Document: 372 U.S. 144 83 S.Ct. 554 9 L.Ed.2d 644 Robert F. KENNEDY, Attorney General of the United States, Appellant,v.Francisco MENDOZA-MARTINEZ. Dean RUSK, Secretary State, Appellant, v. Joseph Henry CORT. Nos. 2, 3. Reargued Dec. 4 and 5, 1962. Decided Feb. 18, 1963. [Syllabus from pages 144-145 intentionally omitted] No. 2: Bruce J. Terris, Washington, D.C., for appellant. Thomas R. Davis, appellee. 3: William Doolittle, Leonard B. Boudin, New York City, Mr. Justice GOLDBERG delivered opinion Court. 1 We are called upon in these two cases to decide grave fundamental problem, common both, constitutionality Acts Congress which divest an American his citizenship '(d)eparting or remaining outside jurisdiction States time war * national emergency purpose evading avoiding training service' Nation's armed forces.1 I. THE FACTS. 2 A. Mendoza-Martinez—No. 2. 3 The facts both not dispute. Mendoza-Martinez, appellee was born this country 1922 therefore acquired by birth. By reason parentage, he also, under Mexican law, gained citizenship, thereby possessing dual nationality. In 1942 departed went Mexico solely, as admits, military service our forces. He concedes that remained there sole until November 1946, when voluntarily returned country. 1947, District Court Southern California, pleaded guilty convicted evasion obligations violation § 11 Selective Training Service Act 1940.2 served imposed sentence a year day. For all appears record, was, release, allowed reside undisturbed 1953, when, after lapse five years, with warrant arrest deportation proceedings. This premised on assertion that, avoid September 27, 1944, 401(j) took effect, had lost citizenship. Following hearing, General's special inquiry officer sustained ordered Mendoza-Martinez be deported alien. appealed Board Immigration Appeals Department Justice, dismissed appeal. Thereafter, brought declaratory judgment action Federal seeking declaration status citizen, unconstitutionality 401(j), voidness orders directed against him. A single-judge unreported decision entered 1955, holding virtue court held constitutional, nationality 1944. Ninth Circuit affirmed judgment, 238 F.2d 239. Court, 1958, Mackey, 356 258, 78 713, 757, granted certiorari, vacated remanded cause reconsideration light its week earlier Trop Dulles, 86, 590, 596. 5 On 24, announced new decision, also unreported, is unconstitutional because based any 'rational nexus between content specific power carrying into execution.' direct appeal 28 U.S.C. 1252, noted probable jurisdiction, Mackey 359 933, 79 648, 635, then own motion cause, permission parties amend pleadings put issue question whether determined draft-evasion conviction 1947 collaterally estopped now claiming while Mexico. 362 384, 80 785, 812. 6 remand Government criminal proceedings entailed no determination Mendoza-Martinez' court, however, reaffirmed previous unconstitutional, adding further basis invalidity 'essentially penal character deprives plaintiff procedural due process. (T)he requirements process satisfied administrative hearing nor present proceedings.'3 current decision. Probable February 20, 1961, Rogers 365 809, 81 691, 689. case argued last Term, restored calendar reargument 369 832, 82 863, 7 841. Cort—No. 8 Cort, 3, native-born American, Boston 1927. Unlike has His wife young children likewise citizens receipt M.D. degree Yale University School Medicine 1951, England undertaking position Research Fellow at Cambridge University. registered timely proper fashion draft shortly before departure supplemented regular registration registering newly enacted Doctors Draft Act.4 late 1951 received series letters Embassy London instructing him deliver passport it made 'valid only return States.' did respond demands because, says affidavit filed trial proceeding, 'I believed they were unlawful I wish subject myself similar forms political persecution prevalent States. engaged important research teaching work physiology desired continue earning livelihood my family.' Cort been member Communist Party medical student 1946 except academic 1948—1949 England. 1952, still Cambridge, accepted following Harvard Medical School. When, school discovered through correspondence yet fulfilled obligations, advised regard essential enough support deferment order enter it. local board Brookline, Massachusetts, notified 1953 request denied should report within 30 days physical examination either Brookline Frankfurt, Germany. June July again sent notices examination, first notice second Frankfurt. appear place, August 13 induction 14, 1953. report, consequently indicted December 1954 12(a) 19485 failure induction. indictment outstanding. complaint states 'that issued good faith secure services, past associations disabilities ineligible such service, being back Congressional committee subpoena Smith *.' Meanwhile, British Home Office refused renew residence permit, mid-1954 family moved Prague, Czechoslovakia, where Senior Scientific Worker Cardiovascular Institute. lived since. April 1959, having long since expired, applied Prague one. wanted 'in so might fulfill laws treatment multiple sclerosis.' Mrs. came temporarily purposes facilitate arrangements her husband's return. Cort's application, ground had, ordered, automatically forfeited 349(a)(10) Nationality superseded 401(j). State Department's Passport Review finding expatriation, legal adviser counsel, thereupon suit Columbia citizen injunction enforcement unconstitutionality, directing revocation certificate loss issuance Pursuant demand, three-judge convened. evade but 'We perceive substantial difference constitutional one facing us.' It concluded enjoined withholding otherwise interfering rights Herter, 187 F.Supp. 683. 10 directly §§ 1253, postponed merits. Herter 808, 690. preliminary affirmatively resolved Rusk 367, 787, leaving validity now, reargument. U.S., 380, 794. Before we consider cases, 349(a)(10), issues peculiar must discussed. II. THREE-JUDGE COURT ISSUE. 12 At threshold proceeding have heard convened pursuant 2282, requires tribunal prerequisite granting 'interlocutory permanent restraining enforcement, operation execution repugnance Constitution If 2282 governs litigation, once faced prospect trial, panel. are, properly single district judge, urge. tried times, asked injunctive relief, none granted. amended 1960 collateral estoppel, added prayer asking adjudge defendants herein restrained henceforth enforcing' However, abundantly clear stipulation approved judge 'govern course trial,' framed contemplate relief. articulated terms 'herein (draft evasion) denying 'unconstitutional, face herein.' conclusion relief even contemplation attended borne out total lack reference Court's memorandum opinion, findings fact conclusions judgment. See Rogers, 192 1. merely 1944 Amendment 'is herein,' '(t)hat ever date birth been, Thus, despite amendment third neither relevant regarded material disposition case. Since issue, applicable require convening 14 Whether solely would circumstances inappropriate consideration need decide, congressional policy underlying statute frustrated judge. legislative history complement, 2281,6 requiring three judges hear suits federal state legislation, respectively, indicates sections prevent able paralyze totally entire regulatory scheme, federal, broad order. Section 2281 'was means protection increasing body legislation regulating economic enterprise invalidation conventional equity. crux business improvident state-wide doom state's policy. aim Phillips 312 246, 250—251, 61 480, 483, 85 L.Ed. 800. Repeatedly emphasized during debates heavy pecuniary costs unforeseen debilitating interruptions administration law could wrought judge's order, great burdens coping harassing actions another challenge statutory wherever over government officials acquired, ultimately found who grant injunction. Cong.Rec. 479—481, 2142—2143 (1937). 15 action, form agreed substance involves dangers addressing itself. sought affected noncoercive fashion. There interdiction large statute. declared without sanction application Mendoza-Martinez. Pending review free apply That case, here conflict provide convocation whenever scheme may immediately disrupted final judicial court's can obtained. Thus whatever invoke extraordinary procedure court. Compare Schneider Rusk, 224, 621, decided III. COLLATERAL-ESTOPPEL 16 complaint, suggestion year, charged 'the admitted (in deny rejected assertion. renews alternative upholding below 'That F.Supp., 17 too reject contention point. argument, stated more fully, follows: 1940 applies resident aliens. Both spoke period 15, 1942, 1, country.7 became effective, unless do nonresident Therefore, concludes, taken lose well preceding date. 18 true 'as those matters points controverted, verdict rendered,' Cromwell County Sac, 94 351, 353, 24 195, prior estop party subsequent civil Emich Motors Corp. Corp., 340 558, 568—569, 71 408, 413 414, 95 534, Staes erroneous status, Moser, 266 236, 45 66, 69 262. evasion. Putting aside guilty, itself litigated preclude estoppel,8 basic flaw argument continuing Mexico, particularly effective. 'on about 1942,' 'did knowingly depart go foreign county, namely: constituted alleged violation. additional language remain 1946,' surplusage relation substantive offense, although might, example, serve problems connected tolling limitations. No charging elements violation—knowledge connection crime what happened thereon, if date,9 nowise 19 worded differently. of: 20 'Having 15th land naval forces 1st 1946.' 21 Again, relating tied words stating knowledge service. actual necessary IV. CONSTITUTIONAL ISSUES. 22 Basic Principles. 23 involved, begin analysis mindful function discharging gravest most delicate duty perform.' Blodgett Holden, 275 142, 148, 48 105, 107, 72 206 (separate Holmes, J.). responsibility respect powers Congress, recognition transcendent Constitution. deal contending arguments context certain sometimes conflicting principles. Citizenship precious right. expressly guaranteed Fourteenth Constitution, speaks positive terms.10 silent permissibility involuntary forfeiture rights.11 While confirms rights, plainly imperative performance exercise constitutionally exact. One emergency. defense far-reaching,12 protects invasions individual suicide pact. Similarly, Necessary Proper Clause enact regulation affairs. Latitude area ensure effectuation indispensable government.13 25 These principles, stemming hand nature other related citizens, urged us here. argues valid Congress' affairs, power, inherent sovereignty Government. Appellees urge provisions' asserted, imposing cruel unusual punishment. 26 recognize outset confronted utmost import. Deprivation 'one valuable world today,' Report President's Commission Naturalization (1953), 235—has practical consequences. An expatriate who, like becomes stateless person—a person membership entity whatsoever. 'Such individuals possess enjoy, general, whatever, aggrieved redress, competent take up their As far Law Nations concerned, is, apart restraints morality laid down treaty restriction abstain maltreating extent individuals.' Oppenheim, International (8th ed., Lauterpacht, 1955), 291, 640.14 calamity '(n)ot then, community willing guarantee whatsoever Arendt, Origins Totalitarianism (1951), 294. end shunted nation nation, obligated receive him,15 or, dubious sanctuary regime lacking liberties citizenship.16 Perez Cases. 27 principles gravity bearing forfeit considered different provisions same day less than years ago: Brownell, 44, 568, 590. Perez, 401(e), imposes '(v)oting election participating plebiscite determine territory,' upheld closely divided regulate reasoned withdrawal Americans vote elections reasonably calculated effect avoidance embarrassment conduct relations, acting Clause. 401(e) denationalize relied, declined rule section, 62, S.Ct., 578. opinions written dissent. principal one, Chief recognized renounced right expatriation derogation undivided allegiance country,' id., 68, 581, '(t)he mere act voting election, attending participation, sufficient show voluntary abandonment citizenship,' 78, 586. 29 Trop, 401(g), forfeiting '(d)eserting war, provided thereof martial result dishonorably discharged *,' unconstitutional. wrote four members concluding 401(g) invalid dissent punishment Eighth Amendment. Brennan conceded 'paradoxical justify committed find provides soldier very serious desertion war,' 600. Notwithstanding, concurred requisite rational does 114, 605. Frankfurter, joined Justices, dissented impose all, let alone punishment, Congress. C. Sections Punishment. 31 section passed Trop—s successor counterpart, 1952. come answer obviates choice statutes here, automatically—without proceedings—impose essentially character, deprived appellees according them Fifth Sixth Amendments, including notice, confrontation, compulsory obtaining witnesses, jury, assistance counsel. contrast required court-martial inflicted. impliedly holding, regulable affairs.' 59, 576. Dent West Virginia, 129 231, 32 623; Hawker York, 170 189, 573, 42 1002; Flemming Nestor, 363 603, 1367, 1435. Indeed, observed 'Section decrees providing semblance whereby guilt evader 94, 594, Frankfurter alluded overtones requirement court-martial, 116—117, 606. relations process.17 necessity safeguarding emergencies existed throughout history, pressing exigencies crisis, greatest temptation dispense guarantees which, feared, will inhibit governmental action. 'The rulers people, equally peace, covers shield classes men, circumstances.' Ex parte Milligan, Wall, 120—121, 281.18 Amendments 'preserved every accused attached army, navy, militia service.' Id., 123.19 '(I)f society disturbed commotion—if passions men aroused weakened, disregarded—these safeguards need, receive, watchful care intrusted guardianship laws. way transmit posterity unimpaired blessings liberty, consecrated sacrifices Revolution.' 124. 33 hold employed deprivation punishment—for offense service—without affording Amendments.20 Our forefathers 'intended safeguard people duly courts. And courts entrusted, commanded stay hands tested observed. impartial represented (and) clearly informed charge Lovett, 328 303, 317, 66 1073, 1080, 90 1252. Chambers Florida, 309 227, 235—238, 60 472, 476—477, 84 716. 34 concedes, strip concomitant 'of makes life worth living,' Ng Fung Ho White, 259 276, 284—285, 492, 495, 938, departs remains obligations. Conviction evasion, illustrates, sanction.21 Independently prosecution, attaches set develops. availability proceedings, machinery Term contest meets measure But expression enactment dating 1865 establish penalty staying draft. so, mandate cannot incidents, indictment, jury witnesses. incidents prosecution lacking. further. 35 punitive evident tests traditionally though problem extremely difficult elusive solution. affirmative disability restraint,22 historically punishment,23 comes play scienter,24 promote traditional aims punishment—retribution deterrence,25 behavior already crime,26 rationally assignable it,27 excessive assigned28 inquiry, often point differing directions. Absent conclusive evidence intent statute, factors face. Here, convinced criteria supports punitive, detailed along lines unnecessary, objective manifestations indicate conclusively interpreted punitive.29 study predecessor volume logic,' Trust Co. Eisner, 256 345, 349, 41 506, 507, 65 963, coupled reading reasons enacting compels statute's primary category evader.30 supra, 107—110, 601—603 (Brennan, J., concurring). 36 Predecessor Statute Judicial Construction. 37 subsections origin part Civil War 'Act several heretofore Enrolling Calling National Forces, Purposes.' March 1865, Stat. 487. Act, dealing deserters evaders, addition lawful penalties desertion,' persons 'shall deemed relinquished become enrolled, shall beyond limits liable section.'31 38 confirm use accidental. originally proposed inflicted deserters. Senator Morrill Maine amending cover leave draft, stating, see why principle extend draft.' Cong.Globe, 38th Cong., 2d Sess. 642 (1865). 'same principle' worried insofar 'provides penalty' theretofore deserted, 'whether ex post facto fixing done.' Ibid. Johnson Maryland attempted allay Morrill's concern explaining 39 nothing else occurs, deserted sixty days. antecedent desertion, Congress.' 40 explanation Senate sufficiently amendment, Hendricks Indiana speech effort convince colleagues bill's and, excessiveness evaders: 'It seems me proposes punish desertions prescribe. think pass. known denial suffrage offices trust profit. objection clear, desire suggest punishes hereafter place manner, Senators recently created reporting submit horrible thing deprive man pride honor, unable specified drafted. Certainly severe enough. extends pay death; compass given offense. Why add other? good.' 643. 43 House, York's Representative Townsend strike 'despotic measure' 'have fifty thousand, know hundred privileges,' met Schenck Ohio, Chairman Military Committee, 'Here lawful, wise, proper, exist deserters.' 1155. After Wilson Iowa later placed version bill, extending portion enrolled' country, Allen Illinois raised whole. 1155—1156. answered much replied Senate: 44 gentleman (Mr. Allen) misapprehends looked carefully, think, language. thinks retroactive. so. punishing gone passage only, deserters, themselves looks carefully avoided making give flag repentance 'Mr. ALLEN. Will infliction failed Army deserted? 46 SCHENCK. Yes, sir. 47 Does make retroactive? They now. character. refers lawyers believe lawyer himself. steals horse runs away next county continual larceny delivers horse?' 1156. 49 significance excerpts show, Houses agreement among speakers sides merits bill generally, 'penalty' 'punishment' 'crime' 'offense' 'criminal law.' 50 number decisions rendered lend impressive Huber Reily, 53 Pa. 112 (1866), followed,32 home township, alleging defendant ballot deserter disenfranchised 21, refusal wrongful asserted grounds expost attempt sphere inflict pains conviction, prohibited Bill Rights. Strong, Pennsylvania Supreme characterized compelled discussion unconstitutionality: 51 highly penal. commission crime. Its avowed previously affixed denominates sanctions penalties.' Pa., 114—115. 52 floor continued render original desertion. statement operates offender, leaves each voter. increase crime.' 116. objection,' continued, 'would reality 116—117. summarized protections consistent empower 'judge officers innocence violator 117. contemplated imprisonment fine,' intended incurred way, authorized offence.' 119. '(T)he prescribes, adjudged person, approved. substitute.' 120. (Emphasis original.) Accordingly, convicted, disenfranchised. Subsequent post-Civil followed reasoning. Symonds, 57 Me. 148 (1869); Severance Healey, N.H. 448 (1870); Gotcheus Matheson, 58 Barb.(N.Y.) 152 McCafferty Guyer, 59 109 (1868). 54 Ultimately significantly, Kurtz Moffitt, 115 487, 458, city police deserter, attendant safeguards, approvingly citing above decisions: 55 1996 1998, re-enact ch. 79, 490, deserting penalties, namely, disqualification office profit, martial, shown Pennsylvania, Penn.St. 112, uniformly authorities. Maine, 148; 448; Goetcheus Matthewson, N.Y. 420; Winthrop's Digest Judge Advocate Opinions, 225.' 501—502, 153. 56 books unchanged, distributed Revised Statutes 1912, reenacted inapplicable peacetime violations giving President mitigate remit violators, 22, 356. instructive inquiry. operative doubt evade, dealt distinction suppose quoted latter type misconduct. House Committee Report, H.R.Rep.No.335, 62d (1912), entirety S.Rep.No.910, 3—6 'In stands, drastic *. to-day thousands literally numbers constantly civil-war adds repealed.' Naval Affairs, Roberts author, remove harshest wit, (S)uch entirely peace.' meted referred 'additional concluded, 'a barbarous punishment.' 2903 (1912). Bristow Kansas, chamber's discussing 'penalty,' said offender 'punished severely.' 9542 somewhat 1908 vetoed President.33 occasion, H.R.Rep.No.1340, 60th (1908), consisted mainly letter Navy annual report. documents 'punishment,' 'penalties' 1908, 'enormity punishment' 'horrible punishment,' said, 'Conviction existing forfeits monstrosity 111 (1908). discussion, 110—114, premise imposition. 'Loss Hull replied, 'Certainly.' 114. 504 1940, 1172, repealed flight provision governing advisers reported 'distinctly character,' 'They must, therefore, construed strictly, martial.'34 Codification Laws 76th 68 (Comm.Print 1939). occur court-martial. built in. 93—94, 594. whereas concurring 'but beginning critical inquiry,' 110, sustain Present Statutes. immediate conclusion, history,35 nature. with, quite obviously patterned predecssor, understandable submitted Biddle Russell precedent 1912 reenactment letter, impetus full text Reports, H.R.Rep. 1229, 78th 2—3 (1944); S.Rep. 1075, (1944), margin.36 'fully explains bill.' couched left escape them. societal improvement morale generally sponsors endorsed basis. FBI files showed 'over 800 delinquents' El Paso crossed obvious inference drawn example contained, mention broader concerned inflicting effective retribution class evaders doubt, others similarly situated. Dickstein Naturalization, explained 'draft dodgers knowing possibility drafted implied frustrate 'idea returning over, taking old places society.' 3261 (1944). Russell, manager terms: 'Certainly enjoyed advantages living unwilling penalized some measure. Any violating loses courts, courts.' 7629 (1944).37 debates, together Biddle's differentiate predecessor. indicated, specifically relied enactment, fundamentally retributive When considerations weighed, be, incontestibly dominantly inescapable. re-enacted disturb result.38 decreed wherein attend prosecution.39 62 V. CONCLUSION. 63 today unfortunate immunizing suffer conduct, apprehended compelling Rights guard jealously procedures abrogated expedient reason. Moreover, truth expatriated, abroad assert vast majority component citizen. wishes real sense doing himself prosecution. fact, may, largely discretionary afford diplomatic protection,40 decline sovereign behalf. benefits inevitably debt, define. did, do, done.41 handling States.42 64 conclude, stated, stand, commands.43 heinous punished. Dating Magna Carta, abiding lives civilized 'no freeman imprisoned disseised outlawed exiled peers *.'44 What keeping cherished tradition, 'without lesser ignore depend. Therefore judgments Courts affirmed. Affirmed. DOUGLAS BLACK, joining adhere views expressed DOUGLAS, BLACK joined, 586, cl. 67 BRENNAN, concurring. join fully agree employ inimical whose pursuit assigned powers, reasoning reached. So too, debarred employing drastic, truly terrifying remedy certainly panoply protective condition sanctions. deem appropriate elaborate impel never existence intrinsically peculiarly solution implicating entanglements stem allegiance, twice deliberate assumption attachment. Mackenzie Hare, 239 299, 106, 297; Savorgnan 338 491, 70 292, 287. participation nationals internal politics dangerously prejudice diplomacy, uniquely potent corrective precludes recriminations disowning, moment provocative act, spokesman operative. 603. instant resolve felt doubts correctness joined. arsenal sanctions, available higher curb undesirable exact it, stigmatize 596, war. Three Brethren analyzed bar. plurality 'war power.' value furtherance sanction, deter desertion; meaning Amendment; unusual.1 My separately expressed, akin plurality. shared view insufficient predicate use—which allowable unique relationship apparent. simple profoundly destructive keep palpable rest modicum discoverable necessity. conclude elementary test. recognizable achievement legitimate device best remote; promising methods employed. Brother STEWART attempts distinguish fronts: application; aside, falling rationale Trop. 73 discerns 401(j)2 instrument simply classed 'punishment.' thought maintenance troop morale; threat spectacle escaping military-service obligation flight; demonstrative counter threat. To mind purest sense; naked vengeance. Such exaction quality undertaken maintain morale. boost morale—the dissent, removes used realm punitive. how differ analytically stocks rack. Because devices shore convictions law-abiding demonstrating wicked unscathed, not, dissent's view, presumably, reachable Amendment.3 proposition, today, identical 'punitive' condemned 74 finds distinctions untenable technical equivocal implications loyalty offender. unshakable fear stress harm, intellectual moral aversion combat, mental aberation inconsistent Trop's unauthorized post.4 suggested element cumulation punishments helped expose futility missing unlike borders. estoppel prominently displays obvious—that cumulative fugitives sedentary violators.5 75 Nor distinguished proves designed fill void necessarily ordinary point, understand bear fugitive declines home; expatriated abroad, formally proceeded against. appears, accomplished absentia. 76 Aside process, rightly surface vanishes closer scrutiny. 77 instrumentality specially evaders. question. cost suffering punishments; away. delinquent whom dilemma pose recognizable, formidable deterrent, fail enhance all.6 affect punished—for designed. has, hypothesi, sting punished, punished—those, words, patently unregenerate reach, display displeasure. express displeasure destroy demonstrated attachment coming home. apparent, today's governed matter controlling consulted. Expatriation there. STEWART'S permissible appellants hand, main reliance 'foreign affairs summarizes appellants' heading purport pass invoked support, advanced appellants. Initially, note expounded fails reveal corrected retributive, secondary deterrent; morale-boosting discerned consciously pursuing constitutionality, initially questionable. Proceeding arguments, encounters 'can easily international complications' control soil. 'problem,' obviously, exists justice, confined Yet expatriated. impossible inherently unlikely described But, contend appellants, embroilments embarrassments. During wartime, argued, likely feel impelled demand havens evaders; seriously offend 'host' leading embroilment. transparent weakness argument—its manifest inconsistency—must Surely disable injudicious restrain rests urgent fugitive's risk expatriating impossible, forever defeats objective—his return—which place. recapturing urgently necessary, automatic opposed interest—which choose circumstances. argument. seek terminating 'Congress eliminated claim services individuals, removed obligation.7 incontrovertible initial continues meanwhile forfeit. apprehend coextensive punish. ways wholly explicit sovereignty. uphold adverted except, out, adopted passing arguments. 86 Preliminarily, implies expatriate. proposition 87 For, delimited arm. say inheres sever tie delegated eschews inevitable fitness things. contentions fall short standard. 88 fitting empowered extinguish refuses perform 'ultimate duty' rising Government's crisis. pause credence criterion—as would, pp. 214—215, fraught far-reaching declare taxes, duty, testify, vote, abnegation ultimate duty—or renunciation allegiance—than am presume gainsay saved willingness accept really failures citizen's just enumerated, explain visited harsh consequence, defection palpably others. context, singled adverse provocative, administered. 635—640, 1388, 1435 (dissenting opinion). Pursuit concept, reaffirms indistinguishable 89 argue 'repudiates wider country's authority' fleeing duty. again, flight-repudiation theory Every justice repudiates authority equal lies '(a) exert force compel Lawful (Government's emphasis) extent, him.' apparent corollary congressionally circumstances, change occurred. conceding evader. informs return, purpose,' Blackmer 284 421, 252, 375. And, event, much, covered 91 HARLAN, CLARK joins, dissenting. 92 Parts I, II, III, IV (Mendoza), constitutional. reasons, 349(a) (10) 1952 (Cort), disagree, evidentiary presumption contained summary form. 93 read presumption.1 fortified considerations: (i) attacked briefed Court; (ii) forth (187 684) page extract margin (note 1); (iii) lower composed experienced judges, inadvertently ignored sub silentio. aid presumption, saw reaching issue. viewing 'clear, unequivocal, convincing' standard Schneiderman 320 118, 135, 1333, 1341, 1796, service.2 addition, wrong Similar presumptions consistently statutes, proof stringent denationalization cases. See, e.g., Yee Hem 268 178, 470, 904; Casey 276 413, 373, 632; Hawes Georgia, 258 204, 431; cf. Fong Yue Ting 149 698, 1016, 905. regards proved presumed,' Tot 319 463, 467, 1241, 1245, 1519, surely cry case.3 instance (if indeed resorted Court), instances 96 involved there, Mendoza upheld.4 97 STEWART, WHITE 98 lengthy, thesis simple: (1) (2) Punishment conviction. (3) syllogisms, inescapable premises correct. major premise—that divestiture prescribe term.1 99 Despite sweep always sanction—requiring trial. overrule least decisive precedents 100 Nearly ago married foreigner 297. explicitly incident right, privilege, immunity expatriation.' 308, 107. ago, unambiguously notion, dissenters,2 stand abandoned conduct. short, established almost consequence irrespective subjective intention renounce nationality, awareness conduct.3 101 Mackenzie, sanction. position, devotes many 1940. law4 'rights citizenship' enrolled draftees 'to correctly says, punitive,' construing punitive—imposing offenses mentioned.5 102 respectively. reports 1912. punitive.' persuades penal, nonetheless embody Congresses 103 Brownell6 Dulles,7 genesis Cabinet Committee's code Roosevelt 1938.8 product environment—the experience global 104 16, addressed calling attention arisen institution World suggesting subsequently part: 105 invite your desirability exclusion aliens above-mentioned purpose. 106 'Under naturalization, obtains naturalization state; takes oath country; serves acquires (4) accepts employment eligible; (5) votes participates territory; (6) formal consular (7) deserts martial; (8) treason (U.S.C., title 8, sec. 801). Machinery privilege status; entitled identity permits (Nationality 503; U.S.C., 903). 107 disclose seem Persons abandon worthy grounds. 108 'Accordingly, recommend foregoing abovementioned 1940.'9 unanimously Senate, Public 431 Seventy-eighth Neither limited debate gloss action.10 us, gives illumination Eighty-second recodification Act.11 110 depends vengeance deterrence, objective. Cummings Missouri, Wall. 277, 320, 322, 356; 308—312, 1077, 1252; 107—109, 601—603; 613—617, 1373—1376, 1435; De Veau Braisted, 144, 160, 1146, 1154, 1109; Subversive Activities Control Board, 367 83—88, 1357, 1403—1406, 625. commenting kind observe clearest suffice ground. inquiries motives hazardous matter, seeks behind affair indeed. other, forbids lightly setting invalidate save it.' 617, 1376. enunciated prime sure, deterrent considered. attitude toward reach neutral. word hardly controlling. wisely remarked, 'How tasks adjudication solved inspection labels pasted them!'12 putative indicia overbalanced wartime affected. understood saying flee disobey imposition disassociate refuge aegis sovereign. group, demonstrably 'for duration,' thus forces, millions enlisted civilian front. repeated references expectation resume enjoy fruits victory. perhaps precisely measurable impaired efficiency, substantial. Denationalization expatriates removing visible cause. purpose, find, does, motivated primarily wreak fled Rather, measure, efficacious, objections supra.13 113 anything close 'clearest proof' valid, possessed drawing sources power: affairs; wage raise armies, defense; attributes 114 complications arise requests grant. insist resulting caused fanciful, pointing background 1812, nineteenth century, involvement nations liability naturalized native countries.14 say, attributed belief nip potential bud. 60, 577; 600 (concurring unnecessary pursue reaching. 116 'provide defence.' end, Framers conferred compendium power.'15 Responsive scope magnitude successfully.' Charles Evans Hughes, Powers A.B.A.Rep. 232, 238. 117 us. refined isolating single, precise drain manpower minds legislators power. aspect building maintaining defense. Cases, (Arver States) 245 366, 159, 349; Falbo 549, 346, 305. corrosive influence Hirabayashi 81, 93, 1375, 1382, 1774, 'extends activity substantially progress. restricted winning victories field repulse enemy embraces phase defense, materials injury rise, progress war.' Lichter 334 742, 1294, 1694. 118 supra. 'requisite relation' pointed 'not effects desert land.' 601. Solicitor acknowledged occurred transpired country.' 92, 593. disloyalty technically constitute 113, 604, 605, harshness potentially 'an slight tenuous 119 completely States; exclusively aimed those, criminally reaches nature, 'refusal citizenship.' 604 120 Previous restriction—a limitation denationalization. Withdrawal endows define limit represents responsible. 121 unsparingly general act. undiluted be. 122 applies, involving attribute absence emergency, helping defend amounts unequivocal conspicuous manifestation nonallegiance, objectively subjectively. Ours tradition soldier. conception includes reciprocal 378, 161. disown disowned Nation need. 123 valid. provisions, declares: 124 'For paragraph comply military, air, 125 creates invalid, fatally infected 126 all. oriented towards 349(a)(10). understandably exhaustive factual presented, devoting 686. 127 reviewing agency heavily determining Loss Nationality, affirming '(b)y failing board, Dr. mentioned Even overcome showing whole, drafted.' added.) Board's Act.' 128 Speiser Randall, 357 513, 520—521, 1332, 1339, 1460, 'it commonplace outcome lawsuit—and hence vindication rights—depends factfinder appraises disputed construction interpretation line precedents. assume importance applied. stake safe-guards surrounding rights.' odds burden prove convincing, evidence. Gonzales Landon, 350 920, 210, 806; Nishikawa 129, 612, 659. commands 'evidentiary ambiguities citizen.' 136, 617. 130 Without pausing presumed.' 1519. 'A creating arbitrary fair opportunity repeal violates clause Amendment.' Manley 279 6, 215, 217, 575. violative 'Mere fiat life, liberty property.' 'essential presumed, unreasonable purely mandate.' Mobile, & K.C.R. Turnipseed, 219 35, 43, 138, 78. Cf. 131 goes 'any laws' regardless various contain multitude relatively insignificant. draw solemn consequences, irrationality gross impermissible.16 132 record physically examined, classified 4F disability. shows advance few Europe. swore belief, disability, instead investigated Un-American prosecuted Act. efforts arrange fulfillment, albeit belatedly, any, 1959 system swore, pending Massachusetts any. passport, Consul interviewed him, writing disbelieve sworn service.17 disclosed freed weight imply prejudgment 133 vacate instructions null renewed event de novo hearing18 proving convincing 134 Kennedy reverse 746, reads '(j) Departing 163, 267—268, 1481(a)(10), challenged 'From by—* '(10) departing 894, amended, U.S.C.App. (1946 ed.) 311. 826, 454 et seq. 622, 462(a). Universal 75, 451(a). detail, 'An interlocutory counts, Count 'Defendant Frank Martinez Mendoza, male selective regulations promulgated thereunder registrant Local 137, acting, System Kern County, Northern Division California; thereunder, America commitment, similarly, Maxico, Building Co., 345 502, 807, 1182, tax parties' stipulation, collateral-estoppel Restatement, Judgments, comments g.h.i. aliens, fell 1942.' course, U.S.Const., Amend. XIV, 1: 'All thereof, reside. *' pre-existing common-law Wong Kim Ark, 169 649, 456, 890. disagreement 48—49, 570—571, 603; 66—67, 580 (Warren, C.J., dissenting). Quirin, 317 25—26, 9—10, Bldg. Loan Ass'n Blaisdell, 290 398, 426, 235, 413; 1774. 311—312, 108, 57—58, 575, Garner, Uniformity Respect Am.J.Int'l L. 547 (1925). Seckler-Hudson, Statelessness: With Special Reference (1934), 244—253; Preuss, Geo.L.J. 250 (1934); Holborn, Legal Status Political Refugees, 1920—1938, 680 (1938). Shaughnessy rel. Mezei, 206, 625, 956. consequences statelessness led reaffirmation Declaration Human Rights, Article retain U.N.Doc. A/810, 71, (1948) (adopted U.N. Assembly 10, 1948), reprinted UNESCO, Symposium, App. III (1949). Study Statelessness, E/1112 (1949); Second Elimination Reduction A/CN. 4/75 (1953); Weis, Convention Int'l Comp.L.Q. 1073 (1962), authorities cited therein. evils 241, treatise writers disapproved Borchard, Diplomatic Protection Citizens Abroad (1916), 262, 334; Fenwick, (3d ed. 263; 313 313a; Gettys, 137—138, 160. powers: Cohen Grocery 255 88, 298, 516; Endo, 323 283, 298—300, 208, 216—217, 243. Foreign-affairs Kent 116, 125—130, 1113, 1118 1120, 1204; Shachtman U.S.App.D.C. 287, 225 938 (1955). Hamilton Kentucky Distilleries 251 146, 156, 194; supra; Mason, 696, 1213; Kahn Anderson, 8—9, 225—226, 469; 29, 38—46, 11, 15—19, 'No capital, infamous crime, presentment Grand Jury, arising Militia, public danger; offence jeopardy limb; witness himself, property, law; private property use, compensation.' U.S.Const. prosecutions, speedy committed, ascertained accusation; witnesses him; Witnesses favor, Assistance Counsel VI. happened, relevance. incidence 1940—'(d)eparting outside' (military) Comment, Power Effect Involuntary Expatriation, Mich.L.Rev. 1142, 1166 n. (1958). inclusory arguably accorded essential. Garland, 333, 377, 366; 316, 1079; 320—321, Wilson, 417, 426—429, 935, 939—941, 89; Mackin 348, 350—352, 777, 778, 909; Wing 163 228, 237—238, 977, 981, 140. appropriate. Though determinative, banishment exile ancient Rome, 'There freedom, freedom also. sold slavery insolvent debtor, mines crimes servus poenae.' Salmond, Allegiance, L.Q.Rev. 270, (1901). Banishment weapon English centuries, Bl.Comm. *377, 'adjudged accustomed brutality justice.' Maxey, Nationality: Individual Choice Flat? Albany L.Rev. 151, 164 (1962). Helwig 188 610—612, 427, 428—429, 614; Child Labor Tax Case, 38, 449, 450—451, 817. Constantine, 296 295, 223, 233; 96, 595 (opinion Justice; 111—112, 603 Lipke Lederer, 557, 562, 551, 1061; La Franca, 282 572—573, 278, 280, 551; 227. Wall., 319, 452; 561—562, 550—551; 572, 280; 96—97, 595—596; 615, 318, 613, 429; 227; Rex Trailer 154, 219, 222, 149. 41, 614, 616 9, 1374, 1375. 1075—1077; Wormuth, Legislative Disqualifications Bills Attainder, Vand.L.Rev. 608 (1951); Note, Punishment: Meaning Relation Separation Substantive Constitutional Restrictions Use Ind.L.J. 279—253 (1959); 1954, L.J. 712, 723 297, compare 51—52, 61—62, 577-578 68—73, 581—583 Justice) 80, 587 Douglas), distinguishable, Perez. noncriminal attaching lacked overwhelming indications enactments basing unmistakable presently occasion infra. acts p. 31, veto message S.Doc.No.708, (1909), approve partly discretion feeling actually encourage hardened offenders commit nation.' former fault particular measure: pardon vested anyone placing discrimination army people. reason, retention stood furthered crime—deterrence. statements recommending doubtless considerable deterring desertions.' regarding navy many.' indicated Navy. 5. advisers' citation suggests mandated. relevance analyzing illustrated approach 613—619, 429 432, length reviewed importers undervalued imported goods purposes, penalty. 'My Dear Senator: provision, 'Adequate First (37 356). Code (54 1172; 904). effectuate enclosed herewith. Director Bureau Budget accord program President. 'Sincerely yours, 'Attorney General.' Senator's 'Any apparently accordingly provision. 549; 278. 935; 777; 977. Wieman Updegraff, 344 183, 216; Slochower Higher Education, 554, 556, 637, 638, 640, 692; 1460. 143, 341; Klubock, Expatriation—Its Origin Meaning, Notre Dame Law. astonishing story Grover Cleveland Bergdoll example. Times, Sept. 23, 1927, col. 3; May 1935, 4; Aug. Apr. 1939, 26, 7; 30, 36, Oct. 6; Op.Atty.Gen. 303 (1939). Another recent Edward M. Gilbert charges extradited. 1962, 1; relatively, small. Over 16,000,000 nearly 6,000,000 Korean Almanac (1963), 735. 1,750 denationalized figures 49, Annual 1164, 1165, (1955), derived partially Service. necessitating surrounded obliging Encyclopaedia Britannica (1957 630. rested alternatively transfer principally outlined text. re-enactment examples draft-evading flight, (But 192-193, 6.) recognizes, 'purpose graver reflection 'intent permanently' shirk definition codified Uniform 885. crossing frontier Texas cross border intending results 462(a), prosecuted, provides: '(A)ny evades *, manner neglect refuse title, rules, regulations, directions shall, punished fine $10,000, prospective flees, eventually imprisonment; fruitless deterrence object. concede deter, either—except strained difference. forcefully citizens. discussed reflect peace restored. fugitive, alien said: 'When, claimant establishes relies expatriation. 133, burden. period. transportation steadfast learned January 'essential' teaching, probably 'something definite' borad 'reluctant foolish premature.' 4, thereafter response compliance abroad. maintains divested going convincingly fellowship 'special registrant' I—A (medical), requested surrender invalidation, this. accepted, England, School, indicating start Advisory requesting 'civilian recommended 'available active Between exchanged letters—the commission, expressing surprise essential, denied, letter. examination. 13, notwithstanding interval, board. permit Office, 7, passport. Against discredit belated efforts, authorities, self-serving investigation affilations possible sojourn uncontroverted call bears resemblance wanting Tot. firearms ammunition violence, interstate commerce, violence possession ammunition. proposes, proceeding. error try novo. again. 746. 1481(a)(10). practically identical. jurisdictional claims merit, determined. 578 restrict denaturalization legislation. 'there terms, withdraw 58, 490. (a invalidated 596). (involving 401(e)). 596 401(g)). 52—57, 572—575; 94—95, 594—595; H.R.Comm.Print, pt. 68—69. S.Rep.No.1075, particularization addressed: western Texas, vicinity alone, delinquents recorded Investigation office, H.R.Rep.No.1229, 1—2. Whole, Dickstein, Immigration, stated: classify piece denaturalize marines, get war; nevertheless, hundreds parts South countries idea 3261. relates persons, Information Paso, Tex., selection selective-service law. serving barred admission President, object bill. laws, term penitentiary. Under prison term. bar 7628—7629. 215—219. unexceptionable—like marrying alien—or innocuous—like reprehensible. Moore, (1906), 434, 436—438, 440; Tsiang, Question Prior 1907 (1942), 44—55, 71—72, 78—84. 'To War, Letters Marque Reprisal, Rules concerning Captures Land Water; Armies, Appropriation Money longer Years; Navy; Regulation Forces; Execution Powers, Officer thereof.' Art. cls. 12, 18. McFarland Sugar Rfg. 241 498, 501, 899; Western Atlantic Henderson, 639, 642, 445, 447, 884; Morrison 291 82, 90, 281, 284, 664. Bailey Alabama, 239, 145, 150, 191; Lindsley Natural Carbonic Gas 220 61, 337, 341, 369. 'Without contrary, purports 938; Kessler Strecker, 307 694, 700, 1082; 253 889.

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