Document: 461 U.S. 138 103 S.Ct. 1684 75 L.Ed.2d 708 Harry CONNICK, Individually and in His Capacity as District Attorney, etc., Petitioner,v.Sheila MYERS. No. 81-1251. Argued Nov. 8, 1982. Decided April 20, 1983. Syllabus Respondent was employed an Assistant Attorney New Orleans with the responsibility of trying criminal cases. When petitioner proposed to transfer respondent prosecute cases a different section court, she strongly opposed transfer, expressing her view several supervisors, including petitioner. Shortly thereafter, prepared questionnaire that distributed other Attorneys office concerning policy, morale, need for grievance committee, level confidence whether employees felt pressured work political campaigns. Petitioner then informed being terminated refusal accept also told distribution considered act insubordination. filed suit Federal Court under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (1976 ed., Supp. IV), alleging wrongfully discharged because had exercised constitutionally protected right free speech. The agreed, ordered reinstated, awarded backpay, damages, attorney's fees. Finding questionnaire, not real reason respondent's termination, court held involved matters public concern State "clearly demonstrated" interfered operation Attorney's office. Appeals affirmed. Held: Respondent's discharge did offend First Amendment. Pp. 142-154. (a) In determining employee's rights speech, problem is arrive "at balance between interests [employee], citizen, commenting on interest State, employer, promoting efficiency services it performs through its employees." Pickering v. Board Education, 391 563, 568, 88 1731, 1734, 20 811. P. 142. (b) employee speaks citizen upon concern, but instead only personal interest, absent most unusual circumstances, federal appropriate forum which review wisdom personnel decision taken by agency allegedly reaction behavior. Here, except question regarding pressure campaigns, questions posed do fall rubric "public concern." 143-149. (c) erred imposing unduly onerous burden justify requiring demonstrate" speech "substantially interfered" State's justifying particular varies depending nature expression. 149-150. (d) limited Amendment here require tolerate action he reasonably believed would disrupt office, undermine his authority, destroy close working relationships within supervisors statement carried clear potential undermining relations. Also, fact at supports petitioner's fears function endangered. And emerged immediately after dispute deputies, requires additional weight be given threatened authority run 150-154. 654 F.2d 719 (CA5 1981), reversed. William F. Wessel, Orleans, La., George M. Strickler, Jr., respondent. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 811 (1968), we stated does relinquish comment virtue government employment. We recognized employer regulating "differ significantly from those possesses connection regulation citizenry general." Id., S.Ct., 1734. problem, thought, arriving Ibid. return this today consider Fourteenth Amendments prevent state circulating internal affairs. 2 * respondent, Sheila Myers, five half years. She served pleasure Connick, Parish. During period Myers competently performed responsibilities 3 early part October, 1980, transferred court. transfer1 expressed Connick. Despite objections, October 6 notified transferred. again spoke Dennis Waldron, one first assistant district attorneys, reluctance transfer. A number were discussed later testified that, response Waldron's suggestion concerns shared others him some research matter. 4 That night soliciting views fellow staff members campaigns.2 Early following morning, typed copied questionnaire. met Connick who urged said "consider" it. left 15 attorneys. noon, Waldron learned distributing survey. He phoned creating "mini-insurrection" returned particularly objected inquired "had rely word" various superiors campaigns damaging if discovered press. 5 1983, contending employment constitutionally-protected 507 F.Supp. 752 (E.D.La.1981).3 found although fired facts showed termination. proceeded hold Myers' survey operations appealed United States Fifth Circuit, affirmed basis Court's opinion. (1981). sought way certiorari, granted. 455 999, 102 1629, 71 865 (1982). II 7 For least years, has been settled cannot condition infringes freedom Keyishian Regents, 385 589, 605-606, 87 675, 684-685, 17 629 (1967); (1968); Perry Sindermann, 408 593, 597, 92 2694, 2697, 33 570 (1972); Branti Finkel, 445 507, 515-516, 100 1287, 1293, 63 574 (1980). Our task, defined Pickering, seek "a U.S., Court, thus well, misapplied our consequently, view, striking 8 got off wrong foot case initially finding "[t]aken whole, issues presented relate effective functioning Office are importance F.Supp., 758. contends outset no balancing required concerned such matter concern," term used Pickering. Although agree communication wholly without protection, there much force Connick's submission. repeated emphasis "as accidental. This language, reiterated all Pickering's progeny,4 reflects both historical evolvement employees, common sense realization offices could every became constitutional matter.5 9 century, unchallenged dogma object conditions placed terms employment—including restricted exercise rights. classic formulation position Holmes', who, when sitting Supreme Judicial Massachusetts, observed: "A policeman may have talk politics, policeman." McAuliffe Mayor Bedford, 155 Mass. 216, 220, 29 N.E. 517, 517 (1892). many Holmes' epigram law. Adler 342 485, 72 380, 96 L.Ed. (1952); Garner Public Works, 341 716, 909, 95 1317 (1951); Workers Mitchell, 330 75, 67 556, 91 754 (1947); Wurzbach, 280 396, 50 167, 74 508 (1930); Ex parte Curtis, 106 371, 381, 27 232 (1882). 10 cast new light series arising widespread efforts 1950s 1960s teachers, swear oaths loyalty reveal groups they associated. Wiemann Updegraff, 344 183, 73 215, 97 216 (1952), establish their extracting oath denying past affiliation Communists. Cafeteria McElroy, 367 886, 81 1743, 1230 (1961), deny previous membership party. See Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 490, 247, 253, 231 (1960); Torcaso Watkins, 488, 1680, 982 (1961); Cramp Instruction, 368 278, 82 275, 285 (1961). By time Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 83 1790, 965 (1963), decided, already "too late day doubt liberties religion expression infringed denial or placing benefit privilege." 404, 1794. It therefore surprise (1967), invalidated York statutes barring "subversive" organizations, observing theory denied altogether subjected any conditions, regardless how unreasonable, uniformly rejected. 684-685. 11 these cases, precedents rooted, actions suppress participate issue prevented "chilled" fear joining parties associations certain officials might find "subversive." explanation Constitution's special threats citizens affairs mystery. "was fashioned assure unfettered interchange ideas bringing about social changes desired people." Roth States, 354 476, 484, 77 1304, 1308, 1498; Times Co. Sullivan, 376 254, 269, 84 710, 720, 686 (1964). "[S]peech more than self-expression; essence self-government." Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 74-75, 85 209, 215-216, 13 125 Accordingly, frequently reaffirmed occupies "highest rung heirarchy values," entitled protection. NAACP Claiborne Hardware Co., --- ----, 3409, 3426, 1215 (1982); Carey Brown, 447 455, 467, 2286, 2293, 65 263 12 supra, followed understanding impermissible dismissal high school teacher openly criticizing Education allocation funds athletics education methods informing taxpayers revenue. subject legitimate concern" "free open debate vital decision-making electorate." 571-572, 1736. safeguarding concern. controversy (1972), arose failure rehire college system before committees Texas legislature become disagreement over should elevated four-year status—a change Regents. Mt. Healthy City Ed. Doyle, 429 274, 471 (1977), rehired because, allegedly, relayed radio station substance memorandum relating dress appearance principal circulated teachers. apparently prompted administration relationship support bond issues, indeed, promptly announced adoption code news item. Most recently, Givhan Western Line Consolidated School District, 439 410, 99 693, 58 619 (1979), protection applies arranges communicate privately rather express publicly. subject-matter Mrs. Givhan's statements district's racially discriminatory policies 14 antecedents progeny, lead us conclude fairly characterized constituting unnecessary scrutinize reasons discharge.6 political, social, community, enjoy wide latitude managing offices, intrusive oversight judiciary name Perhaps employer's worker fair, ordinary dismissals service violate fixed tenure applicable statute judicial even alleged mistaken unreasonable. Regents Roth, 564, 2701, 548 Bishop Wood, 426 341, 349-350, 2074, 2079-2080, 48 684 (1976). suggest, however, touching totally beyond "The protect assembly extent can political. 'Great secular causes, smaller ones, guarded.' " Mine Illinois Bar Association, 389 217, 223, 353, 356, 19 quoting Thomas Collins, 323 516, 531, 315, 323, 89 430 (1945). suggest private falls into narrow well-defined classes carries so little value, obscenity, prohibit punish persons jurisdiction. Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 62 766, 86 1031 (1942); 1498 (1957); Ferber, 3348, 1113 example, false criticism grounds cause same libel accorded identical made man street. Cf. ensure deprived fundamental government; grant immunity grievances afforded state. 16 Whether addresses must determined content, form, context statement, revealed whole record.7 case, exception, coworkers pertaining trust possess committee mere extensions another Unlike dissent, post, 163, believe import evaluating performance elected official. inform discharging governmental investigation prosecution Nor bring actual wrongdoing breach others. Indeed, released public, convey information single upset status quo. While discipline morale workplace related agency's efficient duties, focus evaluate gather ammunition round superiors. These reflect dissatisfaction attempt turn displeasure celebre.8 To presume transpire mean virtually remark—and certainly directed official—would plant seed case. good judgment, receptive constructive offered roundtable complaints 18 One touch Question inquires attorneys "ever feel behalf supported candidates." recently noted official candidates worker's own choice constitutes coercion belief violation (1980); Elrod Burns, 427 347, 2673, 49 547 addition, demonstrated country depend meritorious service. CSC Letter Carriers, 413 548, 93 2880, 37 796 (1973); (1947). Given history, apparent community essential able speak out freely retaliatory dismissal. B Because touched contributed determine justified Myers. Here discharge. viewed threshold inquiry, government's responsibilities. Yet unmistakably states, agrees9, state's particularized difficult, courts reach possible competing interests.10 C full consideration fulfillment public. hundred years ago, purpose "promot[ing] integrity maintain proper service." 373, 384, As POWELL explained separate Arnett Kennedy, 416 134, 168, 94 1633, 1651, 40 (1974): 21 "To end, Government, discretion control management includes prerogative remove whose conduct hinders dispatch. Prolonged retention disruptive otherwise unsatisfactory adversely affect place, foster disharmony, ultimately impair agency." 22 demonstration impeded ability perform correct recognize "it important successful Assistants superiors." 759. causing "mini-insurrection", insubordination relationships.11 fulfilling responsibilities, degree deference judgment appropriate. Furthermore, see necessity allow events unfold disruption destruction manifest taking action.12 caution stronger showing necessary substantially 23 rejected "unlike deemed critical one's superiors, [Myers'] fact, presentation solicitation opinions," greater "under thing idea." approach, while perhaps relevant weighing value bears logical undermined relationships. Questions, less forcefully opinions facts, carry messages insight purpose, likely result, precipitate vote supervisors. Thus, 10, asked relied word named 24 Also manner, time, place distributed. Dist., supra 415, n. 4, 696, "Private . situations factors calculus. personally confronts immediate superior, employing institutional content message delivered." prepared, office; manner leave order completed.13 allowed professional involved, policy14, unlike 25 Finally, significant. where employee, purely academic obtain useful research. acknowledges coincidence heels notice. policy arises very application speaker, supervisor's factual accede sufficient itself dismissal, constitute defense render irrelevant persistent deputies policy. III 26 sense; survey, accurately reiterate, caveat 569, 1735: "Because enormous variety thought furnish deem either feasible lay down general standard against judged." holding grounded long-standing recognition Amendment's primary aim well practical realities struck government, defeat indeed Pyrrhic victory great principles right, discussions confused constitutionalize here. 28 Reversed. APPENDIX Questionnaire 7, 1980 PLAINTIFF'S EXHIBIT 2, App. 191 30 "PLEASE TAKE THE FEW MINUTES IT WILL REQUIRE TO FILL THIS OUT. YOU CAN FREELY EXPRESS YOUR OPINION WITH ANONYMITY GUARANTEED. 31 32 1. How long you Office? ____ 2. Were moved result recent transfers? 34 3. transfers effected [sic] superior prior notice them posted? 35 4. Do think been? 36 5. From your experience, procedure fair? 6. rumor mill active office? 38 7. If so, effects overall A.D.A. personnel? 39 8. morale? 9. generally learn developments rumor? 41 10. of: Bridget Bane Fred Harper Lindsay Larson Joe Meyer 11. ever candidates? 43 12. worthwhile addition structure? 13. rate 44 14. Please comments feelings have. 45 THANK FOR COOPERATION IN SURVEY." 46 BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS join, dissenting. 47 seeking effect Office. concludes Amendment, primarily hornbook law, "the operated operated" communications self-governance central Mills Alabama, 384 214, 218, 1434, 1437, 484 (1966). addressed interfere I dissent. correctly reaffirms established principle compel E.g., (1972). protects interest" agencies work. recognized, differ people generally. scope employees' test articulated comes play implicates employer. engage unrelated away are, course, id., 574, 1737. inquiry issue—by made—may adverse impact duties efficiently.1 flawed three respects. First, distorts analysis suggesting factor, made, weighed twice—first deciding affected ante, 147-148, 152-153. Second, concluding impermissibly narrows class subjects 148-149. Third, misapplies dismissed community," 149, absence evidence disrupted 51 summarized contents follows: 52 "Plaintiff solicited communicated office-supported 53 After reviewing evidence, findings conclusions. Pet. Cert. A-23. nonetheless "of official." Ante, 148. doing, announces standard: "Whether form statement. ." 54 suggests sides balance. expresses second inquiry—determining affects explicitly acknowledged supervisor, But chosen nothing whatsoever calculus—whether conclusion implicit guaranteed "lost spread public." 415-416, 696-697. 55 seeks distinguish ground protesting racial discrimination "inherently 148, two concern: import" context, matter, my why. affords society governed—regardless actually becomes controversy.2 56 (1965). maintenance opportunity discussion end responsive will obtained lawful means, security Republic, system." Stromberg California, 283 359, 369, 532, 536, 1117 (1931). 57 purposes guarantee dissemination make reasoned decisions government. 218-219, 1436-1437; 269-270, A. Mieklejohn, Free Speech Its Relation Self-Government 22-27 (1948). "No aspect rightly treasured resolve destiny." Saxbe Washington Post 417 843, 862, 2811, 2821, 514 (1974) (POWELL, J., dissenting). Unconstrained element discourse self-government. 59 "Whatever differences exist interpretations practically universal agreement major course candidates, structures forms operated, processes." 1436-1437 (emphasis added). 60 meaningless extend officials. Constitution prohibits award damages brought "actual malice." 279-280, 725-726. profound national commitment uninhibited, robust, wide-open, include vehement, caustic, sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks officials." 270, 720. 76, 216. 61 similar worked. debate" schools "is allowing teachers matters. "Teachers class, definite allocated spent. dismissal." 572, 228, (MARSHALL, dissenting) (describing "[t]he Government assured abuses power misconduct ."). 64 Applying principles, expected develop Parish charged agency, discharges duties. 1651 (Opinion POWELL, J.). discuss better fulfill affirm far narrower conception what seems broader "would case." 149. Obviously, remark Amendment3. nature, sensitive judges interpreting provision intended put shall voiced largely hands each us. Cohen 403 15, 24, 1780, 1788, 284 (1971).4 determination Gertz Robert Welch, Inc., 418 2997, 789 (1974), privilege defamation turns plaintiff figure, address referred "difficulty forcing decide ad hoc publications 'general interest' not," "doubt [about] committing task conscience judges." 346, 3010. Rosenbloom Metromedia, 29, 79, 1811, 1837, 296 (1971) making delicate bear mind final judge business." Cox Broadcasting Corp. Cohn, 420 469, 495, 1029, 1046, 328 (1975). 66 ignores precepts. Based implicitly determines debate. contrary, people, courts, usefulness. means swamped routine mischaracterized restrict artificially concept adequate public's functions preserving harmony achieve end. III, infra.5 finds question—asking recognizes weigh heavily Having gone holds—against authorities—that apprehension justifies suppression objective essentially unfounded. 68 difficulty articulating judged," 1735; did, identify Those speaker normally contact daily work"; "discipline intermediate among coworkers"; kind persuasively claimed functioning"; "have [the employee's] regular [office]." 568-573, 1734-1737. Givhan, 159. 69 identified failed violated duty confidentiality 758-759. Noting questionnaires during lunch, contention concluded "Connick shown indicate plaintiff's expression." 754-755, 759 supplied). 70 accepts findings. 151. concludes, give particular, 152. "most forceful argument"; hearing testimony four question, responds wait until action. face circulation effect, holds "reasonably action] relationships." 154. Even though bows "[w]hen appropriate." 151-152. Such extreme voice carefully balance, threat potent inhibiting speech." 604, 684. controlling, say importance, appraisal question. regard, Tinker Des Moines Independent Community 393 503, 733, 731 (1969), controlling. school, present "special characteristics environment" took place. 506, 736. At students prohibited wearing black armbands opposition Vietnam conflict. ruled ban reasonable based [school officials'] disturbance armbands." 508, 737. justification inadequate, "in system, undifferentiated enough overcome concluded: "In prohibition opinion, show caused something desire avoid discomfort unpleasantness always accompany unpopular viewpoint. Certainly engaging forbidden "materially requirements school," sustained." 509, 738 supplied) (quoting Burnside Byars, 363 744, 749 1966)). applied defendant's questionnaire." legal reached acceptable accommodation interests. Appeals. IV 76 inevitably deter doing provoke valuable protecting partially attributable conflict created participation counseling program convicted defendants probation assigned. reproduced Appendix assessment Eleventh disposition questions. 598, 2698, Dist. 284, (1977); 414, 695, (1979). common-law invasion privacy present. Restatement (Second) Torts, 652D. (1975) (action maintained publicity record); Time, Inc. Hill, 374, 387-388, 534, 541-542, 456 (1967). See, Clark Holmes, 474 928 (CA7 1972) cert. denied, 411 972, 2148, 695 Schmidt Fremont County 558 982, 984 (CA10 1977). fact. bound unless clearly erroneous. infra. like tied dispute, privately. protest discrimination—a inherently concern—is forfeited forum. attain could, topic interest. dissent's beside point—it answer Brief ("These factors, 'importance' considerations balance."); Tr. Oral Arg. (Counsel Respondent) ("I disagree circumstance analysis.") imposed meaning words instrument interpretation issues. With responsibility, compelled examine ourselves circumstances character adopted Due Process Clause protect." Pennekamp Florida, 331, 335, 1031, 90 1295 (1946) (footnote omitted). obligation, "avoid independent Jacobellis Ohio, 378 184, 190, 1676, 1679, 793 (1964) Edwards South Carolina, 372 229, 235, 680, 683, 697 (1963); 285, 728, (1964); 50, 3427, stir up [transfers] implemented." 167. "final defiance" action, "there going severe problems changes." conducting investigation. "After satisfied myself wasn't accepting affirmatively opposing disrupting called [and her]." 130. Assn. Local Assn., 948, 957, 794 (1983) (proof future access non-public use property's function.); Greer Spock, 424 828, 1211, 505 (1976) (same). record indicates some, all, lunch. Employee transpires entirely non-work areas calculus, conclusion. NLRB Magnavox 415 322, 1099, 358 (1974). rule strengthen position. 574. states "if discharge," 146 omitted), understand imply outside read implicate interests, disagree, range Under lighter. infra, were, extensive local press coverage shows advisement, newspaper seven-paragraph story describing leading filing Picayune/The Item, Dec. 6, 1, p. 21, col. sixteen-paragraph favor, Feb. 11, 1981, 2; nine-paragraph decision, July 28, 1; twelve-paragraph granted petition March 9, 1982, 5.; seventeen-paragraph heard oral argument, 13, affecting often receive newspaper. Item lengthy reporting "plush offices," detail "privacy problem" faced unable modular furniture partition space. January 25, Louisiana Senate voted retaining relations specialist. 14, general, quite contrary 148-149, engaged attention Moreover, media stories resulted declining deteriorating performance. simplest example answering "No" request "speech," insubordination, serve suggested classification bases estimate surely idea Amendment." T. Emerson, System Freedom Expression 554 (1970). resulting utterance. reference broad Framers "to supply respect significant times. discussion, fill historic nation, embrace needed enable cope exigencies period." Thornhill 310 88, 102, 736, 1093 (1940) Wood Georgia, 370 375, 388, 1364, 1371, 569 (1962). inconsistent dealing limits liability privacy. defendant liable publication misleading report "matters proof published knowledge falsity reckless disregard truth. 389-391, 542-543. Hill portrayed experience family hostage home publicized incident earlier. entertained "no opening linked interest." 542. (holding broadcasting rape victim, victim's contained records). breadth protections directly here: guarantees preserve affairs, healthy pick comprehend vast exposes 'Freedom period.' [60 1093]. 'No inverse ratio timeliness expression.' Bridges 314 252, 269 [62 196, 192]." quoted passage makes 143, 5, defines Torts 652D, j (1977): 'news,' reports current activities. extends names, likenesses giving education, amusement enlightenment, published."

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