Document: 469 U.S. 528 105 S.Ct. 1005 83 L.Ed.2d 1016 Joe G. GARCIA, Appellantv.SAN ANTONIO METROPOLITAN TRANSIT AUTHORITY et al. Raymond J. DONOVAN, Secretary of Labor, Appellant v. SAN Nos. 82-1913, 82-1951. Argued March 19, 1984. Reargued Oct. 1, Decided Feb. 1985. Rehearing Denied April 15, See 471 1049, 2041. Syllabus Appellee San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority (SAMTA) is a public mass-transit authority that the major provider transportation in Antonio, Tex., metropolitan area. It has received substantial federal financial assistance under Urban Mass Transportation Act 1964. In 1979, Wage and Hour Administration Department Labor issued an opinion SAMTA's operations are not immune from minimum-wage overtime requirements Fair Standards (FLSA) National League Cities Usery, 426 833, 96 2465, 49 245, which it was held Commerce Clause does empower Congress to enforce such against States "in areas traditional governmental functions." Id., at 852, S.Ct., 2474. SAMTA then filed action Federal District Court, seeking declaratory relief. Entering judgment for SAMTA, Court municipal ownership operation system function thus, Cities, exempt obligations imposed by FLSA. Held: affording employees protection wage hour provisions FLSA, contravened no affirmative limit on its power Clause. Pp. 537-557. (a) The attempt draw boundaries state regulatory immunity terms "traditional functions" only unworkable but also inconsistent with established principles federalism and, indeed, those very purported rest. That case, accordingly, overruled. 537-547. . (b) There nothing as applied destructive sovereignty or violative any constitutional provision. States' continued role primarily guaranteed externally limits commerce power, structure Government itself. these cases, political process effectively protected role. 547-555. 557 F.Supp. 445, reversed remanded. Sol. Gen. Rex E. Lee, Washington, D.C., appellant No. Laurence Gold, 82-1913. William T. Coleman, Jr., appellees both cases. Justice BLACKMUN delivered Court. 1 We revisit cases issue raised 245 (1976). litigation, this sharply divided vote, ruled Although supplied some examples functions," did offer general explanation how "traditional" be distinguished "nontraditional" one. Since then, courts have struggled task, thus imposed, identifying purposes 2 present concluded Faced identical question, three Courts Appeals one appellate court reached opposite conclusion.1 3 Our examination "function" standard other over last eight years now persuades us function" 4 * history characteristic local mass transit United generally. Passenger hire within originally provided private basis company. 1913, Texas Legislature authorized State's municipalities regulate vehicles providing carriage hire. 1913 Tex.Gen.Laws, ch. 147, § 4, ¶ 12, codified, amended, Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., Art. 1175, §§ 20 21 (Vernon 1963). Two later, enacted ordinance setting forth franchising, insurance, safety passenger operated city rely publicly regulated until 1959, when purchased privately owned Company replaced known System (SATS). SATS 1978, transferred facilities equipment appellee (SAMTA), organized countywide basis. generally 1118x Supp.1984). currently area; between 1978 1980 alone, traveled 26 million route miles carried 63 passengers. 5 As localities, point where came look maintaining transit. managed meet operating expenses bond first decade existence without aid. By 1970, however, position had deteriorated subsidies were vital operation. SATS' manager year testified before "if we do receive help Government, may join growing ranks cities inferior [public] end up all."2 6 principal program systems looked relief 1964 (UMTA), Pub.L. 88-365, 78 Stat. 302, U.S.C.App. 1601 seq., provides urban programs. Jackson Union, 457 102 2202, 72 639 (1982). UMTA authorizes fund 75 percent capital outlays 50 qualifying 4(a), 5(d) (e), 1603(a), 1604(d) (e). subsidy, $4.1 grant, December 1970. From February 1980, $51 grants—more than $31 grants, $20 assistance, minor amount technical assistance. During two fiscal years, $12.5 $26.8 sales taxes, $10.1 fares. taxes account about expenses. 7 controversy concerns extent subjected When FLSA 1938, apply or, governments. 3(d), 13(a)(9), 52 1060, 1067. 1961, extended coverage carrier whose annual gross revenue less $1 million. Amendments 2(c), 9, 65, 71. Five local-government time withdrawing exemptions hospitals, schools, carriers rates services subject regulation. 1966, 102(a) (b), 80 831. At same time, eliminated exemption all drivers, operators, conductors. 206(c), 836. application schools hospitals Congress' Maryland Wirtz, 392 183, 88 2017, 1020 (1968). 8 like expanded 1974 progressive repeal surviving employees. 1974, 21(b), 68. simultaneously brought their subdivisions further ambit extending virtually 6(a)(1) (6), 58, 60, 29 U.S.C. 203(d) (x). complied FLSA's 1976, overruled could constitutionally Four months after handed down, informed decision relieved FLSA.3 9 Matters rested there September 17, "are Act" Cities. Opinion WH-499, LRR 91:1138. On November year, Western Texas. sought that, contrary Administration's determination, precluded operations. counterclaimed 217 enforcement recordkeeping day action, Garcia several suit pay Civil Action SA 79 CA 458. stayed pending outcome allowed intervene litigation defendant support Secretary. One month suit, formally amended interpretive regulations provide entitled 44 Fed.Reg. 75630 (1979), codified CFR 775.3(b)(3) (1984). 10 1981, granted motion summary denied Secretary's Garcia's cross-motion partial judgment. Without explanation, "local (including [SAMTA] ) constitute integral App. D Juris. Statement p. 24a. appealed directly pursuant 28 1252. pendency appeals, Union Long Island R. Co., 455 678, 1349, 71 547 (1982), decided. commuter rail service state-owned Rail Road hence enjoy immunity, Railway Act. Thereafter, vacated Court's remanded them consideration light Island. 1102, 2897, 73 1309 11 remand, adhered original view again entered SAMTA. 445 (1983). what regarded "historical reality" involvement recognized always systems, they engaged longstanding pattern regulation, tradition gave rise "inference sovereignty." 447-448. next record field would result erosion respect because many statutes themselves contain make withdrawal supervening policy. 448-450. Government's employee wages obviously eroded, asserted interest 1966 field, contrast century-old presence railroad industry found significant Finally, compared list functions identified differ material respect. stated: "If [National ] will way pornography sometimes identified: someone knows see it, can't describe it." F.Supp., 453.4 12 took direct appeals noted probable jurisdiction. 464 812, 104 64, After initial argument, restored our calendar reargument, parties requested brief argue following additional question: 13 "Whether Tenth Amendment set 833 [96 245] (1976), should reconsidered?" 468 1213, 3582, 82 880 Reargument followed due course. II 14 Appellees argued regulation ground intrastate commercial activity. practical sense, might well characterized "local." Nonetheless, long been settled extends economic activities affect interstate commerce. See, e.g., Hodel Virginia Surface Mining & Recl. Assn., 452 264, 276-277, 101 2352, 2360-2361, 69 (1981); Heart Atlanta Motel, Inc. States, 379 241, 258, 85 348, 358, 258 (1964); Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 125, 82, 89, 87 L.Ed. 122 (1942); Darby, 312 100, 61 451, 609 (1941). Were enterprise, credibly exceeded bounds powers prescribing minimum Any therefore must rest status entity rather "local" nature 15 prerequisites summarized Hodel, supra. Under summary, four conditions satisfied activity deemed particular First, said statute "the 'States States.' " Second, "address matters indisputably 'attribute[s] sovereignty.' Third, compliance obligation "directly impair [the States'] ability 'to functions.' relation interests justifies submission." U.S., 287-288, n. 29, 2365-2366, quoting 845, 854, 2471, 2474, 2475. 16 focused third requirement—that challenged trench voiced common concern: "Despite abundance adjectives, remains difficult." 447. Just troublesome task revealed results Thus, regulating ambulance services, Gold Cross Ambulance City Kansas City, 538 956, 967-969 (WD Mo.1982), aff'd grounds, 705 F.2d (CA8 1983), cert. pending, 83-138; licensing automobile Best, 573 1095, 1102-1103 (CA9 1978); airport, Amersbach Cleveland, 598 1033, 1037-1038 (CA6 1979); performing solid waste disposal, Hybud Equipment Corp. Akron, 654 1187, 1196 1981); highway authority, Molina-Estrada Puerto Rico Highway Authority, 680 841, 845-846 (CA1 1982), issuance industrial development bonds, Woods Homes Structures Pittsburg, Kansas, Inc., 489 1270, 1296-1297 (Kan.1980); natural gas sales, Oklahoma ex rel. Derryberry FERC, 494 636, 657 Okla.1980), aff'd, 661 832 (CA10 1981), sub nom. 1105, 2902, 1313 (1982); traffic roads, Friends Earth Carey, 552 25, 38 (CA2), denied, 434 902, 98 296, 54 188 (1977); air transportation, Hughes Air Public Utilities Comm'n Cal., 644 1334, 1340-1341 telephone system, Tel. Co. FCC, 553 694, 700-701 1977); leasing sale gas, Service N.C. 587 716, 721 (CA5), Louisiana 444 879, 100 166, 62 108 (1979); mental health facility, Williams Eastside Mental Health Center, 669 671, 680-681 (CA11), 459 976, 103 318, 74 294 provision in-house domestic aged handicapped, Bonnette California Welfare Agency, 704 1465, 1472 immunity. find difficult, if impossible, identify organizing principle places each group side line second side. distinction drivers traffic, example, elusive best. 17 Thus far, itself made little headway defining scope case unprotected functions, 851, 18, 2475 identified. occasion address problem Island.5 observed: "The determination whether law impairs state's 'areas [state] functions' times difficult one." 684, 1354, accuracy statement demonstrated own difficulties developing workable relied large part historical reality railroads among traditionally performed governments," disavowed "a static regulation." 686, 1355 (first emphasis added; original). inquiry into function's merely means determining unduly handicaps "basic prerogatives," id., 686-687, 1354-1355, makes prerogative" another basic. having disclaimed rigid reliance pedigree area, nonetheless appropriate emphasize transportation. 687-689, 1355-1356. 18 Many standards involve "undoubte[d] gray areas," Fry 421 542, 558, 95 1792, 1801, 363 (1975) (dissenting opinion), despite encountered so normally fair venture assumption case-by-case lead A cautionary note sounded, experience related taxation. South Carolina 199 437, 110, 261 (1905), tax Collector Day, Wall. 113, (1871), "ordinary" "strictly governmental" instrumentalities governments "used State carrying ordinary business." 461, 112, 116. While outlined 40 during period develop consistent formulation kinds various "essential," "usual," "traditional," governmental." "these differences phraseology too literally contradistinguished," Brush Commissioner, 300 352, 362, 57 495, 496, 81 691 (1937), reflect inability specify precisely aspects necessary "unimpaired existence" States. Wall., 127. Indeed, ultimately chose "not, formulate test, [to] risk embarrassing [concerning] different kind arise future." 365, 498. 19 If tax-immunity thread, distinguish "governmental" "proprietary" functions.7 To say proved stable, something overstatement. 1911, declared water supply "is essential State." Flint Stone Tracy 220 107, 172, 31 342, 357, 55 389. Twenty-six intervening change applicable legal standards, simply rejected earlier decided taxation function, even though water-works profit industry. 370-373, 500-502. holding state-run immune. Helvering Powers, 293 214, 171, 291 (1934). Black, Gerhardt, 304 405, 427, 58 969, 978, 1427 (1938), moved observe: "An implied income officer state-operated exempts works manifests uncertainty created 'essential' 'non-essential' test" (concurring opinion). instability led shortly thereafter, New York 326 572, 66 310, 90 (1946), unanimously conclude "untenable" abandoned. 583, 314 (opinion Frankfurter, J., joined Rutledge, J.); 586, 316 (Stone, C.J., concurring, Reed, Murphy, Burton, JJ.); 590-596, 318-321 (Douglas, dissenting, J.). Massachusetts 435 444, 457, 14, 1153, 1162, 403 (1978) (plurality opinion); Case Bowles, 327 92, 101, 438, 442, (1946). Even heyday governmental/proprietary intergovernmental doctrine never explained distinction. Carolina, expressed concern unlimited allow undermine base expanding previously sectors economy. 454-455, 113-114.8 need reconcile demanded limiting principle, try justify reached; "line [must] drawn," 456, 114, proceeded line. elaborations later assertion Ohio Helvering, 292 360, 369, 725, 727, 1307 (1934), "[w]hen enters market place customers divests quasi pro tanto," sound more ipse dixit reasoned explanation. This give principled content "proprietary," significantly unworkability, abandon discarded fruitful Neither alternative employed appear manageable. possibility making turn purely "tradition" Island, properly so. most obvious defect approach prevents accommodating changes resulted number once-private education being assumed subdivisions.9 apparent virtue rigorous standard, namely, promise reasonably objective measure illusory. Reliance line-drawing arbitrary sort; genesis stretches continuum Revolution present, decide fiat defeated.10 22 nonhistorical selecting likely just standard. goal "uniquely" tort liability notion unmanageable. Indian Towing 350 61, 64-68, 76 122, 124-126, 48 (1955); Lafayette Power Light 389, 433, 1123, 1147, 364 Another confine "necessary" is, inadequately unless government them. Cf. 357. fits category, negligible. fact unregulated produces deems desirable mean service; can "contract out" hiring firms existing suppliers. open question equipped workings markets. 23 believe, fundamental work here, explains why able similar distinctions unlikely succeed regardless phrased. neither nor purports separate out important faithful democratic society. essence realm left Constitution, equally free engage citizens choose weal, matter unorthodox unnecessary anyone else—including judiciary be. rule looks "integral," inevitably invites unelected decisions policies favors ones dislikes. science experiment," Anderson Dunn, Wheat. 204, 226, 242 (1821), cannot serve laboratories social experiment, Ice Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 371, 386, 747 (1932) (Brandeis, dissenting), added price changing needs citizenry taking society hands. words Black: 24 "There not, be, unchanging demarcation non-essential functions. today past non-governmental. genius sphere people—acting through elected legislative representatives determine demand, welfare requires." 978 25 reject, unsound practice, turns judicial appraisal "integral" "traditional." leads disserves self-governance, breeds inconsistency divorced principles. interfere functions—as undoubtedly elsewhere accordingly return underlying confronted —the manner Constitution insulates reach III central theme occupy special position. Of course, specific language limitation actions EEOC Wyoming, 460 248, 1054, 1067, (1983) true, text beginning final answer every questions federalism, "[b]ehind postulates control." Monaco Mississippi, 313, 322, 745, 748, 1282 reflected conviction precludes [from] devour[ing] essentials 205, 2028 order premises "postulates 27 What problematic perception Constitution's imposes limitations Clause, limitations. certain elements "separate independent existence." Lane County Oregon, 71, 76, (1869). underlay use concept requirement 288, 2366, 2471. itself, concerning hours "undoubted attribute explain attribute," since remarked uncertain concept. 238, 11, 1061, 11. inquiry, remained single features internal governance intrinsic parts sovereignty. doubt relying priori definitions part, elusiveness criteria "fundamental" sovereignty, witnessed search reason: limited variety sovereign powers, withdrawn Article I, 10. Section sharp contraction authorizing exercise wide range (in conjunction Supremacy VI) displace legislation. 290 -292, 2367-2368. review curtails judiciaries authoritative determinations law. Martin Hunter's Lessee, 304, 97 (1816). developed application, Fourteenth Amendment, greater Bill Rights otherwise possess legislate conduct affairs. unquestionably "retai[n] authority." 269, 1077 (POWELL, dissenting). They so, divested Government. James Madison Members First Congress: "Interference criterion Congress. given, it; although laws, States." Annals Cong. 1897 (1791). Field course his defense autonomy dissenting Baltimore Baugh, 149 368, 401, 914, 927, 37 772 (1893), quoted approval Erie Tompkins, 78-79, 817, 822-823, 1188 (1938): 30 "[T]he recognizes preserves independence States—independence departments. [Federal] [s]upervision either permissible except specifically delegated interference either, permitted, invasion extent, denial independence." result, assumes Only recently, purpose preserve sacred province autonomy." 236, 1060. With rare exceptions, guarantee, IV, 3, territorial integrity, carve express employ displace. Wilson reminded Pennsylvania ratifying convention 1787: "It sir, presupposes governments, yet suppose sole respected." Debates Several Conventions Adoption 439 (J. Elliot 2d ed. 1876) (Elliot). "power respected" well, remain vested offers guidance frontier lies. short, license freestanding conceptions measuring congressional 32 "residuary inviolable sovereignty," Federalist 39, (B. Wright 1961) Madison), shape scheme predetermined notions emerges. Apart inherent I chosen Framers ensure lies novelty observe composition designed protect overreaching Congress.11 selection Executive Legislative Branches indirect influence House Representatives Presidency control electoral qualifications Presidential elections. Const., 2, II, 1. given Senate, equal representation Senator selected legislature State. 3. significance attached Senate underscored prohibition amendment divesting consent. V. 33 insulate evident views Framers. "will partake sufficiently spirit [of States], disinclined invade rights individual prerogatives governments." 46, 332 1961). Similarly, observed "it favorite object Convention" security encroachment served end. Elliot, 438-439. placed he saw "at once recognition portion remaining instrument preserving residuary 62, 408 He [is] secured branch [federal] legislature" (emphasis added). 43, 315 McCulloch Maryland, 316, (1819). restraints inhered principally discrete objects authority. interests, procedural safeguards judicially power. 34 effectiveness hand, proportion revenues treasuries form program-specific grants assisting one; land finance Republic, cash awarded early 1887 Hatch Act.12 quarter-century localities grown $7 billion $96 billion.13 one-fifth expenditures.14 obtained funding police fire protection, education, parks recreation, sanitation.15 Moreover, exercised obtain support, For Act, Relations Labor-Management Reporting Disclosure Occupational Safety Employee Retirement Income Security Sherman subdivisions.16 extend obscure minimize burdens bear Clause.17 35 realize taken 1789, least substitution popular election Senators adoption Seventeenth alter process.18 background, convinced "States States" result. substantive restraint justification basic limitation, tailored compensate possible failings national dictate "sacred 36 Insofar concerned, go perceive faces hundreds thousands employers, private, meet. underscores structural protections federally burdens. extensive UMTA. decades enactment, $22 aid localities.19 1983 amounted $3.7 billion.20 above, immediate predecessor funding, including $12 alone. burden shoulders operate countervailing leave better off intervened treatment reinforces systematically protects area handicapped regulation.21 IV analysis clear reversed. 39 continue recognize But action—the built-in participation action. ensures laws promulgated. factual intended. These require define impose affecting Coyle Oklahoma, 221 559, 688, 853 (1911). accept Frankfurter's observation 314, (1946): 41 Constitutional adjudication thrive conjuring horrible possibilities happen real world devising doctrines comprehensive detail cover remotest contingency. Nor beyond required disposition Court." 42 Though concurrence fifth vote "not untroubled implications" decision, 856, 2476, attempted articulate core attributes model decisionmaking underestimated, view, solicitude vitality Attempts impracticable doctrinally barren. sum, tried repair repair. 43 lightly overrule recent precedent.22 hesitated, become prior departed proper understanding 116-117, 458-459, Due mandates now. reversed, proceedings opinion. 45 ordered. 46 POWELL, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 47 today, 5-4 overrules lacked Because believe substantially alters embodied dissent. are, numerous reconsidered few stare decisis rationale ignored abruptly witness.1 reasoning there, reiterated consistently years. cited opinions Member 287-293, 2365-2369, 684-686, 1353-1354, FERC 456 742, 764-767, 2126, 2140-2142, 532 Less ago, supra, unanimous reaffirmed inapplicable heavily key prong test [repeated reformulated ], examines 'the "to ' 1353. "may one," ibid., considered doctrine. 51 recently June 1982, five Justices who majority Mississippi. said: "In relationship 'undoubted 845 2471]. Yet, 'unimpaired' Taylor, 353 [77 1037, 1034] (1957), upheld labor employees, 2475, 18], acknowledged 764, 28, 2153, 28. 53 went met, '[t]here situations advanced submission.' Ibid., 2366 29. joint federal/state "situation," hint —or standard—was infirmities discovered today. rigidly questions, "any departure demands justification." Arizona Rumsey, 467 203, 212, 2305, 2311, 164 Oregon Kennedy, 667, 691-692, 34, 2083, 2097-2098, 416 (1982) (STEVENS, concurring judgment). compose participated reaffirming it.2 stability precipitate overruling multiple precedents witness cases.3 Whatever effect weakening decisis, done unique feature implicit name country. Despite genuflecting today's reduces meaningless rhetoric acts holds "contravened Clause" employment Ante, 556. rejecting states: 56 "Apart itself." 550 intention, renounces "inevitably dislikes." 546. words, act henceforth determined members says review. seem occurred —an Justices—today rejects almost 200 federalism. doing passing reference Amendment. much dictum depend upon grace officials, interpreted my follows, Part addresses criticisms reviews briefly ensured ratification retain system. considers applicability 59 finds approved progeny principle. finding unworkable, begins mischaracterizing subsequent concluding efforts radically departs long-settled values ignores government. A. 60 Much devoted arguing in, required, task.4 discusses condemns "purely historical" 'uniquely' 'necessary' services." 539, 543, 545. nowhere mention adopted familiar type balancing enactments transgress omission noteworthy, author concurred separately "adopt[s] [that] outlaw demonstrably essential." 2476 (BLACKMUN, concurring). reading embrace approach, quite correctly (1975). explicitly weighed seriousness addressed legislation effects 852-853, 2474-2475. weighing respective Government.5 (1983), stated "[t]he articulated functional ultimate create autonomy, benefits lost undue (1981). incorrectly characterizes mode therein cases.6 BLACKMUN's implications opinion" challenge here FLSA] necessarily correct." His discuss statute, changed circumstances warrant conclusion wrong. B Today's guarantees exercises infringe residual sovereignty.7 office Government.8 participate Electoral College, hardly reason President representative encroachment. hydraulic pressure exceed outer ." INS Chadha, 462 919, 951, 2764, 2784, 77 think seeks invoke notwithstanding States.9 64 apparently thinks success obtaining funds projects indicative "effectiveness interests. 552.10 relevant processes enforcing limitations.11 rectify so.12 law, grace. prohibited reserved respectively, people." Amdt. 65 More troubling logical holding, i.e., invoking judges (Hamilton). Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 177, (1803), is" constitutionality Acts protecting overreaching, ignoring teaching famous history.13 pre-empted contemporaneous writings debates conventions clear, predicated promised proponents realized. 67 opposition rooted fear powerful eventually eliminate viable entities. repeatedly assurances Rights, reserving business new Samuel Adams argued, "one entire Nation, Legislature, Powers shall Subject Legislation, Laws supreme controul whole, Idea Sovereignty lost." Letter Richard Henry Lee (Dec. 1787), reprinted Anti-Federalists versus Federalists 159 Lewis 1967). Likewise, George Mason feared paramount to, latter former." Address Ratifying Convention (June 4-12, 1788), Federalists, 208-209. 68 Antifederalists convention.14 1-4 2d. 1876). voted proposing amendments ratification.15 All included recommendations version became Ibid. So strong proposed seriously defective bill rights, secure votes ratification, conceded necessary. B. Schwartz, Rights: Documentary History 505 passim (1971). agreed 432-437 (1789) (remarks Madison). Accordingly, know session 983-1167. history, ignores, documents theory. exposes character error Far "unsound principle," ante, 546, carefully Constitution. 70 definite ideas division Governments. drawing series contrasts "national" "indefinite supremacy persons things," contemplated instead consisted authorities [which] distinct portions supremacy, spheres them, sphere." 256 Cooke jurisdiction "certain enumerated only, leav[ing] objects." elaborated 45: defined. Those Governments indefinite. former external objects, war, peace, negociation, foreign which, affairs, lives, liberties properties people; order, improvement, prosperity 313 ed.1961). "most war danger; peace security." believed effective "counterpoise" attract loyalty citizens. roots loyalty, Founders thought, peculiar Hamilton "regulat[e] personal sensibility individuals immediately awake. 107 maintained people visible guardian life property," "contributes circumstance impressing minds affection, esteem reverence towards government." position, explaining familiarly minutely conversant" "with these, ties acquaintance friendship, family party attachments. Like Hamilton, everyday source citizens' loyalty. Nagel, Federalism Fundamental Value: Perspective, 1981 S.Ct.Rev. 81. harm dollars cents. 846-851, 2471-2474. wisdom folly policy choices. Rather, usurping undermines mandated balance liberties. C emasculation "delegated "Congress Nations, Tribes." 8, cl. identifies score listing lay borrow money credit debts, "Commerce." leading capability regulate. M. Farrand, Records 1787 (rev. 1937); 7, 22, 42, 45. 265, 1075, focuses regulate: nations tribes "among" sure, construed accommodate unanticipated centuries. occurred, legitimate outweighed doing, mindful "our power." 842, 2470. invoked prevent exercising 'power fashion integrity system.' 842-843, 2470-2471 (quoting 547, 1795, 7. component century (1869), spheres, concluded, did, "nearly whole charge interior .; States] expressly reserved." 76. Recently, Community Communications Boulder, 40, 53, 835, 810 antitrust based 683, 1353, railroad, careful preserved powers. Again, 752, 2133, Utility Regulatory Policies impinged violation represent role, importance, also, supra; Metcalf Eddy Mitchell, 269 514, 384 (1926); Frankfurter noted, factor "shifting arrangements" country, Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 95, 448, 458, 93 513 (1949) (concurring), "coordinate element governing Union." 849, 2473. contrast, propounds pays lipservice "unquestionably 'retai[n] authority,' 549 dissenting)), fails broad, intended retain. barely acknowledges exists.16 states recasts "only Government." 549. rephrasing difference; rather, reflects unprecedented assume appears relegate trivial opponents occupy.17 spoke prevention, sanitation, "typical services] discharging dual administering furnishing Not remote normal commerce, epitomize local, self-government. 5, emphasizing lives understand evaluate, democracy, right oversee.18 perform maintains "disserves self-goverance." 547. reaching conclusion, myopically positions disregards entirely far self-government levels. compare realistically drafted staffs committees. bills introduced complexity impossible conscientious legislators truly enacted. departments agencies customarily write regulations. Often statutes. true legislation, largely staff personnel. administration hands civil knowledge affected responsible. accessible responsive analogous 84 imply criticism officials charge. great duties. My immense bureaucracy elected, rendered recipients legislatures, councils, boards supervisors, commissions, boards, agencies. levels—not Washington mistakenly "democratic self-government" best exemplified. presented extension city-owned unconstitutionally impinges sweeping negative. control, auspices employers drawn serious misunderstanding, outright rejection, country intention Constitution.19 86 accepted "federal greater." No made, compelling. impact displacing wages, hours, regulations, pensions, relations serious, unanticipated, planning, budgeting, levying taxes.20 "displaces regarding [States] delivery require." 847, 2472. emphasizes intracity relatively nevertheless classic example definition. indistinguishable streets, lighting, water, sewerage systems.21 Services "familiarly conversant." intimately sensitive quality cost. Such constituents press respond adequacy, distribution, cost services. accountability understood insure preservation requires. 847-852, 2472-2474. V aspect (1968), reaffirmed, sustained institutions, schools. Wirtz comparatively narrow, Douglas, dissent, wrote presciently enable devour attested Amendment." 2028. Douglas' realistic 89 precepts review, 91 POWELL's O'CONNOR's thoughtful dissents. "balancing suggested congruent "where approaches affirmed, incumbent dissent spell fine points will, am confident, command 92 O'CONNOR, POWELL REHNQUIST surveys battle scene sounds retreat. prefer hold least, render wounded. disagreement majority's duty 94 grounds "faithful society." system," concludes, weal. narrow attempts existence, "equally." reduced weak "essence" distilled constraints Constitution." Constitution—whether interference. substance, enforce." C. Perspectives Law (1963). bound supreme. Younger Harris, 401 37, 44, 746, 750, conceived cultivated meaningful, abdicate responsibility oversee emergence integrated industrialized economy, examine breathtaking expansion perceived sufficient problems. single-minded. animated array intentions. 265-266, 1075-1076, surely envisioned capable solving problems, republic assured diffusion branches 790, (O'CONNOR, 18th intentions conflict technology converted emerged, retreats recall come it. precise specify, Framers, defenseless; all, "few defined." 45, Framers' comments indicate one, clearly demonstrates, ante 570-572. greatest relevance importance people. pp. 106-108 according produce efficient people: republic, surrendered people, submitted government; usurpations guarded compound America, allotted each, subdivided Hence double arises other; controuled 51, 350-351 99 81, 88. defined" "To limited, expected used exclusively remove tariffs maritime affairs large-scale mercantile enterprise. Abel, Contemporary Comment, Minn.L.Rev. 432 suggests narrowly bestowed era represented tiny fraction goods produced consumed close home, broad steadily expanded. Industrialization, coupled advances communications, economy occurring borders plays part. integration coordinate increasingly generous interpretation Congress, assure deal Most significantly, NLRB Jones Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 615, 893 (1941), previous interpretations stymied Deal Darby embraced directly. Subsequent activity, rational affects (1964). individual's perceptible effect, class class, (1975); Perez 402 146, 1357, 686 Incidental individual, arguably "affects" supplant context groups, 544, relevant. lessened weight gives gradually erase Nation faith efficiency Republic. erroneous, Supreme blind threat Necessary Proper resort plainly adapted permitted end." 124, 462. "affecting" Wrightwood Dairy 119, 523, 526, 726 (1942), confined states. exertion attainment end, execution [4 579 (1819) ]. 88, underlies 1795; 151-152, 1360; 258-259, 358-359. 106 worth recalling passage 421, (1819), "Let legitimate, let constitution," Chief Marshall said, "and appropriate, prohibited, consist letter constitution, constitutional" enough "end legitimate"; contravene acknowledge take autonomy. 7; 586-587, 316-317, (1946) concurring); 624 ("Undoubtedly, [commerce] complex society, effectually obliterate completely centralized government"); Santa Cruz Fruit Packing NLRB, 303 453, 466-467, 656, 660-661, 954 (1938). Sandalow, Interpretation, Mich.L.Rev. 1055 (1981) ("The always, answered account, relevant, Constitution—as time—gives expression"). rationally location chooses barred dictating 565, 689, taxing spending savings loan associations, converting quasi-public associations contravenes conversion desired Hopkins Savings Loan Assn. Cleary, 296 315, 235, 251 (1935). operative varies, consistent: assessing requires complement crafted Usery limits. washes process, opines unwarranted encroachments 'horrible world.' 556, ample contrary. 109 seen growth acknowledges. 544-545, 1954, still speak "burden persuasion favoring intervention" asserting "National exceptional polity, intrusion justified necessity, case." Wechsler, Political Safeguards Federalism: Role Composition Selection Colum.L.Rev. 544-545 (1954). Today, coercive grant programs innumerable viewed shifted, extraordinary ordinary. Engdahl, Sense Nonsense About Immunity, Commentary (1985). has, blessing, undertaken tell age retire officers, procedures, agenda utilities commissions consider follow. (1983); activities, impinge laws. abandonment stands latter's underdeveloped capacity self-restraint. 110 problems responsible resolution apart resolution, suggest, interpreting insufficient, validity ask valid enforced party. reasoning, opinion, regulated, recognized. 841-846, 2469-2472. equated litigant. Nevada Hall, 440 410, 428, 1182, 1192, (1979) dissenting) (criticizing treat sister differently litigant). Instead, regulates becomes irrelevant negligible." 111 craft bright lines difficulty whenever conflict. Regardless difficulty, instance. shuns appealing "essence federalism" scant comfort unitary, shirk progeny, share REHNQUIST's belief responsibility. 112 respectfully Dove Chattanooga Area Regional 701 1983) Macon Joiner, 82-1974; Alewine Council Augusta, Ga., 699 1060 (CA11 83-257; Kramer Castle 677 308 (CA3 1146, 786, 993 Francis Tallahassee, 424 So.2d (Fla.App.1982). Transportation: Hearings H.R. 6663 Subcommittee Housing Committee Banking Currency, 91st Cong., Sess., 419 (1970) (statement F. Norman Hill). avoid provisions. levels excess prescribed Brief Amici Curiae 7-8. analyzed four-part devised Sixth Circuit 1033 (1979). (1) community available expense; (2) pecuniary gain; (3) provider; (4) particularly suited community-wide need. 1037. Jefferson Pharmaceutical Abbott Laboratories, 150, 154, 6, 1011, 1014, 882 781, 2148, part); 1800, 389 (1911) ("essential"); Therrell, 218, 225, 758 (1938) (same); 173, (1934) ("usual"); California, 297 175, 185, 424, 567 (1936) ("activities engaged"); 116, (1905) ("strictly governmental"). uphold liquor liquor-distribution monopoly. Flint, [sic character"; "[i]t artificial light, like." involving monopoly, buying selling commodities performance function," tanto, takes trader, concerned." 727. trustees railroad; withdraw sources engaging businesses usual nature, extend," proprietary enterprises conceives benefit." 173. Accord, Allen Regents, 439, 451-453, 980, 985-986, 1448 especially weighty dispute accounted one-fourth revenues. 598, 321, nearsightedness; self-evidently often yesterday's suspect innovation. offered recreation function. earlier, Shoemaker 147 282, 361, 170 pointed commons grazing animals common," "[i]n memory men living, proposition property [by eminent domain] park novel 297, reasons, vel non adequate current originated ago Deal, good decades. vintage diminish strength applying supervision. ostensibly "ha[ve] [federal taxing] beginning," 588, JJ.), records effective. challenged, while 1932 rescinded later. 222, 172; Rakestraw, Reciprocal Rule Governmental Tax Immunity Legal Myth, Fed.Bar 116 (1950). Choper, Judicial Review Process 175-184 (1980); 543 (1954); La Pierre, Redux: Intergovernmental Agents Wash.U.L.Q. 779 Howitt, Managing Studies 3-18 (1984); Break, Fiscal States: Years, Evolution Outlook, Advisory Commission Relations, Future 1980s, 39-54 (July 1981). 8; Bureau Census, Dept. Commerce, Expenditures Year 1983, (1984) (Census, Expenditures); Division Accounts Reports, Service—Bureau Financial Operations, Treasury, Aid (1983 rev. ed.). Significant Features 120, Fire Prevention Control 1535, 2201 seq.; Park Recreation Recovery 3538, 2501 Elementary Secondary Education 1965, 27, 2701 Water Pollution 1155, 1251 682, 201 Safe Drinking 1660, 300f Omnibus Crime Streets 1968, 197, 3701 Development 633, 5301 Juvenile Delinquency 1109, 5601 seq. 2-15. 824(f); 152(2); 402(e); 652(5); 1003(b)(1), 1002(32); Parker Brown, 341 (1943). regards incorporated firefighting personnel positions. 207(k). declined policymaking 203(e)(2)(C)(i) (ii). 177-178; Kaden, Politics, Money, Sovereignty: Role, 860-868 Related Agencies Appropriations 1983: Appropriations, 97th pt. 808 (fiscal 1965-1982); 1983). references meant accompanied Spending Scott, 437 86-87, 2189, 2191-2192, (1978). Unlike decisions. member 775, 2145, part). commentator represents evolution institutions." Lile, Some Views Stare Decisis, Va.L.Rev. (1916). referred precision. luxury rarely enjoyed surprisingly, therefore, demonstrate impossibility definition unhelpful. cites E.g., 671 (1977). others lower courts. 1095 1978), 1187 analyzing lists thought 538-539. facts issue; blanket pronouncements things inherently qualified not. Having context, "organizing principle" 539. undertaking balancing, considered, exempting reach. Central closely implicates viz., promotion trade 244, 1064, 1355, ("Congress disruptions economy"); 757, 2136, ("[I]t conceive electric energy ."). goals program. 2363 (national surface mining competition maintain standards). assessed injury forced comply enactments. addition, misplaced. abandoned "governmental/proprietary" drastic solely faced adopt naive, whatever have. Late "affirmative Clause." asserts intended." "political process" fail limits" imposed. Presumably, Branch "unelected." malfunction process." failure determined, transparent objections relies imagine saying composed individuals, amply process. Rights. infra, 568-570. sufficed somewhat practical, logical, Professor seminal article 1954 argument assumptions accord reality. Wechsler wrote: 544 premise odds proliferation combined insensitive values." (ACIR), Policy, Process, Impact Reform (providing Senators), level, media, things, constituencies. 50-51. observer explained: "As constituencies groups farmers, businessmen, laborers, environmentalists, poor, supports initiatives, tendency reduced." Courts: Agenda ACIR, 849 (changes practices breadth initiatives longer safeguarding federalism"), Federalism, 1-24 (detailing "dramatic shift" decades). ignore theory, premises. believes afforded 552-553, 555. held, mere disbursement establishes benefit funds. Pennhurst School Hospital Halderman, 451 17-18, 1531, 1539-1540, 694 willingness aid, same: violates Apparently effort reassure governments: Management 1002(32), 1003(b)(1); 341, 307, 553. suggest here. invitation urge subdivisions. abdicated theoretically stronger Buckley Valeo, 612, 659 Myers 272 52, 21, 160 (1926), signed appointments violated 841-842, 2469-2470, 12. unconstitutional infringed President's consent notwithstanding. point; cite view. "invites Curiously, analysis, experiment." citing Brandeis' "an judiciary" Governments, "social leaving mercy recourse enhance opportunities experiment "laboratories." Opponents dubious Federalists' claim retained absence providing. Winthrop fallacy Letters Agrippa, 510, 511 withholding included, substance 762-766 passim. mentions once, restates put reargument 536. amici argue, fulfill dependent instruments self-government." 50. al (a behalf organization representing governments). democracy occurs government, firsthand ready access dealing 1961); adopted. "Participation frequent, stages regional organizations, [Additionally,] actually involved total population tends greater, level this, approximates citizen ideal." Citizen Participation American (1980). sophisticated lobbying, campaign contributions shaping enactment types Contrary safeguard localities. "definite Douglas 2027, "disrupt threaten education." "[t]his 1354.

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