Document: 443 U.S. 449 99 S.Ct. 2941 61 L.Ed.2d 666 COLUMBUS BOARD OF EDUCATION et al., Petitioners,v.Gary L. PENICK al. No. 78-610. Argued April 24, 1979. Decided July 2, Rehearing Denied Oct. 1, See 444 887, 100 186. Syllabus This class action was brought in 1973 by students the Columbus, Ohio, school system, charging that Columbus Board of Education (Board) and its officials had pursued were pursuing a course conduct having purpose effect causing perpetuating racial segregation public schools, contrary to Fourteenth Amendment. The case ultimately tried April-June 1976, final arguments heard September March 1977 District Court filed an opinion order containing findings fact conclusions law. It found (1) 1954, when Brown v. Education, 347 483, 74 686, 98 L.Ed. 873 (Brown I), decided, not operating racially neutral unitary but conducting "an enclave separate, black schools on near east side Columbus" this "the direct result cognitive acts or omissions those board members administrators who originally intentionally caused later perpetuated isolation"; (2) since decision 349 294, 75 753, 1083 II), been under continuous constitutional obligation disestablish dual system it has failed discharge duty; (3) intervening years 1954 there series actions practices could "reasonably be explained without reference concerns" "intentionally aggravated, rather than alleviated," separation schools. Ultimately concluding at time trial "directly resulted from [the Board's] intentional segregative omissions," violation Equal Protection Clause Amendment, court, accordingly, enjoined defendants continuing discriminate basis race ordered submission systemwide desegregation plan. Subsequently, following Dayton Brinkman, 433 406, 97 2766, 53 851 (Dayton I ), rejected Board's argument required permitted modification court's finding judgment. Based examination record, Appeals affirmed judgments against defendants. Held: 1. On is no apparent reason disturb Court, Appeals, before only animated unconstitutional, purpose, also current impact sufficiently warrant remedy Court. Pp. 454-463. (a) Proof purposeful effective maintenance body separate substantial part itself prima facie proof supports absent sufficient Board, which forthcoming case. 455-458. (b) affirmative duty mandated II, beyond question, nothing record show effects disestablished. 458-461. 2. There indication below rested any misapprehension controlling 463-468. Where appears while recognizing disparate foreseeable consequences, more, do establish violation, correctly noted anticipated are relevant evidence prove ultimate forbidden court stayed well within requirements Washington Davis, 426 229, 96 2040, 48 597, Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 555, 50 450, plaintiff seeking make out equal protection discrimination must purpose. 464-465. repeatedly emphasized purposefully with current, impact, failure observe I, imposed equity should commensurate ascertained. 465-467. (c) Nor misuse Keyes School Dist. Denver, Colo., 413 189, 93 2686, 37 548, where held furnishes for inferential discriminatory intent unless otherwise rebutted given operate one infer connection between such other parts system. 467-468. 6 Cir., 583 F.2d 787, affirmed. Samuel H. Porter, petitioners. Thomas I. Atkins, Boston, Mass., respondents. Drew S. Days, III, Washington, D.C., United States, as amicus curiae, special leave [Amicus Curiae omitted] Mr. Justice WHITE delivered 1 highly segregated race. In over 32% 96,000 black. About 70% all attended least 80% white. F.Supp. 240 (SD Ohio 1977). Half 172 90% 800 (CA6 1978). Fourteen named June 22, 1973, State appropriate local state officials.1 second amended complaint, October 1974, charged A declaratory judgment injunctive relief prayed. Trial began more year later, consumed 36 days, produced 600 exhibits transcript excess 6,600 pages, completed 1976. Final September, 229. summarized findings: 2 "From adduced trial, earlier Public Schools openly [v. )] decided 1954. never actively set dismantle until legal initiated Area Civil Rights Council, did assign teachers random, regard composition student enrollment even very recent times . approved optional attendance zones, discontiguous areas boundary changes have maintained enhanced imbalance Schools. after promising otherwise, adjured [sic ] workable suggestions improving balance city 3 "Viewed context faculty administrative hiring assignments, decisions remote history, fair reasonable draw inference discussed opinion." Id., 260-261. 4 Court's conclusion id., 259, Accordingly, entered enjoining them ordering 5 Following 1977, response motion reiterated " 'liability concerns whole,' App. Pet. Cert. 94, quoting F.Supp., 266, asserting that, although "no real interest plan sweeping necessary correct wrongs plaintiffs suffered," neither would accept "which fails take into account nature liability defendants." 95. subsequently presented complied guidelines embodied 7. pending appeal Appeals. own extensive defendants.2 787. find clearly erroneous. Id. 789. Indeed, examined detail each strong support record. 798, 804, 805, 814. unexceptionable understanding application Amendment cases construing it. 7 Implementation our disposition 439 1348, 58 55 (1978) (REHNQUIST, J., chambers). We granted petition certiorari, 1066, 831, 59 31 (1979), we now affirm 8 * earnestly contends operation done general specific whatever unconstitutional may guilty past surely remaining trial. therefore teachings cases, scope measures remedy.3 9 discovered reason, however, based 10 These rooted violations committed together dictated decree. instance, factually legally sound. A. 11 First, 1888 statutory requirement authorization schools,4 neutral, Columbus," "[t]he then-existing isolation ." 236. Such separateness "be said official acts." Ibid. 12 agreed respect, observing "[w]hile system's black-white character law certainly shows Board. As 'carried systematic program affecting portion students, facilities system.' F.2d, 798-799, 201-202, 2694-2695, 548 (1973). 13 insists schooling commanded wholly white warranted system.5 But "Columbus officially 1954," 94 (emphasis added);6 event, question "direct omissions" Columbus." Keyes, supra, U.S., 203, S.Ct., 2695.7 B 14 Second, both courts declared (1955) II duty. 94; 799. Under construed it, cannot gainsaid. 15 exist, imposes boards "effectuate transition nondiscriminatory system." 301, 756. "Brown call dismantling well-entrenched systems," systems "clearly steps might convert eliminated root branch." Green County 391 430, 437-438, 88 1689, 1694, 20 716 (1968). Each instance refusal fulfill continues 413-414, 2771-2772; Wright Council City Emporia, 407 451, 460, 92 2196, 2202, 33 51 (1972); States Scotland Neck 484, 2214, (1972) (creation new district operated yet subject court-ordered desegregation). 16 II. core holding involved enough eradicate lingering consequences decided. Even though freedom-of-choice adopted, remained essentially many all-black all-white board's obligation, satisfied, 'to come forward promises realistically work clear state-imposed completely removed.' Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg 402 13, 91 1267, 1275, 28 554 (1971), Green, 439, 1694 original). 17 THE CHIEF JUSTICE's unanimous recognized, desegregate. "If authorities fail their obligations these holdings, judicial authority invoked. default proffer acceptable remedies, broad power fashion will assure 15-16, 1276. Swann, recalled, initial 1965 appeal. reopened, 1969 forth adopting here 1971, 18 determining whether disestablished, mandates matters aside assignments considered: 19 "[W]here possible identify 'white school' 'Negro simply staff, quality buildings equipment, organization sports activities, substantive rights shown." 18, 1277. Further, stated devising remedies responsibility ensure future construction abandonment used serve perpetuate re-establish 20-21, 1278-1279. said: 21 "No per se rule can adequately embrace difficulties reconciling competing interests involved; history need remedial criteria specificity authority's compliance warrants presumption substantially disproportionate composition. proposed conversion contemplates continued existence some predominantly race, they burden showing genuinely nondiscriminatory." 26, 1281. 22 "affirmative system" McDaniel- Barresi, 39, 41, 1287, 1288, 582 pointed persuading us does appear challenge most blacks still going whites Whatever respect education be, knowingly eliminate policies. "never 260. C 23 Third, breached failing effectively concerns," 241, 94. included practice assigning populations, terminated 1974 conciliation agreement Commission; use zones,8 areas,9 changes;10 selection sites maintaining schools.11 generally "[s]ince decision, predecessors put notice prevent increase in" segregation, heed alleviate 255.12 24 Against background, fault While appearing subsidiary historical fact, Tr. Oral Arg. 7, petitioners dispute factual inferences drawn facts two below. strongly 25 discern urged 597 (1976), 450 (1977), Both courts, argued, considered satisfied if shown natural consequence policies which, said, equating intent, precedent. 26 amply cognizant cases. understood prevail 'prove exists about action,' 251, 198, 2692—that is, "intended segregate." 254. 801. recognized violation. See, e. g., 251. Nevertheless, Those forbid standard being utilized several kinds proofs properly drawn." 255. Adherence particular policy practice, "with full knowledge predictable adherence upon factor among others thus Davis Heights. Personnel Administrator Massachusetts Feeney, 442 256, 279 n. 25, 2282, 2296, 60 870 (1979). 27 accepted ascertained, then established aimed rectifying "incremental effect" identified.13 few apparently isolated found;14 impact. Here, impact.15 259-260, 264, 266; 95; 799.16 And responding similar arguments, "School necessarily 1) pre-1954 creating five designed known 'black' Judge, 'substantial'—indeed, systemwide—impact. 2) post-1954 desegregate spite requests demands so, course, 3) So, too, siting detailed above. 4) So too assignment above, large majority identifiable 1975-76. 5) likewise represented segregation. served deprive opportunities contact learning teachers, conversely meet, know learn teachers. discriminatory, identification schools." 29 perceive rebutted, undue reliance Swann. Furthermore, ample opportunity counter respects. 260; 95, 102, 105. 30 Because prejudicial errors law, appealed ordered. 32 JUSTICE BURGER, concurring difference principles dissenting opinions REHNQUIST POWELL hand STEWART, other, 449, 2982, 666; differ view role applying facts. 34 Like REHNQUIST, serious doubts how characterized effect. concluded were. However, like am prepared defer trier because difficult hold rise level erroneous" Rule 52. justify reached STEWART "district manner" affected "a meaningful portion" 208, 2697, For reasons join STEWART's opinion. 35 joining opinion, note agree much Justices 526, 2971, 720. especially REHNQUIST's criticizes "dual systems" (1954), labored unknown unforeseeable years. Nothing previous provides foundation novel standard. expressed massive transportation "remedy." becoming increasingly doubtful really accomplishes desirable objectives sought. Nonetheless prior sanctioned magnitude found. retry sensitive issues Court; standards and, limits appellate review, see followed. whom JUSTICE, joins, 78-610 78-627. 38 My views significant respects leading me concur case, dissent 39 seems ignored crucial federal litigation1—a throughout controversies, ),2 ).3 development concerning reduced sound factfinding nor lessened appropriateness deference fact. To contrary, elimination conspicuous forms governmentally ordained last counsels undiminished adjudications judges these, uniquely situated appraise societal forces communities sit. 40 Whether produce meaning 548; 597; issue present subtle questions. Similarly intricate inquiries breadth hence permissible remedy. Milliken Bradley, 418 717, 3112, 41 1069 (Milliken ); supra. tasks judge. coldness impersonality printed available hardly answers clearer. doubt diligence perseverance appeals, my Brethren, suspect impossible reviewing 6,600-page judge knew assessing lawsuits therefore, think readily first instance. disagreement stems belief attached far importance existed understand authorized presumed Constitution. if, says, rebuttable, rebut And, elusive bears easily determine prevails litigation. Speiser Randall, 357 513, 525-526, 78 1332, 1341-1342, 1460. 42 Constitution violating 1964, so today. complete shift normal proof.4 43 Presumptions sometimes justified common experience likely follow others. Ulster Allen, 140, 2213, 777; Sandstrom Montana, 510, 2450, 39. ways. invidious collective mind absence contrary. quite apart board, unconstitutionally major contemporary Neither possibilities valid presumption. 44 Much changed years, Nation particular. Minds relationships. Perhaps importantly, generations changed. prejudices (and earlier) assumed haunt Similarly, progressed kindergarten through high school, examples dramatic growth change urban districts.5 unrealistic assume plays shaping either city. reasons, litigative adopted 45 basic disagreements approach, look different way districts' children almost solely distinct up districts. remains, showed discrimination. 46 After further hearings remand dismissed lawsuit. proved behind challenged. previously undertaken invalid intent. agree. 47 claimed discrimination, differed assessments, offering reasoned explanation fell short.6 assessment facts, demonstrated judge's relied heavily proposition today places great stress same foundation. instances, overturned proof.7 shifting unjustified, mistake upset basis. If accepts Only defendant saddled burdens proving acted proper motives factors led district's possibly prevail. 49 expressed, contrast, long careful Judge numerous overt 1970's.8 Just made rely lacking relatively illustrations recounted district, manner. discriminated Negro district. upheld findings, stemming situation 52 answer: "[W]e creates adventitious. establishes, words, unlawful design authorities, shifts actions." 2697. 54 unlike what defined case.9 Terms ago test this: 56 found, review incremental distribution population presently constituted, compared violations. redress difference, remedy." 420, 2775. 57 us, say impermissible test. soundly based. tied encompassing entire presumptively appropriate. litigating remedy, always certain allow just that. limited allegedly That remedied mentioned Another rough "all-white" assert unaffected Instead, ground bring predominately involve periphery plan, offer "white flight." benchmark, decreed minority, plus minus 15%. Although, stressed 716, judged effectiveness, effectiveness alone extending An visible correlation residential blanket extension clear, violations, able eastern northern portions removed center all. carry exclude numerical guidelines, invalid. 554: "Awareness whole useful starting point sum, mathematical ratios equitable discretion Court." 1280. 62 improper. 63 Penick, 2941, 666, 64 POWELL, dissenting. 65 write separately emphasize points. profoundly disturbing. They endorse concept applicable seem remarkably insensitive widely quarter century (1954) judiciary limiting expanding extent country. expressing views, recognize, Brothers joined motivated purposes ideals question. conviction condone creation bad worse education—an element American life essential, minority children. 66 dissents demonstrate mark break precedent principle. indulges stringing chain "presumptions," close reality reasonable. ante, 2984 (opinion J.). leads inexorably remarkable integration exist percentage 241 entirely cities. Although tainted face, supported matter incredible, premise requiring prescribing every school. 67 unintegrated area country contains population. condition results primarily familiar housing patterns, which—in turn—are social, economic, demographic responsible. causes greater problem newly discovered. Nearly decade ago, Professor Bickel wrote: 68 "In larger areas, conditions order, capability effect, balanced reordering environment involving economic social broadest conceivable front appreciable impact." Bickel, Supreme Idea Progress 132, (1970).1 69 Federal including today, continue ignore indisputable Relying fictions presumptions irreconcilable applied see, (1979); (1977); prescribe relation implement decrees ages. 70 type state-enforced property condemned longer boards—particularly cities North, Midwest, West—are taking provide integrated educational opportunities. indicated 223-236, 2704-2711, (1973), de facto scale cities, often indistinguishable jure outlawed Brown. inaction, act, exceed Austin Independent 990, 991, 517, 603 (1976) (POWELL, concurring); Pasadena Spangler, 427 424, 599 (1976); (1974); 16, 1276, (1971). Systemwide below, lack principled reasonably attributed conduct.2 71 dealt devastatingly endowed precedents wondrous meanings. add little he said. move but, view, important considerations ignores. 72 Holding responsible fixed constitutionally implies board—under supervision—will capable bringing desired demonstrates illusion. process resegregation, stimulated resentment coercion concern supervision education, today's subjected decrees. 73 orders typify intrusions professional affect adversely education. require reorganization systems, reassignment half busing 15,000 Dayton. reassignments staff personnel, grade structures, closing displace neighborhood face compelling preserving them. wholesale substitution legislation elected educators derogates education.3 Moreover, constitutes interference private parents educated. harmful inevitable byproducts approach ignores favor exclusive focus moreover, likelihood provoke responses defeat integrative courts' orders. Parents, bound frustrate simple expedient withdrawing lost confidence. costs relocation family resort education,4 alternatives preferable submitting court-run systems. words authority: "An implication seen along child's determined governmental alone. joint (the making assignments) parental decisions, remain location, send child moving metropolitan area. jointly means government must, effective, anticipate obtain parents' active cooperation implementing policies." Coleman, New Incentives Desegregation, Human Rights, 3, pp. 10, (1978). 76 At inner-city populations comprise proportion minorities surrounding suburbs white, compulsory exodus J. Kelly, & Moore, Trends Segregation, 1968-1973, 66, 76-77 (1975). unfair misleading attribute phenomenon racist se. reaction displacement control occurs go business restructuring 77 resegregation negative court-coerced depend community effectiveness. When elements driven abandon tends decline, markedly. Members groups, advancing themselves, react decline removing schools.5 result, become families resources choose indifferent net overall deterioration national resource traditionally land diverse ethnic groups. Keyes,, 250, 2718 III suffer further, "return evaluation society achieving legitimately assert." 253, 2719. goal practiced tolerated. thought diversity classroom component subscribe. single-minded pursuit best toward goal. 79 focused eliminating furthering wholesome schools.6 Experience cast efficacy far-reaching directed fictional assumption conduct, courts—now Court—are path away conscientiously (a astonished scholars history), overseeing systems—as cases—fairly viewed engineering judiciary. 80 thoughtful re-examination confronting intractable problems complex society. Proved tolerated, end proved. impose wide-ranging decrees, retain ongoing Local legislative supplanted relegated initiative-stifling roles minions courts. believe bodies welcomed activism inherently politically prospect inviting. encourage authorities—no willing defer. Courts branch competent long-range solutions conducive 81 wait, waited, innovative guidance. cited (as case) intended, identified constructive open authorities: 82 majority-to-minority transfer provision Provision group [or less majority] indispensable lessen stigma arrangement grant transferring free space desires move." 26-27, 83 240-241, 2713 employed transfers, magnet providing benefits subsidization expand enrollments. Willie, Racial Balance Quality Education?, Shadow Substance (Levinsohn eds. 1976). plans, voluntarily help imbalances districts reach correction. (1974) ; cf. 48-49.7 84 all, excessive regulation, society—perhaps world. Our people instinctively resent coercion, perhaps affects affords integration, lasting frequently option attend Courts, confront wherever exist. recognize limitations inherent power. primary diversity, left authorities. 85 86 affirmance Pursuant 42,000 reassigned administrators, structure virtually elementary additional 37,000 students. 87 conceive supplantation because, 493, 691, "education function governments"; indeed, vital tradition." 410, 2770, (1977) 741-742, 3125-3126, 469, 2206, (1972). "local autonomy essential process," Milliken, not, place guardians rights. practical tradition carefully invades traditional ambit control, subsequent "It satisfactorily statement principles." 2770. admonition. One search vain concrete notion "systemwide violation" consists existed. What logic evident emasculates key determinants down warranting court-intervention: causal relationship lower methodology distinction render captives ambiguous past. 89 Today affirms Sixth Circuit Brinkman 720, Delphic hard pressed fathom implications suggestions. chastened complexity emotion accompanies wishes relegate determination pupil assignment, formulation single accounting partners retail shoe claimants receivership commercial enterprise handled. "Discriminatory purpose" treated talismanic phrases once invoked, superficial scrutiny 90 obviously inconsistent admonition disparages oft-expressed significance involved. holds disturbing predilections individual good-faith incongruent efforts sense confused pronouncements today.1 Concepts "discriminatory mixed questions channelized articulated methodology, federal-court disaffection Cicero's maxim "lay Athens another Rome." Yet, alternative reading opinions, i. e., literal reading, disquieting. embracing analytical statutorily races—an adjective "analytical" place, furnish framework ought thorough critical manner "lick promise" Given approaches suffices stating glaring deficiencies suggests radical races: concludes—employing honesty irrebuttable presumption—that "dual" step integrate Put differently, complaint systemwide, balance, inquiry permeates latter bluntly. "[T]he hence, figures 1975-76 Judge's carried. (if proofs), segregation." (CA 95 Gilligan, 243, 256 1978), duty" "to diffuse students" endorses view. finds "[e]ach Amendment," 459, mere suit "most schools" establishes Ante, 2948. fully comprehend reorientation implies, basis, brief necessary. announced struck grounds laws permitting Bolling Sharpe, 497, 693, 884 (1954). reserved round briefing, Term remanded consolidated proceedings enter consistent admit deliberate speed parties cases." 757, ). concedes law; abandoned "statutory 1888. 455. precisely segregation—segregation expressly statute constitution—that addressed mandate "[a]ll provisions federal, state, yield" fundamental principal unconstitutional." 298, 755. message resonant pervasive. were, vague. define meant "effectuat[ing] system," 756, next earliest post-Brown intimated adoption admission.2 1967 races permit vice versa. Term, "freedom-of-choice" plans remedies. lead (1968), cry complicated Kent consisted white—with total 1,300 pupils. 101 inadequate. Noting "pattern 'white' 'Negro' compulsion pattern particularly addressed," observed "[s]chool respondent state-compelled 435, 1694. three approval County, chosen historically 85% county's schoolchildren. desegregation, suggested zoning, variation policy, 102 brings litigation respondents rely.4 races; "[t]hat about." 6, 1271. attempt "in precise terms" nature. articulate constitution.5 Certainly speak conform "continuing violation." references overseen situation. "default 166, 103 acknowledged state-mandated observed: 104 compelled automatically assumes effectuate system,' 105 1693-1694, 'all vestiges segregation.' 15, 106 "This ever existed." 200-201, 2693-94 (footnote omitted). 107 juncture associated Keyes. 108 "Nevertheless, carried conclude predicate 201, 2694. 109 defining clearer itself. 110 "[P]roof suffice Of made, 756." 111 discuss complexion Denver intimate analysis today.8 Rather, relevance imbalanced conditions. 112 jurisprudence sheds light point. logic, happened makes benchmark—indeed sense—than 1968, 1973. commend confronted races. 113 majority's turn Rubicon fails. underpinnings received incomplete articulation 1970's. sophistry suggest read gleaned thinks taken. appreciation discrete earlier.9 114 instances evolve conforming standards. unaware labeled independent characterization: enunciates, explanation, dramatically departs relieving nexus seek 115 Causality central analysis. production "that 2694 added). lesser degree did," attenuated incapable supporting intervention." 211, 2699. "segregation resulting exist." 210, 2698.10 Henceforth, contributed unspecified answer "Yes," exploited themselves despite plaintiff's link imbalance. 116 term pre-eminent—indeed, controlling—educational consideration decisionmaking. takes precedence legitimate vague feasibility limitation. gave case.11 find—in found—that motivated. 117 1950, pursuant request superintendent, Bureau Educational Research University comprehensive, scientific objective plant needs studied reported characteristics, programs, projections, organization, existing plant, financial ability pay facilities. Thereafter, number recommendations Bureau. size location additions sites. conceived accommodate called 'community concept.' 1950 related distance grounded walking follows: 3/4 mile elementary, 11/2 miles junior senior 118 "The Bureau's proposing encouraging passage bond 1951, 1953, 1956, 1959 1964. structures accomplished conformity periodic studies recommendations." 237-238 119 Thus, placement 120 met effect." 243.12 By endorsing duty, employs pivotal purpose.13 121 unprecedented superstructure sits atop weak foundation—the predicated presence four "near employed, now, policy. gerrymandering border districts.14 concludes invokes follows "absent case." 458. 122 applies time—here ago—without justifications burden-shifting fashion. Their 'policy fairness,' 209, 2698 (quoting Wigmore, Evidence § 2486, p. 275 (3d ed. 1940)), "presumption" scores poorly counts period memory records.15 records equally sides. exclusively occurred 1909 1943: undoubtedly experiences let administrators. piece influences shaped 20, 30, ago. sides becomes anecdotal. Yet inability dramatic. Here occurring schools—most 1950.16 123 academic. Part regarding neighborhoods irrebuttable. 124 departure doctrines causation preoccupation exhumed actually refers changes." 461-462 (footnotes 125 preliminary matter, observed, correctly, incidents "can classified form pattern." 805. All cited, meet standard, 126 motivating analysis, discriminatory-purpose sensibly seeks limit intervention rectification offend Constitution—stigma harm inflicted unwarranted encroachment governments individuals structured approach. 127 varied circumstances issue, rules drafted. this, articulate: Is desire action? plaintiffs. 244-245, 2049-2050; 270, 566. 128 score contemporaneous actual Heights, 268, 565. Objective probative. discussion, "objective" 129 analyzed reduce impact" name. Private notoriously ambiguous, day reliable index motivation decision—at recently emphasized: 130 'Discriminatory purpose' volition awareness consequences. decisionmaker selected reaffirmed 'because of,' merely 'in adverse group." 279, 2296. 131 important: missions afford latitude good-faith, colorblind realize post hoc better served—even price objectives—by decision: site, boundary, organizational structure. construction, transportation, annexation, temporary promote aggravate maintain Foreseeability obviousness proposition. tight noose decisionmaking invariably townhall courthouse. 132 Oliver Michigan 508 178, 182 (1974): 133 "A arises natural, probable, officials' inaction perpetuation 134 affirmatively resolute 254 3. 135 "impact" trigger Title VII qualifying police candidates Clause. According initially blacks.17 adequate measure job performance addition indicator probable success training program." 237, 2046. product reversed, rejecting unnecessary 245, 2050. 136 reflection indicates logically way. test, "presumption average obvious. Virtually ethnically neighborhoods, doubtless melange happenings prompted considerations, reside one's background. 994, 519, concurring). true prevalent 137 "public perpetuat[es] segregation" context. pairing, device "inaction on, defense, combination "[t]hose defense priority right involved." 258. 138 command "integration uber alles." unfortunately sure, wrought converted ameliorate compensate entities persons. 139 reserve points 253-254, 536, 9, 2978, rejects 464-465, bit incompatible 140 "Those 'the drawn.' [429 F.Supp.], 'with Ibid." 141 difficulty "as proofs" proof. Use Feeney. above quotations thereby imputing discussion probativeness kind intent: simpliciter.18 gauging underlying concerned, expression looked foreseeability se.19 142 such, treatment reflects cavalier causality underlies requires "omnipotence omniscience," 457, determinations zones. Near-Bexley zone, zone afforded bordering Bexley avoid attending east. erroneous justification none apparent. concerned. 1972, minutes indicate residing zone." 245 1975, dismantled, system.20 143 Two zones offensive.sS 1955 1957, "white" West Broad Elementary Highland School. option, excellent probe 1957 permanent saw fit hypothesize affected. 144 influence duty"—whether variety Oliver. created roughly Columbus. Highland's boundaries neighboring Mound Street Again, "whiter" zone: overcrowded capacity. objectionable "feasible alternatives" available; Mound." again select alternative. 145 faulted areas. situations geographical assigned contiguous neighborhood. 1963 unsuccessfully argued sent Moler nearest Alum Crest Elementary, room violative 1969, presumably date Since ask system? Ironically, reasoning, disband 146 streets Heimandale Fornof "inherited" annexed Marion-Franklin 1957. capacity six-classroom 1963, Heimandale. HEW Survey, 747. 5-year retention Heimandale-Fornof arrangement. 147 Innis-Cassady proposals. proposals 1971. Cassady School, overcrowded, placing 1972. site old Mifflin District. inferred K-6 using K-3 4-6 drawing attempted choice pointing pairing deviation record" necessitated "substantial transportation" occasions structure—apparently crippled children.21 148 evinces consequent concerns. evidence" disprove proffered 149 Secondly, twice deviated impugn decision. perfect consistency. 269, currently maintains diminishes district.22 spoke substantivedepartures casting "particularly usually reached." 267, 564, 150 evidence, ball game—whether purportedly conduct. propounded accompanied effort somewhat refer small independently Cf. (1977). 151 casualness facility doctrinal confusion went announce undermine authority. taint atmosphere "but for" supplant 2775, line govern litigation: 152 mandatory ceased, intended to, pupils, staff. introduce testimony deem 213, 2699." 153 Omaha 667, 2905, 1039 Brennan Armstrong, 672, 2907, 1044 154 violations; position so.23 distinguish , relies "finding whole." 266. incantation substitute conclusion. 155 delusive air fault. 156 respects." 468. 157 Specifically, alluding purported endorsed turns showings chimeras. 158 Once believes satisfies noted, probative responsibility, addition, "there reciprocal color serves" block bore conditions.24 159 isolate picture other's influence. required. 160 "I cured evils believe, snowball interaction housing. housing; cautious exerted aggravated 259 161 But, play patterns. 162 "Housing agencies deal financing housing, institutions, developers, landlords, personal preferences whites, estate brokers sales persons, restrictive covenants, zoning income whites." 163 cautioned task retarded achieve broader lying jurisdiction vehicle amount baggage." 1279. rebuttal IV 164 one, judges. asking questions: instant asked enormously neighborhoods. Incidents paved undesirable poverty private. Expert putting past, deterrence retribution components rationale mission restore critically answered inform justified. 165 beginning dissent, pages communicate "hands-off" attitude institutional doctrinal. Members, long, Pilate, wash hands 166 unfortunate chooses overruled, messages ignored. fathomed sanctioned—an "loaded game board," 28, 1282, win. hope avoiding voluntary program. indeed Learned Hand's feared "Platonic Guardians,"25 intellectual integrity—if beleaguered races—would discarding pretextual Pilate Plato, subscribe allowed intervene, original file certified action. 233-234 1977); 50. vacated parties. 815-818 No now. Petitioners argue erred proportionate balance. 22-25, 1279-1281, "some 1281; 102-103. 1871, 234-235. ruled State, St. N.E. 373. 1881, abolished returned Champion Avenue built staffed Other grew. gerrymandered lived homes. 1943, bodies, faculty, transfers came consider 234-236. Brethren concurrence weight discriminate, actions, legislatures. "[N]o agency officers agents powers exerted, shall deny person laws. Whoever, virtue government, denies violates inhibition; name clothed State's power, his act State." Ex parte Virginia, 339, 347, 676 (1880). Yick Wo Hopkins, 356, 1064, 220 (1886), ordinance illegal attributable State. Price, 383 1152, 267 (1966); Screws 325 91, 1031, 1495 (1945). plainly magical commanding ease proof, officials, policies, agreed, why dissenters claim grasp had. impressed Also, Brothers' suggestion oversight post, 491-492 dissenting), asserts omnipotence omniscience claim. implicitly overruled approving, circumstances, general, approving breach. purport aspect cites approval. insufficient give facially 531 5, 2976 Despite petitioners' avowedly preference closer homes example, filed, "small, Columbus' near-east escape black" 244. zone. 245. "Quite frankly, Option classic example technique tended 1960's, bused "discern 1969." 247. From living remote, identifiably 247-248. Gerrymandering lines west altered school's contained 245-247. academic administration" "had former absorbed zones: desegregative segregative. chose unpersuaded doing so. 248-250. opened selected, specifically warned was, justification, choosing 241-243. noted: "[T]his inference, since, repeated choices, relying choices 804. civil "Ohio Advisory Commission Problems Facing Schools, attention [of segregation] curative grew rapidly terms geography crossroads 243. 1968 assist 256. done, "minimal." 264. Additionally, refused create site-selection advisory desegregating apply desegregation-assistance funds. 257; 239. drew defendants' failures, notice, imbalance." 240. lasted short unlikely contention says respondents' 271 21, 566, Mt. Healthy Bd. Doyle, 274, 287, 568, 576, 471 described confirm, disprove, contributing cause 259; 202-203, 2694-2695; instances: "Viewing totality, rest eleven, number. alleviated, administers. erroneously states "reliev[ed] Post, 501. impact—an predicate, reveal knowledgeable Brethren. "For Champion, Felton, Vernon, Pilgrim Garfield predecessors. continuity thousands decades." 260 whole. Actions tend blacker whiter. '[I]t obvious concentrating Negroes structuring designating "feeder" keeping nearby white.' Keyes[, 2694]. junior, directly boards." Civ.Proc. 52(a) paid court. "Findings erroneous, due credibility witnesses." Gypsum Co., 333 364, 394-395, 525, 541, 746. elucidating, assessing, solving problems; good faith implementation governing principles. proximity hearings, perform appraisal." 299, "Indeed, administration aspects heightened turns. observance division functions Southern accordance party another; plaintiffs, city, restructure 409-410, "where 200, 2693. undisputed segregate 410 4, 2770 4; Rev.Code Ann. 3313.48 (Supp.1978); 373; Clemons 228 853, 858. quickly 1950-1951, 46,352 1960-1961, 83,000 enrolled. Attendance peaked 1971-1972 110,000 sinking 95,000 Between 1970, classrooms added dramatically, increased 35,000 approximately Negro, 45,000 22,000 Negro. Twenty-four ceased 1963. saying: [6 Cir.,] 503 [684] 697-98, 'effectively 1970-71 year.' erroneous." (Footnotes omitted.) 253 6). considering instituted reaching perpetuation, elimination, system; case; evaluate tests enunciated circuits theory overturning rulings clearest near-Bexley 1959-1960 1974-1975 year. encompassed Creek town Bexley. creek Negro; covered Students border. concluded: "Nothing briefs convinces reasons. overcrowding barriers. ". Quite Ohio). southeastern times, Through 8.7% found: "Between 1966 June, daily Elementary. then-principal watched bus drive building Moler. time, leasing Franklin County. transported inquired administrator existed, explanation. exactly Park Hill region scene believed six educating Farley, Residential Segregation Its Implications Integration, Law Contemp.Prob., (1975); K. Taeuber Taeuber, Cities (1965). irrelevant. 522, 2969, dissenting). asserted lucid "fundamental principle" unconstitutionality "racial education." undertook right, derived Clause, "integrated enhancement customary decisions. 226, 2706. mean "every unit," 227, 2706, "does undertake widespread sake maximizing integration." 242, 2714. challenged, foregoing sense. 78-610, proving, preponderance "root Defending complying elaborate divert attention, third remedy" probability decree inferior, residences Academic debate intensified benefit realized integration. R. Crain Mahard, Influence High Composition Black College Test Performance (1978); Weinberg, Relationship Desegregation Achievement: Review Research, beside peoples live harmony mutual respect. furthered young bodies. achieved compromised methods include coercive forced theoretically N. John, Outcomes Children During combating devices deliberately small, rural E. (1968); Griffin 377 218, 1226, (1964); Goss 373 683, 1405, 632 (1963); Cooper Aaron, 358 1401, (1958). Wilkinson, 1955-1970: History Analysis, Va.L.Rev. 485 begin refuses acknowledge instead sanction salutary context, disruptive counter-productive Wisconsin implemented subsidized, voluntary, intra- inter-district transfers. 1975 Wis. Laws, ch. 220, codified Wis.Stat. 121.85 early experiment attain sort contrast philosophy striking. Meadows, Open Enrollment Fiscal Incentives, 542, 2981, 720 ) (1958); (1964). discussing mandate, 1404, "Of locations, obedience immediate admission children, qualified classes, hand, (which, excludes hostility desegregation), nonsegregated children." expectation pervades invalidated redrawing explicitly majority. objected explicit "Our decide unconstitutional. regardless requested Pupils (or parents) choose, another." 687, 1408. literally closed resistance, admissions handed Green. Raney 443, 1697, 727 identical inadequate Gould Monroe Comm'rs, 1700, 733 concerned Jackson, Tenn. "free-transfer" Any available, neighborhood-zone residents fill spaces. object identifiable, free-transfer characters 99% Alexander Holmes 396 19, 29, (1969), era "all speed" ended. Montgomery 395 225, 1670, 263 targets "dealt thoroughly method violations," 793 "equitable Court" admits 1280; 1275-1276. "discretion" Later finding, "approved totally defaulted own, notwithstanding patient who, occasions, submit plans." Four jurisdiction, Moore 47, 1292, 590 (1971); declaration North Carolina antibusing 43, 1284, 586 reconsideration laid Comm'rs Mobile 33, 1289, 577 McDaniel state-court barring formerly modified determines 'root branch.' 2700. Brief Respondents, O.T. 76-539, 58-71; challenges ceased." notes, anywhere 1943. 'a action.' 240, 2048, 205, 2695). critical. "isolated," constituted arguably implications, corrected, 238, 1977), Circuit's precedents. Higgins Grand Rapids, 779 1974); 536 2978 9. Prefacing observation opportunities," constructed system—Gladstone Elementary—1 followed University. University, 1958-1959 Study Building Needs (1959) (Sixth Avenue); 1963-1964 (1964) (Gladstone). Gladstone 1965. "violation" quoted Duxberry accommodated north nearer Hudson Street. would, Hamilton Duxberry. If, north-south east-west pattern, suggested, Hamilton, newly-constructed school." 803. violation—not motivated, demonstrably militated site. secondary status served" boundaries. neighboring, 538, 2979 added): unsatisfied liquidate decreasing increasing implications—Dayton (1972), (1972)—bear absolutely Appeals' wrong rescinding resolutions promulgate; indicated, invoked 8, citation mysterious. Emporia located Greensville Va. Up County's lawsuit Emporia. intention withdraw Emporia's adjudicated frustrated withdrawal frustrating outstanding Department negotiating Halifax N.C., 1965, Legislature middle bounded Neck. promptly injunction blocking Neck's withdrawal. held, Wright, 'proposal impede exercise discretion, enjoin out.' 489, 2217. offers acknowledges, establishment irregular line. Testimony W. Montgomery, 389-390. Rockefeller, 376 52, 603, 512 conceded mixing pleading affairs naturally expected bear risk persuasion." Cleary, McCormick 786 (2d 1972). "should overemphasized," peculiarly allocated him. merits burden-shift 262-263, 2723-2724 charges questioning propriety employing "claim had." 457 6. creature showing, criticize "factfinding," heretofore square 173 doubled. Many undeveloped 1950. hundred during buildings. average, word "foreseeable" department unforeseeable. documented Anglo-Americans standardized exams principally cultural socioeconomic differences. foreseeable. 248, 2051, 14. 278-279, 2295-2296, prefaced question: assigns patterns exists? non-racially inaction." (latter emphasis Before nonracially emphatic "No." reasoning quotation lifts "Substantial 255 Thus interesting proposition, worthy Lewis Carroll best, defines contemplated described—intent embodies expectations act. presumes intends inactions." 252. 245: numbers exercised Education." units supplement grades home 249. various groups 255-256. goes foreseeability, adhere phase reiterating entailed communicates conception requires. 'incremental effect' 'systemwide impact' judging episode. episode inevitably adds 'increment' totality fifty episodes posed found—after wave dike flood." 813-814 257 description metaphysical: 'incremental' describes minor itself, incrementally gradually constitution." empirical experts, Dr. Karl Martin Sloane; testified States. experts 'regardless discrimination.' 223 2705 (concurring part) Taeuber). credited economics, choice, category renewal covenants deeds, lending industry, Entering 280-311. Hand, Bill (The Wendell Lectures, 1958): myself irksome bevy Platonic Guardians, them, assuredly not. charge, miss stimulus have, theoretically, direction affairs."

Category: 1