Document: 376 U.S. 1 84 S.Ct. 526 11 L.Ed.2d 481 James P. WESBERRY, Jr., et al., Appellants,v.Carl E. SANDERS, etc., al. No. 22. Argued Nov. 18 and 19, 1963. Decided Feb. 17, 1964. Emmet J. Bondurant II, Atlanta, Ga., for appellants. Frank T. Cash, appellants, pro hac vice, by special leave of Court. Paul Rodgers, appellees. Bruce Terris, Washington, D.C., the United States, as amicus curiae, Mr. Justice BLACK delivered opinion Appellants are citizens qualified voters Fulton County, Georgia, such entitled to vote in congressional elections Georgia's Fifth Congressional District. That district, one ten created a 1931 Georgia statute,1 includes Fulton, DeKalb, Rockdale Counties has population according 1960 census 823,680. The average districts is 394,312, less than half that Fifth. One Ninth, only 272,154 people, one-third many Since there Congressman each this inequality means District's represent from two three times people do Congressmen some other districts. 2 Claiming these disparities deprived them similarly situated right under Federal Constitution have their votes given same weight Georgians, appellants brought action 42 U.S.C. §§ 1983 1988 28 § 1343(3) asking statute be declared invalid appellees, Governor Secretary State enjoined conducting it. complaint alleged were full benefit vote, violation (1) Art. I, 2, which provides 'The House Representatives shall composed Members chosen every second Year People several States * *'; (2) Due Process, Equal Protection, Privileges Immunities Clauses Fourteenth Amendment; (3) part Section Amendment 'Representatives apportioned among respective numbers *.' 3 case was heard three-judge District Court, found unanimously, facts not disputed, that: 4 'It clear any standard grossly out balance with nine fact, so much removal DeKalb District, leaving 556,326, would it exceeding slightly more forty per cent.'2 5 Notwithstanding findings, majority court dismissed complaint, citing guide Frankfurter's minority Colegrove v. Green, 328 549, 66 1198, 90 L.Ed. 1432, an stating challenges apportionment raised 'political' questions, justiciable. Although below said dismissal here based on 'want equity' nonjusticiability, they relied no circumstances peculiar present case; instead, adopted language reasoning concluding had presented wholly question.3 Judge Tuttle, disagreeing court's reliance opinion, dissented dismissal, though he denied injunction at time order give Legislature ample opportunity correct 'abuses' apportionment. He Baker Carr, 369 186, 82 691, 7 663, which, after discussion all opinions it, held allegations state legislative raise justiciable claims courts may grant relief. We noted probable jurisdiction. 374 U.S, 802, 83 1691, 10 1029. agree Tuttle debasing appellants' abridged members Congress guaranteed Constitution, Court should entered declaratory judgment effect, therefore error dismiss suit. question what relief we further consideration decision light existing circumstances. I. 6 supra, considered challenge 1901 Tennessee providing Senators State's constitution, called counties or 'according number electors each.' charged constitutional command apportion basis been followed discriminatorily disparate plaintiffs persons were, 'by virtue debasement votes,' equal protection laws Amendment.4 cause 'debasement' legislators containing widely varying people—was precisely debase case. pointed Frankfurter Colegrove, upon leaned heavily dismissing 'for want equity,' approved seven Justices sitting.5 After jurisdiction subject matter; standing sue; stated could granted. reasons led conclusions equally persuasive here. Indeed, grounds support our holding controversies said: 8 '* Smiley Holm, 285 355, 52 397, 76 795; Koenig Flynn, 375, 403, 805, Carroll Becker, 380, 402, 807, concerned choice Congress. Smiley, settled issue favor justiciability questions redistricting. precedents although over dissent who participated decision.'6 9 This statement Baker, referred past decisions cases justiciable, believe adhere contended 4, Constitution7 'exclusive authority' protect Congressmen,8 but made nothing article gives construction immunize citizen's power rights individuals destruction, recognized least since Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 60, 1803. Cf. Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. 1, 23. too important free society stripped judicial interpretation Article dismi sal can justified ground 'non-justiciability.' hold erred complaint. II. brings us merits. discriminates against A single represents represented thus contracts value expands others. If intends when elect then cannot stand. that, construed its historical context, States'9 nearly practicable man's election worth another's.10 rule automatically, course, group statewide basis, widespread practice first 50 years Nation's history.11 It extraordinary suggest inhabitants parts State, example, thinly populated Ninth weighted living populous around Atlanta. Gray Sanders, 372 368, 801, 821. Framers intended permit vote-diluting discrimination accomplished through device varied inhabitants. To say district another run counter fundamental ideas democratic government, cast aside principle elected People,' tenaciously fought established Constitutional Convention. history particularly relating adoption reveals those framed meant matter mechanics election, whether districts, Representatives. 12 During Revolutionary War rebelling colonies loosely allied Continental Congress, body authority little pass resolutions requests men supplies. Before war ended proposed secured ratification somewhat closer association Articles Confederation. Though central government former even called, retained most sovereignty, like independent nations bound together treaties. There separate executive branches: consisting house. Like ancient Greek league, without regard size population, soon became Confederation adequate collect needed revenues enforce rules adopted. Farsighted felt union necessary if saved foreign domestic dangers. 13 result Convention 1787, 'the sole express purpose revising *'12 When met May, modest abandoned greater creating new form possible Soon assembled, Edmund Randolph Virginia plan merely amend create entirely National Government Executive, Judiciary, Houses, house people,' first.13 14 how legislature constituted precipitated bitter controversy uppermost minds delegates: where lived, voter voice electing In principle, George Mason 15 'argued strongly larger branch people. grand depository Govt.'14 16 Madison agreed, saying 'If immediately derived proportion numbers, make paper confederacy, will all.'15 Repeatedly, delegates rose point: unfair, unjust, contrary common sense small allowed groups16—in short, Wilson Pennsylvania put 'equal ought no. representatives *' 'of different clearly other, constituents other.'17 17 Some opposed sharpest objection arose fear Delaware representation large enough wield overwhelming Government.18 Arguing depart gave William Paterson New Jersey said, sovereignty maintained, must drawn people: vary idea sovereignty.'19 end chamber Confederation, vote.20 supported plan.21 wanted count alike sharp criticism giving regardless Legislature. entreated 'to renounce wch. confessedly unjust,'22 Rufus King Massachusetts 'was prepared event, rather sit down Govt. founded vicious shortlived unjust.'23 19 dispute came near ending Constitution. Both sides seemed hopelessly obstinate. delegations threatened withdraw did get way.24 Seeing growing sharper emotions rising, wise highly respected Benjamin Franklin pleaded both 'part demands, join accomodating proposition.'25 At last houses neither together, expressing reconcile differences, 'some sword probably work us.'26 deadlock finally broken agreed Great Compromise,27 proposal repeatedly advanced Roger Sherman Connecticut.28 provided hand including Rhode Island, Senators. As guarantee emissaries, legislatures, 3, specially V ever representatio Senate. side compromise States' 'apportioned Numbers.' While yielded Senate, Samuel Johnson Connecticut summed up well: 'in represented; States.'29 20 debates fact abundantly clear: 'people' allocating assigned determined solely inhabitants.30 embodied Randolph's periodic ensure 'fair people,'31 endorsed assuring 'numbers inhabitants' always measure Representatives.32 also overwhelmingly resolution offered base future squarely delete reference wealth.33 And defeated motion Elbridge Gerry limit newer Western never exceed original States.34 21 defeat solemnly Compromise—equal people—for within legislatures draw lines way choosing Represenatives, individuals, complete equality voter. quite aware 'vicious representation' Britain35 whereby 'rotten boroughs' few Parliament almost par cities population. urged repre ented America escape evils English system man send borough Old Sarum while London's million sent four.36 rotten apportionments kind objectionable governmental tolerate representatives.37 22 Federalist described division into method others38 assumed adopt: city Philadelphia supposed contain between fifty sixty thousand souls. Representatives.'39 '(N)umbers,' suitable wealth event 'are proper scale representation.'40 conventions, speakers urging emphasized theme permeated Philadelphia.41 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney told South Carolina Convention, personal individually *.'42 Speakers ratifying conventions malapportionment legislatures—such Connecticut, Carolina—and argued 4,43 used vindicate people's House.44 Congress' power, John Steele North convention, allow boroughs; answer delegate's suggestion might use seacoast, 'most probably' 'lay off districts,' 'inconsistent judges uphold them, nor obey them.'45 23 adopted, Pennsylvania, Associate series lectures drawing his experience active 24 '(A)ll equal. Elections equal, citizens, state, choose representatives, state. manner, remain invariably same.'46 25 construe carrying views, surprising counted. Mosley, 238 383, 35 904, 59 1355; Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 651, 152, 274. Not outright, cannot, consistently destroyed alteration ballots, see Classic, 313 299, 61 1031, 85 1368, diluted stuffing ballot box, Saylor, 322 385, 64 1101, 88 1341. No precious country having good live. Other rights, basic, illusory undermined. Our leaves room classification unnecessarily abridges right. adopt 57 Federalist: 26 'Who Representatives? rich poor; learned ignorant; haughty heirs distinguished names, humble sons obscure unpropitious fortune. great States. *'47 27 Readers surely fairly taken mean, 'one person, vote.' 381, 809, mathematical precision, excuse ignoring Constitution's plain objective making goal high justice Founders set us. 29 Reversed remanded. 30 CLARK, concurring dissenting part. 31 Unfortunately I my Brother HARLAN. true opening sentence However, view, HARLAN demonstrated background preclude finding lays ipse dixit vote' elections. 32 On hand, districting scrutiny. 795 (1932), buttressed companion cases, 805 Carro l 807 (1932). Green felt, reserved exclusively 564, 568, n. 1208, 1209, 1432 (1946). Again 232, 718, 663 (1962), 'settled redistricting.' supervisory granted exclusive remedy. 33 examine requirements Protection Clause Amendment. clause forbids discrimination. does states pick certain groups deny all. prohibit law expressly half-vote others vote. Such discriminatory legislation seems me exactly prohibit.' 569, 1210, 1432. 34 trial court, however, merits case, appear 'grossly balance' State. Instead proceeding merits, lack equity. doing. view vacate remand hearing apply standards laid supra. enter additional caveat. General Assembly recently reapportioned* Toombs Fortson, 205 F.Supp. 248 (1962). addition, Joint Redistricting Study Committee working problem redistricting months. currently session. likelihood Assembly's, reapportioning appropriate coercive deferred until opportunity. 36 HARLAN, dissenting. 37 expected witness day Supreme render casts grave doubt constitutionality composition exaggeration effect today's decision. Court's requires select either 'as practicable' places jeopardy seats 38 1962, districts.1 five Stataes, difference populations largest smallest exceeded 100,000 persons.2 magnitude 500,0003 presumably practicable,' reveal definition phrase.4 Thus, impugns validity 398 'constitutional' now 39 Only demonstration avoided justify rendering inescapably declare constitutionally defective very coordinate Government. fails demonstration, unsound logically face demonstrably historically. 40 coming grips carries consequences, firmly mind provisions control case: 41 'Section 2. Electors Qualifications requisite numerous Branch direct Taxes included Union, Numbers, adding whole Number Persons, Service Term Years, excluding Indians taxed, fifths Persons. actual Enumeration Years Meeting subsequent Manner Law direct. thirty Thousand, Least Representative *. 43 4. Times, Places Representatives, prescribed thereof; alter Regulations, except chusing 44 5. Each Elections, Returns own 45 shown, 'historical context,' ante, p. 7, establish: 46 1. largely, entirely, population; 47 plenary allotted accordance popular please, Congress; 48 3. exclusive. 49 absence seek. goes beyond province decide preferable acted wisely method, derelict requiring follow course. Once stake, ends Disclaiming particular holds provision Art, People' pp. 7-8. Stripped rhetoric bears resemblance evidence pages history, infra, 30—41, supports bland assertion People" 'cast aside' 'a another,' ante 8, i.e., Representative, is, just States.' requires.6 51 finds necessity artificial undoubted importance involved All talk about 'dilution' model circular reasoning, premises argument feed conclusion. Moreover, focusing disregard area shape well party affiliations deals abstractions politically unsophisticated relevance realities political life. relies confers whom Legislature.' Supra, So far concerned, confer sex or, chose, specified areas State.7 Were find residents unqualified words would, relevant, but, disqualification power. How be, then, prevents apportioning chooses? truth not. 53 purports position third paragraph appearance section derives confusion issues: Those issues distinct, separately treated fallacy illustrated slide, bscured intervening (see 13-14), intention 'that inhabitants,' 13, 'principle 14. it.8 many, perhaps most, believed generally—but assuredly precise, formalistic Court9—that populations, surreptitiously slip belief phrase discovered 175 later Shakespearian anagram. 54 Far supporting shows blindly marched plus three-fifths slave voted, inclusion favored excess voting If, slaves representation, says prohibited: 'weighted' Alternatively, thought speak slaves. But added indicating nonvoting degree still speaking State.10 55 demonstrating hollowness another's,' 8. Nothin today disturb 410,481,11 Alaska, Nevada, Wyoming 226,167, 285,278, 330,066.12 entire guarantees 'at Representative.' whimsical assert absolute people' 'solemnly embodied' bases House, generally mere exception majority; found. 56 Finally array hurdles surmounts knocking simply: Senators.' (Emphasis added.) 58 boroughs,' material cited 14—15, hereafter makes plain. labored establish bury discovery, omit mention explicitly conduct qualification prescribe regulations and, qualification, regulations. indicate limitation whatsoever initial derogatory theoretically actually exercised See 42—45.13 freezes both, reason theory selection III. dubious propriety turning context' plainly. But, expect itself ambiguity, surrounding already clearer. 60 emphasizes, frequently expressed also, statements favoring limited monarchy property qualifications suffrage expressions disapproval unrestricted democracy.14 prove other. Whatever dominant philosophy thing unlikely subscribed vote,' 18.15 approving population-based focused Compromise suggests remotely State.16 discussed pointedly neglects. states: representatives.' Ante, 15. remarks follows: 62 Genl. supposes Legislatures sometimes fail refuse consult interest expense local conveniency prejudices. policy referring appointment influenced mode, (sic) uncontrouled regulating & manner holdin These latitude. impossible foresee abuses discretionary Whether viva voce, assemble place place; divided meet place, shd representatives; district; points depend Legislatures. materially affect appointments. 63 Whenever favorite carry, take care mould candidates wished succeed. Besides, Representation produce Natl. Legislature, presumable secure themselves latter. What danger controuling Legislature?'17 response strike regulation Supported Convention,18 contradicted respect, understood Including badly, How, choose? correct, Madison's pointless. expect, least, limiting factor provide. 65 Materials supplementary unequivocal. restricted conferred None references debate application States; instance, passage repeats provides: States.19 contrast unanimous silence being discussed, repeated related problems affecting connection 32—33, ultimate chose. 67 Dana because prevent copying B itain, cottages Parliament, Birmingham, manufacturing town, lately sprung up, one.'20 Island 'about adopting' 'Deprive towns Newport Providence weight.'21 situation 'Hartford, towns, sends corporations,' Carolina: back increased greatly attempted unequal mode Charleston, favor, consent alteration, city.'22 'control case'; otherwise, (South Carolina), faction state.'23 68 Parsons explicit. 69 'Mr. PARSONS vesting powers contained 4th (of I), preserving union, securing election. (State legislatures) partial disqualify electors. Without remedy; remedy, controlling senators twelve states, influence commotions factions, hear impartially, preserve restore sacred Perhaps objected, opposition interests federal legislature, regulations; branches legislature; require mutual preserved unimpaired, government. regulations, certainly remain; introduced governing elections, alterations.'24 70 York during Jones objected regulate 'might deprive essential right, design them.'25 explaining neglected refused unable itself.26 Smith add to, representative votes.'27 designed large, 'taken state.'28 explained impose requirement enable act discretion, Congress.'29 districting, resol tion modified read 71 '(Resolved) laws, time, divide convenient provision, citizen inhabitant term year preceding state.'30 72 Despite careful, advertent attention mentioned. Equally significant empowering contains 73 again unequivocally looked districting: 74 (I)t uniform throughout continent. principles equality, otherwise. diversity obviously unjust. regulated unequally Carolina, respect members. Should suffrage, judged remedied general fix these, governments, best acquainted uniformity, dissolution. Considering governments distinct bodies, acting capacities submitted former, easily dissolved. properly exercised. appears satisfactory, abused Constitution.'31 75 apparent abused, suggested safely deleted unnecessary. think proper.'32 Responding asserted 'laws inconsistent Constitution.'33 (The possibilities apparently attempt inconvenient.'34) usurpation, belonging 77 placing o hands legislatures' retaining 'self-preserving power' lest lie prostrate mercy states.'35 stated, 'make improper regulations' all.'36 78 Neither quotes, 15, 18, holding. 57, assumption Philadelphia's entitle answering constituencies government.37 54, sides, taxation, representation.'38 simply show reasonably taxes excluded representation. Further Federalist, cleavage State: 79 aggregate inhabitants, designate. depend, material. apportions representatives. point southern retort insisting, required towards inhabitants; consequently, admitted number, citizens.'39 80 59, Hamilton 'plain proposition, preservation.'40 on, 81 alledged inserted applicable change country; exist somewhere. will, presume, readily conceded, ways, disposed, lodged Legislatures, primarily latter, ultimately former. preferred They instance administrations; ordinary views prevail, satisfactory; national interpose, whenever interposition safety.'41 discuss congresssional upshot text, relevant strong consistent contradiction scheme vests Government, supervision exercise Within scheme, assert, creates manufactured cloth. IV. unstated premise conclusion dealt, believes deal, sound principles. Laying moment interpretation, becomes undertaking reserves overruling judgment. 1842, 'entitled Representative' contiguous territory, 'no Representative.'42 dropped,43 reinstated.44 1872, 'be Representative.'45 duplicates carried forward 1911.46 reapportionment following 1920 census. dropped 1929,47 revived, 1929 twice amended 1941, censuses apportionments.48 86 Act carefully reviewed Wood Broom, 287 131. stated: 87 manifestly re-enact compactness, contiguity, pursuant 1929. 'This terms act, omission deliberate. considered.' U.S., 89 disc ssion omitting bill House,49 notice so,50 likely explanation remark floor know going have.'51 Debates Congresses unhelpful explain continued rejection requirement; intimations feeling persisted.52 Bills imposed regularly House.53 law. 91 For period years, therefore, (This, declares along implementing legislation.) Subsequently, problem, eliminated requirement, permitting solutions. despite efforts obtain again, solution contended, fills gap left contrary, substitutes V. 92 extent depa ts accepted adjudication evidenced irrelevance relies. 93 274, habeas corpus sustained conviction violating statutes54 crime conspire before protecting member fraud violence; sustaining Id., 660, 156. protected law, dependent 'adopts qualification' furnished Congress.' 158, acts prosecuted violations statutes. filing false returns, 1355, ballots certification votes, slightest bearing situation.55 94 scant attention, directly point; affirmed alleging changes Illinois Laws lacked compactness territory approximate population.' 550—551, 1198. Leaving ctually decide, hardly maintained anything else, invalidate eminently fair failed exercising powers, fairness offended, remedy lies people.' 554, 1200, Frankfurther '(a)n aspect judiciary, involved, Ibid. not, Colegrove; refusal precedential expressed.56 VI. 95 Today's portents recognized. vindicates individual assured Process Amendment, whose 'vague contours,' Rochin California, 342 165, 170, 205, 208, 96 183, course developments necessitated changing conditions dynamic society. Nor emergent frame rights. claim strikes doctrines separation powers. upholding claim, attempts reforms field plainly committed process. blanket step fallen short. stability institution depends alert keep bounds recognition limitations functions system. 97 done saps promise intervention matters sort encourage inertia reform process, inevitable process weakened. By yielding demand disservice broader values 98 Believing disclose affirm 99 APPENDIX TO OPINION OF MR. JUSTICE HARLAN.* Difference Between Largest Smallest 100 Representatives** Districts 101 Alabama (8)...... ----. ---- 102 Alaska (1)....... ----.---- Arizona (3).... 663,510. 198,236 465,274 Arkansas (4)... 575,385. 332,844 242,541 California (38). 588,933. 301,872 287,061 Colorado 653,954. 195,551 458,403 Connectucut (6). 689,555. 318,942 370,613 103 (1)..... Florida (12)... 660,345. 237,235 423,110 (10)... 551,526 104 Hawaii (2)....... Idaho (2)...... 409,949. 257,242 152,707 (24).. 552,582. 278,703 273,879 Indiana (11)... 697,567. 290,596 406,971 Iowa (7)....... 442,406. 353,156 89,250 Kansas (5)..... 539,592. 373,583 166,009 Kentucky (7)... 610,947. 350,839 260,108 Louisiana (8).. 536,029. 263,850 272,179 Maine 505,465. 463,800 41,665 Maryland (8)... 711,045. 243,570 467,475 105 (12). 478,962 376,336 102,626 Michigan (19).. 802,994. 177,431 625,563 Minnesota 482,872. 375,475 107,397 106 Mississippi (5). 608,441. 295,072 313,369 Missouri (10).. 506,854. 378,499 128,355 Montana (2).... 400,573. 274,194 126,379 Nebraska (3)... 530,507. 404,695 125,812 107 Nevada 108 Hampshire (2). 331,818 275,103 56,715 (15). 585,586. 255,165 330,421 109 Mexico (2)... (41).. 471,001. 350,186 120,815 (11). 491,461 277,861 213,600 Dakota 333,290 299,156 34,134 Ohio (24)...... 726,156. 236,288 489,868 Oklahoma (6)... 552,863. 227,692 325,171 Oregon (4)..... 522,813. 265,164 257,649 111 (27). 553,154 303,026 250,128 Idland 459,706 399,782 59,924 112 531,555 302,235 229,320 113 497,669 182,845 314,824 (9).. 627,019. 223,387 403,632 Texas (23)..... 951,527. 216,371 735,156 Utah 572,654. 317,973 254,681 114 Vermont (1)...... 539,618. 312,890 226,728 Washington (7). 510,512. 342,540 167,972 115 West 422,046 303,098 118,948 Wisconsin (10). 530,316. 236,870 293,446 116 117 STEWART. 118 'this afford type justiciable,'* subscribe implication lurk HARLAN'S opinion. With unanswerably mandate ordain Ga.Code 34—2301. Wesberry Vandiver, 206 276, 279—280. 'We deem (Colegrove Green) precedent nonjusticiability involving here, equity factors balance: government; posing delicate difficult depriving unless redistrict state; forthcoming afforded F.Supp., (footnote omitted). 188, 694, 663. Rutledge equitable discretion shortness remaining (before next election) doubtful could, petitioners effective seek.' 565, 'particular circumstances' Cook 329 675, 678, 21, 22, 596. U.S.Const., U.S.Const. Sixteenth Amendmen s, respectively. reach arguments violates late conducted large. Paschal, Representatives: 'Grand Depository Democratic Principle'?' Contemp. Prob. 281 (1952). Records 1787 (Farrand ed. 1911) (hereafter 'Farrand'). took careful notes interpreting generations consider adoption: 'Such defects, deformities, diseases ominous prospects, provide overlooked expounding appreciating Charter provided.' 549. id., 20. 48. 472. See, e.g., 197—198 (Benjamin Pennsylvania); 467 (Elbridge Massachusetts); 286, 465—466 (Alexander York); 489—490 (Rufus 322, 446—449, 486, 527—528 (James Virginia); 180, 456 (Hugh Williamson Carolina); 253—254, 406, 449—450, 482—484 Pennsylvania). 180. Luther Martin treat confederate liberty: propositions table slavery States: Va.Masts. Pa. 42/90 please miraculous Union ten: do, gain compleat masters rest 438. 251. 613. E.g., 324 437—438, 439—441, 444—445, 453-455 (Luther Maryland); 490—492 (Gunning Bedford Delaware). 464. 490. Gunning (with dictatorial air) Large dare dissolve confederation. ones ally honor faith, justice.' 492. 488. 532 Massachusetts). 'accomodation' 'preferable appeal world talked Gentlemen.' 533. 551. 193, 342—343 (Roger Sherman); 461—462 (William Johnson). 462. original.) 'free Persons' 'bound Years' counted determining taxed counted, 'three (slaves) computing populations. Also, Farrand, 580. 579. 606. 'number alone (was) measuring representation; governed wealth, obliged estimate numbers.' 582. rejected thinking western Gouverneur Morris Busy haunts remote wilderness, School Talents.' 583. 457. 'Rotten long disappeared Britain. Today permanent parliamentary Boundary Commissions recommend constituencies, shifts. statutory commissions operate, Commons (Redistribution Seats) Acts 1949, Geo. 6, c. 66, Second Schedule, 1958, Eliz. 26, Schedule. 241. Works Alexander (Lodge 1904) (statement convention). (Cooke 1961), 389. 368. authorship Numbers 1908) xxiii-xxxv, author, 1961) xxvii; (Van Doren 1945) vi—vii; Brant, Settling Authorship Federalist,' Am.Hist.Rev. (1961). Several Conventions Adoption (2d Elliot 1836) (Fisher Ames, Convention) 'Elliot'); 202 (Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut); Richardson Davie, 257 (Charles Pinckney, Carolina). 304. U.S.C.onst. Elliot, (Francis Dana, Convention); —51 King, 367 Virginia). 71. (Andrews 1896) 385. Laws, Sept. 1—Oct. Extra. Sess., 7—31. (8), (1), (2), (1). Maryland, Michigan, Ohio, Iowa, Maine, Hampshire, Dakota, Island. Together, Appendix 500,000 507,047 (one large). 370,613. formula sweeps host rug. various tolerable? Is relative one, latter related? Does relevance? controlling? statistic greatest disparity departure both? May natural boundaries (rivers, mountain ranges) practicability representation? obvious criteria impropriety whole-hearted heavy-footed entrance arena. eight (plus Texas) 100,000. 89,250, 393,934, Iowa's lose well. presume affected. ordinarily come erase conform announced today, invalidation redrawn. reapportionment, violated exlusive occasion whether, assert. Parte Yarbrought, thereby 46. ratified taxpaying everywhere. 1777, VII, freeholders 'possessing freehold twenty pounds, (who) rented tenement yearly shillings, rated paid State.' tabular Thorpe, History American 1776—1850 (1898), 93—96. progressive elimination Sait, Parties (Penniman ed., 1952), 16—17. Revolution, serious inroads yet privileges property, indeed, line defense personal-property membership legislature.' Women op. cit., 96. 49—54. women, 'inhabitants,' 1807. 93. Compare N.J.Const.1776, XIII, N.J.Const.1844, Even strictly word 'solely' deleted. 'three-fifths compromise' 40. 28—29. able Senate departures mentioned note indicates possibility alternative combined reality dictate abstract numerical equality. Luce, Legislative Principles (1930), 331—364; Hacker, Districting (1963), dispersion borders. above implications Madison. Luce 'quite arbitrary proportionate slaves' men' intended. 'There shadow landed, agricultural, industrial, commercial, property.' 356—357. Bureau Census, Census Population: (hereafter, Census), xiv. figure obtained dividing (which excludes Columbia, Territories, taxed) 1960, 178,559,217, 435. 1—16. 'Each Members,' away reinforces evident (1911) Farrand), 48, 86—87, 134—136, 288—289, 533, 534; II Farrand 202. assemblage sympathy habits institutions democracy. intrepreted democracy mob spokesmen outvote beleaguered deputies uncommon man.' 7—8. Pinciples 'Property humanity.' 357. Contrary statement, reader 'could (it) mean' contravention imposed. 369. (Italics concludes following, Court: 'They (the electors) correspondent References (ante, 15), occurred 240—241. materials 41—42, 44—45 16. Ames' convention typical: Elliot's Debates), 11. due IV 257. 256—257. 49. 50—51. 51. 26—27. 325. 325—326. 327. 328. 329. III 367. 440—441. 441. 398. 398—399. June 25, Stat. 491. 23, 1850, 428. July 14, 1862, 572. 28. 1882, 5, 6; 1891, 735; Jan. 16, 1901, 733, 734; Aug. 1911, 1929, 21. Apr. 1940, 162; 761. H.R. 11725, 70th Cong., 1st Mar. 1928, Cong.Rec. 4054. 1499, 1584, 1602, 1604. 1499 (remarks Dickinson). Record reports applause. debates, Lozier 'power determine sovereign selecting 1496. Graham. 4368 Rankin), 4369 McLeod), 4371 McLeod); 1081 Moser). 4820, 76th Sess.; 5099, 2648, 82d 6428, 83d 111, 85th 814, 8266, 86th 73, 575, 841; 87th Sess. Typical recent 841, amends 2a provide: '(c) subsection (a) section, compact centum total decennial census, section. '(d) Any forth (c) seat Clerk credentials.' Similar bills current 1128, 2836, 4340, 7343, 88th R.S. 5508; 5520. 795, 805; CLARK 18—19, irrelevant. Holm questions: first, answered negative, empowered 'Legislature' Governor's veto legislature. question, measures, repealed 13. carry enacting Act. 374, 795. Quite obviously, stand proposition intimation scrutiny, purpose. decided force Colegrove. contradictory objections 'justiciability' aside, deal Census. available biographical Directory, 2d ** 435 quotation Rutledge's

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