Document: 457 U.S. 496 102 S.Ct. 2557 73 L.Ed.2d 172 Georgia PATSY, Petitioner,v.BOARD OF REGENTS the STATE FLORIDA, etc. No. 80-1874. Argued March 2, 1982. Decided June 21, Syllabus Petitioner filed an action in Federal District Court under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 for declaratory or injunctive relief damages, alleging that respondent employer had denied her employment opportunities solely on basis of race and sex. The granted respondent's motion to dismiss because petitioner not exhausted available state administrative remedies. Appeals vacated, holding a plaintiff could be required exhaust remedies if certain specified conditions were met, remanded case determine whether exhaustion would appropriate instant case. Held: Exhaustion is prerequisite 1983. Pp. 500-516. (a) This conclusion supported by legislative histories both 1997e (1976 ed., Supp. IV), which carves out narrow exception general no-exhaustion rule established this Court's prior decisions creating specific, limited requirement adult prisoners bringing actions pursuant A judicially imposed cases other than prisoners' inconsistent with Congress' decision adopt 1997e, usurp policy judgments Congress has reserved itself, also detailed scheme embodied 1997e. 502-512 (b) Even if, as argues, lessen burden impose federal courts, further goal comity improve federal-state relations, enable agency enlighten court's ultimate decision, these are considerations alone cannot justify unless consistent congressional intent. Moreover, difficult questions concerning design scope requirement, might answered swiftly surely legislation, create costly, remedy-delaying court-burdening litigation judiciary context diverse constitutional claims relating thousands different agencies. 512-515. 634 F.2d 900, 5 Cir., reversed remanded. Charles S. Sims, New York City, petitioner. Mitchell D. Franks, Tallahassee, Fla., respondent. [Amicus Curiae Information from page 497 intentionally omitted] Justice MARSHALL delivered opinion Court. 1 presents question Supp.IV). Patsy action, employer, Florida International University (FIU), By divided vote, United States Fifth Circuit found was "adequate appropriate" remedies, consider adequacy procedures. v. University, 900 (1981) (en banc). We certiorari, 454 813, 88, 70 81, reverse Appeals. 2 * alleges even though she well qualified received uniformly excellent performance evaluations supervisors, been rejected more 13 positions at FIU.1 She FIU unlawfully filled through intentional discrimination seeks or, alternative, damages.2 3 Southern Board Regents' On appeal, panel reversed, proceedings. 612 946 (1980). full court then petition rehearing vacated decision. 4 reviewed numerous opinions required, concluded did preclude application "flexible" rule. F.2d, 908. After canvassing arguments favor decided following minimum met: (1) orderly system review appeal provided statute rule; (2) can grant less commensurate claim; (3) within reasonable period time; (4) procedures fair, unduly burdensome, used harass discourage those legitimate claims; (5) interim available, cases, prevent irreparable injury preserve plaintiff's rights during process. Where standards must particular scheme, nature interest, values served doctrine order should required. Id., 912-913. II ever prompted vigorous debate disagreement. See, e.g., Turner, When Prisoners Sue: Study Prisoner Section Cases Courts, 92 Harv.L.Rev. 610 (1979); Note, 8 Ind.L.Rev. 565 (1975); Comment, 41 U.Chi.L.Rev. 537 (1974). Our resolution issue, however, made much easier we writing clean slate. addressed related issues, several occasions. 6 Respondent suggests our precedents do control today, arguing distinguished their facts "fully" contention need detain us long. Beginning McNeese Education, 373 668, 671-673, 83 1433, 1435-1436, 10 622 (1963), have occasions argument dismissed where See Barry Barchi, 443 55, 63, n. 10, 99 2642, 2648, 61 365 Gibson Berryhill, 411 564, 574, 93 1689, 1695, 36 488 (1973); Carter Stanton, 405 669, 671, 1232, 1234, 31 569 (1972); Wilwording Swenson, 404 249, 251, 407, 409, 30 418 (1971); Houghton Shafer, 392 639, 640, 88 2119, 2120, 20 1319 (1968); King Smith, 309, 312, 4, 2128, 2130, 1118 Damico California, 389 416, 526, 19 647 (1967). Cf. Steffel Thompson, 415 452, 472-473, 94 1209, 1222, 39 505 (1974) ("When premised [§ 1983]—as they here—we judicial recognizing paramount role assigned courts protect rights"). may correct based traditional exceptions doctrine. Nevertheless, stated categorically 1983, deviated position years sinceMcNeese. Therefore, address presented one first impression. III 7 argues reconsider Appeals' rule, McKart States, 395 185, 89 1657, 23 194 (1969). never announced definitive formula determining overruled reconsidered. However, Monell City Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 695-701, 98 2018, 2038-2041, 56 611 (1978), articulated four factors considered. Two factors—whether misconstrued meaning revealed its history overruling recent expressions intent—are particularly relevant today.3 Both concern purpose, importance vested power prescribe basic procedural heard courts. Of course, play important limits such expressly so provided. initial reference intent; defer exercise jurisdiction it intent.4 deciding require look intent reflected predecessor activity area. In begin Civil Rights Act 1871, 17 Stat. 13, precursor 1983.5 Although recognize 1871 contemplate question, believe tenor debates over supports imposed. 9 along Fourteenth Amendment enacted enforce, crucial ingredients alteration accomplished Reconstruction Era. During time, Government clearly guarantor individuals against incursions power. As recognized Mitchum Foster, 407 225, 242, 2151, 32 705 (1972) (quoting Ex parte Virginia, 100 339, 346, 25 L.Ed. 676 (1880)), "[t]he very purpose interpose between people, guardians people's rights—to people unconstitutional color law, 'whether executive, legislative, judicial.' " At least three recurring themes cast serious doubt suggestion requiring Congress. First, passing 1, protecting rights. Representative Dawes expressed view follows: 11 "The remedy proposed bill resort States. Is proper place find redress any wrongs? If there call into offender rights, privileges, immunities, hold him account there, either civilly criminally, infringement, I submit calm candid judgment every member House no tribunal fitted, equal exact justice likely meted temper, moderation, severity, be, but always according law fact, great Constitution." Cong.Globe, 42d Cong., 1st Sess., 476 (1871) (hereinafter Globe). 12 id., 332 (remarks Rep. Hoar); 375 Lowe); 448-449 Butler); 459 Coburn).6 intended "throw open doors courts" who threatened with, suffered, deprivation 376 Lowe), provide immediate access notwithstanding provision contrary. For example, Senator Edmunds, introduced Senate, his closing remarks similar principle earlier act upheld Prigg Pennsylvania, 16 Pet. 539, 1060 (1842): 14 "[T]he Supreme . solemn duty Constitution secure individual, spite State, aid, precisely gave him, intermediate authority arrest oppose direct Congress." Globe 692 (emphasis added). 15 Similarly, Elliott viewed issue "the [has] right, Constitution, citizen American assertion without State domiciled." Coburn); 807 Garfield); 609 Sen. Pool); App. 141 Shanks).7 second theme wanted requirement. major factor motivating expansion §§ belief authorities unable unwilling punish violated 321 Stoughton) ("The local check evil criminals"); 374 Lowe) ("the administrations inadequate apply corrective"); 687 Shurz); 691 Edmunds); 185 Platt).8 primary mistrust held factfinding processes institutions. 320 (testimony Hon. Thomas Settle, North Carolina Court, before Judiciary Committee) defect lies juries"); 394 Rainey); 311 Maynard). believed susceptible prejudice existing defects 322 Stoughton); Coburn).9 perceived States' remedies: rules often applied deference superior ability agency. U.S., 192-196, S.Ct., 1661-1662. third feature fact many legislators interpreted dual concurrent forums system, enabling choose forum seek relief. Monroe Pape, 167, 183, 81 473, 482, 492 (1961) supplementary remedy, latter sought refused invoked"). Thurman noted: 18 "I object 1], first, centralizing tendency transferring all mere private suits, punishment offenses, say section gives exclusive jurisdiction. suppose understood. It leaves it, presume, option person imagines himself injured sue court, he injured, some malice gratify, will most avail of." 216. 578, 694-695 334 514 Farnworth); 85 Bingham) ("Admitting enforce respective limits, wait action?"). decisions, misperceive statutory intent: seems fair infer intend individual compelled filing Act. recognize, drawing somewhat precarious: nor aware potential rely exclusively here. when recently IV). provides strong evidence issue. B 21 Institutionalized Persons Act, 1997 et seq. primarily ensure Attorney General "legal standing institutionalized persons." H.R.Conf.Rep.No.96-897, p. (1980) (Conf.Rep.), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 1980, 787. created demonstrate understood generally actions, carve only itself. 22 considering incorporated bill, work change law. Witnesses testifying Subcommittee drafted discussed Hearings H.R. 2439 5791 Liberties, Administration Committee Judiciary, 95th (1977) (1977 Hearings); 47, 69, 77, 323; 96th 48 (1979) (1979 Hearings). hearings, Kastenmeier, Chairman Subcommittee, stated: "Another thing think requires discussion committee, point argument, ought 24 ". pointed [we] constitute regression current set back, presently held, civil suits litigant necessarily fully remedies." 1977 57-58. 272 Drinan) (Representative Railsback "grounds doing something consistently do, namely remedies"); 1979 26 Kastenmeier) (adopting "was resisted possible encroachment liberties; say, free, unimpeded 1983"). adopting reflect understanding. 124 Cong.Rec. 11988 (1978) Volkmer Kastenmeier); 15445 Ertel); 23180 Wiggins) ("it settled precondition maintaining action"); 125 12496 Butler) ("Under complainant ask prison help him"). With understanding relieve diverting prisoner petitions back institutions, encourage develop grievance Conf.Rep. 9; 11976 11976, 11983 Railsback); 15442 23176 23179-23180 Ertel). Implicit left respect suits. 27 extraordinarily govern claims, establishes procedure adequate effective. brought convicted crime. 1997e(a)(1) IV).10 1997e(b)(1) instructs "promulgate development implementation plain, speedy, effective system" 1997e(b)(2) specifies included.11 certified determined substantial compliance acceptable promulgated subsection (b)." 1997e(a)(2). Before conclude "would interests justice." 1997e(a)(1).12 Finally, meeting requirements exhaustion, district case, "continue exceed ninety days exhaustion." Ibid. discretion impose, ad hoc basis, developed cases. 28 hoped stimulating successful mechanisms. H.R.Rep.No.96-80, 12492 Drinan); 126 10780 Kastenmeier). To deferral condition prisons frustrated generally: incentive capable certification, diverted event. 29 sum, provisions make sense, superfluous, enactment demonstrates taken approach carving specific province alter balance struck establishing framework C argue various policies. They courts;13 relations postponing federal-court until after passed issue;14 agency, presumably expertise area noted earlier, supra, 501-502, 4. Furthermore, incorporating demonstrate, invariably direction, vehement disagreement validity assumptions underlying them.15 difficulty considerations, institutional competence pursue debate, suggest solutions preferable. Diamond Chakrabarty, 447 303, 317, 2204, 2212, 65 144 (1980); Steelworkers Bouligny, Inc., 382 145, 150, 153, 86 272, 274-276, 217 (1965). Beyond issues resolved equally These include how define categories desirablesS unify centralize judging kinds exhausted;16 what tolling time limitations adopted;17 res judicata collateral estoppel effect determinations; consequences attach failure comply proceedings; necessary pending proceed otherwise powerless inclined remedy-delaying, incrementally agencies.18 33 variety claimants, agencies involved consideration myriad explain why Congress, prisoners, carved narrow, arguments, adopted taking largest class constructing differs substantially McKart-type standard urged 18, supra. altogether nonprisoner claims.19 IV 34 Based decline overturn proceedings opinion. 35 ordered. O'CONNOR, whom REHNQUIST joins, concurring. 37 POWELL's dissenting opinion, below, sound complaint. least, resolve thereby decreasing number now straining excessive caseloads. reasons forth already ruled that, absence additional actions. Perhaps Supp.IV), creates prompt possibility remainder Reluctantly, concur. 38 WHITE, concurring part. agree frequent unequivocal statements explained away attempted do. nearly occasions, suit. Ante, 500. Whether initially wise choice, stare decisis, showing misread history. concluding unlike municipal immunity faced previously misapprehended rejecting adhering since. sufficient support reversal, accordingly join Part III-B 40 III-B, unnecessarily unwisely ventures none had. wisdom considered POWELL persuasively points title attention narrowly focused legal persons. Unsurprisingly, legislation emerged problem investigation; indicates neither approval reconsidering acknowledges, ante, 513, cut directions. concludes preferable." sure, dispositive word matter belongs does follow, foreclosed institutionally incompetent formulate lack itself formulated, action. Myers Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corp., 303 41, 58 459, 82 638 (1938); Unlike questions, "a administration," Shipping 50, 463, directs otherwise, rightfully subject crafting judges. governed reinforced undercutting long standing. result today defendant enforcement proceeding enjoin sidetrack resorting Huffman Pursue, Ltd., 420 592, 95 1200, 43 482 Juidice Vail, 430 327, 97 1211, 51 (1977); Trainor Hernandez, 431 434, 1911, 52 486 Moore 442 415, 2371, 60 994 (1979), stayed determination state-law central dispute. Railroad Comm'n Pullman Co., 312 496, 643, 971 (1941). understanding, Court.* POWELL, THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins II, dissenting. holds Eleventh sovereign jurisdictional. departure 44 dissent rejection Circuit, sitting en banc. disagreeing judges flexible principle, places mistaken reliance disagree portions therefore dissent. I. Amendment.1 45 "reverse discrimination" petitioner, employee suit Regents Florida.2 name defendants. sued $500,000 equitable 498-499, 2. dismiss, petitioner's premature light agreed dismiss. 46 added bar defense.3 argued instrumentality subjected absent waiver immunity.4 And asserted waiver. body corporate "to plead impleaded equity," Fla.Stat. 240.205(4)(1) (1981), language operate waive defense Amendment.5 reply, amounted waiver—and simply irrelevant lodged State. Reply Brief 3-4. 47 Neither banc Board's defense. directed argument. Appeals, banc, plaintiffs (1981). Again raised opportunity response writ certiorari. argued, arm waived court.6 claim damages. And, claim, damages meet "own funds"—e.g., gifts bequests—rather treasury. repeated oral argument.7 49 views jurisdictional little importance. Its entire relegated conclusory note end 515-516, 19. concedes "jurisdictional," sense raise statement "in own motion." Ibid.8 cites statement,9 surprising existed. reason entertain text Amendment, exemplified well-established clear today's misconceives Amendment. 50 Their extends matters defined Constitution. clearer, removes power, Art. III, "commenced prosecuted States." states plain shall construed extend" source derive jurisdiction? "back-of-the-hand" treatment threshold offers answer. Questions fundamental system.10 assumption original Georgia. Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, 440 (1793). Relying upon express extending controversies citizens another said shock throughout country. Hans Louisiana, 134 11, 504, 505, 842 (1890). shortly thereafter, overruled: 'the amendment being constitutionally adopted, exercised jurisdiction, past future, subjects foreign state.' wording placing explicit III. Nevada Hall, 410, 421, 1182, 1188, 59 416 (1979). But beyond stands measured.11 Thus, extend nonconsenting citizens. terms illustration larger principle: consent, contemplated 15, 507.12 Smith Reeves, 178 436, 919, 1140 (1900). 53 York, 256 490, 588, 1057 (1921), despite Amendment's "law permit extension admiralty same Monaco Mississippi, 292 313, 54 745, 78 1282 (1934), take state. face, "between Nor specifically exempt far: "We Madison correctly Clause Article making event State's consent otherwise." 330, 751. resident exercising function authority. Amendment—with limitation jurisdiction—or analysis same. Absent "judicial States," State:13 55 "That jurisprudence having bearing construction become embrace parties given : Amendment; citizens, exemplification." 497, 589 distinguish unquestioned precedents. wholly inexplicably ignored. Quite disregards controlling sense" appeal. Yet misses statement. time—as explained—is jurisdictional: 57 objection violation however. declares sets compelling force arising Court." Ford Motor Co. Department Treasury Indiana, 323 467, 347, 352, (1945).14 Despite precedents, apparently unexplained anxiety reach remands below. D answer hardly clearer. 1983.15 Florida, Petitioner's unsupported Health Nursing Home Assn., 450 147, 101 1032, 67 132 (1981); 5, rejected. applies equity." All unconsenting State—whether relief—are barred. Cory White, 85, 2325, 72 694.16 Young, 209 123, 441, 714 (1908), permitting officials obey case.17 members Regents. Florida. my view, Amendment—and III—clearly refusal violates premise neglected responsibility motion. briefed 8, Sosna Iowa, 419 393, 396, 553, 555, 532 (1975). vacate II. Remedies. 62 grounds, briefly. Seventeen joined persuasive Other Courts Eisen Eastman, 421 560 (CA2 1969); Secret Brierton, 584 823 (CA7 1978). carefully decide question.18 575, 14, (1973). promote achievement protected 63 accepted quite recently. 567. rests considerations. defeat merely defers it.19 permits violations procedures, encourages establishment principles whenever asked supersede Younger Harris, 401 37, 91 746, 669 (1971). 64 highly functioning overburdened conserves supplements scarce resources. 1961, year 492, decided, 270 begun Annual Report Director Administrative Office U. 238 (1961). 1981, 30,000 commenced.20 68 unprecedented increase heavy detriment litigants, including others assert infringed. demonstrates, recognizes, applications (1963). speak offhand fashion briefing (1971) (unargued per curiam ); (1967) ). categorical seem prescribing abstention criminal pending. pending, appropriateness exhaustion. 574-575, 1695-1696. adopts flat exception. 66 indications Finding nothing directly designed authorize initiate behalf 1997a. placed intervene 1997c. addition, prisoners. contends endorsed irony reasoning obvious. principal support, adopt, vast There year-by-year since mid-1960's. fiscal 1981 1980 26%, resulting total 15,639 compared 12,397 1980. constituted 8.6% docket. present frivolous litigated appeals fairly described enormous few, any, benefits meritorious litigation. 1997e.21 addressing fashion. petitions. new respect. addition wished minimize kind sponsors Senate clear. Hatch 69 "In alleged persons internal [the Act]." 3716 added).22 Bayh, author terms: "[I]n inmate's inmate inmates 3970. 71 short, enacting focusing powers General, Also revealing imposing 1979, providing: "No stay ground party failed State." reported committee. 74 remedies—subject well-developed exceptions—is firmly virtually dictated common federalism, available. 75 properly us, affirm Because here accept true factual allegations amended complaint, named defendant. Byron 403 F.Supp. (N.D.Fla.1975), FIU's university capacity leave amend, complaint "on of" FIU. requested "[r]equire Defendants practiced Plaintiff promoting next pay sum actual exemplary damages." Record 47. "order deems complained herein." 48. —whether frustrate holdings—do decisions. decisions—this Overruling injure forgone Congressional exclusive. (1938). explicit, guided scheme. focus tailor fit 193-195, 1662-1663, becomes once finds deferring Some crimes 1866 27, aimed Ku Klux Klan, 1. Opponents government, perhaps ultimately destroy 337, 338 Whitthorne); 352 Beck); 361 Swann); Arthur); 385 Lewis); 429, McHenry); Cox); 510, 511 Eldridge); Kerr) App.); 216 Thurman); 243 Bayard). criticized ground. Storm lamented: "[Section one] give chance try show come them fourteenth amendment, not. takes whole beginning." 86. Biggs) ("for immunities authorization premises contrary notwithstanding"); 337 Archer); Thurman). Presidential message urging corrective legislation. 244 ("That evils doubt") (message President Grant). inability findings Committee, investigate situation. 320. Sherman instructing report view. 210 (state "courts rendered utterly organized perjury crime"). declaration tribunals. 397 Rice); McHenry offensive removal fact-finding 429. Kastenmeier explains juveniles included 1997e: candidly admit reluctance mechanism 1997e] 1983; deflect into—temporarily event—back system. extent viewed, form 1997e], rejected." 26. states: provide— "(A) advisory employees jail, prison, correctional institution (at decentralized level reasonably possible), formulation, implementation, operation system; "(B) maximum written replies grievances thereto each "(C) priority processing emergency nature, delay grievant risk personal damages; "(D) safeguards avoid reprisals participant grievance; "(E) independent disposition grievances, reprisals, entity supervision institution." Reports institutions delayed exhaustion: "It situations 1983] raises cannot, probability, imminent danger life alleged. Allegations unrelated confinement, center events outside institution, appropriately continued system." 15. S.Rep.No.96-416, congressionally Thermtron Products, Inc. Hermansdorfer, 423 336, 344, 96 584, 589, 542 (1976); 150-151, 274-275, event, means caseload short run. infra, 513-514, 18. federalism criticism commentators. Koury, Comity: Federalism Seesaw, Loyola L.Rev. 659 N.Y.U.L.Rev. 838 (1964). offer swiftest, reliable remedy. 263-264; 232-233; Colum.L.Rev. 1201, 1207 (1968). specialization areas expertise, symbolic defining, legitimizing, enforcing outweighs educational serve. Whitman, Constitutional Torts, 79 Mich.L.Rev. Colum.L.Rev., 1208. uncertain "free market" litigants free truly appear cheaper, efficient, effective, induce creation choice. 34, 51; S.1393 (1977). directing promulgate establish certified. 1997e(b) (c). certified, compare General's continue General. Unless statutes tolled overruled, see Tomanio, 446 478, 1790, (1980), repeal avoided 90 days. proposing provided: "Relief involuntarily confined ., appears efficient available." 5791, declined witnesses testified bog down massive frustrating relieving caseloads too judge guidance. 34-35, 51, 164-165, 169-170, 263-264, 48-49. posed bench purposes Tr. Oral Arg. 20. Alabama Pugh, 438 781, 3057, 1114 (1978). Compare Hopkins Clemson Agricultural College, 221 636, 654, 890 (1911), pleadings, raised. brief mentioned opposition press Indeed, counsel holding. 24, 27. sufficiently partakes bar" Edelman Jordan, 651, 678, 1347, 1363, 662 analyzing may, circumstances, defense, Mt. Healthy Bd. Ed. Doyle, 429 274, 279, 568, 572, 471 Where, here, pass immunity, and, consequence, deem below vigorously pressed Nothing precludes raising remand. best instance competing stage amendments pleadings cure problems. authorizing Regents, 240.205 face. read broad "all equity" am anything indicated statute. Certainly, gone far recited post, 522-523, equivocal embodiments (per curiam), contract provision, interstate compact Petty Tennessee-Missouri Bridge Comm'n, 359 275, 785, 804 (1959). Kennecott Copper Corp. Tax 327 573, 862 (1946), providing "any competent jurisdiction," turned incongruity courts' interpreting tax laws "Utah employs indicate, litigation, courts." 579, 313. while leaving lower courts—at where, logical resolving exhaustion—I now. says. provides: Judicial equity, commenced Citizens Subjects Foreign notes, 498, originally lacks sued, permitted amend substituted racial discrimination, claimed discriminated repeatedly ("Eleventh trial court"). parts. devoted complaint." Defendant-Appellee 79-2965 (CA5), 17. lengthy addendum attached advanced brief. scheduled short—i.e. 4- 10-page—supplemental briefs main submitted supplemental add panel, thorough briefs. explanation implication explanation, issue—as shown here—was Division Universities Education Code part System. 240.2011 consists Commissioner appointed Governor. 240.207. supervisory 240.209. Among duties appointment presidents, budget requests preparation aggregated System, master plan, systemwide personnel classification plan. 216.011. Relyea So.2d 1378 (Fla.App.1980). ibid. Numerous universities Boards immune Rutledge Arizona 660 1345, 1349 (CA9 1981); Brennan Kansas, 451 1287 (CA10 1971); Ronwin Shapiro, 657 1071 1981). 1034, 276-277, (1959) lightly inferred. public right 'to sued' setting restricted special character state, courts"); (1946) (language jurisdiction" Amendment); (1945) (same); Great Northern Life Insurance Read, 54, 873, 876, 1121 (1944) ("a state's intention problems found"); Jagnandan Giles, 538 1166, 1177 (CA5 1976). 673, 1360 ("In protection 'by overwhelming implications [will] room construction' "). reconcile advocated WHITE. 519, Legislature "only selected tort cases." Bragg Public Instruction, 160 Fla. 590, 222 (1948) Instruction affect tort"); supra (Board retains immunity); 111.071(1)(b), (provision payment officers—including Supp.IV)—does "or immunity" lawsuits). Long Richardson, 525 74, (CA6 1975) university's disposes question). Opposition ("Should writ, respectfully submits Circuit's instructions [petitioner's] jurisdiction"). 516, 19, attaches decided. unsuccessful attempt party's request—short binding waiver—cannot question. 25-28, 40-41. "because certiorari." efforts request 6, "we obliged inquire sua sponte arises existence jurisdiction." 278, 571, cites, "compare" signal, 572. way suggested reaching merits. contrary, thereafter abandoned Iowa so, ignored today. "Because unusual wrong indeed invasion seeking invoke court." C. Wright A. Miller, Practice Procedure 3522, clarify Framers effectively Chisholm, generally, restore narrowness spirit generally. ." Employees Missouri Dept., 291-292, 1614, 1621-1622, 251 (1973) (MARSHALL, J., result). quoted length eighty-first Federalist, Hamilton dispel extended States: 'It inherent sovereignty amenable consent. practice mankind; exemption, attributes sovereignty, enjoyed government Union.' 506 original). unequivocally expressed. States" accordingly. render "quasi" simply, Sherwood, 586, 767, 769, 1058 (1941) sovereign, save consents suit"); Fidelity Guaranty 309 506, 514, 653, 657, 84 894 (1940) ("Consent adjudge sovereign. void"). 1363; 2; 571. 875 ("A freedom Amendment") added); 320, (1934) (Question "whether consent") consented diminution ratifying lift immunity. Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 2666, 614 (1976). Title VII 1964, problem. removed Quern 332, 1139, 358 novel proposition money sought. [T]he injunction, 90-91, 2329. Under theory Young officers officer "comes conflict [the] stripped official representative character." 159-160, 453. rationale acting State—or State—cannot capacity. paid coffers—whether fund fund. (segregated funds Commission moneys Amendment). itself—as official. supra; (1945); college recover caused college's dyke. detail, court. Chandler Dix, 766, 1129 (1904). California Bakke, 265, 2733, 570 activities governmental. 647, 658. cited (1978); Parden Terminal R. 377 184, 1207, 233 event." Developments Law, Federalism, 1133, 1274 Fair Assessment Real Estate Assn. McNary, 100, 136, 177, 196, 271 (BRENNAN, judgment) (exhaustion justified lesser concerned displacement process"). approximately Parratt Taylor, 527, 554, 1908, 1922, (POWELL, determines date, single offered course debate. 9227 ("Section applicable enter imprisoned incarcerated person. Such mechanisms existed confined"); 10005 7(D) clarifies litigate behalf").

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