Document: 383 U.S. 1 86 S.Ct. 684 15 L.Ed.2d 545 William T. GRAHAM et al., Petitioners,v.JOHN DEERE COMPANY OF KANSAS CITY al. CALMAR, INC., Petitioner, v. COOK CHEMICAL COMPANY. COLGATE-PALMOLIVE COMPANY, Nos. 11, 37, 43. Argued Oct. 14, 1965. Decided Feb. 21, 1966. [Syllabus from pages 1-2 intentionally omitted] No. 11: Orville O. Gold, Kansas City, Mo., for petitioners. S. Tom Morris, Amarillo, Tex., respondents. 43: Dennis G. Lyons, Washington, D.C., Gordon D. Schmidt, respondent. Mr. Justice CLARK delivered the opinion of Court. After a lapse years, Court again focuses its attention on patentability inventions under standard Art. I, § 8, cl. Constitution and conditions prescribed by laws United States. Since our last expression patent validity, Great A. & P. Tea Co. Supermarket Equipment Corp., 340 147, 71 127, 95 L.Ed. 162 (1950), Congress has first time expressly added third statutory dimension to two requirements novelty utility that had been sole test since Patent Act 1793. This is obviousness, i.e., whether 'the subject matter sought be patented prior art are such as whole would have obvious at invention was made person having ordinary skill in which said pertains. Patentability shall not negatived manner made.' 103 1952, 35 U.S.C. (1964 ed.). 2 The questions, involved each companion cases before us, what effect 1952 upon traditional judicial tests definitive now required. We concluded intended codify precedents embracing principle long ago announced this Hotchkiss Greenwood, 11 How. 248, 13 683 (1851), that, while clear language places emphasis an inquiry into general level innovation necessary sustain remains same. I. 3 Cases. 4 (a). Graham John Deere Co., infringement suit petitioners, presents conflict between Circuits over validity single 'Clamp vibrating Shank Plows.' invention, combination old mechanical elements, involves device designed absorb shock plow shanks they through rocky soil thus prevent damage plow. In 1955, Fifth Circuit held valid rule when produces 'old result cheaper otherwise more advantageous way,' it patentable. Jeoffroy Mfg., Inc. Graham, 219 F.2d 511, cert. denied, 350 826, 76 55, 100 738. 1964, Eighth held, case bar, there no new was, therefore, valid. 333 529, reversing 216 F.Supp. 272. granted certiorari, 379 956, 85 652, 553. Although we determined neither applied correct test, conclude invalid and, affirm judgment Circuit. 5 (b). Calmar, Cook Chemical 43, Colgate-Palmolive both Circuit, were separate declaratory actions, but filed contemporaneously. Petitioner Calmar manufacturer finger-operated sprayer with 'hold-down' cap type commonly seen grocers' shelves inserted bottles insecticides other liquids shipment. purchaser sprayers uses them distribution products. Each action declaration invalidity noninfringement similar issued assignee Baxter Scoggin, Jr., inventor. By cross-action, claimed infringement. actions consolidated trial sustained District 220 414. Appeals affirmed, 8 Cir., 336 110, 380 949, 1082, 967. reverse. 6 Manifestly, these patents turns facts. basic problems, however, same require initially discussion constitutional provisions covering inventions. II. 7 At outset must remembered federal power stems specific provision authorizes 'To promote Progress * useful Arts, securing limited Times Inventors exclusive Right their Discoveries.' 8.1 clause grant limitation. qualified authority, unlike often exercised sixteenth seventeenth centuries English Crown, promotion advances 'useful arts.' It written against backdrop practices—eventually curtailed Statute Monopolies—of Crown granting monopolies court favorites goods or businesses enjoyed public. See Meinhardt, Inventions, Patents Monopoly, pp. 30—35 (London, 1946). exercise may overreach restraints imposed stated purpose. Nor enlarge monopoly without regard innovation, advancement social benefit gained thereby. Moreover, authorize issuance whose effects remove existent knowledge public domain, restrict free access materials already available. Innovation, advancement, things add sum inherent requisites system command 'promote Arts.' expressed ignored. And light 'requires reference Constitution.' supra, 154, 131 (concurring opinion). Within limits grant, may, course, implement purpose Framers selecting policy best effectuates aim. corollary any Article I power. Gibbons Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 23. scope established Constitution, set out patentability. McClurg Kingsland, 202, 206, 102. duty Commissioner courts administration give appropriate application, case, scheme Congress. quickly responded bidding enacting 1790 during second session First created agency Department State headed Secretary State, War Attorney General, whom could issue period exceeding 14 years petitioner 'hath invented discovered art, manufacture, device, improvement therein known used' if board found discovery (was) sufficiently important *.' Stat. 110. group, members administered along duties, own designation 'Commissioners Promotion Useful 10 Thomas Jefferson, who member moving spirit might well called 'first administrator system.' Federico, Operation 1790, 18 J.Pat.Off.Soc. 237, 238 (1936). He only Act, also author 1793 Act. addition, Jefferson himself inventor great note. His unpatented improvements plows, mention one line his inventions, won acclaim recognition sides Atlantic. Because active interest influence early development system, Jefferson's views nature conclusions scheme, worthy like Americans, instinctive aversion monopolies. tea sparked Revolution certainly did favor equivalent form government. abhorrence extended well. From France, he wrote Madison (July 1788) urging Bill Rights restricting monopoly, argument serve incite 'ingenuity,' argued forcefully even too doubtful opposed suppression,' V Writings 47 (Ford ed., 1895). 12 ripened, another letter (Aug. 1789) after drafting Rights, pleased express form: 'Art. 9. Monopolies allowed persons productions literature, arts, term _ longer purpose.' Id., 113. later wrote: 'Certainly ought right some certain time. Nobody wishes than do ingenuity should receive liberal encouragement.' Letter Oliver Evans (May 1807), 75—76 (Washington philosophy Isaac McPherson 1813), portion margin.2 rejected natural-rights theory intellectual property rights clearly recognized economic rationale system. secure natural discoveries. Rather, reward, inducement, bring forth knowledge. creation society—at odds disclosed ideas—and freely given. Only discoveries furthered human knowledge, useful, justified special inducement private monopoly. believe small details, improvements, frivolous devices. writings evidence insistence high 16 As several saw difficulty 'drawing worth embarrassment patent, those not.' served draw formulated rules preserved correspondence.3 Despite board's efforts, 'with slow progress matured.' 'abundance' fact investigations occupied 'more spare higher turned judiciary, matured every know safe lawful.' McPherson, 181, 182. Apparently agreed develop additional amended, revised codified 50 times 1950, steered bare reformulated draft III. 17 formulating heightened generality statutes implementing it, together underlying patent,' put outweigh restrictive problem means weeding devised patent. condition 1851 683. mere substitution materials—porcelain clay wood metal doorknobs—and condemned holding:4 19 '(U)nless required possessed mechanic acquainted business, absence degree constitute essential elements invention. words, work skilful mechanic, inventor.' p. 267. 20 Hotchkiss, positing patentable merely distinguished innovations capable sustaining not. laid cornerstone evolution suggested left followed, gave birth 'invention' word legal signifying Yet, observed, '(t)he truth is, ('invention') cannot defined afford substantial aid determining particular inventive faculty McClain Ortmayer, 141 419, 427, 76, 78, 800 (1891); U.S., 151, 129. Its use label brought about large variety opinions meaning Office, courts, bar. formulation, lies label, functional approach questions practice, comparison background calling. determined. IV. 21 22 sets three sections. An analysis structure sections indicates dependent explicit conditions: articulated 101 102, nonobviousness, 103. sections, trace closely 1874 codification, 'new useful' always existed purposes here, need clarification.5 pivotal section around present controversy centers provides: 23 Conditions patentability; non-obvious 24 'A obtained though identically described 102 title, differences cast relatively unambiguous terms. depend, addition utility, 'non-obvious' 'subject patented' pertinent art. 25 sentence strongly reminiscent Hotchkiss. Both formulations place existing implicitly tied major distinction emphasized 'nonobviousness' operative section, rather less definite thought led 'a variety' expressions decisions writings. title itself used phrase 'Conditions matter' (italics added), focusing 'invention.'6 Senate House Reports, S.Rep. 1979, 82d Cong., 2d Sess. (1952); H.R.Rep. 1923, (1952), U.S.Code Congressional Administrative News 2394, reflect terms: 26 'Section 103, statute, provides exists law reason courts. made, sense thing before, still difference considered warrant That ways Section states requirement title. refers If skilled then patented. 27 'That paraphrases statute uniformity definiteness. stabilizing minimize departures appeared cases.' H.R.Rep., 7; S.Rep., 6. 28 undisputed time, patentability, originally seems apparent abolish believed controversial 'flash creative genius,' Cuno Engineering Corp. Automatic Devices 314 84, 62 58 (1941).7 29 contended, parties amici sweep away lower Others contend reflected rejection insignificant variations commonplace sort—and focus inquiries 'invention,' achieving stability predictability validity. 30 Reviser's Note section,8 recognizes 'lack (have) followed least 1850.' note because 'may effect, basis criteria worked out.' To reports Houses, state 'paraphrases definiteness.' 31 legislative history, sources,9 shows revision change codification condition, congressional directions obviousness prerequisite V. 32 Approached light, realistically, will permit practical non-obviousness inquiry, quality, such, comports strictures. 33 While ultimate question law, 155, 131, conditions, satisfied, lends factual inquiries. Under content determined; claims ascertained; resolved. Against background, nonobviousness Such secondary considerations commercial success, felt unsolved needs, failure others, etc., utilized circumstances surrounding origin indicia relevancy. Note, Subtests 'Nonobviousness': A Nontechnical Approach Validity, 112 U.Pa.L.Rev. 1169 (1964). 34 say, difficulties applying test. What likely given context. difficulties, comparable encountered daily frames negligence scienter, amenable case-by-case development. strict observance down here definiteness focused primary responsibility sifting unpatentable material Office. await litigation is—for all purposes—to debilitate observed notorious standards Office many reasons can adduced explain discrepancy, rein Examiners concept 'invention.' connection confronted most difficult task. Almost 100,000 applications year. Of these, 50,000 backlog runs 200,000. 1965 Annual Report Commission 13—14. compelling strictly adhere interpreted here. would, believe, expedite disposition closer concurrence administrative precedent.10 36 make beamed greater intensity bears repeating find strictness overall applied. urged relaxed standard, supposedly reaction 'increased standard' years. remained invariable Technology, advanced—and remarkable rapidity ambit applicable fields science widened disciplines unheard half century ago. evenhanded application charged awareness changed conditions. true technical, arts. seeks build better mousetrap today path tread reaching VI. 37 turn here: 38 Issue 39 2,627,798 (hereinafter '798 patent) relates spring clamp permits pushed upward hit obstructions soil, springs back normal position obstruction passed over. show diagrammatically accompanying sketches (Appendix, Fig. 1), fixed frame unit. mechanism center basically hinge. top upper plate (marked sketches), heavy piece clamped (2) stationary relative frame. hinge, hinge (3), connected rear pin (4) rotates downward respect it. shank (5), bolted forward end (at 6), beneath parallel nine inches, passes stirrup (7), continues backward feet curving toward ground. chisel (8), does actual plowing, attached shank. pulled forward, rips thereby plowing position, kept tight (9), atop plate. rod (10) spring, extending holes plates hooked underside 40 When hits rock forces move upward. pivoted 11) pries open closing tendency spring. (See sketch labeled 'Open Position,' Appendix, 1.) caused opened, connecting compressed. over, force disappears pulls original position. lower, constructed (7) brackets shank, passing fits loosely (permitting slight up play). recoiling plate, prevents excessive strain near connection. girds preventing fishtailing side side. 41 use, number spring-hinge-shank combinations frame, forming ground-working chisels withstanding rocks breaking shanks. 42 Background Patent. 43 Chisel called, developed areas where ground stones. Originally, rigidly frames. plows rocky, glacial soils Northern States, serious defects. buried rocks, vibratory motion tremendous transmitted break. meet problem, 1950 2,493,811 '811), solved difficulties. companies manufactured sold '811 clamps. modified issue, 1953. competing manufacturers resulted charges petitioners respondents' devices infringed Prior 44 Five indicating cited prosecution application. Four patents, States prior-use spring-clamp arrangements record file wrapper relied respondents revealing 'as contains 798 Patent.' One Examiner—Glencoe—was 'all elements.' 45 confine '811, Glencoe among references asserted save two: (1) appear '811; reversed, being placed above sandwiched bottom slot Other consequence examination. practice arrangement permitted wobble fishtail plate; moreover, below latter wear repair replace. 46 Graham's contained claims. All inverted specifically bolting examiner 'matters design within expected devoid invention.' withdrew substituted ones substantially contention reduced heel plate.11 features, relevant bolt connect maintained face continuing constant contact underface urge 'flexing' qualities so heavily element argue us interchanging consequences flowing arrangement. arrangement—which claim art—permits flex stress entire length. sketched (see sketch, 'Graham Patent' 2), resultant (A) pushes pivots (C). pivot point (i.e., C D) bow maximum distance (B) moves slight—for emphasis, greatly exaggerated sketches. strength short—nine inches length (C) (D). On contrary, (c); points (c) (d) '798, restricted freely. flexes (a) (c), '798. Petitioners say flex, small, effectively absorbs whereas failed. 48 Obviousness Differences. 49 agree assume disclose Still petitioners' bottomed supports cases. free-flexing, argue, crucial appears evident desired obtainable boxing confines hinge.12 effective available attach run bracket disturb flexing qualities. Certainly immediately see did, invert Petitioners' basing free-flex raised appeal Lincoln Illinois Stewart-Warner 303 545, 662, 82 1008 (1938), effort 'an afterthought. No function hinted specifications vital functioning apparatus, strange omitted.' 550, 665. Indeed, judge 'flexing *' interrogation accused testimony experts advantages not, fact, significant feature patent.13 51 nonobvious facets sufficient overcome examiner's However, notably Glencoe, him. There but, found, structure. Furthermore, reversed operation identical. stirrup, serves exactly shifting Glencoe—itself part distinctions, much differences. 52 B. 53 patent14 plastic finger lid built-in dispenser containers packaging liquid products, principally household insecticides. four we, limit them. printed F.Supp., 417—418. 54 essence combines pump sprayer, mounted container bottle cap, overcap screws depresses 3). extends container; outside collar mounting retainer molded body sprayer. screwed seal formed engagement circular ridge rib located threads mating shoulder inside threads.15 overcap, down, plunger rendering inoperable effected, seep prevented leaking overcap. protect head shipment merchandising. reach way engages space pieces. 55 shipper-sprayer industry, integrated unit enabling insecticide install automated bottling process. consumer simply unscrews discards ready use. 56 57 For engaged business faced developing marketed. tin sprayers, supplied manufacturer. 1947, Chemical, manufacturer, began furnish customers dispensers purchased Calmar. perforated cardboard holder hung neck container. insert Hanging expensive troublesome. Packaging hand operation, breakage pilferage loss retail display occurred. directly filling process leak handling. various completely successful. situation aggravated 1954 entry trade product marketed aerosol spray cans. These containers, compressed gas propellent dispense liquid, sprayers. 59 During year acquired Drackett Company. became apprehensive source supply decided manufacture subsidiary, Bakan Plastics, Initially, copied officer assigned efficient device. 1956 Scoggin perfected 1959 assignee. interim Scoggin's trade. received soon widely used. 60 meanwhile, employed engineers, Corsette Cooprider, perfect 1958 market SS—40, very Scoggin's. issued, Calmar's SS—40 followed. 61 Opinions Appeals. disagreed definition suit. contends encompasses unique admittedly produced. expert testified commercially successful, inexpensive shipping closure assembly produce practical, ready-to-use package shipped external leakage organized hold-down assembled sealed seal.' stresses long-felt industry device; inability others it; success—all which, Cook, evidences developed. hand, says relate inconsequential 63 accepted Chemical's contentions. exact Court's holding uncertain, new, nonobvious. 'had produced protected screw onto fashion simple cap.' 418. decision finding long-standing industry.16 'novel 'marriage' container' took immediate success' enjoyed. individual 'not novel per se' 'nothing suggesting features solve problems beset industry.' (device) meets exacting rise fulfilling economical, efficient, utilitarian apparatus achieved results success.' F.2d, 114. 64 five Examiner discussion, Lohse 2,119,884 (1938) Mellon 2,586,687 (1952). Examiner, Livingstone 2,715,480 (1953). Simplified drawings reproduced Figs. 4—6, description. 65 (Fig. 4) perform differences, Court, skirt engaging washer gasket rests surface cap. '(t)here seals head.' 419. 66 5), discloses idea effecting Mellon's likewise shipper-sprayer, differs container, gasket, rib, seal. 67 Finally, 6) accomplished washer.17 Livingstone's cover pouring spouts, sealing strikingly tongue groove technique tongue, collar, identical efficiency inherently stable structure, interlock withstands distortion subjected rough incorporated shipper-sprayers SS—40. 68 Let return fundamental disagreement parties. noted outset, urges viewed combination, putting statute—that consider taken whole. With abstract, quibble. But history reveals divergence respondent's 69 submitted, broad terms of, for, made. applicant vague indefinite met Lohse. canceled submitted ones. Upon further series rejections submissions, office interview, relented. crystal rejection, entirely combination. final submission claims, attorney, 'agreement reached Honorable applicant's attorney limitations order define previously disclosure view newly Darley, Jr.' (Italics added.) 70 spelled edge distinguished, Darley infra, n. 18, although threads, disposed cause peripheral 'to contacting relationship (the container) overcap) (on) tightly 'obvious modification' remaining itself. rib—rather gasket—and existence settled construed Hogg Emerson, 587, 824 (1850); Crawford Heysinger, 123 589, 399, 269 (1887). Claims read art; narrowed obtain distinguishing limitation eliminated Powers-Kennedy Contracting Concrete Mixing Conveying 282 175, 185—186, 95, 99, 75 278 (1930); Schriber-Schroth Cleveland Trust 311 211, 221, 312 654, 235, 239—240, 132 (1940). 72 Here, patentee accepting Examiner. carefully drafted assert broader reduces, then, features. 73 found: 74 described, inner novel, formation me descriptive simple, really, discussion. functions—to hold solid below. assembling provide 420. correctly significance feature. Examiner's allowance distinction. able convince contacted included touch fully nothing—absolutely nothing—which engage neck. palpably embodies follows bear impractical, impossible, construction quite plainly 77 built dedicated argues, spouts Apart respondent objection Examiner,18 justified. confronting problems; problems. Closure related references. See, II Walker 260 (Deller ed. 1937). 78 insists, workable eluded unsuccessfully problem. And, further, wide success inferences subtests motivational technical issues are, susceptible treatment highly facts litigation. Judge Learned Hand Reiner Leon 285 501, 504 (2 Cir. 1960). lend helping judiciary Frankfurter ill-fitted discharge technological duties legislation. Marconi Wireless Telegraph America 320 60, 1393, 87 1731 (1943). They 'guard slipping hindsight,' Monroe Auto Heckethorn Mfg. Supply 332 406, 412 (1964), resist temptation teachings issue. 79 factors tip scales exceedingly non-technical latest, rendered 1953 appearance unsuccessful attempts solution wholly irrelevant. irrelevant apparently chose avail stored readily expedient conducting search—a prudent nowadays common preliminary research. Mast, Foos Stover 177 485, 708, 856 (1900). stood 80 fall meeting reasonably 81 affirmed. remanded inconsistent opinion. ordered. Judgment 83 STEWART consideration 84 FORTAS APPENDIX TO OPINION THE COURT. FIGURE 1.-GRAHAM PATENT 2.-FLEX COMPARISON FIG. 3. SCOGGIN 2,870,943 4. LOHSE 5. MELLON LIVINGSTONE spliced copyright provision, omit H.R.Rep.No.1923, Sess., DeWolf, Outline Copyright Law, (Boston, 1925). 'Stable ownership gift late society. curious idea, fugitive fermentation brain, could, right, property. property, thinking exclusively possess keeps himself; moment divulged, possession one, receiver dispossess peculiar character, too, possesses less, receives me, instruction lessening mine; lights taper mine, darkening me. ideas spread globe, moral mutual man, peculiarly benevolently nature, she them, fire, expansible space, density point, air breathe, move, physical being, incapable confinement appropriation. Inventions cannot, Society profits arising encouragement men pursue done, according convenience society, complaint anybody.' VI 180—181 '(A) machine possessed, man susceptible.' 181. making ploughshare wrought iron; comb iron instead horn ivory Ibid. high-quartered shoe low one; round hat three-square; square bucket one.' 181—182. '(A combined implements.) saw, axe, plane separately; combine wood?' Evans, (Jan. 1814), 298 historical retrospect, flows 'Commissioners,' 3, rule, supra. '§ 101. 'Whoever invents discovers process, machine, composition matter, thereof, therefor, title.' entitled unless— '(a) country, publication foreign thereof '(b) country sale date '(c) abandoned '(d) representatives assigns twelve months filing '(e) '(f) invent patented, '(g) abandoned, suppressed, concealed priority respective dates conception reduction reasonable diligence conceive reduce other.' precursors February 1793, c. 318; July 4, 1836, 357, 117; 1870, 230, 198; Rev.Stat. 4886 (1874). corresponding titled lack invention' Proposed Revision Amendment Laws, Preliminary Draft Notes, Committee Judiciary (Committee Print, 1950). occurs reads: '(T)he however be, reveal flash genius calling.' 91, 41. writers connotations mind inventors, none specifically, genius' rhetorical embellishment going 1833. Cf. 'exercise Shaw Cooper, Pet. 292, 689; 'inventive Reckendorfer Faber, 92 347, 719 (1876); Appliance Gomery, 177, 42, 222; thought,' Densmore Scofield, 375, 214 (1880); 'intuitive Potts Creager, 155 597, 194, 275 (1895). Rather establishing rhetorically restated beyond genius.' Boyajian, Flash Creative Genius, Alternative Interpretation, 776, 780, 781 (1943); Pacific Contact Laboratories, Solex Inc., 209 533; Brown Sharpe Kar 154 48, 51—52; re Shortell, 142 295—296, CCPA (Pat.) 1062, 1069. 'There explicitly statutes, refusal 1850. paragraph statement out. 'The immaterial toil experimentation Efforts Establish Statutory Standard Invention, Study 7, Subcommittee Patents, Trademarks, Copyrights, 85th 1st 1958); Hearings, Judiciary, H.R. 3760, (1951). President appointed System. Executive Order 11215, Fed.Reg. 4661 (April 10, 1965). hoped studies procedures techniques dispositions insure movement forced provided fulcrum pried open. this, location pin, rubbed causing relocating placing rubbing easily removed replaced repair. Even effect: 'Q. Given you anticipate magnitude (in '798) precisely 811, wouldn't you? 'A. think so.' Do attachment importance 798? Unless approaching elastic limit, there, occur. that. don't how much. factor, factor structure? Not no.' similarly Jeoffoy 511. alleged infringing Colgate customer user Our customary 'By reasoning, device) long-sought need, novel? sort step, nevertheless step ended journey. wins takes protection.' 421. specifications. long-settled Miller Brass 104 350, 352, 783 (1882). Invalidity Mellon, Slade, 2,844,290 (hold-down detergent cans spout); Nilson, 2,118,222 (combined spout dispensing containers); 1,447,712 (containers toothpaste, cold creams semi-liquid substances).

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