Document: 490 U.S. 1 109 S.Ct. 1581 104 L.Ed.2d UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Andrew SOKOLOW. No. 87-1295. Argued Jan. 10, 1989. Decided April 3, Syllabus Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agents stopped respondent upon his arrival at Honolulu International Airport. The found 1,063 grams of cocaine in carry-on luggage. When was stopped, the knew, inter alia, that (1) he paid $2,100 for two round-trip plane tickets from a roll $20 bills; (2) traveled under name did not match which telephone number listed; (3) original destination Miami, source city illicit drugs; (4) stayed Miami only 48 hours, even though flight to takes 20 hours; (5) appeared nervous durin trip; and (6) checked none Respondent indicted possession with intent distribute cocaine. District Court denied motion suppress evidence, finding stop justified by reasonable suspicion engaged criminal activity, as required Fourth Amendment. Appeals disagreed reversed respondent's conviction, applying two-part test determining suspicion. First, ruled court, least one fact describing "ongoing activity"—such use an alias or evasive movement through airport—was always necessary support reasonable-suspicion finding. Second, "probabilistic" facts "personal characteristics" drug couriers—such cash payment tickets, short trip major drugs, nervousness, type attire, unchecked luggage were relevant if there evidence activity" Government offered "[e]mpirical documentation" combination issue describe behavior "significant numbers innocent persons." held agents' impermissible, because no ongoing this case. Held: On case DEA had transporting illegal drugs when they him. Pp. 7-11. (a) Under Terry v. Ohio, 392 1, 30, 88 1868, 1884-85, 889, police can briefly detain person investigative purposes have supported articulable activity "may be afoot," lack probable cause Reasonable entails some minimal level objective justification making stop—that is, something more than inchoate unparticularized "hunch," but less cause. P. 7. (b) Appeals' creates unnecessary difficulty dealing relatively simple concepts embodied Court's decisions, totality circumstances must evaluated determine probability, rather certainty, conduct. United States Cortez, 449 411, 417, 101 690, 694-95, 66 621. draws unnecessarily sharp line between types probative value varies degree. While traveling taking path airport may highly probative, neither has sort ironclad significance attributed it Appeals, are instances factor would reflect activity. other hand, test's factors also significance. Paying airline bills containing nearly twice amount is ordinary conduct most business travelers vacationers. alias, although conclusive, sufficient warrant consideration. Of similar effect probability few residents travel hours spend during July. Thus, each these itself proof quite consistent travel, taken together, afoot. 7-10. (c) believed DEA's "drug courier profiles" does alter analysis, question evidentiary regardless whether set forth "profile." 10. (d) reasonableness decision not, contends, turn used intrusive means available verify dispel their suspicions. Such rule unduly hamper officers' ability make on-the-spot decisions here, about enter taxicab—and require courts indulge unrealistic second-guessing. Florida Royer, 460 491, 495, 103 1319, 1322-23, 75 229, distinguished. 10-11. 831 F.2d 1413 (CA9 1987), remanded. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, WHITE, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. MARSHALL, J., filed dissenting opinion, BRENNAN, joined, post, p. 11. Paul J. Larkin, Jr., Washington, D.C., petitioner. Robert Goldberg, Honolulu, Hawaii, respondent. Chief Justice REHNQUIST Court. Andrew Sokolow airplane A divided panel Ninth Circuit respondent, 1987). We take contrary view. 2 This involves typical attempt smuggle Nation's airports.1 Sunday July 1984, went Airlines ticket counter Airport, where purchased leaving later day. names "Andrew Kray" "Janet Norian" open return dates. large bills, contain total $4,000. He gave agent home number. noticed seemed nervous; 25 years old; dressed black jumpsuit wore gold jewelry; accompanied woman, who turned out Janet Norian. Neither nor companion any four pieces 3 After couple left flight, informed Officer John McCarthy Police Department purchase Miami. determined subscribed "Karl Herman," resided 348-A Royal Hawaiian Avenue Honolulu. Unbeknownst (and agents), Herman's roommate. identified voice on answering machine unable find listing Hawaii. subsequently learned reservations been made Kray Norian, scheduled 25, three days after left. Norian stopovers Denver Los Angeles. 4 stopover Angeles, "appeared very looking all around waiting area." App. 43-44. Later day, 6:30 p.m., arrived As before, still wearing jewelry. proceeded directly street tried hail cab, Agent Richard Kempshall approached them. displayed credentials, grabbed arm, moved him back onto sidewalk. asked identification; said neither. told "Sokolow," mother's maiden name, "Kray." 5 escorted office airport. There, couple's examined "Donker," narcotics detector dog, alerted brown shoulder bag. arrested advised constitutional rights declined statements. obtained search They bag several suspicious documents indicating involvement trafficking. Donker reexamine remaining luggage, time dog medium-sized Louis Vuitton By now, 9:30 too late obtain second warrant. allowed leave night, kept next morning, confirmed Donker's alert, inside 6 violation 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1). Hawaii seized involved trafficking then entered conditional plea guilty offense charged. 7 conviction vote, holding justify stop. F.2d, 1423.2 majority bearing into categories. In first category, placed activity," such airport; needed Id., 1419. couriers, 1420. characteristics, "shared couriers public large," Ibid. Applying case, behavior, thus impermissible. judge took view majority's approach "overly mechanistic" "contrary case-by-case determination based facts." 1426. 8 granted certiorari review 486 1042, 108 2033, 100 618 (1988), its serious implications enforcement federal laws. now reverse. 9 arm 1416. challenge conclusion, we assume—without deciding—that occurred here. Our decision, then, turns wrongdoing encountered 889 (1968), officer lacks 10 officer, course, able articulate "inchoate 'hunch.' " 27, S.Ct., 1883. Amendment requires "some justification" INS Delgado, 466 210, 217, 1758, 1763, 80 247 (1984). That considerably preponderance evidence. "a fair contraband crime will found," Illinois Gates, 462 213, 238, 2317, 2332, 76 527 (1983), obviously demanding cause, see Montoya de Hernandez, 473 531, 541, 544, 105 3304, 3310, 3312, 87 381 (1985). 11 concept suspicion, like "readily, usefully, reduced neat legal rules." supra, U.S., 232, 2329. think effort refine elaborate requirements "reasonable suspicion" evaluating validity this, consider "the whole picture." 695, 621 (1981). Cortez: 12 "The process deal hard certainties, probabilities. Long before law probabilities articulated such, practical people formulated certain common-sense conclusions human behavior; jurors fact-finders permitted do same—and so officers." 418, 695. 13 enunciated behavior," other, keeping quoted statements our decisions. It seems us draw classified suspect erratic airport, meeting showing activity." But certainly conceivable activity: example, wished hospital clinic operation concealed fact. One might seeking avoid confrontation angry acquaintance creditor. say ironcl d them Appeals. 14 treated merely ordinary, pay sum cash. Most travelers, feel confident, credit card check record tax purposes, vacationers carry thousands dollars bills. ground believe alias; consideration.3 standing alone, here more: surely month 15 Any travel. together See 502, 1326-27, 229 (1983) (opinion J.); id., 515-516, 1333-1334 (BLACKMUN, dissenting); 523-524, 1337-38 (REHNQUIST, dissenting).4 Reid Georgia, 448 438, 2752, 65 890 (1980) (per curiam), "there could, wholly lawful afoot." 441, 2754.5 Indeed, series acts, perhaps innocent" viewed separately, "but warranted further investigation." 22, 1881; 417-419, 694-696. noted 243-244, n. 13, 2335 "innocent frequently provide basis cause," "[i]n inquiry particular 'innocent' 'guilty,' degree attaches noncriminal acts." principle applies equally well inquiry. 16 agree analysis somehow changed belief profiles."6 Brief 14-21. court sitting existence leading "profile" detract seen trained agent. 17 contends obligated suspicions smuggling narcotics. 12-13, 21-23. view, should simply spoken him, forcibly detaining points statement 500, 1325-26 J.), methods employed reasonably officer's period time." statement, however, directed length stop, stopping Royer. availability investigatory techniques. police's swift, decisions—here, get "indulge 'unrealistic second-guessing.' 542, 3311, quoting Sharpe, 470 675, 686, 687, 1568, 1576, 84 605 18 hold facts. judgment therefore reversed, remanded proceedings decision. 19 ordered. whom BRENNAN joins, dissenting. Because strongest advocates criminals, easy forget interpretations apply alike. 290, 2359-60, (BRENNAN, dissenting). present chain events Airport led discovery and, ultimately, Sokolow's sustaining suspected diminishes citizens "to secure persons," Const., Amdt. 4, traverse airports. Finding result constitutionally I dissent. 22 cabins government's authority intrude personal privacy security requiring searches seizures usually standard derivation probable-cause command, applicable those brief detentions fall being full-scale necessitated exigences need crimes, prevent imminent protect officers charged situations. (1968). prerequisite seizures, protects persons subjected "overbearing harassing" carried solely imprecise stereotypes what criminals look like, irrelevant characteristics race. 14-15, 11, 1876 (citation omitted). 23 To deter egregious unless "specific 21, 1880; Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 880, 95 2574, 2579-80, 45 607 (1975). enough individual committed crimes past, harbors unconsummated designs, propensity commit crimes. contrary, individual, in, poised commit, act moment. See, e.g., Brown Texas, 443 47, 51, 99 2637, 2641, 61 357 (1979) (to detain, "have facts, activity"); Terry, 1884-85 (reasonable exists policeman concludes, "that afoot"). rationale permitting brief, warrantless all, impractical demand strict compliance Amendment's requirement face "swift action predicated observations beat." 20, 1879. Observations raising past criminality immediate action, instead appropriately trigger routine investigation, ultimately generate information blossom 24 Evaluated against standard, known significant matched "profiles" paradigmatic courier. my mechanistic application formula behavioral traits deciding dull sensitive fact-specific inferences "in light experience," 1883, particularly ambiguous borderline cases. Reflexive reliance profile runs far greater risk work subjecting individuals unwarranted harassment detention. enhanced profile's "chameleon-like way adapting observations." 1413, 1418 Compare, Moore, 675 802, 803 (CA6 1982) (suspect deplane), cert. denied, 1068, 1521, 945 Mendenhall, 446 564, 1870, 1882, 64 497 (last Buenaventura-Ariza, 615 29, 31 (CA2 1980) (deplaned middle); Sullivan, 625 9, (CA4 (one-way tickets), Craemer, 555 594, 595 1977) (round-trip McCaleb, 552 717, 720 (nonstop fligh ), Sokolow, 808 1366, 1370 (CA9), vacated, (1987) (case below) (changed planes); (no luggage), withUnited Sanford, 658 342, 343 (CA5 1981) (gym bag), 455 991, 102 1618, 71 852 (1982), withSullivan, (new suitcases); Smith, 574 882, 883 1978) (traveling alone), Fry, 622 1218, 1219 companion); Andrews, 600 563, 566 1979) (acted nervously), sub nom. Brooks States, 444 878, 166, 62 (1979), Himmelwright, 551 992 (CA5) calmly), 434 902, 98 298, 54 189 (1977). asserting "somehow" prefabricated ante, ducks issues relating questionable practice, address case.1 comprising relied especially dubious indices underscored (1980), strikingly encoded profile, alleged detention Atlanta Fort Lauderdale, Florida, early diminished. Third, bags. And fourth, trying conceal together. 440-441, 2753-54. 26 collection held, inadequate All last observed, "describe category presumably subject virtually random conclude little foundation could seizure." 2754. sole suggested "preceded another occasionally looked backward concourse." observation suspecting wrongdoing, inferring reflected 'inchoate "hunch." ' Ibid., 1883.2 27 detained traveler scarcely suggestive Reid. Unlike Reid, sought travelin companion, attempted run away agent, 439, 2753, indications detail nervous. With news accounts proliferating crashes, near collisions, air terrorism, manifold good reasons agitated while awaiting nothing one's endeavor. 28 circumstantial considered either singly indicative Like disavowed nonprobative, resort brought "describe[s] travelers." embarked drugs," illegality; "source cities" every day judging testimony cases, country characterized distribution city. 31, 5. phone listed person's assertion using commonplace registered roommate, which, out, precisely done.3 jewelry provides grounds repeated unexplained allusions style dress notwithstanding. Ante, For base search, part, "pop" guess fashion likely stretches beyond recognition, inimical self-expression choice wardrobe provide. 29 Finally, indicates "feel[s] confident" "[m]ost . check." 8. Why confines focus "business travelers" know, lightly infer tender. Making purchases, common today, traveler's aversion to, inability obtain, plastic money. Conceivably, spends amounts launder proceeds enterprises converting goods services. But, noted, investigating completed episodes goes limited purview Terry-style seizure. Moreover, unreasonable suggest that, gone forever immune subsequent investigation. given number, DEA, having ascertained indeed resided. 30 unlike patently Rodriguez, 469 6, 308, 311, 83 165 (1984), casing store, 39 1872, provision reliable report informant imminent, 225-227, 2325-2326, shown suggests hasty conclusion serves indicate willingness, antidrug policies issue, give shrift rights. Skinner Railway Labor Executives Assn., 489 602, 636, 1402, 1423, 639 (1989) (MARSHALL, conduct, 1419, faithful today's disobeys important developed suppression hearings over separate days. parties stipulated earlier different reasoning. issued petitioned rehearing erred considering separately terms circumstances. claims conducted resolve inconsistency listed. 26. argument avails nothing; done checking, discovered roommate "Sokolow" "Kray," ticket. aware, Royer assumed name; small New York; put luggage; walking 493, 2, 1322, 1326-27 J.). defendant without At knew flew cocaine; low ebb; attempting hide supply reas nable travelers," insufficient establish testified "had classic aspects courier." 59. Since 1974, identify smugglers Even profiles predictive value, utility lived, adapt sidestep detection profile-focused officers. Nor close case: eight Members challenged insupportable, five saw fit dispose reversing below per curiam opinion. concurrence, Powell, joined Burger agreed fragmentary apparently agents" provided "no Reid's 442, 2755, 1. Only then-Justice author dissented, implicate 2754-55. was, fact, until cannot legitimately seizure agents, speaking "use available." manner out—and needlessly steps—is index doctrine. Winston Lee, 753, 760-761, 1611, 1616-1617, 662

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