal. (a) (b) gatherers.' 606—607, (footnote omitted). expressly consider, appearances administrative bodies. 612 10. consider discretion' burdensome product, 304 cautioned suggest persons, knowledge.' 14. production '(n)otes period date, reflecting organization staff, personnel, members, specifically Hilliard Raymond 'Masai' Hewitt.' 20. standing intervene party 359 file citation, brief, however. dismiss interlocutory. cross-appeal challenge Appeals. question: 'Whether quoted articles.' 145, 1986, J.); 538—539, 559 (1960); Bridges 314 263, 190, 194, 192 (1941); 722, 633, 1357 439, 341, Collins, 323 530, 322, 430 (1945); 417, Schneider 161, 150, 155 (1939); 464, (1958). 56, 737, 649 377 288, 307, 1302, 1313, 325 865, 1313 (1943); 1241, 321 writing Beaver, Newsman's Code, Claim Privilege Everyman's Evidence, Ore.L.Rev. 243 Guest & Stanzler, Constitutional Argument Concealing Sources, Nw.U.L.Rev. Reporters Sources: Confidential Relationship, Yale L.J. 317 (1970); Comment, Privilege: Investigations, Criminal Prosecutions Litigation, Calif.L.Rev. 1198 (1971); Nelson, Newsmen's Against Disclosure Sources Vand.L.Rev. 667 'In general, then, relation, '. pledge oath avail demand 2286 1961). 17th century gentlemen occasionally privileging exchange Bulstrod Letchmere, Freem. Eng.Rep. 1019 (1676); Lord Grey's Trial, How.St.Tr. (1682). 'There clothed ingenious garb decreased flow. unauthorized entry House diminishes opportunities right.' 'Historically, jury) regarded primary innocent hasty, malicious persecution; invaluable accuser accused intimidating 390, 1373, (1962) 'infamous' punishments confinement hard labor, Moreland, 258 368, 700 (1922); incarceration penitentiary, Mackin 348, 909 (1886); imprisonment year, Barkman Sanford, 592 (CA5), 332 816, 155, 393 Crim.Proc. 7(a) codified holdings: 'An offense death prosecuted exceeding year labor waived, defendants Fourteenth Hurtado 232 (1884), study reveals kinds initiated Spain, Past Present: Survey, Am.Crim.L.Q. 119, 126—142 (1964). retained tool. Jeremy Bentham vividly illustrated maxim: 'Are rank consideration—are office—men themselves—are quit business, pleasure, beck idle adversary, dance petty cause? Yes, necessary, everybody. Were Prince Wales, Archbishop Canterbury, High Chancellor, passing coach, chimney-sweeper barrow-woman halfpennyworth apples, evidence, it? No, certainly.' Works 320—321 (J. Bowring 1843). Burr, Fed.Cas. pp. 14,692d) (C.C.Va.1807), Marshall, sitting Circuit, opined States. Thus far, sources: Ala.Code, Tit. 7, Alaska 09.25.150 (Supp.1971); Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 12—2337 (Supp.1971—1972); Ark.Stat.Ann. 43—917 Cal.Evid.Code 1070 (Supp.1972); Ind.Ann.Stat. 2—1733 (1968), IC 34—3—5—1; (1962); La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 45:1451—45:1454 Md.Ann.Code, art. 35, Mich.Comp.Laws 767.5a (Supp.1956), Mich.Stat.Ann. 28.945(1) (1954); Mont.Rev.Codes Ann. 93—601—2 Nev.Rev.Stat. 49.275 N.J.Rev.Stat. 2A:84A—21, 2A:84A—29 (Supp.1972—1973); N.M.Stat.Ann. 20—1—12.1 N.Y.Civil Laws, McKinney's Consol.Laws, 79—h Ohio Rev.Code 2739.12 Pa.Stat.Ann., 28, (Supp.1972—1973). legislation introduced, 1311, 92d Cong., 1st Sess. 3552, 91st 2d H.R. 16328, 16704, 1851, 88th 8519, 7787, 965, 86th (1959); 355, analysis proposed legislation, Sentate Committee Judiciary, 89th Sess., (Comm. Print 1966). disfavor commentators obstruct truth. condemns derogations positive (that everyone obligated summoned)' 'obstacle(s) criticism 'all exceptional, discountenanced,' 2192, p. original) echoed. Morgan, Foreward, Model Code 22—30 (1942); Z. Chafee, Mass Communications 496 497 (1947); Report ABA Improvements Law A.B.A. Reports 595 (1938); McCormick, 159 (2d 1972); Privileged Communications: Served Obstructed Closing Doctor's Mouth Witness Stand?, Ladd, Privileges, 1969 Social Order 555, 556; Am.Jur., 546 (1948); C.J.S. Wtinesses (1957); McMann Securities Exchange Commission, 377, 378 (CA2 1937) (L. Hand, J.). ALI's (1942), Uniform Rules Conference Commissioners Laws (1953), Proposed Courts Magistrates (rev. 1971) Contempt 487, summary contempts near (to court) 'direct tendency duty.' 419, 564. narrower reading Nye 313 33, 47—52, 810, 815—817, 1172 (1941). Bloom 205—206, 1477, 1484—1485, 522 (1968). attached prominent experiences journalists Appendix 22—61. results appendix article, question, 'Excluding one-or two-sentence items, your year? Very rough estimate.' Answers varied significantly, 'Virtually innumerable,' Tucson Daily (41,969 circ.), 'Too remember,' Angeles Herald-Examiner (718,221 'Occasionally,' Denver (252,084 'Rarely,' Cleveland Plain Dealer (370,499 'Very rare, politics,' Oregon (146,403 circ.). purport measure caused Subpoenas: Empirical Analysis, Study Reporters' Prof. Vince Blasi discusses methodological Blasi's slightly half 975 questioned regular least 10% stories. 21. 8% certainty subpoena; 11% affected. 53. Statute Westminster First, Edw. 9, (1275); Second, (1285); Sheriffs 1887, Vict., 55, 8(1); Commentaries *293—295; Holdsworth, History English 80—81, 101—102 (3d 1927); 521—522. Scrope's Case, Coke's Institute 36; Rex Cowper, Mod. 206, 611 Proceedings Special Commission 969 (1813); Sykes Director Prosecutions, W.L.R. 371. Glazebrook, Felony—Shadow Phantom?, Am.J.Legal Hist. 189 (1552). contrued, affirmative act participation. Bratton 795 (CA10 1934); Farrar, 515, 516 (Mass.), aff'd 281 425, 1078 (1930); Norman, 212 (CA6), 1014, 1265, 163 Lancey 407 (CA9), 922, 145 Marbury Brooks, Wheat. 556, 575, (1822) (Marshall, C.J). forward recently, contended desirable. Siebert Ryniker, Winning Fight Guard Editor Publisher, Sept. 1934, 36—37; Bird Merwin, Maryland 1896, Md.Ann.Code Art. list 57. 'Under developing rules, predict turn judge's hoc assessment settings 'importance' 'relevance' interest. 'general' result. tests application. 'heart matter' Situation X, Y X' extended Leaving judges delineate 'situations' significantly reporter-informer privilege.' Cal.1970), illustrates approach. was, 'inquiring acts (18 1751), 871), 2387), commit foregoing offenses 371), prohibiting directed 577. newspaper, entered witnesses) 574. conspired investigating. testify: (witnesses) violative details alleged activities. unquestionably relevant, evaluation thereof constitute 'undue Court." Another illustration August 24, bombing Sterling Hall University Wisconsin campus. 26, 'underground' Kaleidoscope, front-page entitled Bombers Tell Why What Next—Exclusive Kaleidoscope.' editor Kaleidoscope subpoenaed, self-incrimination, immunity, pleaded upheld sentence: '(Appellant) faces five volunteered. clear. 'overriding,' least. short (and right) physical attack apprehending perpetrators attacks.' Wis.2d, 658, N.W.2d, 98—99. engage insulated grants immunity. 'sham' easily distinguishable, ordinarily prohibits inquiring expression, obscenity libel, publications motivation, orthodoxy, truthfulness, timeliness, taste. 269—270, 720—721, Kingsley International Pictures Corp. Regents, 689, 1362, 1365, 1512 Winters 333 507, 667, 840 537, 326, organs discriminating content. Guidelines Subpoenas Media Memo. 692 (Sept. sent Assistant Division. approach weigh justice' Therefore, non-press consideration press.' negotiations authorization 'sufficient (from journalist) successful unsuccessfully provide, 'emergencies unusual situations,' exactly conform Guidelines. Younger Harris, 37, 49, 53—54, 746, 753, 754—755, 669 remembered tha tCaldwell asserts decides meets preconditions specified Stewart. constraints balancing decision. appear; litigate impose burdens court—when questioning merits endorsed detection subordinated. minimal contend these: 1. 2. 3. Brief Amicus Curiae 29. Absolute, 1961 Sup.Ct.Rev. 254. 255. 257. 470 (wartime antidraft 'leafleting'); Debs 211, 566 anti-draft speech); 1173 leafleting strike); 295 (arrest speaker audience); 1137 (reformulation improbable' sustain advocacy overthrow); Scales 203, 1469, 782 (knowing membership punishable). detailed infamy Adler 485, 380, 517 (protection schools 'pollution' teachers' 79, 1045, 1046, 1090 (preserving Hampshire subversives camp); 1115 (legislative HUAC third Communist); Wilkinson 399, 567, 633 Communist Party); Braden 431, 435, 587, 653 Konigsberg Bar, 36, 997, (regulating applicants affiliations); Anastaplo, 82, 978, applicant's Declaration Independence revolt government); Subversive Activities Control Board, 1357, 625 (national groups); Students Research Council Wadmond, 154, 749 applicants' soundness Constitution). 'overbroad' measures restricted time, place, (anti-leafleting law); Thornhill 88, 102, 736, 744, 1093 (anti-boycott statute); (breach-of-peace measure); Cox 453, Edwards South Carolina, 229, 680, 697 Cohen 1780, 1786, Gooding 518, 1103, statute). thought concerned, Terms philosophy. adverted philosophical privacy. 416, (disclosure lists officials); 893, legislature); (witness' earlier); (refusal applicant she 657 'loyal' Government); Street 576, 1354, 572 (expression disgust flag). rhetoric embrace inconsistent totality approaching doctrine. invalidating realm test, process, doctrine, detect applications comprehended challenged measures. Wieman Updegraff, 344 183, 216 (loyalty condemned unknowing group); (requirement teachers 1335, lists); Whitehill Elkins, 389 54, 228 (nonactice employment teacher); Robel, 258, 508 (mere defense facility). Regrettably, vitality overdue toward turned away Constitution; Cole Richardson, 676, 1332, 593, 'oppose' overthrow; Where 'rationally connected' objective. Carolene Products 144, 152, 778, 783, 1234; Goesaert Cleary, 335 198, 163; Williamson Lee Optical 348 483, 563; McGowan 1101, 393; McDonald Election Com'rs, 1404, 739; Savings-Share Ins. 400 4; Richardson Belcher, 404 78, Schilb Kuebel, 357, 502. cites ability. 1509, 600. assuming rightly decided, extract viewpoint implicated. (grand jury's) possibility jail sentence intimidate led pry bargain, immaterial vague. Alone faced apathetic undone experience. Life relatively vulnerable charges. look weapon guidance lawyer learns broadening past decades largely ignored matters, functioned guardian defendants.' Donner Cerruti, Network: How Nixon Administration Has Secretly Perverted Traditional Safeguard Rights, 214 5, (1972). 'we 2662. prosecutors informers' terminate exposed inasmuch longer confide becoming 62; Scher 305 251, 174, 151; 639. early Peter Zenger Alien Sedition Acts prosecutions, War suppression Freedoms Pressure, Twentieth Century Fund Task Force 3—5 outlived retaliate critics. examples Wiggins, Secrecy (1956) ('New Mexico, 1954, furnished example reprisal teacher reform school (who) letter Mexican, confirming mistreatment inmates guards. (Two days he) notified dismissal.'); Employees Furnish Information Congress: Statutory Aspects, Va.L.Rev. 885—886 (dismissal Air employee testified Senate C—5A cargo plane overrums firing FBI Senators complaining Bureau's personnel practices); N.Y.Times, Nov. 8, 1967, col. 2; (Selective Service directive local draft boards conscription protested war); 95, 1; pt. (FBI commentator criticized policies); 75, (denial underground journalist). core Stromberg 369, 535, 1117; De Jonge Oregon, 353, 365, 260, 278; 153, 205. bottomed subsumed parochial newsman-informer attorney-client physician-patient relationship. privileges, encouraged trong assurances contribute well-being. consult physicians lawyers; advanced creating zone control. relationship, per se, possessed attention.' (1970) (footnotes omitted) (hereinafter Note). Free Meikeljohn, Relation Self-Government Emerson, Toward Theory 179, Secretary passport 'weightiest security' 'right 1281 implication maintain activities, own. correctly '(I)t enough addresses unabated wake deliberate pronouncements distant accounts dramatic forays view. urgency widespread protest protections wide heterodoxy.' Citing 2013; 1093. 1084—1085. 559, 'Anonymous pamphlets, leaflets, brochures books progress mankind. Before Revolutionary colonial patriots authorship distribution literature English-controlled courts. Federalist Papers, favor fictitious names. plain constructive purposes.' 64—65, 398, anonymously. Chalmers, Gentleman Press: Biography Colonel Bayne MacLean 74—75 Klurfeld, Behind Lines: World Drew Pearson 50, 52—55 Krock, Memoris: Sixty Years Firing Line 184—185 Larsen, Truth 22—23 Ottley, Lonely Warrior—The Abbott 143—145 (1955); Sulzberger, Long Row Candles; Memoirs Diaries 241 (1969). Cronkite, network Caldwel: doing work, assist me) depend constantly ideas, leads digging assessing events.' 52. V. Blasi, Legal 20—29 Blasi). Guild code ethics: '(N)ewspapermen bodies.' difficulty 36—37. 'compelled jeopardizes impairs analyze news.' F.Supp., Recent commentary nearly unanimous Goldstein, Republic, Mar. 21, 13—14; N.Y.U.L.Rev. 617 U.Mich.J.L.Ref. Harv.Civ.Rights-Civ.Lib.L.Rev. Privilege; 690 collected fortiori, reporter-source. 686, 318 nn. 6—7. 6—71; 43—50. although, points out, Act, antitrust taxation, 683, 'only commercial practices' 148. contrary.' 1424. compared total 'universe' 'absolute' deterred, studies, facts; understand perfect knowledge, murky methodology presumptions. values. uncontradicted (statements Gerald Fraser, Kifner, Timothy Knight, Nicholas Proffitt, Ripley, Wallace Gilbert Noble, Lukas, Arnold, Burnham, Jon Lowell, Frank Min Yee, Eric Sevareid, Mike Dan Marvin Kalb). Blau 159, 223, 170; Quinn 349 668, 964; Curcio 118, 1145, 1225; Malloy Hogan, 1489, 653. Silverthorne Lumber 251 385, 319. Practice Procedure Revised Draft 2290—2391 884, 'individual truth' 730. policy Ventresca, 108, 741, 745, 684; Aguilar 114, 1514, 723; secrets, 528, 727. 1273, '(W)hen threatened, delegation (legislative) charter.' purpose. instructions spell particularity. committee's charter actions parent Congress.' 201, 1186. 1311: weakness menace forcible sacrificing missing link chain reasoning. syllogism complete. connect 1212 Less Drastic Means 464 208—209, 1189 1190. Baggett Bullitt, 360, 372, 1316, 1322, 377; Speiser Randall, 513, 526, 1342, 1460; Ashton Kentucky, 195, 200—201, 1407, 1410—1411, 469; Dombrowski Pfister, 1116, 1120, 22; 150—152, 217—218; 840; 535. Chilling Effect Law, 808 Zwickler Koota, 241, 249—250, 391, 396—397, 444; therein; Coates Cincinnati, 611, 1686, 1689, 214; 904, 1213; 364—365, 259—260; 164, 155; 562 476, 479—481, 487. 340, Overbreadth Doctrine, 844 customarily relevance, witness. Carter 417 384, 399 935, 2253, 807. Groban, 352 330, 376. Younger, Attack, J.Crim.L.C. P.S. Cases, U.Pa.L.Rev. 429 Watts, Sleeping Watchdog Expensive Antique, N.C.L.Rev. 290 Whyte, Necessary, Col.J.Law Soc.Prob. Orfield, 343. standard employed 1963 Wash.U.L.Q. 102; al., 793—794 Generally speaking, extremely indictments competent 397; Beck 369 541, 955, 98. 545. concluded: newspaper's doubtful materiality. plaintiff's claim.' 549—550 (citations met, basically undertake 'fishing expedition' expense exploratory relationships, explorations, meaningful requirement. 701—702. states, 'may jurors.' Ante, 701. try arm, wants probe pretext, convene 'investigating crime' vindictive using supervision, consolation source; witnesses. 'overriding compelling.' believe, does, automatically disclaimers leave room seq. undertake, affidavits, 'set (and) detailing previously counsel, (i.e., sought; juries; citations testify). noted, Hilliard's republication Panther, placed reliance (on 27, Dec. 14). "We special,' recently struggle.' struggle, guns. 'Last week killed raid offices Chicago. earlier, wounded shooting incident. raids, caches weapons, high-powered rifles.' 13. interviewed leaders. repeat, threat, ideological beliefs—beliefs readily impinging pursued. 'I began inception, myself substantive me. realized objectively motive. cooperative aiding wanted do. During noticed newspapermen representing leadership. 'As developed, lengthy write. Many country. Party's operation instance, credentials significance. normally designated 'backgrounders' 'off record' 'for publication' record.' rarely 'on' 'off' basis. Instead, alone trusts newspaperman.' contradict affidavit. 'Militant understandably pressure fail .. characterizes loss extortionate face. reaction client shaken. indiscreet agents disapproved Loss prerogative compulsion.' 40, supra: recall disclosed confidential. Generally, Times; conversely, published.' reserved modify opportunity meet requires.

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