Document: 441 U.S. 68 99 S.Ct. 1589 60 L.Ed.2d 49 Gordon M. AMBACH, as Commissioner of Education the State New York, et al., Appellants,v.Susan W. NORWICK al. No. 76-808. Argued Jan. 10, 1979. Decided April 17, Syllabus Held: A York statute forbidding permanent certification a public school teacher any person who is not United States citizen unless that has manifested an intention to apply for citizenship, does violate Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Pp. 72-81. (a) As general principle some state functions are so bound up with operation governmental entity permit exclusion from those all persons have become part process self-government. Accordingly, required justify its aliens such positions only "by showing rational relationship between interest sought be protected and limiting classification." Foley v. Connelie, 435 291, 296, 98 1067, 55 287. 73-74. (b) This rule functions, which exception stricter standard applicable classifications based on alienage, rests important principles inherent in Constitution. The distinction citizens aliens, though ordinarily irrelevant private activity, fundamental definition government State, references Constitution itself indicate status citizenship was meant significance structure our government. It because this special entities, when exercising government, wider latitude participation noncitizens. P. 75. (c) Taking into consideration role education degree responsibility discretion teachers possess fulfilling role, it clear come well within "governmental function" recognized Sugarman Dougall, 413 634, 93 2842, 37 853, supra, and, accordingly, requires requirement teaching bear legitimate interest. 75-80. (d) Here, question State's furthering educational goals, especially respect regarding having obligation promote civic virtues understanding their classes, regardless subject taught. 80-81. 417 F.Supp. 913, reversed. Judith A. Gordon, Asst. Atty. Gen. City, Ambach, Bruce J. Ennis, Jr., Norwick Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 case presents whether consistently Amendment, may refuse employ elementary secondary eligible but seek naturalization. 2 * Law § 3001(3) (McKinney 1970) forbids States, citizenship.1 authorized create exemptions prohibition, done yet citizenship.2 Unless obtains certification, he work or York.3 3 Appellee born Scotland Great Britain. She resided country since 1965 married citizen. Dachinger Finnish came 1966 also Both currently meet requirements set teacher, they refused spite eligibility do so. applied 1973 certificate covering nursery through sixth grade, same grades 1975.4 applications were denied appellees' failure 3001(3). then filed suit seeking enjoin enforcement 3001(3), obtained leave intervene plaintiff. 4 three-judge District Court convened pursuant 28 U.S.C. 2281 (1970 ed.). Applying "close judicial scrutiny" Graham Richardson, 403 365, 372, 91 1848, 1852, 29 534 (1971), court held discriminated against violation Clause. Nyquist, 913 (SDNY 1976). believed overbroad, excluded resident jobs taught, alien's nationality, nature country, willingness substitute other sign loyalty Nation's political values, oath allegiance. Id., at 921. We noted probable jurisdiction over officials' appeal, 436 902, 2229, 56 340 (1978), now reverse. II 5 decisions permissibility statutory involving formed unwavering line years. regulation employment long been constitutional constraints. In Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 6 1064, 30 L.Ed. 220 (1886), struck down ordinance prevent running laundries, Truax Raich, 239 33, 36 7, 131 (1915), law requiring least 80% employees certain businesses unconstitutional infringement "right living common occupations community . ." 41, S.Ct., 10. At time, however, greater employment. time decided, governing doctrine permitted exclude various activities restriction pertained "the distribution domain, property resources people 39, Hence, larger authority forbid owning land, Frick Webb, 263 326, 44 115, 323 (1923); Webb O'Brien, 313, 112, 318 Porterfield 225, 21, 278 Terrace Thompson, 197, 15, 255 Blythe Hinckley, 180 333, 21 390, 45 557 (1901); Hauenstein Lynham, 100 483, 25 628 (1880); harvesting wildlife, Patsone Pennsylvania, 232 138, 34 281, 58 539 (1914); McCready Virginia, Otto 391, 94 24 248 (1877); maintaining inherently dangerous enterprise, Ohio ex rel. Clarke Deckebach, 274 392, 47 630, 71 1115 (1927), permissibly could working construction projects, Crane 195, 85, 218 appears, engaging form all, see Truax, U.S., 40, Over Court's gradually restricted free aliens. first would constitutionality discrimination even areas affected "public interest" appeared Oyama California, 332 633, 269, 92 249 (1948). there presumptions designed discourage evasion California's ban alien landholding children Term, "ownership" exercises fish found territorial waters "is inadequate California excluding lawful residents making by fishing ocean off shores while permitting others so." Takahashi Fish & Game Comm'n, 334 410, 421, 1138, 1144, 1478 withdrawal former culminated treated alienage "inherently suspect close scrutiny." 1852. Graham, invalid statutes prevented entering classified civil service, 853 (1973), practicing law, re Griffiths, 717, 2851, 910 engineer, Examining Board Flores de Otero, 426 572, 96 2264, 65 (1976), receiving benefits, Nyquist Mauclet, 432 1, 97 2120, 53 63 (1977). 7 Although more recent departed substantially public-interest day, abandoned Sugarman, we could, "in appropriately defined class positions, require qualification office." went observe: 8 "Such power inheres virtue obligation, already above, 'to preserve basic conception community.' And applies, qualifications voters, holding elective nonelective executive, legislative, officers participate directly formulation, execution, review broad policy perform go heart representative government." 647, 2850 (citation omitted). 9 invite demanding scrutiny 648, 2842. See 11, 2120; Perkins Smith, 370 134 (D.C.Md.1974), summarily aff'd, 2616, 368 (1976). 10 rational-basis standard, last Term ranks police force. 287 (1978). Because function fulfilled "a most constituency" necessity cloaked policemen substantial discretionary powers, view force being one classes imposed. 297, 1071. classification 1070. 11 State. refers no less than times, 651-652, 2862 (REHNQUIST, J., dissenting), indicating assumption status, birth naturalization, denotes association polity which, democratic republic, powers governance. 295, important: allegiance similar ceremony cannot unequivocal legal bond represents. noncitizens.5 B 12 determining whether, purposes equal protection analysis, schools constitutes function, look role. Each these considerations supports conclusion regarded performing task "that go[es] 2850.6 13 Public education, like "fulfills constituency." Foley, importance preparation individuals citizens, preservation values society rests, decisions: 14 "Today, perhaps local governments. Compulsory attendance laws great expenditures both demonstrate recognition society. performance responsibilities, service armed forces. very foundation good citizenship. Today principal instrument awakening child cultural preparing him later professional training, helping adjust normally his environment." Brown Education, 347 493, 74 686, 691, 873 (1954). 15 Keyes School Dist. Denver, Colo., 189, 246, 2686, 2716, 548 (1973) (POWELL, concurring dissenting part); San Antonio Independent Rodriguez, 411 29-30, 1278, 1294-1295, 16 (1973); Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 213, 1526, 1532, 32 (1972); id., 238-239, 1544-1545 (WHITE, concurring); Abington Schempp, 374 203, 230, 83 1560, 1575, 844 (1963) (BRENNAN, Adler 342 485, 72 380, 385, 517 (1952); McCollum 333 212, 461, 465, 649 (1948) (opinion Frankfurter, J.); Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 571, 69 1070 (1925); Meyer Nebraska, 262 43 625, 67 1042 Interstate Consolidated Street R. Co. Massachusetts, 207 79, 26, 52 111 (1907).7 Other authorities perceived "assimilative force" diverse conflicting elements brought together ground. See, e. g., Dewey, Democracy 26 (1929); N. Edwards H. Richey, American Social Order 623-624 (2d ed. 1963). These perceptions inculcating necessary maintenance system confirmed observations social scientists. Dawson K. Prewitt, Political So cialization 146-167 (1969); Hess Torney, Development Attitudes Children 114, 158-171, 217-220 (1967); V. Key, Opinion 323-343 (1961).8 Within system, play critical developing students' attitude toward Alone among direct, day-to-day contact students classrooms varied modern school. shaping experience achieve wide way course material communicated students. They responsible presenting explaining matter comprehensible inspiring. No amount standardization materials lesson plans can eliminate personal qualities brings achieving goals. Further, serves model students, exerting subtle influence values. Thus, presentation example sets, opportunity attitudes process, citizen's responsibilities.9 crucial continued health democracy.10 17 Furthermore, teachers, just courses related history, duties, should help fulfill broader system.11 Teachers, specialty, called upon teach subjects, including expressly dedicated subjects.12 More importantly, properly regard Certainly take account teacher's exists independently particular classroom subjects. light foregoing considerations, think Foley. Massachusetts Retirement Murgia, 427 307, 314, 2562, 2567, 520 III 18 legitimacy goals outlined above undoubted, remains consider bears carefully framed serve purpose, bars demonstrated unwillingness obtain citizenship.13 Appellees, similarly situated, effect chosen classify themselves. prefer retain foreign obligations entails primary duty loyalty.14 rejected open invitation extended qualify applying country. acting elected representatives, made judgment young schools, furthers judgment.15 19 Reversed. 20 BLACKMUN, whom BRENNAN, MARSHALL, STEVENS join, dissenting. Once again asked York's many impose before earn specified occupation.1 statutes, part, origin frantic overreactive days First World War parochialism fear foreigner order day. concerned right levels, N.Y.Educ.Law 1970), quoted Court, ante, 70 n. imposes.2 22 acknowledges, 72, concerning "have years."3 upheld challenge appointment members States. touchstone, indicated, relevant " 'important positions' 'officers policy.' 1070, quoting 2850, (1973). For need show classification. Police, felt, clothed exercise almost infinite variety seriously affect public. thus fell category execution "broad policy." persuaded bore demands therefore constitutionally confine 300, 1073. propriety narrowly recognized, passing, 2126, 23 On hand, frequently invalidated provision denies engage occupational activity: (1886) (ordinance Chinese subjects laundry business); (1915) (statute employer's composed "qualified electors native-born citizens"); (limitation commercial licenses "ineligible citizenship"); supra (New relating "competitive class" service); (the practice law); Nelson Miranda, 3065, 1021 aff'g 351 735 (D.C.Ariz.1972) (social worker teacher); (1976) engineering). barring financial assistance higher education). Indeed, once (1971). 601-602, 2280-2281; 721, 2854; 642, 2847; 2124. "[a]lienage withstand stringent examination stand." Ibid. There line, recently employments wisdom restrict employments, other, deny me, present falls Sugarman-Griffiths-Flores Otero-Mauclet side rather isolated side. here college graduate levels. seems absurd, say least, lower levels Frenchman French or, indeed, Englishwoman grammar English language. appellees, sure, "aliens" technical sense, word record either appellee roots unqualified way, imposed teach. meets requirements, teacher. Tr. Oral Arg. 4.4 willing, if required, subscribe support Constitutions York.5 lives community, must obey laws, pay taxes obligated pay. hesitated give respective British citizenships, lawyer Fre Le Poole renounce her Netherlands although Connecticut. 27 But disadvantage crosses Griffiths saying, 75, "distinction State." concludes "constitutes function," ibid., goes "to Ante, 76. speaks rests.6 After observing this, holds I perceive number difficulties along easy road takes conclusion: First, refutes argument. Section issue here, provides exceptions "employed regulations adopted commissioner employment." 3001-a another ineligible oversubscribed quotas. Also, unconcerned indicates about 18% pupils attend schools. inculcated something what desirable calls "crucial democracy." 79. apparently, under hesitate waits attain fail ever it. stark fact permits sit boards, 2590-c(4) Supp.1978-1979), reveals how shallow indistinct demarcation noncitizenship. attempted rationalization fact, 81-82 hardly extinguishes board members, otherwise "disqualified" administration, selection faculty, approval textbooks instructional materials. Second, all-inclusive disqualifying provisions: "No shall employed [n]ot citizen." sweeps indiscriminately. "neither confined nor precise application," limited accomplishment interests. 643, 2848. Note, Aliens' Right Teach: Socialization Schools, 85 Yale L.J. 90, 109-111 (1975). 31 Third, irrational. Is better poor excellent teacher? preferable never seen Spain Latin Spanish eighth graders lived years culture America? will know select responsibly, wholly apart selectively intelligently.7 That accomplish desired result. An artificial bar way. is, instead, stultifying provision. route "diverse elements" "brought ground," emphasizes, 77, achieved disregarding available, competent, contributory richness provide. Fourth, logically impossible differentiate attorneys. If barred taking thereby becoming qualified courts comprehend why schools? One speak proudly ability mold minds, national ideals, profound impartation society's Are attributes attorney less? He represents us courtroom controversies questioned. stands officer every practices. strict adherence announced implied standards conduct evolving ethical codes, honesty integrity life. Despite continuous criticism leveled profession, he, too, legislation, role-model figure enjoys.8 specifically Griffiths: 33 "Lawyers indeed occupy them duties correlative vital access courts. Moreover, aptitudes natural interests, lawyers leaders throughout history country." 729, 2858.9 despite alien, me completely competent qualified, appellees concededly are, disqualified York. expressed forcefully observed "seems repugnant heritage inculcate." 922 35 respectfully dissent. provides: is: "3. Not provisions subdivision apply, hereafter employed, provided make due application thereafter prescribed after July first, nineteen hundred sixty-seven, 1970). contains solely quota. respects narrower regulation, 2, infra, practical effect. certify "competent." 3204(2) Supp. 1978-1979). presented of, express to, pertaining following governs here: "Citizenship. declared issued provisional providing appropriate (1) possesses skills competencies readily available (2) unable declare valid reasons." N.Y.C.R.R. 80.2(i) Certification institutions accordingly them. Brief Appellants *. had met postgraduate temporary certificate, governed full certification. previously lapsed 1975 application. intent requirement. dimensions several decisions. Trop Dulles, 356 86, 78 590, 630 (1958), plurality expatriation constituted cruel unusual punishment crime desertion war. Afroyim Rusk, 387 253, 87 1660, 757 (1967), forbade Congress depriving reason. reaching opposite conclusion, appears different analysis prior Rather considering significant inquiry mandated dissent focuses instead societal private. hand depreciates argues filled misses point Sugarman. applies agents Connecticut contrast, attorneys, implicated pursue occupation, Cf. 15-16, n., 2129, (1977) dissenting). occupation Yet, officials lawyers." 2858. Rodriguez inconsistency guaranteed 30-35, 1295-1297. curricular reflect ways promotes development prerequisite intelligent process. provide instruction spirit patriotic foster moral intellectual essential peace war N.Y. Educ. 801(1) 1969). Flag prescribed, characteristic 802 1969 addition, include civics, §§ 3204(3)(a)(1), stronger ensuring controls, cost, effective possible courses. findings scholars written conclusive, generally reinforce common-sense judgment, us, exerts considerable broadest sense term viewed political. 158-167 162-163, 217-218 (1967). 99-104 Appellees contend freedom contrary diversity thought academic embodied 106-109. attempt draw analogy choice expression mark, argument effort inhibit expressing freely views associating whomever please. Givhan Western Line Consol. Dist., 439 415-416, 693, 696-697, 619 (1979); Mt. Healthy City Doyle, 429 274, 568, 50 471 (1977); Pickering 391 563, 88 1731, 811 (1968). Nor discouraged joining advance ends. Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 81 247, 231 (1960). asserted liberty withheld elect accorded protection. level, curriculum. example, certified five hours week outside specialty. 80.2(c) supra. cases emphasized taxes, Armed Forces, contributions endeavors. 722, 2855; 645, 2849; 376, 1854, doubt them, teachers. legislature, mind governments, (1954), determine key position discharging declined remain note connection promulgated situations where outweigh primarily served statute. 80.2(i)(1) appellants inform conferred exercised. argue rationally vote boards. note, legislature endorsed policy. Rather, administrative interpreted City's unique parents App. 27, 29. assume, without decide, basis responsibilities. possessing administration rarely known identified (1977), submitted list declaration citizen, fewer occupations. O.T.1976, 76-208, pp. 19-22, nn. 8-44, inclusive. Some legislatively repealed modified, judicially invalidated. Others still Among latter inspector, shorthand reporter, funeral director, masseur, physical therapist, animal technician. 1918 N.Y.Laws, ch. 158, Apr. 4, 1918. "To protecting rights unswerving one." 720, 2854, summa cum laude received average full-time University Albany. taught graduate, major German, Lehman College, unit master's Early Childhood institution. day-care center Bronx. appellee, thus, excelled training offers. 726 18, 2857 18. One, course, agree observation. concede, also, 'assimilative force' inculcation system. significantly observed: "Connecticut gauge case-by-case fitness applicant law. can, does, familiarity Apart tests competence, new 'attorney's oath' faithfully honestly 'commissioner's 'support constitution Connecticut.' Appellant indicated substance oaths, quite character investigation insure given 'that "swears pro forma declaring manifesting disagreement indifference oath." Bond Floyd, 385 116, 132, 339, 347, 235.' Students Research Council Wadmond, 401 [154], 164, 727, 749. admitted bar, continuing organized addition discipline unprofessional conduct, range post-admission sanctions extends judgments contempt criminal prosecutions disbarment. sum, Committee simply established vindicate undoubted high standards." 725-727, (footnotes Stockton Ford, How. 232, 676 (1851); Hickman Taylor, 329 495, 514-515, 395, 451 (1947) (concurring opinion); Schware Bar Examiners, 353 77 752, 760, 796 (1957) Sawyer, 360 622, 668, 79 1376, 1399, 1473 (1959) (dissenting Story, Miscellaneous Writings, Value Importance Legal Studies 503-549 (W. Story 1972); Stone, Influence Bar, 48 Harv.L.Rev. (1934); Brennan, Responsibilities Profession, Address Harvard Tocqueville, America 321-331 (Schocken 1961); Rogers, Lawyer Life, Morrison Foundation Lectures 61 (1940). keep attorneys nongovernmental continued: "Yet, lawyers. license place core formulator

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