Document: 343 U.S. 214 72 S.Ct. 654 96 L.Ed. 894 RAYv.BLAIR. No. 649. Argued March 31, 1952. Decided April 15, Motion to Retax Costs Denied May 5, See 1034. Messrs. Marx Leva, Washington, D.C., Harold M. Cook, Birmingham, Ala., for petitioner. Mr. Horace C. Wilkinson, respondent. Justice REED delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The Supreme Court Alabama upheld a peremptory writ mandamus requiring petitioner, chairman that state's Executive Committee Democratic Party, certify respondent Edmund Blair, member party, Secretary State as candidate Presidential Elector in Primary be held 6, Respondent Blair was admittedly qualified except he refused include following quoted words pledge required party candidates aid and support 'the nominees National Convention Party President Vice-President United States.' chairman's refusal certification based on omission. 2 approved sole ground above requirement restricted freedom federal elector vote his Electoral College choice President. Ala.Sup., 57 So.2d 395. void unconstitutional under Twelfth Amendment Constitution States.1 Because this right specially claimed by respondent, we granted certiorari. 28 U.S.C. § 1257(3), U.S.C.A. 1257(3); 901, 637. 3 On account limited time before primary election date, ordered prompt argument 1952, after granting certiorari handed down per curiam decision 3, 154, 598, stating summarily our conclusion constitutional issue determined judgment. This is supplement statement. Our mandate issued forthwith. 4 controversy arose laws permitting primaries. Title 17 Code Alabama, 1940, amended, provides regular optional elections state first Tuesday even years any political defined chapter, at cost. §§ 336, 337, 340, 343. They are subject same penalties punishment provisions elections. 339. Parties may select their own committee such manner governing authority desire. 341. Section 344 executive shall other than those who county offices Alabama. That official, within not less 30 days prior holding elections, these names probate judge an election. 5 Every given power fix or qualifications its members. It determine entitled therein. voters vary.2 6 348 requires file declaration candidacy with form prescribed body party. There provision, 350, which reads follows: 7 'At bottom ballot name last printed following, viz: 'By casting I do myself abide result all thereof ensuing general election." 8 consideration sections cases has reached conclusions generally conformable current authority. 347 been said Ray v. Garner, 824, 826, give full 'who otherwise participate therein * just so action does run afoul some statutory provision.' 9 Garner case involved adopted printing ballot, reading 10 Election General Elections. further 825. 11 substantially created present case. court also called attention approvingly Lett Dennis, 221 Ala. 432, 433, 129 So. 33, 34, follow make public oath past election, where it declared 'a test organization affiliation fealty reasonable proper participating nomination office'.3 As prescribe tests participation added (57 826) 'in prerogative vested Committee, acting through duly elected chosen Smith McQueen (232 90, 166 788).'4 826. selection delegates national convention. concerning voter's that: 12 'Primarily, must germane membership and, while clause pertains will part sending convention, having thereby signified intention become Therefore, competency adopt resolution binding primary.'5 13 well known parties modern sense were born Republic. necessity, need organize rapidly increasing population, scattered over Land, coordinate efforts secure needed legislation oppose deemed undesirable. Compare Bryce, Modern Democracies, p. 546. conventions locally delegates, from level, succeeded caucuses self-appointed legislators interested individuals. Dissatisfaction manipulation caused system largely superseded direct primary. particularly true South because, predominance section, more important primaries generally, optional.6 Various allegiance found number states.7 nominee unusual.8 Such provision protects intrusion adverse principles.9 Code, note 2, supra, January 26, Vice-President. 14 concluded violated Amendment, 1, supra. said: 15 'We appreciate immemorial, electors selected college have voted accordance wishes they belong. But doing so, effective compulsion loyalty. theory taken granted, voting president vice-president usually formal merely. so. disqualified, peculiarly offensive only but constituents also. should free another, contemplated Amendment.'10 398. 16 In urging contrary view dissenting justices, supporting require nominees, 'Any view, seems, would destroy government privilege candidate, regardless persuasion, enter candidacy. traditional American system.' 403. 18 applicable face furnish no definite answer query whether permit regularity electors.11 presidential exercise function balloting officers agents votes congressmen. act turn receives constitution.12 Neither language Art. II, nor forbids conformity aims Unless implicit, certainly neither affiliated acceptance call send accept persons refuse agree party's requirement.13 19 against exclude unwilling runs method states appoint chief executives. Founders judgment Therefore restriction substance, if form, interferes performance duty head Nation, according best elector. interference elector's relates directly confined primary, contended, because States Classic, 313 299, 61 1031, 85 1368, Allwright, 321 649, 659, 64 757, 762, 88 987, integral Schnell Davis, 336 933, 69 749, 93 1093. Although pointed out, popular vote, Ala.Code Tit. 17, 222, real takes place Limitation entering controls results election.14 20 First consider impact Classic Allwright issues. former case, dealt Congress punish frauds '(w)here law made procedure choice'. (313 399, 1039.) We had necessary step representatives. sanctions Old Criminal subsequently revised 241 242, 241, forbade injury constitutionally secured rights, applied 317—321, 1038 1040. latter, problem constitutionality exclusion citizens race. held, regulation single instrumentality officers. Fifteenth Amendment's prohibition abridgment race unconstitutional. Consequently, 31 43, injured might sue one injuring him. 660—664, 763—765, 987. 21 too, state-controlled elective process. here, however, quite different criminal conduct allow damages wrongs rights Constitution. A securing pledged philosophy leadership manner, possible limitations, choose. U.S.Const., 1. fact machinery immaterial unless violates provision. violation brought about decisions. Here apply there Convention. 22 Secondly, demands absolute choice, uninhibited pledge. says ballot. prohibit announcing beforehand, pledging himself. suggestion early electors—contemporaries hesitated, themselves event impossible accept. History teaches expected nominees.15 Experts history recognize longstanding practice.16 Indeed, twenty print Instead another counted electoral college.17 long-continued practical interpretation propriety implied oral weights heavily considering pledge, here required, 23 However, promises legally unenforceable violative assumed Constitution, choose college, voluntary applicant. He barred, discriminatorily, comply rules Surely voluntarily assume obligations certain candidate. offers him opportunity terms, although 145. Even though victory independent cannot anticipated offer development strong organizations felt them sizable block voters. leave choice. 24 conclude bar Where authorizes candidates, see objection 25 Reversed. 26 BLACK took 27 FRANKFURTER, heard argument, owing illness, disposition JACKSON, whom DOUGLAS joins, dissenting. 29 each State, way, personal qualifications, apart stated disqualifications, prescribes. Their number, named, ascertainment determination contest law. 1—7, 1—7. When chosen, perform Vice President, prescribing meeting, certifying 'all them,' detail how certificates transmitted counted. Amend. XII, 9—20, 9—20. statute undertakes control beyond providing 'The respectively, directed Constitution', 8, 'vote Vice-President, whom, least, inhabitant themselves'. XII. No faithful can deny plan originally contemplated, what implicit text, agents, nonpartisan men Nation's highest offices.* Certainly could duty, Senator by, represents, State. arrangement miscarried. Electors, often personally eminent, independent, respectable, officially became lackeys intellectual nonentities whose memory justly paraphrase tuneful satire: always Party's And never thought thinking all. 32 institution suffered atrophy almost indistinguishable rigor mortis. 33 1948, Alabama's Electors To put end unreliability organization, exercising state-delegated authority, closed official himself, oath, named conceded long-prevailing conditions effectively forecloses chance being represented unpledged effect, pawn yet convention chosen. repudiates platform twice done my lifetime (1904, 1928), bound seen sought achieve electors' ballots. subjected intended free, performed functions process left completed. Federal agree. 34 admitted legal obligation practice. If custom sufficient amendment decree, matter warranted. Usage sometimes impart changed content generalities, 'due law,' 'equal protection,' 'commerce among states.' think powers discretions officials forfeited disuse. practice origin rely upon sanctions. 35 demise whole impress me disaster. At mystifying distorting factor resolve defeat into victory. worst open local corruption manipulation, once flagrant threaten stability country. abolish substitute every wherever cast equal weight calculating result, seem gain simplicity integrity governmental processes. 36 Court's move direction. What entrench features elevate perversion forefathers' principle. judicial overturn come us plead excuse remedy evils weaknesses system. 37 sanctioning new instrument hands faction get sure vote. likely administration when knows group be. device prepledged oath-bound imposes loyalty controlling element centralizes instead locality share central management, secures management dominance College. desire add leverage representatives possessed enjoy prestige dispense patronage administration. 38 many progressive liberal presently advantage prove itself truly scheme government. Who possess weapon long am foresighted enough predict. entrenched disfranchisement nonconforming members means mind justified end. interest government, foster independently wrong. 39 Candidates elector, like Senator, course, announce policies preferences, moral carry out Competition between views forward representative effects complete suppression competition All ready blindly anyone excluded that, practice, 40 me, judge, pass wisdom righteousness revolt measure designed suppress. For ever benevolent virtuous, justify means. 41 affirm XII: meet respective themselves; ballots person distinct lists each, sign certify, transmit sealed seat States, Senate;—The Senate shall, presence House Representatives, then counted;—The greatest majority appointed; majority, numbers exceeding three list Representatives immediately, *' 347: 'All receive other; right, members, declare therein, primaries; necessarily therein; *.' Merriam & Overacker, Elections (1928), pp. 73, 124, 125. Cf. ex rel. Curyea Wells, 92 Neb. 138 N.W. 165, L.R.A.,N.S., 1088; Francis Sturgill, 163 Ky. 650, 174 S.W. 753. unique delegation. 1928 Overacker cited ten delegate authorities without statement minimum qualifications; Delaware, Idaho, remainder 'solid South,' North Carolina. 72—73. 1948 Penniman reports continued existence delegations now apparently 'represent principles' registered appropriate precinct. Idaho (Bobbs-Merrill 1948) 34—605, 34—606, 614. Penniman, Sait's (4th ed. 431. situation several states: Carolina legislature longer regulates all, Acts S.C.1944, 2323, 810; Texas Florida repealed Codes enacted ones appear lack comparable New Vernon's Annotated Statutes Service (1951), 1952; Fla.Laws 1951, c. 26870, F.S.A. 97.01 et seq. both Florida, 'members'; extent explicitly set forth. cf. 103.111(3) 103.121, Fla.Laws, remaining bearing delegation, Ark.Stat.Ann. (Bobbs-Merrill, 1947) 3—205; Ga.Code Ann. (Harrison, 1936) 34—3218.2; Va.Code 1950 (Michie, 1949) 24—367, 24—369; Miss.Code 1943), 3129; Del.Laws 1944—1945, 150, amending Rev.Code Del.1935, 58, 1782, 14; La.Rev.Stat. 1950, 18, 306, 309, LSA—R.S. 18:306, 18:309; La.Const.Ann. 1932) 4. integrates Cannon's Manual (1948): permanent agency authorized behalf during intervals Conventions. creature therefore subordinate Between Conventions exercises delegated specifically directions instructions imposed it.' P. 'Duties Powers duties derived creating it, variation provide, ordinarily include: '8. Provision Convention, involving: 'b. Authorization representation Territories Districts; Pp. 7—8. n. 4, cc. XIII, XVIII, especially 300, 416; 92—93. 425—426; 129—133. E.g., 109, N.D.Laws 1907, 151, 153, discussed McCue Blaisdell, N.D. 55, 118 141, 465. Fla.Stat.Ann. (Harrison West, 1943) 99.021 (pkt pt); 99.021, 102.29, Mairs Peters, Fla., 52 793. Ann.1942 Ruhr Cowan, 146 Miss. 870, 112 386. 24—369. Westerman Mims, 111 Tex. 29, 227 178, discussing 3096 Tex.Rev.Stat. 1911, Ann.Civ.St. art. 3110; Love Wilcox, 119 256, S.W.2d 515, 70 A.L.R. 1484. example toward office resolutions Carter Tomlinson, 149 7, 795; Taylor, Tex.Civ.App., McDonald Calhoun, 232, 231 656; Seay Latham, 143 182 251, 155 180. Arkansas, Fisher 210 Ark. 380, 196 217. Similar pledges, frequently exacted See, e.g., Adair Drexel, 74 776, 105 174; Morrow Wipf, S.D. 146, 115 1121; Ladd Holmes, Or. 167, 66 714. 431; 124—129. allowed withdraw announced others substituted. 'A association, instituted purposes. organized purpose effectuating constitute inherent determining policies.' page 253. 795, 798; Tex.L.Rev. 378. reasoning Opinion Justices questions propounded Governor 1948. Justices, 250 598. One question 'Would November discretion Vice-President?' amended 226 relating meeting adding 'and elected.' clearly shows framers individuals states. supports controversy.' Id., 400, 600. McPherson Blacker, 36, 11, 869. Willbern, Discretion Ala.L.Rev. 40. review contest. antedated system, legislative illumine issue. not. Discussion Constitutional resulted direct. 28, difficulties up Under procedure, did separately Vice-President; two persons, designating wanted fill. predominant men, tie, thrown House, sympathetic During John Adams administration, parties, commend either Nation most theorists. manifestly intolerable. Accordingly adopted, vice-presidential candidates. ticket throwing House. offices, desires people, confronting obstacles confounded 1796 1800. Annals 1289—1290, 7th Cong., 1st Sess. (1802). 1: '* Each appoint, Manner Legislature direct, Number Senators Congress: Representative, Person Office Trust Profit appointed Elector. supra; re Green, 134 377, 379, 586, 587, 951; Burroughs U.S., 290 534, 54 287, 78 484. thus organization. excerpt text since Fourteenth prohibitions color, votes. unlike reasonably related legitimate objective—namely, protect protecting fraudulent invasion 9, facilitating operation democratic classify affiliations, before, objective. Nixon Herndon, 273 536, 47 446, 71 759. protection due Furthermore, color (1802): 'Under reside electors; designation for. Wise virtuous experience shown mode carried operation; people elect parson who, know, intend particular practically, very thing amendment.' S.Rep.No.22, 19th (1826), 4: 'In hold constitution, looked (electors), fixed pledges obey will. subsequent done. therefore, answered design institution. superior characters judgment: contrary, bind constituents. degenerated mere agency, agent useless, faithful, dangerous, not.' Story 1463 (5th ed., 1891). 869: 'Doubtless supposed independence fair executive, soon demonstrated legislatures suffrage districts, simply register appointing respect candidate.' III Cyclopedia Government (Appleton, 1914) Albert Bushnell Hart, 8: 1788—89, 1792 scattering votes, receiving 1796; 1800 five on. understanding established combine man; always, exception 1820 1824, colleges belonged it; 1824 principle offered predesignated Massachusetts: Laws Massachusetts, 54: 43. electors, etc.—The lieu surnames vice thereon line 'Electors president' arranged alphabetical order president, placed surnames. square voter designate cross (X) designation.' S.Doc.No.243, 78th 2d (1944), containing summary nominations electors. Library Congress, Legislative Reference Service, Proposed Reform College, 1950; Edward Stanwood, Presidency 1788 1897 (1912), pp, 47, 48, 50, 51. author preference gives alleged instance violation. comments instruction Law Nomination, Instruction Ruth Silva, 42 Amer.Pol. Science Rev. 523. Federalist 68 (Earle 1937), 441—442: 'It desirable operate trust confided. committing making pree stablished body, special purpose, conjuncture. equally desirable, immediate capable analyzing qualities adapted station, circumstances favorable deliberation, judicious combination reasons inducements govern small fellowcitizens mass, information discernment requisite complicated investigations.'

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