Document: 544 U.S. 197 CITY OF SHERRILL, NEW YORK,v.ONEIDA INDIAN NATION YORK ET AL. No. 03-855. Supreme Court of United States. Argued January 11, 2005. Decided March 29, Respondent Oneida Indian Nation New York (OIN or Tribe) is a direct descendant the (Oneida Nation), whose aboriginal homeland, at Nation's birth, comprised some six million acres in what now central State. See, e. g., N. Y. v. County Oneida, 414 U. S. 661, 664 I). In 1788, State and entered into treaty whereby Oneidas ceded all their lands to State, but retained reservation about 300,000 for own use. See Y., 470 226, 231 II). The Federal Government initially pursued policy protective Indians. 1790, Congress passed first Trade Intercourse Act (Nonintercourse Act), barring sales tribal land without Government's acquiescence. And 1794 Treaty Canandaigua, States "acknowledge[d]" Oneidas' 300,000-acre guaranteed "free use enjoyment" reserved territory. Nov. 1794, 7 Stat. 44, 45, Art. III. Nevertheless, continued purchase from Oneidas. Although Washington administration objected, later administrations made not even pretense interfering with York's purchases, ultimately designed open white settlers remove tribes westward. Pressured by removal policy, many left Those who stayed diminish number and, during 1840's, sold most remaining York. By 1920, only 32 early litigation over claims trained on monetary recompense past deprivations, shifted suits against local governments. 1970, they filed federal "test case" two counties, alleging that cession 100,000 1795 violated Nonintercourse thus did terminate right possession. They sought damages measured fair rental value, years 1968 1969, 872 ancestral owned occupied counties. District Court, affirmed Appeals, dismissed complaint failure state claim. This reversed I, S., 675, 682, holding jurisdiction was properly invoked. After prevailed lower courts, this held, inter alia, could maintain claim be compensated "for violation possessory rights based common law," II, 236, "[t]he question whether equitable considerations should limit relief available present day Indians," id., 253, n. 27. 1997 1998, OIN purchased separate parcels petitioner city Sherrill, These properties, once contained within historic Reservation, were last possessed as entity 1805. year, transferred one its members, non-Indian 1807. properties thereafter remained hands until reacquired them open-market transactions. For centuries, governance area which are located has been provided county municipal units. According 2000 census, 99% area's present-day population non-Indian. because lie boundaries originally Oneidas, maintained tax exempt accordingly refused pay property taxes assessed Sherrill. Sherrill initiated state-court eviction proceedings, brought federal-court suit. contrast I involved demands compensation, prohibiting, currently future, imposition taxes. concluded taxable, Second Circuit affirmed. resists payment ground OIN's acquisition fee title discrete revived ancient sovereignty piecemeal each parcel, so regulatory authority newly no longer resides Held: Given longstanding, distinctly character inhabitants, constantly exercised counties towns 200 years, long delay seeking judicial parties other than States, standards law equity practice preclude Tribe unilaterally reviving sovereignty, whole part, issue. ago relinquished governmental reins cannot regain through purchases current titleholders. Pp. 213-221. (a) rejects theory that, II recognized acquired specific issue market, it unified may assert sovereign dominion parcels. money see 229, "equitable considerations" Substantive questions duties very different remedial questions. Here, seeks declaratory injunctive recognizing future immunity taxation had subject generations. appropriateness such must evaluated light history control From 1800's 1970's, largely accepted, indifferent to, validity vel non Moreover, here have greatly increased value since ago. longstanding assumption an predominantly creates "justifiable expectations." E. Rosebud Sioux Kneip, 430 584, 604-605. Similar justifiable expectations, grounded centuries exercise jurisdiction, recently uncontested OIN, merit heavy weight here. wrongs complains occurred Republic, whereas, units continuously governed seek possession court decree 1970's. 1990's acquire unification demand exemption taxation. lapse time, revive court, attendant dramatic changes gaining disruptive remedy seeks. 213-217. (b) distance 1805 day, units, developments spanning several generations, evoke doctrines laches, acquiescence, impossibility, render inequitable shift suit initiate. passage time can relief. example, doctrine laches focuses side's inaction other's legitimate reliance bar long-dormant Badger Badger, 2 Wall. 87, 94. acquiescence controlling effect States' Ohio Kentucky, 410 641, 651. Court's original-jurisdiction state-sovereignty cases do dictate result here, provide helpful point reference: When party belatedly asserts territory, observances settled expectations prime considerations. It held free Parcel-by-parcel revival status, given extraordinary would dishonor "the wisdom repose." 262. Finally, impracticability returning generations earlier numerous private hands. Yankton 272 351, 357. unilateral reestablishment control, market price, practical consequences similar those led initiate impossibility doctrine: surrounding today overwhelmingly populated non-Indians, checkerboard — created behest "seriously burde[n] governments" adversely affect landowners neighboring patches. Hagen Utah, 510 399, 421. If reassert these rolls, little prevent initiating new generation zoning controls protect area. Felix Patrick, 145 317, 335. Recognizing concerns, provided, 25 C. § 465, mechanism communities takes account interests others stakes well-being. Section 465 provides proper avenue reestablish territory 217-221. (c) Tribe's dispossession, resolved leaves undisturbed holding. P. 221. 337 F. 3d 139, remanded. GINSBURG, J., delivered opinion REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, THOMAS, BREYER, JJ., joined. concurring opinion, post, p. 222. STEVENS, dissenting 1 CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR SECOND CIRCUIT. Ira Sacks argued cause petitioner. With him briefs Esther Trakinski. 3 Caitlin J. Halligan, Solicitor General York, amicus curiae urging reversal. her brief Eliot Spitzer, Attorney General, Daniel Smirlock, Deputy Peter H. Schiff, Andrew D. Bing, Assistant Dwight A. Healy. 4 Michael R. Smith respondents. William W. Taylor III, David Reiser, Thomas B. Mason, Richard G. Taranto, Carmen. 5 Malcolm L. Stewart affirmance. Acting Clement, Sansonetti, Kneedler, Clark, Lazarus, Shilton, Ethan Shenkman.* 6 JUSTICE GINSBURG Court. case concerns 1998. question, reservation, 226 (1985) II), stated triable wrongful conveyed law. instant action, parcel. Consequently, maintains, 8 Our 1985 decision common-law wrongdoing both national governments complicit. Today, we decline project redress thereby disrupting towns. Generations non-Indians developed composed reservation. least middle 19th century, resided elsewhere. towns, hold government 9 * A 10 federally "one nations Iroquois, powerful Northeast American Revolution." Id., 230. At birth homeland Ibid.; (1974) 11 after Revolutionary War, came under increasingly pressure settlement." 231. Reflective pressure, Fort Schuyler. payments kind, "all lands." App. Pet. Cert. A136. Of vast conveyed, acres," 231, cultivation," A137 (internal quotation marks omitted).1 does contest legitimacy Schuyler conveyance 12 Indians, undertaking secure Tribes' lands. 231-232; 667; Cohen, Handbook Law 418-419 (1942 ed.); 73-74 (1982 ed.) (hereinafter Handbook). Act, commonly known Act. July 22, ch. 33, 137. Periodically renewed, 667-668, 4, substantially force today, Rev. 2116, 177, bars Government.2 further pursuit Canandaigua Six (Iroquois) Nations. 44. That Reservation established II. turn agreed "never any States." IV. 13 nonetheless objected negotiations buy supervision. 232. Later administrations, however, "[made not] interfer[ing] [the] State's attempts negotiate treaties [with Oneidas] cessions." 43 Ind. Cl. Comm'n 373, 385 (1978); also 390; Campisi, Period, 1783-1838, Experience: Two Perspectives 48, 59 (J. Campisi & Hauptman eds. 1988) Campisi). generally Gunther ("New much Indians perhaps participated in, though apparently government." (footnote omitted)). 14 soon veered away protection east coast reservations. lieu commitment Getches, Wilkinson, Williams, Cases Materials 94 (4th ed. 1998) (After Louisiana Purchase 1803, policymakers "began debate tactics inducing [eastern Indians] exchange permanent West."). As recounted Claims Commission 1978, 19th-century agents simply fail check "took active role ... encouraging west." N.Y., Comm'n, 391 (noting "deeply involved" "plans bring [Oneidas]" land). Beginning 1817, accelerated efforts homelands. 78-79, 142. 15 leave 150 1825, moved Wisconsin. Horsman, Wisconsin Preallotment Years, Experience, supra, 65, 67. 1838, Buffalo Creek, envisioned including Kansas. Jan. 15, 550. 5,000 original 149 (CA2 2003). hundred members Wisconsin, while 620 556 (Sched. A). 16 Article Creek Treaty, Kansas set aside "as c[ould] make satisfactory arrangements" "purchase Oneida." 554. condition treaty's ratification, Senate directed commissioner "fully fairly explai[n]" terms signatory tribe band. 170 1, 21-22 (1898). Commissioner Ransom Gillet, negotiated met again assured forced move remain "their where reside," i. e., "if ch[ose] forever." 146 (emphases added). 17 proclamation 40 Ct. 448, 458, 469-471 (1905). few Canada 1842, "by mid-1840s, State," Introduction Part Journey: 1784-1860, pp. 9, (L. McLester 1999). 1843, less 1,000 61. acreage dwindled 350 1890; ultimately, Ibid. 18 eventually abandoned 1860, restored public domain, thereafter. 24, 28-29, 31. B 19 Early concerning deprivations. 1893, sued disposing settlers, shared resulting award damages. 1; 448 (identifying Tribes qualified share distribution sum recovered). 20 Seeking compensation half century later, proceedings before 1951. 622 2d 624, 626 1980). between 1846. alleged, agreed, 1790 successor statutes, fiduciary duty assure received "conscionable consideration" question. 26 138, (1971). Commission's core determination, extended transactions knowledge. 201 546, 554, 477 939, 944 (1973). Accordingly, determine actually constructively knew 555, 2d, 945. 21 On remand, found actual constructive knowledge liable if conscionable consideration. 375, 406-407. anticipated ultimate liability, then decided pursue course. request, proceedings. 990, 991 (1982) (per curiam). 22 concentrating recovery asserting federal-question 28 1331 1362, instituted Counties Madison. alleged 1795, 205, applicable statutes. initial endeavor gain confined arising We 682. 23 next round, courts. review rejected various defenses presented might barred action damages, 240-250, 236. While upholding judgment Appeals regarding counties' liability law, noted addressed Court." "we express[ed] m[ight] relevant final disposition case." fixed amount payable Allowing setoffs good-faith improvements land, ordered recoveries $15,994 $18,970 Madison County, plus prejudgment interest. 217 Supp. 292, 310 (NDNY 2002). 24 2000, resumed abeyance pendency test case. revitalized period years. amended series agreements 1846, approximately 250,000 unlawfully 199 61, 66-68 2000). enlarge demanding 1795-1846 conveyances.3 attempted join defendants, 20,000 landowners, obtain allow eject landowners. 67-68.4 permission late resting part bad faith undue delay. 79-85. Further, proposed amendment "futile." regard, emphasized "sharp distinction existence homelands," "and how vindicate right." D., 90. "must drawn," stated, ibid., wrong, "development every type imaginable ongoing," 92. Referring "practical concerns" blocked restoration former lands, high "to transcend theoretical." genre, observed, "cr[ied] out pragmatic approach." therefore excluded 93-95. brings us case, non-Indian: represent 1% Sherrill's 0.5% County's population. Dept. Commerce, Census Bureau, Population Housing, Summary Housing Characteristics: PHC-1-34, Table 3, 124 (July 2002), http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/phc-1-34.pdf (as visited Mar. 2005, Clerk file). owns 17,000 scattered throughout Madison, representing 1.5% total predecessor, Nation, 1805, acquisitions 1998 3d, 144, 3. operates commercial enterprises parcels: gasoline station, convenience store, textile facility. 144. 27 Because taxation, court. declaration exempt. welter counterclaims. Relevant taxable. 254-259 2001). divided panel 139. Writing majority, Judge Parker ruled qualify "Indian country," term defined 1151,5 fall 155-156; 204-205. demonstrate clear congressional purpose disestablish Reservation. 161, 165; 206. legal requirement "that continuous order land." 165. record demonstrated existence. 166-167. Van Graafeiland dissented majority's primary his view, raised substantial "forfeited" "its discernable time." 171. 29 granted petition writ certiorari, 542 936 (2004), reverse Appeals. 30 argue Brief Respondents 12-19; Amicus Curiae 9-10. only. 229; 244, (recognizing "action law"). another 27; 209.6 31 "The substantive plaintiff defendant duty, is, preferred, measure is." Dobbs, Remedies 1.2, (1973); Navajo Mexico, 809 1455, 1467 (CA10 1987) ("The fundamental."). "[S]tandards practice" 210-211, reject plea ejectment 90 omitted); ibid. ("[T]here sharp homelands right...."). generations.7 "standards rekindling embers grew cold.8 23-25 (attributing confusion conflict affairs "Federal inattention ambivalence"). fact, dislodge 205-207. Notably, lately converted wilderness become cities like 210-212; 264-265 (STEVENS, part). 33 observed different, related, context diminishment 90% non-Indian, use," create 604-605 (1977); accord 421 (1994) ("jurisdictional history" situation demonstrat[e] acknowledgment" diminishment; "a contrary conclusion seriously disrupt people living area" omitted)).9 here.10 34 Republic. 210, 4. 144.11 35 principle deep roots our prescription guises. well focused reliance, e.g., (1865) ("[C]ourts act upon inherent discouraging, peace society, antiquated demands, refuse interfere there gross prosecuting claim, assertion adverse rights." omitted)); Wagner Baird, How. 234, 258 (1849) (same); Bowman Wathen, 189, 194 (1843) ("[The] announced chancellors England Ireland, . regarded court."). 36 applied 317 (1892), heirs establishing trust ancestor statutory restriction. nearly three decades lawsuit, "[a] large tract ha[d] platted recorded addition Omaha, purchasers." 326. "[A]s stands present," "justice requires repayment [illegally conveyed] scrip." 334. disproportion scrip issued ($150) (over $1 million). 333. sort greater magnitude Cf. Galliher Cadwell, 368, 373 (1892) ("[L]aches mere matter time; principally inequity permitting enforced founded change relations parties."). 37 651 (1973) rule, long-settled never doubted conclusive latter's rightful authority." (quoting Michigan 270 295, 308 (1926))); Massachusetts 271 95 (1926) ("Long determination disputed boundary."). depend boundary line; rather, attaches observance boundary. California Nevada, 447 125, 131 (1980) (No relationship need exist "between origins boundary.... Longstanding Nevada give [the lines] authorities power draw them."). 38 territory,12 There dispute 262 39 357 ("It impossible rescind restore opened settlement portions innumerable innocent purchasers...."); Felix, 334 (observing, declining relief, "[t]hat wild thirty intersected streets, subdivided blocks lots, persons bought strength Patrick's title, erected buildings character"). dormant rightly restoring "magnified exponentially development ongoing more centuries." "impossibility" application uproot owners. 157. But doctrine. non-Indians. 211. alternating Hagen, Solem Bartlett, 463, 471-472, (1984)). 335 ("decree prayed granted, offer distinct encouragement claims"); cf. Brendale Confederated Bands Yakima 492 408, 433-437 (1989) (opinion J.) (discussing land-use controls); dissenting) balance interests" supports jurisdiction).13 41 Title authorizes Secretary Interior "shall taxation." Cass Leech Lake Band Chippewa 524 103, 114-115 (1998). regulations implementing sensitive complex interjurisdictional arise when Before approving acquisition, consider, among things, tribe's additional land; purposes will used"; impact political subdivisions rolls"; "[j]urisdictional problems potential conflicts arise." CFR 151.10(f) (2004). 42 sum, dispossession disturb However, initiate.14 44 reasons reversed, remanded consistent opinion. 45 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici reversal Cayuga Seneca Counties, et al. Gus Coldebella, Dorr, Moore, Brian Laudadio; Town Lenox, Charles Curtis, Jr., Joshua Rosenkranz; Robert Witmer, M. Schraver, John Field Randal Caldwell; Citizens Equal Rights Foundation Woodruff Lee Carroll. amici affirmance Arlinda Locklear, Martin Gold, James T. Meggesto, Coulter, Curtis Berkey, Marsha K. Schmidt, Carey Ramos, Jeanne Whiteing; Puyallup Harry Sachse, Arthur Guest, Shipps, Howard Bell, Chestnut; National Carter Phillips, Virginia Seitz, Mark Haddad, Riyaz Kanji; South Eastern Tribes, Inc., Ian Heath Gershengorn Donald Verrilli, Jr. Under "doctrine discovery,"Oneida 234 (1985), "fee colonists arrived became vested discovering European nation States," 667 (1974). lands," pre-emptive State." 670; 860 1145, 1159-1167 1988). Both adoption Constitution, tracts independently negotiated, participation. Gunther, Governmental Power Lands Reassessment Persistent Problem Federal-State Relations, 4-6 (1958-1959) Gunther). terms, sale shall valid person persons,or state, having pre-emption not, unless same duly executed treaty, 138 (emphasis prior decisions regard "[w]ith exclusive province law." (citing 670). Clinton Hotopp, Judicial Enforcement Restraints Alienation Land: Origins Land Claims, Me. 17, 23-38 (1979) Articles Confederation Constitution). contrast,United Boylan, 265 165 1920), left. Boylan concerned 1885 conveyances individual 32-acre Despite conveyances, band live land. gained ejecting behalf reclaim "actually possession" 167, occupation absence approval upheld "decree ejected possession." 173-174. commenced 1785 1788Oneida 1148. dismissal operative require assent Congress. 1167; 203-204, 1. Titled country defined," 1151 provides, `Indian country' means limits Government." acknowledged inOneida unaddressed O. 1984, 83-1065 etc., 33-40. dissent suggests compatibly today's decision, defensively proceeding SherrillPost, 225. disagree. cast remains asserted affirmatively defensively. resolve discretely identified parties' briefs. limiting inextricably linked "fairly included" within, presented. Rule 14.1(a) statement deemed comprise subsidiary included therein."); Ballard Commissioner, ante, 47, 2; V. St. Paul, 505 377, 381, (1992). Stern, Gressman, Shapiro, Geller, Practice (8th 2002) ("Questions explicitly mentioned essential analysis below correct issues treated presented." "only divest boundaries."Solem (1984); (defining country); Dakota Tribe, 522 329, 343 (1998) ("[O]nly alter diminishing reservation."). decide whether, Circuit's 1838 disestablished argues. Petitioner 31-39; 269, part) ("There serious abandon accepted ...."). recognition unavailable undisturbed, disruption engender. CitingMontana Blackfeet 471 759 737 (1867), 761 notes revoke tax-exempt status Post, 224, cases, occupied. Montana 83-2161, Indians' reservation); Wall., 738-742 (concerning removed residing statehood); 768 (taxation "interfer[e] possession, occupation, authority" reservation). additionally refers 103 expressly reacquiring market. 113-114. fact promptly acquiring overcome prerogatives lessen associated upsetting long-exercised grave, ancient, wrongs, commensurate historical reality bears repetition dominantly complained, "[mis]treatment Government."Oneida 269 part); 207-208. Other entities already controls. SeeSeneca-Cayuga Okla. Aurelius, 5:03-CV-00690 (NPM), 2004 WL 1945359, *1-*3 (NDNY, Sept. 2004) (tribe avoid laws 229 acres); Union Springs, 128, 131-134, 147-148 (granting tribe, block "located 300 yards" school renovation gaming facility). vigorously 255, faults rejecting 223-224. majority indicated nonstatutory limitation "novel." 16; 261-262 (acknowledging traditional defense something novelty"). No novelty exists future. sovereign's prerogative hold, "not survive eternally," "best repose," 273 (same). concurring. qualification goes considering dormancy basis immune taxing government. affirmative defensive, 214, 7, territorial entitled subdivisions. turns background provisions treaties, behavior time: particular lots them. cannot, therefore, ignored affecting considered later; contending parties. Since review, 8, reargument dealing it. think unnecessary; side argument submission notwithstanding granted. dissenting. involves implicate forms nor concern assumes correctly major debated courts (City) certiorari. Thus, accept courts' conclusions (Tribe) Tribe; successor-in-interest Nation; 1788 acre Oneida; protected reservation; diminished 1838. undisputed City collect outset Country," express consent.1 forth length opinions abundantly qualifies country. Without questioning accuracy conclusion, nevertheless decides precludes "from cold." Ante, 214. novel holding, my unwise recover illegal 1795. "remedy wrong trial Congress, judges rewrite date," attempting ago; invoking city's benefit briefing parties, ventured belongs Its war bedrock principles First, reservation.2 Second, incident enjoys revoked Congress.3 Far revoking immunity, specifically reconfirmed respect Indians.4 Ignoring principles, done effectively proclaimed abrogation elemental immunity. precedents, wise honor decide. justification lawmaking relies heavily form injunction. unpersuasive outcome narrow just easily, naturally, collection proceeding. scenario case: refusal taxes; consolidated action; summary immunity.5 Either defensive still distinctions remedies, 213-214, indefensible. event, believe "principle relief," 217, sensibly hand. seems perverse Yorkers predicated almost foreclose enforcement judicially remedies somehow mandate forfeiture consistently uniformly history. peaceful lawful manner fully respected To deny fundamental sovereigns inequitable, irreconcilable abrogate extinguish sovereignty. speculation happen issues.6 answer pellucidly clear. not. respectfully dissent. "[n]o finding Country, taxable." 241, 2001) SeeSouth ("Congress possesses plenary affairs, modify eliminate rights. intent `clear plain'" (citations (1984) ("Once happens plots area, entire retains indicates otherwise"). SeeMontana 759, 764-765 wavered" view attempt inconsistent (1867))); 110 ("We declined find authorized `"made intention unmistakably clear"'"). providing civil actions statute "construed subjecting purposes." 233. SeeOneida 680-681, ("`The text legislation replete indications consent necessary validate significantly, deprive authorize assurance doubly sure, contains proviso exempts reservations .... officials bills retain guardianship, particularly rights, continue'" (1958-1959))). 167 Additionally, extent genuine defenses, waiver. add answer; futility, 259; 168-169; failed preserve certiorari merits. similarly submissions indication ever engage recognize fear opening Pandora's box powers exaggerated. strong interest exception small Indian-held arranged fashion, obviously retention sphere. SeeCalifornia Cabazon Mission 480 202, 215 (1987) ("`[I]n exceptional circumstances on-reservation activities members'"). Nor, acknowledges, 19, credibly Atkinson Trading Co. Shirley, 532 645 (2001); Strate A-1 Contractors, 520 438, 456 (1997) (denying "assert landowner's occupy exclude" question); 444-445 ("Because exclude nonmembers portion lacks define [through zoning]").

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