Document: 430 U.S. 651 97 S.Ct. 1401 51 L.Ed.2d 711 James INGRAHAM, by his mother and next friend, Eloise Ingraham, et al., Petitioners,v.Willie J. WRIGHT, I, al. No. 75-6527. Argued Nov. 2-3, 1976. Decided April 19, 1977. Syllabus Petitioners, pupils in a Dade County, Fla., junior high school, filed this action Federal District Court pursuant to 42 U.S.C. §§ 1981-1988 for damages injunctive declaratory relief against respondent school officials, alleging that petitioners other students had been subjected disciplinary corporal punishment violation of their constitutional rights. The Florida statute then effect authorized after the teacher consulted with principal or charge specifying was not be "degrading unduly severe." A School Board regulation contained specific directions limitations, authorizing administered recalcitrant student's buttocks wooden paddle. evidence showed paddling exceptionally harsh. granted respondents' motion dismiss complaint, finding no basis relief. Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. Cruel Unusual Punishments Clause Eighth Amendment does apply public schools. Pp. 664-671. (a) history decisions make it clear prohibition cruel unusual designed protect those convicted crime. 664-668. (b) There is need wrench from its historical context extend practices. openness supervision community afford significant safeguards kinds abuses which protects criminals. These are reinforced legal constraints common law, whereby any going beyond reasonably necessary proper education discipline child may result both civil criminal liability. 668-671. 2. Due Process Fourteenth require notice hearing prior imposition as practice limited law. 672-682. Liberty within meaning implicated where authorities, acting under color state deliberately punish misconduct restraint infliction appreciable physical pain. Freedom bodily liberty interest personal security has historically protected deprivation without due process 672-674. Under longstanding accommodation between child's traditional common-law privilege, there can substantive rights long remains limits privilege. nonetheless strong procedural minimize risk wrongful provide resolution disputed questions justification. 675-676. (c) scheme, considered light environment, affords protection unjustified schoolchildren. must exercise prudence when they decide purposes. If later found excessive, held liable subject penalties. Where State thus preserved what "has always law land," United States v. Barnett, 376 681, 692, 84 984, 990, 12 23, case administrative significantly less compelling than would otherwise be. 676-680. (d) Imposing additional requirement intrude into area educational responsibility lies primarily authorities. Prior diversion resources, authorities abandon measure rather incur burdens complying requirements. incremental benefit invoking Constitution impose cannot justify costs. 680-682. 525 F.2d 909, Bruce S. Rogow, Ft. Lauderdale, petitioners. Frank A. Howard, Jr., Miami, respondents. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 This presents concerning use schools: First, whether means maintaining constitutes Amendment; and, second, extent constitutionally permissible, requires an opportunity heard. 2 * Petitioners Ingraham Roosevelt Andrews complaint on January 7, 1971, Southern Florida.1 At time were enrolled Charles R. Drew Junior High eighth grade ninth. three counts, each separate cause rights, 1981-1988. Counts one two individual actions based incidents allegedly occurred October 1970 at School. Count class behalf all County schools.2 Named defendants counts respondents Willie Wright (principal School), Lemmie Deliford (an assistant principal), Solomon Barnes Edward L. Whigham (superintendent System).3 3 presented week-long trial before close petitioners' case, moved dismissal count "on ground upon facts plaintiff shown right relief," Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 41(b), ruling insufficient go jury two.4 dismissed App. 142-150. 4 Petitioners' summarized briefly. In 1970-1971 year many 237 schools used legislation local regulation.5 negative inference, proscribing severe" inflicted consultation school. Fla.Stat.Ann. § 232.27 (1961).6 regulation, Policy 5144, explicit limitations.7 consisted student flat paddle measuring feet long, four inches wide, about one-half inch thick. normal five "licks" blows resulted apparent injury student. viewed drastic suspension expulsion. Contrary requirements teachers often paddled own authority first consulting principal.8 5 focused School, fall 1970. reference Drew, "(t)he instances could characterized severe, accepting students' testimony credible, took place school." 147. evidence, consisting mainly 16 students, suggests regime Andrews, support claims damages, illustrative. Because he slow respond teacher's instructions, more 20 licks while being over table principal's office. so severe suffered hematoma9 requiring medical attention keeping him out several days.10 times minor infractions. On occasions struck arms, once depriving full arm week.11 6 made findings credibility testimony. Rather, assuming court With respect three, action, concluded practiced generally county violated right. Id., 143, 149. two, actions, some cases violate Amendment, lawfully find "the elements severity, arbitrary infliction, unacceptability terms ofcontemporary standards, gross disproportion bring 'punishment' level 'cruel punishment.' " 143. 7 panel voted reverse. 498 248 (CA5 1974). oppressive Amendments, procedures outlined 5144 failed satisfy Clause. Upon rehearing, en banc rejected these conclusions affirmed judgment 909 (1976). did heard: 8 "In essence, we refuse set forth, mandated, standards activity substantial enough, level, effort have expended adhering further interference federal courts internal affairs schools." 919. 9 also contentions. court's view, simply inapplicable Stressing likelihood liability if believed, administration schools, excessively administered, come scope protection." 915. Nor noted "(p)addling children accepted method promoting good behavior instilling notions decorum mischievous heads children." 917. refused examine individually: 10 "We think misuse our judicial power determine, example, acted arbitrarily particular certain instance appropriate ten licks. . ." Ibid. 11 We certiorari, process. 425 96 2200, 48 815.12 II addressing Amendment's useful refer "(t)raditional concepts," Powell Texas, 392 514, 535, 88 2145, 2155, 1254 (1968) (plurality opinion), "attitude(s) society traditionally taken." 531, S.Ct., 2153. So, too, defining Fifth attuned 23 (1964), "traditional ideas fair procedure." Greene McElroy, 360 474, 508, 79 1400, 1419, 1377 (1959). therefore begin examining way traditions laws responded 13 country disciplining dates back colonial period.13 It survived transformation primary secondary colonials' reliance optional private arrangements present system compulsory dependence schools.14 Despite general abandonment punishing offenders,15 continues play role most parts country.16 Professional sharply divided practice,17 century.18 Yet discern trend toward elimination. 14 single principle governed since American Revolution: Teachers reasonable but excessive force child.19 Blackstone catalogued among "absolute individuals" "to insults menaces, assaults, beating, wounding," W. Blackstone, Commentaries 134, regard "corporal insult" inflict "moderate correction" care. To "necessary answer purposes (the teacher) employed," "justifiable lawful." 453; id., 120. basic doctrine changed. prevalent rule today privileges such administrator "reasonably believes child's) control, training, education." Restatement (Second) Torts 147(2) (1965); see 153(2). unreasonable, educator virtually possible liability.20 15 Although early deriving parents,21 concept parental delegation replaced view consonant itself "for maintenance group discipline." F. Harper & James, Law 3.20, p. 292 (1956).22 All circumstances taken account determining case. Among important considerations seriousness offense, attitude past child, nature severity punishment, age strength availability equally effective discipline. 290-291; 150, Comments c-e, 268 (1965). Of addressed problem through legislation, 21 moderate schools.23 only few elaborated test reasonableness, typically providing approval notification parents,24 principal25 presence adult witness.26 Only States, Massachusetts New Jersey, prohibited schools.27 legislatures acted, uniformly permitting charge.28 17 Against background contemporary turn us. III 18 (1) provides: "Excessive bail shall required, nor fines imposed, punishments inflicted." Bail, fines, associated process, subjecting parallel limitations text intention limit entrusted criminal-law function government. An examination construing proscription confirms crimes. adhere limitation hold 19 well known.29 taken, almost verbatim, provision Virginia Declaration Rights 1776, derived English Bill 1689. version, adopted accession William Mary, intended curb excesses judges reign II. Historians reaction either "Bloody Assize," treason trials conducted Chief Jeffreys 1685 abortive rebellion Duke Monmouth,30 perjury prosecution Titus Oates same year.31 exclusive concern version conduct enforcing original draft introduced House Commons provided:32 "The persons committed imposing illegal punishments, prevented." "criminal cases" eliminated final draft, preservation similar preamble33 indicates deletion significance. Thus, treated provision's prohibitions bearing proceedings judgments.34 22 Americans who language part framing Constitutions 100 years feared torture lawful authority, engaged making measured. Weems 217 349, 371-373, 30 544, 550-551, 54 L.Ed. 793 (1910). Indeed, Framers appears legislative definition crimes punishments. re Kemmler, 136 436, 446-447, 930, 933-934, 34 519 (1890); Furman Georgia, 408 238, 263, 92 2726, 2739, 33 346 (1972) (Brennan, J., concurring). But restrain government broadly model, same. ratification, criticized Conventions failure crimes.35 criticism provided impetus inclusion Rights. When debated First Congress, met objection might outlawing hanging, whipping, earcropping. Annals Cong. 754 (1789). heeded, "precisely because legislature unfettered prescribe crimes." supra, 2739. B 24 history, surprising every decision considering "cruel unusual" Amendments dealt punishment. See Estelle Gamble, 429 97, 285, 50 251 (1976) (incarceration care); Gregg 428 153, 2909, 49 859 (execution murder); supra opinion) ($20 fine drunkenness); Robinson California, 370 660, 82 1417, 758 (1962) addiction narcotics); Trop Dulles, 356 86, 78 590, 630 (1958) (expatriation desertion); Louisiana ex rel Francis Resweber, 329 459, 67 374, 91 422 (1947) electrocution attempt); (15 years' imprisonment penalties falsifying official document); Howard Fleming, 191 126, 49, 121 (1903) (10 conspiracy defraud); electrocution); Wilkerson Utah, 99 130, 25 345 (1879) firing squad); Pervear Commonwealth, Wall. 475, 608 (1867) (fine hard labor bootlegging). (2) recognize circumscribes ways: imposed crimes, e. g., supra; ; proscribes grossly disproportionate crime, third, imposes punished such, supra. recognized last applied sparingly. purpose Clause) considered, properly so, directed kind statutes .." 531-532, 2154 opinion). 26 occasion confront impositions outside constituted difficulty inapplicable. Fong Yue Ting 149 698, 1016, 37 905 (1893), deportation aliens "deportation crime." 730, 1028; Mahler Eby, 264 32, 44 283, 68 549 (1924); Bugajewitz Adams, 228 585, 607, 57 978 (1913). And Uphaus Wyman, 72, 1040, 1090 (1959), sustained contempt, resulting incarceration pending compliance subpoena, claim emphasized involved 'essentially remedy parties exercised centuries secure decrees.' 81, 1047, quoting Green 165, 197, 632, 650, 672 (dissenting opinion).36 C 27 acknowledge design urge should extended ban Observing envisioned education, opportunities noncriminal contend extension lest greater criminals anomalous, say, schoolchildren beaten redress, hardened suffering beatings hands jailers valid Amendment. Jackson Bishop, 404 571 (CA8 1968); cf. Whatever logic settings,37 inadequate wrenching extending practices 28 prisoner schoolchild stand wholly different circumstances, separated harsh conviction incarceration. prisoner's entitles classify "criminal," deprives freedom family friends form enduring attachments life." Morrissey Brewer, 471, 482, 2593, 2600, 484 (1972); Meachum Fano, 427 215, 224-225, 2532, 2538, 451 Prison brutality, observed "part total crime scrutiny." F.2d, 915.38 Even af% 65fforded ¢s670¢s limited. After incarceration, 'unnecessary wanton pain,' U.S., 103, 291, 173, 2925, forbidden 29 little Though attendance voluntary, open institution. Except perhaps very young, physically restrained leaving during hours; end day, invariably free return home. brings rarely apart witness protest mistreatment. prisoner. permitted Public administrators privileged child; privilege Part II, As scrutiny, reason believe will effectively deter alleged case.39 31 conclude pertinent question process.40 IV 32 prohibits life, liberty, property Application familiar two-stage analysis: ask asserted interests encompassed "life, property"; implicated, constitute "due law." 481, 2600; Regents Roth, 564, 569-572, 2701, 2705-2707, 548 (1972). Friendly, Some Kind Hearing, 123 U.Pa.L.Rev. 1267 (1975). Following analysis here, implicates interest, remedies fully adequate (3) "(T)he range infinite." 570, 2705. repeatedly notion grievous loss visited person sufficient invoke protections Clause." 224, 2538. required determine place, look 'weight' stake." 570-571, (4) incorporated Fourteenth, give least governmental enjoyed Englishmen Crown. included "generally enjoy essential orderly pursuit happiness men." Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 399, 43 625, 626, 1042 (1923); Dent West Virginia, 129 114, 123-124, 231, 233-234, 623 (1889). historic liberties obtain relief, intrusions security.41 35 While contours defined precisely,42 thought encompass Rochin 342 72 205, 183 (1952). fundamental except accordance 36 (5) stake is, course de minimis concerned. restraining inflicting pain, implicated.43 (6) due." 2600. Were teachers, care, abuse, advance indeed.44 here deal tradition, 38 '(D)ue process,' unlike rules, technical conception fixed content unrelated time, circumstances. Representing profound fairness 'due process' compounded reason, decisions, stout confidence democratic faith profess. Anti-Fascist Comm. McGrath, 341 123, 162-163, 71 624, 643, 95 817 (1951) (Frankfurter, 39 Whether competing stake, "history, (and) decisions." consideration distinct factors: "First, affected erroneous probable value, any, substitute safeguards; finally, (state) including fiscal entail." Mathews Eldridge, 424 319, 335, 893, 903, 47 Cf. Arnett Kennedy, 416 167-168, 94 1633, 1650-1651, 40 (1974) (Powell, rooted avoiding care limitations. invasion gave rise recover subsequent proceeding. 120-121. recovery qualified child. purpose, wrongful, 41 justifiable States. represents balance country," Poe Ullman, 367 497, 542, 81 1752, 989 (1961) (Harlan, dissenting), education. interests, say insubstantial. "a totally accurate, unerring never mistaken unfair. Goss Lopez, 419 565, 579-580, 729, 739, 725 deliberate intrusion unlawful. now available applicable (7) continued recognize, indeed strengthened statute, order misbehaved. restraint. For justified. believed training malice shown, penalties.45 45 testified mistreatment aberration. uncontradicted was, "(w)ith exception cases, unremarkable severity." Moreover, paddlings usually response directly presence, insignificant. ordinary neither threatens seriously condemns suffer kind." 168, 647 46 contemplated, sanctions abuse environment See, 670. unlikely unnecessarily consequence doing institution them.46 (8) still argued, course, better supplemented hearing. frequently guard 569-570, 2705; Wolff McDonnell, 418 539, 557-558, 2963, 2975-2976, 935 (1974); U.Pa.L.Rev., 1275-1277. compelling.47 relevant analogy Fourth specifically "seizure" cause, police act unreasonably arresting suspect determination facts. Watson, 423 411, 820, 598 (1976), reaffirmed officers warrantless arrests cause. magistrate desirable, declined transform preference Nation Congress authorize 423, 828; 429, 830 possibility officer improperly assess unconstitutionally deprive depart officer's perception scrutiny fact.48 tradition apply. even clear, remain cost. Acceptance work governing Given impracticability formulating varies imposition,49 seek precede paddling, however trivial. Such universal burden measure. Hearings informal hearings personnel, pursuits. choose Teachers, concerned classroom, prefer rely measures disruption entail.50 Paradoxically, alteration policy likely occur contemplated privilege.51 Elimination curtailment welcomed societal advance. choice Court's processes debate costs insubstantial.52 reviewing judgment, serves interests. problems common-place 580, 739: "Events calling frequent occurrences sometimes immediate, action."53 Assessment for, maintaining, discretion affirming comprehensive consistent safeguards, control Tinker Des Moines Dist., 393 503, 507, 89 733, 737, 731 (1969).54 52 "At point safeguard increased assurance just, outweighed cost." 348, 909. reached low incidence already exist, error schoolchild's regarded minimal. reduce marginally, entail responsibility. law.55 V 53 prevail theories us paddlings, satisfied Florida's remedies. agree violation. Affirmed. 55 WHITE, whom BRENNAN, MARSHALL, STEVENS join, dissenting. 56 Today holds matter how afforded systems entitled sort them. I holdings inconsistent contrary reasoned provisions involved, respectfully dissent. 58 places punishments." reflects barbaric inhumane permit them anyone, opprobrious offense. 676, 1425, (Douglas, commission designated social thoroughly reprehensible acts commit, then, fortiori, culpable acts, breaches impermissible cut off someone's ear murder, unconstitutional late class.1 ears record reveals serious pass muster. 59 Nevertheless, majority "was (only) crimes," ante, 664, relying vague inconclusive recitation punishments; nowhere modified Constitution. Certainly fact insert word "criminal" prohibit offense imposed. 60 No deny spanking "punishment" reading word, similarities forms too obvious ignore. Like involves institutionalized rehabilitating offender, deterring offender others like committing future, retribution harm done. 61 fortunate enough raise doubt validity ordinarily affording accused panoply process.2 "every unusual' punishment." Ante, 666. distinction plainly wrong. "(E)ven classification 'non-penal' alter penal statute." 95, 595, inquiry labeled criminal, retribution, rehabilitation, deterrence.3 96, 595. Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 83 554, 644 (1963). 62 purposive approach followed "(c)orporal variety employed correction pupil order." App., 146. Behavior 63 Without mentioning Court, adopts turns label given inflicted. received obscene telephone call. Brief 13. breach However, punishable misdemeanor 365.16 (Supp.1977) 365.16, 64 fact, recognizes, confined punishments.4 adheres something do criminals, confine exceptions covered prisoners. mercilessly discipline, commits similarly covered. 65 purported explanation anomaly assertion told institutions, constant scrutiny; law;5 prisoners stigma How got difficult discern, factors Amendment.6 66 essence majority's argument prison system.7 suggested just all. mere flogging execution render impermissible. Similarly, suggest placed minimum-security home weekends counterpart maximum-security prison. short, goes tolerance civilized society, nothing validity. law,8 determinative coverage obvious. state-law tortures thumbscrew antisocial implicitly Term needs though malpractice tort 107 n. 15, 293. D By holding sufficiently "criminal." curious consequently, unusual.9 Conversely, spanked fit depending unusual. 69 issue phase ever am suggesting My not. take extreme barbaric, inhumane, becomes unacceptable become acceptable 70 concedes "bodily punishment" involving "appreciable pain" 674. remaining, due. law" punishes reliable way. 344, 907, (1975), heard finally suspended "Disciplinarians, although proceeding utmost faith, reports advice others; controlling challenge disputed. trivial, guarded done prohibitive cost process." 739. (Emphasis added.) 73 innocent requires, "elaborate hearing" neutral party, "an give-and-take disciplinarian" gives explain facts." 582, 584, 741. 74 "rudimentary precautions unfair misconduct," 581, 740, suspension, interest. absolutely inflicted, concludes sue "excessive." 75 utterly reasons.10 commit "proceeding others," 692; facts, disciplinarian, uninformed hearing.11 remedies" relies, 672, danger reasonable, good-faith mistake 76 Second, important, lawsuit occurs pain irreparable; undone require, Goss, minutes "informal "meaningful hedge" irreparable injury. 583-584, 741.12 77 conclusion rests novel theory giving side story, innocent. speeding one-day jail sentence driver serve imprisonment.13 away good-time credits infractions suit eventually released. theory, purport any,14 Those "consistently deprived (and that) person's 2975, (1974). attempts drawing fails reasons. "ancient rule(s)" regulating practices, 418, 825, understood justice explicitly tailored. Thus Gerstein Pugh, 420 854, speaking Powell, arrested warrant. tailored system, define 'process due' seizures detention suspects trial. elaborate unique jurisprudence, conduct. relatively simple (e. interview suspension) (procedural process) cited concurring inapposite irrelevant system." 125 27, 869. 80 dealing altogether "inapposite context" far weaker deprivations context. suggestion, 680 48, upheld assessment "may enforcement suppression warrants "first stage system" protections, 869, continue procedures. cause" "any pretrial liberty" brief period steps incident (a warrantless) arrest." 125, 863, 868. (Footnote omitted; emphasis "practical compromise" "requiring magistrate's review factual justification arrest intolerable handicap legitimate enforcement," 113, 862; probable-cause hearing, suggestion "afford(s) substantially conference mandated Goss."15 purports follow settled depends 'the protected) safeguards' ";16 process17 ," 676; somehow adequately reduced court, leaves unprotected mistake, allows hear events later. agree. emphasizes, dissenters precautions" suspended; smaller; fear intrusion" 682 (cf. 741 dissenting)), exaggerated. disciplinarian "notice charges denies them, story." 740. "if anything, fair-minded himself" avoid injustice.18 583, reverse below. 85 STEVENS, 86 WHITE's believe, unanswerable. persuaded correct. Notwithstanding my disagreement latter question, POWELL's reasoning IV-B prompts comments. 87 not, express language, occur. sure, timing critical element adequacy deciding Generally, essential. recognized, however, wording command "without" postdeprivation sufficient.1 award completely whole individual's occurred. context, therefore, requires. true defamation impaired reputation. hypothesis, Paul Davis, 693, 1155, 405, correctly decided incorrect rationale. Perhaps day BRENNAN's appraisal importance 720-723, 734, 1170-1171, 1177 nevertheless prevent state-inflicted reputation violating 1983.2 minors, names James' mother, Everett, Roosevelt's father. certified class, Fed.Rules 23(b)(2) (c)(1), follows: 'All policies issued Defendant, .' 17. One excepted request. named defendant, amenable want jurisdiction. 912 1976). aspect Appeals' waived proceeded initially agreed offered (together stipulated testimony) verdict, two. reassert denied. 142. show actually authorization 231 year, administer policy. 137-139. provided: "Each member staff assume assigned keep classroom pupils, degrading nature. Effective July 1, 1976, Legislature amended Section reads: "Subject rules district board, representative students. feels necessary, following followed: "(1) approved used, used. "(2) another informed beforehand, "(3) shall, request, pupil's parent guardian written name (adult) present." (1977) (codifier's notation omitted). Corporal contact maintain enforce rules." 228.041(28). boards expressly adopt codes 230.23(6). principals immunity "(e)xcept 232.275. seeking cooperation necessary. specified necessity understand calculated up shame ridicule. cautioned using psychological treatment, warned administering "must realize liabilities" 15. litigation standardize size paddles description text, proscribe striking elsewhere buttocks, permissible number (five elementary intermediate grades seven senior grades), contemporaneous parents. 126-128. 248, 255, (original vacated (1976); 138, 146; Exhibits 14, Stedman's Medical Dictionary (23d ed. 1976) defines "hematoma" "(a) localized mass extravasated blood organ tissue clotted (or partly clotted), there, manifest various degrees organization decolorization." 3-4, 18-20, 68-85, 129-136. 4-5, 104-113. experiences individually Appeals, 257-259. denied third petition certiorari: "Is arbitrary, capricious achieving violative Amendment?" Pet. Cert. H. Falk, Punishment 11-48 (1941); N. Edwards Richey, Social Order 115-116 (1947). existed England Revolution, 50-68, 78-81, 97-113, demand know gain momentum until mid-1800's, 1918 Brown Education, 347 483, 489 4, 686, 689, 98 873 (1954), citing Cubberley, Education 408-423, 563-565 (1934 ed.); Wisconsin Yoder, 406 226, 1526, 1538, 571, 580 85-88. K. Larson M. Karpas, Secondary Discipline 146 (1963); Reitman, Follman, E. Ladd, Schools 2-5 (ACLU Report 1972). samplings scholarly Reardon Reynolds, Pennsylvania 1-2, (1975); National Association, Task Force 8-16 Opinion surveys consistently favoring lower grades. 2, 23-26; Delaware Department Instruction, Survey 34-35; 7. 66-69; Cooper McJunkin, Ind. 290 (1853). pp. 288-292 (1956); Proehl, Tort Liability Vand.L.Rev. 723, 734-738 (1959); Prosser, 136-137 (4th 1971). 28, infra. include recognizing Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-246(A)(1) Conn.Gen.Stat. 53a-18 (1977); Neb.Rev.Stat. 28-840(2) N.Y.Penal 35.10 (McKinney 1975 Supp.1976); Ore.Rev.Stat. 161.205(1) 726, Today, conditioned California. Cal.Educ.Code 49001 (West Supp.1977). Morrow Wood, Wis. (1874). summary affirmance required. Baker Owen, 210, 137 aff'g 395 F.Supp. 294 (M.D.N.C.). 49000-49001 Supp.1977); Del.Code Ann., Tit. 701 (Supp.1976); Ga.Code Ann. 32-835, 32-836 Haw.Rev.Stat. 298-16 (1975 Supp.), 703-309(2) (Spec. Pamphlet 1975); Ill.Ann.Stat., c. 122, 24-24, 34-84a (1977 Supp.); Ind.Code 20-8.1-5-2 Md.Ann.Code, Art. 77, 98B (1975) (in counties); Mich.Comp.Laws 340.756 (1970); Mont.Rev.Codes 75-6109 (1971); Nev.Rev.Stat. 392.465 (1973); N.C.Gen.Stat. 115-146 Ohio Rev.Code 3319.41 Okla.Stat.Ann., 70, 6-114 Pa.Stat.Ann., 24, 13-1317 S.C.Code 59-63-260 S.D.Compiled Laws 13-32-2 Vt.Stat.Ann., 16, 1161 Va.Code 22-231.1 W.Va.Code, 18A-5-1 Wyo.Stat. 21.1-64 (Supp.1975). Cal.Educ. Code Supp.1977) (requiring writing); 232.27(3) request); (1971) notification). Haw.Rev.Stats. (1971). Mass.Gen.Laws 71, 37G N.J.Stat.Ann. 18A:6-1 (1968). Suits Glover, 260 Ala. 449, So.2d (1954); La Frentz Gallagher, 105 Ariz. 462 P.2d 804 (1969); Berry Arnold 199 Ark. 1118, S.W.2d 256 (1940); Andreozzi Rubano, 145 Conn. 280, 141 A.2d 639 (1958); Tinkham Kole, 252 Iowa 1303, 110 N.W.2d 258 (1961); Carr Wright, 521 (Ky.1968); Christman Hickman, 225 Mo.App. 828, (1931); Simms Dist. Or.App. 119, 508 236 Marlar Bill, 181 Tenn. 100, 178 634 (1944); Prendergast Masterson, 196 S.W. 246 (Tex.Civ.App.1917). sources 168-173, 2920-2925, (joint Stewart, Stevens, JJ.) (hereinafter joint opinion); 316-328, 2765-2772, (Marshall, concurring); Granucci, "Nor Inflicted:" Original Meaning, Calif.L.Rev. 839 (1969). I. Brant, 155 852-860. 855. preamble reads part: "WHEREAS King assistance divers evil counsellors, judges, ministers him, endeavor subvert extirpate kingdom. "10. hath elude subjects. "11. imposed; Perry Cooper, Sources Our Liberties 245-246 297 (bail), 379 (fines punishments). Abraham Holmes complained absence "what Elliot, Debates 111 (1876). Patrick Henry mind: "What says (Virginia) bill rights? 'that ought inflicted.' Are you gentlemen compose control? Will sentiments You let loose; genius your country. 447. urging 'fastened obsolete acquire enlightened humane justice.' 171, 2924 see, 100-101, 597-598, 373, 378, 551-553, misplaced. referred "evolving decency," 101, 598, State, analogous application Gault, 387 1428, 527 (1967). consider involuntarily mental juvenile institutions Judge Friendly "can fairly deemed manner carried executioner, rel. (1947), cover conditions confinement term imprisonment." Johnson Glick, 481 1028, 1032 (CA2), cert. denied, 414 1033, 462, (1973) (citation Putting aside irrelevant, dissenting WHITE argues "purposive analysis" reach Post, 686-688. whatever apply, scrutiny. 40, applicability turned meaning, demonstrated derivation. 169-173, 2923-2925 315-328, 2765-2772 (Marshall warns today, "cut class." 684. rhetoric bears relation reality issues forbid dissent ultimately hazards broad clear. "It large, complex composed great diversity peoples wisdom establish govern affairs. urged merely revolutionary departs ancient premise experience people themselves safest guide nation ours follow." 547-548, 2161, (opinion Black, J.). complied guarantees prosecutions. Lovett, 328 303, 317-318, 1073, 1079-1080, 90 1252 (1946). (1958), plurality appropriately denationalization wartime desertion established (1963), evading issue, instead 162-167, 186, 564-567, 576 43. demonstrate, secured formal adjudication guilt seeks adjudication, guarantee 134. 39th Article Magna Carta, "except peers land." 33, enactments Parliament III, "by Shattuck, True Meaning "Liberty," Harv.L.Rev. 365, 372-373 (1891). Skinner Oklahoma, 316 541, 1110, 1113, 1655 (1942) (sterilization); Jacobson Massachusetts, 197 11, 358, 643 (1905) (vaccination); Union Pacific Co. Botsford, 250, 251-252, 1000, 1001, 734 (1891) (physical examinations); ICC Brimson, 154 447, 479, 1125, 1134, 1047 (1894). "implicit ordered liberty' enshrined documents English-speaking peoples." Wolf Colorado, 338 25, 27-28, 1359, 1361, 93 1782 (1949). said "overriding privacy dignity unwarranted State." Schmerber 384 757, 767, 1826, 1834, 908 (1966). unreasonable searches investigations. Whalen Roe, 589, 604 879, (1977). applies, according terms, Unlike involve state-created correct interrupting That may, rare unintended temporarily removing concluding 225-227, 2538-2539, inapplicable, doubtful procedure short 1252; Breed Jones, 421 519, 528-529, 1779, 1785-1786, 655-667, 661. statutory "degrading" "severe" former construed statement principle. 1937 Op.Fla.Atty.Gen., Biennial Atty.Gen. 169 (1937-1938); 1957 (1957-1958). Stat.Ann. 827.03(3) makes malicious felony. Both 915, expressed conceded inflicts civilly criminally 34; Tr. Oral Arg. 17, 52-53. adoption rule, unanimity below, doubts White's chimerical. much "recognized" 694 700. reported hardly available. common-sense exceedingly event distinguish down suspensions days suspensions." 567, 733. review, 2506.01 (Supp.1973), assumed stayed deterrent remedial function. 581 10, "that preferably Goss. "(P)rior dispensed state's conduct, justified, tort. leave injured precisely posture plaintiff, quite harmonious fourteenth amendment encompasses Monaghan, "Liberty" "Property," Cornell L.Rev. 431 (footnote Bonner Coughlin, 517 1311, 1319 (CA7 1975), banc, 545 565 pending, 76-6204. 659, 12, independent vindicate Terry Ohio, 1868, 889 reasonableness seized "(P)rocedural shaped inherent truth-finding generality exceptions. inevitable attendant publicity rejection recommendation, consequent impairment ability interposing increasing anxiety desirable soon infraction. 48-49. regularity promotes sense institutional rapport communication, provides fellow showcase democracy work. (r)espect dissipate ineffectual forward. Wilkinson, Lopez: Supreme Superintendent, Sup.Ct.Rev. 71-72. Nation's documented recent congressional report, Senate Committee Judiciary, Subcommittee Investigate Juvenile Delinquency, Challenge Third Century: Safe Environment Final Nature Prevention Violence Vandalism, 95th Cong., 1st Sess. (Comm.Print 1977). courtroom raises problems. judge summarily contemptuous him." Taylor Hayes, 488, 2697, 2702, 897 (1974), Ex parte Terry, 128 289, 405 (1888). six months Codispoti Pennsylvania, 506, 513-515, 2687, 2691-2693, Muniz Hoffman, 454, 475-476, 2178, 2190, 319 offers manageable apparently disciplinarian." 693. "minimal procedures" witnesses, counsel, cross-examination reaches undefined severity. 700 18. left guess degree give-and-take" self-evident, illustrates ignoring solution be, himself." 700, invokes requirement, stake. opinion's beneficial indeed, invites lowering existing standards. children, moderate, prohibited. 1968), prisoners, serving Bishop embraced intrinsically punisher alike." 580. relevance country's evolving decency. hand, cruel, beating chopping ear, involved. Whenever why schoolchild, misconduct. spankings breaking "punishment," unusual." bar unusual," suggests. Clause, guarantees. INFRA. Ordinarily, called violations infra, 688, Baxter Palmigiano, 308, 1551, 810 cites "dealt neglects decision. petitioner military court-martial sentenced labor, forfeiture pay allowances, dishonorable discharge. committed, petitioner's passport down. Petitioner "rights citizenship" 401(g) Nationality Act 1940 dishonorably discharged Armed Forces. factor desertion; yet disposition anything Instead, extends nature, penal. penal, statute. disability reprimand wrongdoer, others, etc. nonpenal disability, punish, accomplish purpose." 595 (footnotes quoted passage Warren, joined Justices, Brennan, opinion, enact. 669. Term, "deliberate indifference prisoners" officials clearly crime; official. Circuit whipping strap (Blackmun, Knecht Gillman, 488 1136, 1139-1140 1973) (injection vomit-inducing drugs aversion therapy unusual); Vann Scott, 467 1235, 1240-1241 1972) (Stevens, J.) (Eighth runaway regardless treatment "rehabilitation" "punishment"). invades independently thesis practical commands 1983 "liberty" flowing lengthy drafting complaints. 659 foreclosed grant certiorari. affirm amend certiorari reargument. considerations, (1972), prisoners' abused seldom prisons. (then Judge) Blackmun noted: "(O)nly states prisons). abolished." predicates armchair speculation. adequate. penalty proportion JJ.). Here, 580-581, 9, Respondents concede "denied misconduct" "in 60-61. below numerous despite innocence, 256-258 1974), "particularly disturbed classes corporally few." 36. focuses address mistaken. assurances contrary, unclear me Giving doubt, allegations hope bad-faith error. strongly cite recognizes willing exist Florida. commit. jurisdictions majority, 663 charged; none showing incorrectly charged. states: 678. "excessive" immunity. (They 232.275 (1976).) minimum, mistakes faith. "Although differing emphases formulations expulsion good-faith, nonmalicious fulfill duties." Wood Strickland, 318, 992, 999, 214 (adopting suits discipline) omitted); 318 999 (citing cases). arrest; existed. Miami Albro, 120 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1960); Middleton Fort Walton Beach, 113 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1959) (police personally intentional warrant knew void); Wilson O'Neal, 118 101 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1960) (law obtaining identification). standard hypothetical disciplinarian. assets official; board's treasury sovereign torts agents. Buck McLean, 115 764 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1959). resources awarding, collecting, amount entitled. 76-6204 (state bars negligence guard). G. Leasing Corp. 338, 351-359, 619, 628-632, 530 that, levying taxpayer's jeopardy assessment, revenue agents searching office seizing privacy. (such cause) Government repaired (invasion privacy) temporary (seizure property). safeguards. 679-680 697-699), chosen wrong analogy. forthrightly prosecutions, convict term. get false imprisonment. proposition "significantly compelling" "common-law remedies," 679, 678, dismissing allegation guards negligently failing door cell search, foreseeable transcript stolen. employees distinguishable instant grounds. barred immunity, ensured "made property." 1319, 23. Regional Rail Reorganization Cases, 102, 156, 320 pre-deprivation intend deprivation; best unauthorized inadvertent remedy. 25. Here feasible. 678 46. 675, Elsewhere asserts "typically insignificant" "paddlings presence." 677-678. assertion, restriction regulations 655 6, 656 offenses committed. 257, 259. minimal implicating meant imply minimum reservation longer 10-day maximum 740-741. caveat here. Calero-Toledo Pearson Yacht Co., 663, 2080, 452; Fuentes Shevin, 407 67, 82, 90-92, 1983, 1995, 1999-2000, 556; Ewing Mytinger Casselberry, 339 594, 598-600, 870, 872-873, 1088; Phillips Commissioner, 283 595-599, 608, 611-612, 1289; Lawton Steele, 152 133, 140-142, 499, 502-503, 385; 113-114, 862-863, 54. 1318-1320 76-6204; Swygert's thoughtful 569-578.

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