Document: 517 U.S. 620116 S.Ct. 1620134 L.Ed.2d 855 ROMER, GOVERNOR OF COLORADO, et al.v.EVANS al.Certiorari to the Supreme Court of Colorado. No. 94-1039. United States Syllabus * Argued October 10, 1995 Decided May 20, 1996 After various Colorado municipalities passed ordinances banning discrimination based on sexual orientation in housing, employment, education, public accommodations, health and welfare services, other transactions activities, voters adopted by statewide referendum "Amendment 2" State Constitution, which precludes all legislative, executive, or judicial action at any level state local government designed protect status persons their ``homosexual, lesbian bisexual orientation, conduct, practices relationships.'' Respondents, who include aggrieved homosexuals municipalities, commenced this litigation court against petitioner parties declare Amendment 2 invalid enjoin its enforcement. The trial court's grant a preliminary injunction was sustained Court, held that subject strict scrutiny under Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth because it infringed fundamental right gays lesbians participate political process. On remand, found failed satisfy scrutiny. It enjoined 2's enforcement, affirmed. Held: violates Clause. Pp. 4-14. (a) State's principal argument puts same position as denying them special rights is rejected implausible. extent change legal effected law evident from authoritative construction Colorado's Court-which establishes amendment's immediate effect repeal existing statutes, regulations, ordinances, policies entities barring ultimate prohibit governmental entity adopting similar, more protective, measures future absent constitutional amendment-and review terms, structure, operation would be repealsed prohibited 2. Even if, contends, can find protection laws general application, goes well beyond merely depriving rights. imposes broad disability upon those alone, forbidding them, but no others, seek specific injuries caused wide range private transactions. 4-9. (b) In order reconcile Amendment's promise person shall denied equal with practical reality most legislation classifies for one purpose another, has stated will uphold neither burdens nor targets suspect class so long legislative classification bears rational relation some independent legitimate end. See, e.g., Heller v. Doe, 509 U. S. 312, 319-320. fails, indeed defies, even conventional inquiry. First, amendment once too narrow broad, identifying single trait then possibility across board. This disqualification obtain unprecedented itself denial literal sense. Second, sheer breadth 2, makes announcement not have particular protections law, far removed reasons offered it, i.e., respect citizens' freedom association, particularly landlords employers personal religious objections homosexuality, interest conserving resources fight groups, cannot explained reference reasons; raises inevitable inference born animosity toward affects. said directed an identifiable discrete objective. status-based undertaken own sake, something does permit. 9-14. 882 P. 2d 1335, Kennedy, J., delivered opinion Stevens, O'Connor, Souter, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Scalia, filed dissenting opinion, Rehnquist, C. Thomas, Justice Kennedy Court. 1 One century ago, first Harlan admonished Constitution "neither knows tolerates classes among citizens." Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 559 (1896) (dissenting opinion). Unheeded then, words now are understood commitment law's neutrality where stake. enforces principle today requires us hold provision Constitution. enactment challenged case Colorado, 1992 referendum. courts refer 2," designation when submitted voters. impetus contentious campaign preceded adoption came large part had been municipalities. For example, cities Aspen Boulder City County Denver each enacted banned many including services. Rev. Municipal Code, Art. IV Section(s) 28-91 28-116 (1991); Code 13-98 (1977); 12-1-1 12-1-11 (1987). What gave rise controversy afforded discriminated reason orientation. See (defining "sexual orientation" "the choice partners, bisexual, homosexual heterosexual"); 28-92 "[t]he individual his her heterosexuality, homosexuality bisexuality"). repeals these they basis "homosexual, relationships." Colo. Const., II, 30b. 3 Yet explicit than rescind provisions. prohibits executive named class, we lesbians. reads: 4 "No Protected Status Based Homosexual, Lesbian, Bisexual Orientation. Neither through branches departments, agencies, subdivisions, school districts, enact, adopt enforce statute, regulation, ordinance policy whereby homosexual, relationships constitute otherwise entitle claim minority status, quota preferences, protected discrimination. Section respects self-executing." Ibid. 5 Soon after adopted, invalidity enforcement District Denver. Among plaintiffs (respondents here) were persons, employees. They alleged substantial risk Other (also respondents included three whose cited certain acted earlier prevented continuing do so. Although Governor Romer record opposing he official capacity defendant, together Attorney General 6 granted stay appeal taken Sustaining interim remanding further proceedings, Evans Romer, 854 1270 (Colo. 1993) (Evans I). To reach conclusion, relied our voting cases, Reynolds Sims, 377 533 (1964); Carrington Rash, 380 89 (1965); Harper Virginia Bd. Elections, 383 663 (1966); Williams Rhodes, 393 23 (1968), precedents involving discriminatory restructuring decisionmaking, see, Hunter Erickson, 385 (1969); Reitman Mulkey, 387 369 (1967); Washington Seattle School Dist. 1, 458 457 (1982); Gordon Lance, 403 (1971). advanced arguments effort show narrowly tailored serve compelling interests, none sufficient. second affirmed ruling. 1335 1994) II). We certiorari affirm judgment, rationale different II 7 defense persons. So, says, measure deny reading language rely interpretation court, deeming unnecessary determine full reach, modest implications. critical discussion amendment, set out I, follows: 8 "The objective is, minimum, barred Aspen, Colo., Mun. (1977) (prohibiting housing accommodations orientation); Boulder, 12-1-2 -4 (1987) (same); Denver, art. IV, -116 (1991) Executive Order D0035 (December 1990) employment `all employees, classified exempt' Insurance 10-3-1104, 4A R. (1992 Supp.) (forbidding insurance providers determining insurability premiums applicant's, beneficiary's, insured's provisions prohibiting colleges.26 9 "26 Metropolitan College college sponsored social clubs discriminating membership University antidiscrimination encompasses 10 `ultimate effect' protective unless constitution amended permit such measures." 2d, 1284-1285, n. 26. 11 Sweeping comprehensive law. So much declared void Homosexuals, decree, put solitary relations both spheres. withdraws homosexuals, discrimination, forbids reinstatement policies. 12 works sphere far-reaching, terms considered light structure modern anti-discrimination laws. That illustrated contemporary statutes accommodations. "At common innkeepers, smiths, others `made profession employment,' refusing, without good reason, customer." Hurley Irish-American Gay, Lesbian Group Boston, Inc., 515 ___, ___ (1995) (slip op., 13). duty did specify groups. rules, however, proved insufficient instances, settled early give Congress power Civil Rights Cases, 109 3, 25 (1883). consequence, chosen counter enacting detailed statutory schemes. D. Codified Laws 20-13-10, 20-13-22, 20-13-23 (1995); Iowa 216.6-216.8 (1994); Okla. Stat., Tit. 25, 1302, 1402 (1987); 43 Pa. Cons. Stat. 953, 955 (Supp. 1995); N. J. Ann. 10:5-3, 10:5-4 (West Supp. H. 354-A:7, 354-A:10, 354-A:17 Minn. 363.03 (1991 1995). 13 municipal typify emerging tradition follow consistent pattern. enumerate discriminate. list covered ordinance, definition deemed places "public accommodation." "any place business engaged sales offers facilities, privileges, advantages receives financial support solicitation subsidy kind." 12-1-1(j) similar breadth, applying, hotels, restaurants, hospitals, dental clinics, theaters, banks, carriers, travel "shops stores dealing goods services kind," 28-92. 14 These also depart enumerating groups within ambit protection. Enumeration essential device used make discriminate concrete provide guidance must comply. following approach, governments limited given heightened cases. E. B. Alabama ex rel. T. B., 511 __, __ (1994) 8) (sex); Lalli Lalli, 439 259, 265 (1978) (illegitimacy); McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 191-192 (1964) (race); Oyama California, 332 633 (1948) (ancestry). Rather, forth extensive catalogue traits age, military marital pregnancy, parenthood, custody minor child, affiliation, physical mental associates--and, recent times, 13-98(a)(1) 12-1-4 28-119 24-34-401 24-34-707 (1988 15 bars securing public-accommodations address. severe there more. addition, nullifies targeted sale real estate, insurance, employment. 13-98(b), (c) 12-1-2, 12-1-3 28-93 28-95, 28-97 (1991). 16 Not confined sphere, operates forbid providing every government. two examples rescinded may reintroduced. (1990), "`all orientation." 1284. Also repealed, forbidden, "various colleges." Id., 1284, 1285. prohibition reenactment demonstrates force sector elsewhere applies ordinary legislation. 17 benefit fair, if necessary, deprives arbitrary settings. 24-4-106(7) (1988) (agency capricious standard); 18-8-405 (making criminal offense servant knowingly, arbitrarily capriciously refrain performing imposed him law); 10-3-1104(1)(f) "unfair discrimination" insurance); Regulations 801-1, Policy 11-1 (1983) grounds specified "other non-merit factor"). At point systematic administration laws, whether thus forbidden decision. decision amount appear valid prohibitions invalid. 18 If consequence follows suggests, compound difficulties creates. decide effect, need we. course rejecting intended conserve classes, made observation affect protecting non-suspect 1346, 9. view resolve issue. event, doubt, could safe harbor accept deprive contrary, alone. Homosexuals safeguards enjoy constraint. only enlisting citizenry amend perhaps, view, trying pass helpful applicability. matter how harm, widespread injury. nothing withholds. people either already them; exclusion almost limitless number endeavors civic life free society. III 19 co-exist necessity resulting disadvantage Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 442 256, 271- 272 (1979); F. Royster Guano Co. Virginia, 253 412, 415 (1920). attempted stating that, (1993) 6). 20 peculiar property imposing undifferentiated group, exceptional and, explain, form discontinuous seems inexplicable anything animus affects; lacks relationship interests. 21 Taking point, calling deferential standards, insist knowing between object attained. search link gives substance Clause; provides discipline legislature, entitled know what sorts pass; marks limits authority. case, advance interest, unwise tenuous. New Orleans Dukes, 427 297 (1976) (tourism benefits justified favoring pushcart vendors longevity); Williamson Lee Optical Okla., 348 483 (1955) (assumed concerns optometrists over opticians); Railway Express Agency, Inc. York, 336 106 (1949) (potential traffic hazards exemption vehicles advertising owner's products ban); Kotch Board River Port Pilot Comm'rs Orleans, 330 552 (1947) (licensing scheme disfavored unrelated current river boat pilots possible efficiency safety closely knit pilotage system). cases just enough scope grounded sufficient factual context ascertain existed served. By requiring bear end, ensure classifications drawn disadvantaging group burdened Railroad Retirement Fritz, 449 166, 181 (1980) (Stevens, concurring) ("If adverse impact apparent aim impartiality suspect."). 22 confounds normal process review. broad. identifies denies jurisprudence. absence precedent instructive; "[d]iscriminations unusual character especially suggest careful consideration obnoxious provision." Louisville Gas & Elec. Coleman, 277 32, 37-38 (1928). enact sort. Central idea rule Constitution's guarantee parts remain open impartial assistance. "`Equal achieved indiscriminate imposition inequalities.'" Sweatt Painter, 339 629, 635 (1950) (quoting Shelley Kraemer, 334 (1948)). Respect explains why singling citizens hardships rare. A declaring difficult aid guaranty `equal pledge equallaws.'" Skinner Oklahoma Williamson, 316 535, 541 (1942) Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, (1886)). 24 Davis Beason, 133 333 (1890), dissent, evidence tradition, reliance authority sustaining misplaced. Davis, approved Idaho territorial statute Mormons, polygamists, advocates polygamy vote office because, construed "simply excludes privilege voting, holding honor, trust profit, convicted offences, advocate resistance Territory justify approve commission crimes it." 347. advocating practice vote, longer Brandenburg Ohio, 395 444 (1969) (per curiam). designated deprived ruling stand surviving scrutiny, doubtful outcome. Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 337 (1972); cf. Brown, 381 437 Robel, 389 258 (1967). felon implicated unexceptionable. Richardson Ramirez, 418 (1974). related kind before raise affected. "[I]f conception laws' means anything, very least mean bare . desire harm politically unpopular interest." Department Agriculture Moreno, 413 528, 534 (1973). ambitious purposes often incidental disadvantages impose making inflicts immediate, continuing, outrun belie justifications claimed it. conclude addition far-reaching deficiencies noted, principles offends, another sense, venerable; purpose, Kadrmas Dickinson Public Schools, 487 450, 462 (1988), not. 26 primary liberties homosexuality. cites impossible credit them. say divorced discern interests; "[C]lass [is] ." S., 24. 27 proper end unequal everyone else. do. deem stranger Clause, judgment 28 ordered. 29 djq whom Chief Thomas join, dissenting. 30 mistaken Kulturkampf fit spite. here manifestation "`bare harm'" ante, 13, rather attempt seemingly tolerant Coloradans preserve traditional mores efforts powerful revise use objective, achieve unimpeachable doctrine hitherto pronounced (hence opinion's heavy righteousness holdings); specifically 31 singled disfavorable treatment, contradicts decision, unchallenged here, years see Bowers Hardwick, 478 186 (1986), prestige institution behind proposition opposition reprehensible racial bias. Whether precisely cultural debate (and preferential directed). Since says about subject, left resolved democratic means, constitutions. Americans resolution favored elite Members selected, pronouncing "animosity" evil. I vigorously dissent. 32 Let me discuss Part Court's longest section, devoted "puts persons," "does rights," 4. concludes "implausible" "authoritative construction" 33 reaching considers validity "protection [afforded by] settings." Ante, 8. agree dispute, us. (1994), stated: 34 "[I]t significant note currently proscribes 24-34-402(1)(a), 10A (1994 Supp.); family 24-34-502(1)(a), veterans' 28-3-506, 11B (1989); legal, off-duty conduct smoking tobacco, 24-34-402.5, Supp.). Of legislation, seeks prevent gays, lesbians, bisexuals." (emphasis added). 35 utterly fails distinguish portion ofthe opinion. 24-34-402.5 1995), passage authoritatively declares affected respondents' example generally applicable unavailable Brief Respondents al. 11-12. clear import conclusion "general continue well. analysis, fully accord (indeed, inescapably from) text provision, lays rest horribles, raised oral argument, prospect assaults prosecuted. treatment affect, requirement pensions paid retiring employees length service; benefit. But municipality death-benefit payments "life partner" long-time roommate nonhomosexual employee. Or again, customers coverage anticipated risk. Thus, coverage, charged greater premium, auto collision insurance; require distinctive risks associated (if any) ignored. 36 Despite hand-wringing potential ultimately dispute this, assumes true. contends suffered this: amending constitution. say, underlying accorded readily "equal protection" violation suffice refute jurisprudence terminal silliness. 37 central thesis reasoning when, advantage (or, presumably, avoid disadvantage), recourse hence decisionmaking others. world never heard principle, emotive utterance short relevant citation. And unlikely multilevel democracy function principle. whenever imposed, conferral prohibited, higher levels (i.e., legislature government, legislature), (under theory) take simplest examples, consider award contracts relatives mayors city councilmen. Once passed, composed must, get contracts, persuade legislature-unlike citizens, municipality. ridiculous protection, theory unheard-of. 38 might reply "rational basis" (avoidance corruption) renders substantive fact alone contracts) automatically suffices sustain called electoral-procedural go changed). perfectly reasonable response, explain "electoral-procedural of: enactment. afford next, doubt issue here. entire novel rests special-something analysis-in disadvantaged (or nonpreferred group) resort level. finds logic. 39 turn next amendment-for homosexuals.1 unsurprising avoids question, since answer obviously yes. mentioned opinion: virtually done founding Republic until years-making crime. unassailable, except think changes suit fashions. event present case: Respondents' briefs urge overruling Bowers, counsel expressly disavowed intent overruling, Tr. Oral Arg. 53. constitutionally permissible criminal, surely disfavoring conduct. (As Appeals Columbia Circuit aptly it: "If [in Bowers] unwilling criminalize behavior defines hardly invidious. all, palpable criminal." Padula Webster, 822 97, 103 (1987).) fortiori bestowing (who, unlike luxury ignoring inconvenient precedent) greater-includes-the-lesser application individuals engage acts, "orientation." Some appeals concluded sort least, distinction difference. Equality Foundation Greater Cincinnati, 54 3d 261, 267 (CA6 1995) ("[F]or separate predisposes actually type conduct"); Steffan Perry, 41 677, 689-690 (CADC 1994). appears view. 1349-1350 ("Amendment four characteristics: orientation; conduct; practices; relationships. Each characteristic potentially way gay, lesbian, bisexual. characteristics truly severable persons") 40 assuming "orientation" someone tendency so, still establish provision. favor self-avowed Indeed, sanctions involved, acceptable stand-in violate imperfect," Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 485 (1970). Just hiring methadone users transit simply pose threat passenger safety, York Transit Authority Beazer, 440 568 (1979), mandatory retirement age 50 police officers though prematurely ends careers policemen job, Massachusetts Murgia, 307 curiam), withdraw As wrote, Appeals, discharge Navy: "Nearly irrational applied Discharge rational, minimal dangers Navy policy, instead discharging rational." Beller Middendorf, 632 788, 808-809, (CA9 1980) (citation omitted). Ben-Shalom Marsh, 881 454, 464 (CA7 1989), cert. denied, 494 1004 (1990). Moreover, regarding invalid, challenge 2-which facial challenge-must fail. "A Act course, mount successfully, challenger circumstances exists valid." Salerno, 481 739, 745 could) unconstitutional "orientation"; since, unquestionably succeed. acts successfully bring as-applied indicates, person. App. 4-5 (complaint describing "a gay man" lesbian").2 42 foregoing failure cite remotely lead suspect: No imagined past 200 years, stronger that. unprohibited, eminently reasonable, close, congressionally practice. eminent reasonableness. contains grim, disapproving hints guilty "animus" established Unamerican. moral heritage should hate human being beings. thought reprehensible-murder, polygamy, cruelty animals-and exhibit Surely here: disapproval produced centuries-old Bowers. not, speak entirely precisely, giving homosexuals; reasons-for senior members minorities. conduct-that 44 are, hostile degree hostility reflected smallest conceivable. portrayal society fallen victim pointless, hate-filled "gay-bashing" false comical. repealed antisodomy 1971 Sess. Laws, ch. 121, 1. eliminates punishment necessarily abandon morally wrong socially harmful; often, abolition reflects involves unseemly intrusion into intimate lives citizens. Cf. Lambda Legal Defense Education Fund, Amici Curiae O. 1985, 85-140, p. (antisodomy "unenforceable offensive snooping wasteful allocation resources"); Kadish, Crisis Overcriminalization, 374 Annals American Academy Political Social Science 157, 161 (1967) ("To sodomy cases], obliged tends degrade demean themselves personally institution"). 45 There problem, arises sanction eliminated disapprobation meant retained. unaware problem; country, occasionally bubbles surface news, heated disputes matters introduction schools books teaching optional "alternate style." problem (a wish retain homosexuality) tend reside disproportionate numbers communities, Record, Exh. MMM, high disposable income, ibid.; 254 (affidavit Prof. James Hunter), care homosexual-rights issues ardently large, possess numbers, locally statewide. Quite understandably, devote achieving grudging toleration, acceptance, Jacobs, Rhetorical Construction Rights: Case Gay Movement, 1969-1991, 72 Neb. L. 723, 724 ("[T]he task proponents move center discourse along continuum rhetoric disapprobation, tolerance, finally affirmation"). 46 time asked </B></I>exposure homosexuals' quest endorsement newspaper accounts happenings Los Angeles, San Francisco, Key West. Three citiesAspen, Denver-had listed impermissible ground equating bigotry. phenomenon appeared statewide: signed "in recognize diversity pluralistic strive form," directing agency-heads "ensure non-discrimination" promotion on, things, (Dec. 1990). successes; system reinforcement sentiments countered lawful, countermeasures 47 in. sought geographic concentration (1) resolving level, (2) election single-issue contest sides. directly, State, question: Should protection? answered no. asserts procedures unconstitutional. Lacking facially absurd proposition, unconstitutional, happened before. 48 "[Amendment 2] itselfinstructive 49 "It assistance." noted above, prevents adversely group-whether drug addicts, smokers, gun owners, motorcyclists-from changing "each [the] parts" State. demonstrably Eighteenth Federal drank alcohol alter federal Establishment First theocrats having converting fellow local, state, level; Republican Form Government monarchists. 51 closer analogy, majority morality statewide, geographically concentrated undermine constitutions Arizona, Idaho, Mexico, Oklahoma, Utah day contain "forever prohibited." Ariz. XX, par. 2; 4; M. XXI, 1; III, Polygamists, polygamous "orientation," "singled out" status; changed disposition suggests permitted state-legislated, perhaps local-option, basis-unless, polygamists fewer homosexuals. 52 Congress, way, required inclusion antipolygamy Utah, condition admission statehood. Arizona Enabling Act, 569; Mexico 558; 269; 108. (For moreover, Acts "irrevocable consent State"-so "open terms" whole not; country thinking.) own, 51st admitted Union, "republican conformity States." Admission 215 "singling vote-so alien system, believe-has happened, received approval Congress. 53 explicitly provisions; went further, ability vote. Field wrote unanimous Court: "In 501 Revised Statutes Territory, `no bigamist polygamist teaches, advises, counsels, encourages become bigamists commit crime defined enter known plural celestial marriage, member order, organization association devotees bigamy election, trust, profit Territory,' objection." 346-347 55 extent, any, permits consequences mere abstract advocacy overruled later criminalized, engaging remains 24, Beason "such laws." Appellant 1889, 1261, 41. Justices joining rejection views treats equal-protection lodestars-Justice Harlan, proclaim opinion), citizens," quoted Bradley, "class Amendment," (1883), 14.3 56 recently 1993, authored writes today. said: "[A]dverse always finding targeting. concern quite apart (1890)." Church Lukumi Babalu Aye, Hialeah, 508 520, 535 (1993). "impermissible targeting" (the mild) Has perceived "legitimate government," not? 57 strongly last question yes, leads make: today, announcing "defies [constitutional] inquiry," "confounds review," 11, employs heretofore unknown frustrate values. stern towards compared (including revered Bradley) Murphy Ramsey, 114 (1885), franchise territories cohabitation: 58 "[C]ertainly supposed wholesome necessary free, self-governing commonwealth, rank co-ordinate family, consisting springing union man woman holy estate matrimony; sure foundation stable noble civilization; best reverent source beneficent progress improvement." 45. 59 myself indulge praise heterosexual monogamy, (as opposed branches) sides culture war. 60 inventing extravagant victory away forces, verbally disparaging bigotry adherence attitudes. suggest, springs "`a group,'" quoting (1973), insulting. (It preposterous call "politically unpopular" enjoys enormous influence media politics, which, composing 4% population 46% Pet. Cert. C-18.) 61 When takes wars, knights villeins-and Templars, reflecting values lawyer drawn. How feels anyone wishes interview job applicants Nation's schools. interviewer refuse offer applicant Republican; adulterer; prep belongs club; eats snails; womanizer; she wears real-animal fur; hates Chicago Cubs. associate partner disapproves applicant's violated Association Law Schools member-schools exact interviewers: "assurance employer's willingness" hire Bylaws 6-4(b); Committee 6.19, Handbook, Schools. law-school "prejudices" stamped contrasted plebeian attitudes apparently prevail unresponsive repeated attempts extend civil Employment Non-Discrimination 1994, 2238, 103d Cong., Amendments 1975, 5452, 94th 1st (1975), took pains exclude With Disabilities 1990, 12211(a) ed., V). 62 Today's barely pretends to. disfavor treatment. piecemeal deterioration Coloradans, appropriate employed Striking down act, will. syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber Co., 321, 337. evidently agrees basis"-the test compliance Clause-is governing standard. "suspect" "quasi-suspect" elected 1341, (1994). implicitly rejects holding, 1270, 1282 (1993), infringes "fundamental right" "independently class[es]" "participate equally process." "We portions concerning stricken autonomous thus, severable," 1349. statement premised, "[the] [described Amendment-sexual practices, relationships] persons." discussed premise true-if relationships-Bowers objections. Separate believes id not) distinct class. labors mightily around 12-13, escape issue-which vote-"not objection," appellant's (much like today) impermissibly "single[d] out," adopts my conclusions insofar advocacy, subsequent holds felons conclusions, adds new: "[t]o [Beason] outcome." 12-13. right," (1972), deprivation triggers Strict play 10. Finally, suggestion account "status" (rather conduct) opens up broader significance supra, 6-9.

Category: 4