Document: 441 U.S. 153 99 S.Ct. 1635 60 L.Ed.2d 115 Anthony HERBERT, Petitioner,v.Barry LANDO et al. No. 77-1105. Argued Oct. 31, 1978. Decided April 18, 1979. Syllabus Petitioner instituted a diversity action in Federal District Court against the respondents, television network and two of its employees, magazine, alleging that program aired by an article published magazine defamed him. conceded because he was "public figure" First Fourteenth Amendments precluded recovery absent proof respondents had damaging falsehoods with "actual malice"—that is, knowledge statements were false or reckless disregard whether they not. See New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 254, 84 710, 11 686, subsequent decisions this Court. Preparing to prove his case light these requirements, petitioner deposed one employees at length sought order compel answers variety questions which response refused on ground Amendment protected inquiry into state mind those who edit, produce, publish, editorial process. The ruled relevant rejected claim constitutional privilege. A divided panel Appeals reversed, judges concluding lent sufficient protection processes protect employee from about thoughts, opinions, conclusions respect material gathered him conversations colleagues. Held: When member press is alleged have circulated sued for injury plaintiff's reputation, there no privilege under Amendment's guarantees freedom speech barring plaintiff inquiring responsible publication where will produce evidence critical element cause action. Pp. 158-177. (a) Contrary views Appeals, according absolute process media defendant libel not required, authorized, presaged Court's prior cases, would substantially enhance burden proving actual malice, contrary expectations supra; Curtis Publishing Butts, 388 130, 87 1975, 18 1094, similar cases. progeny do suggest any restriction sources can obtain necessary elements action, but, contrary, make it essential liability focus defendant's conduct mind. It also untenable conclude cases although be form objective circumstances ultimate fact inferred, plaintiffs may inquire directly defendants knew suspected their error. 158-169. (b) modifying firmly established doctrine placing beyond reach range direct knowing falsehood publisher libel, are such as petitioner, means clear convincing. suggested constitute substantial interference ability defamation establish ingredients malice required Times, furthermore outer boundaries difficult perceive. important interests other stake opposing creation asserted cannot overridden requiring disclosure reporter's veracity has intolerable chilling effect decisionmaking. If claimed inhibition flows fear damages publishing falsehoods, effects precisely been held consistent Amendment. 169-175. (c) Creating foreclosing cure press' problem escalating costs burdens incident litigation. Only complete immunity result, regularly found construction Furthermore, mushrooming litigation costs, much due pretrial discovery, peculiar slander area. Until unless major changes present Rules Civil Procedure, reliance must what law ample powers district judge prevent abuse. 175-177. 568 F.2d 974, reversed. Jonathan W. Lubell, City, petitioner. Floyd Abrams, respondents. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion 1 By virtue Amendments, neither nor State Government "abridging speech, . ." question here should construed provide further when than hitherto recognized. More specifically, we urged hold first time barred publication, even though 2 * Petitioner, Herbert, retired Army officer extended wartime service Vietnam received widespread attention 1969-1970 accused superior officers covering up reports atrocities war crimes. Three years later, February 4, 1973, respondent Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. (CBS), broadcast report accusations. produced edited Barry Lando narrated Mike Wallace. later related Atlantic Monthly magazine. Herbert then Lando, Wallace, CBS, Court, basing jurisdiction citizenship. In complaint, falsely maliciously portrayed liar person made war-crimes charges explain relief command, requested reputation literary value book just recounting experiences. 3 Although arose law, "with 'actual malice'—that not." This holding 280, 726, 686 (1964), libels public officials, figures" 1094 (1967).1 Under rule, falsehood, requires truth, "in entertained serious doubts truth publication." St. Amant Thompson, 390 727, 731, 88 1323, 1325, 20 262 (1968). Such "subjective awareness probable falsity," Gertz Robert Welch, Inc., 418 323, 335 n. 6, 94 2997, 3004, 41 789 (1974), if "there obvious reasons doubt informant accuracy reports." supra, U.S., 732, S.Ct., 1326. 4 preparing process.2 Applying standard Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 26(b), permits discovery matter "relevant subject involved pending action" either admissible "appears reasonably calculated lead evidence," "central importance" issue case, "entirely appropriate Herbert's efforts discover reason certain sources, or, equally significant, prefer source over another." 73 F.R.D. 387, 395, 396 (S.D.N.Y.1977). nothing permit require increase weight injured already heavy creating barriers "behind malicious go undetected unpunished." Id., 394. certified interlocutory appeal 28 U.S.C. § 1292(b), agreed hear case.3 5 reversed 974 (CA2 1977). Two judges, writing separate but overlapping concluded answer absolute. We granted certiorari importance involved. 435 922, 98 1483, 55 515 (1978). misconstrued accordingly reverse judgment. II 6 criminal well common adopted, indication Framers intended abolish liability. prevailing jurisprudence "[l]ibelous utterances [are not] within area constitutionally Beauharnais Illinois, 343 250, 266, 72 725, 735, 96 L.Ed. 919 (1952); see Roth United States, 354 476, 482-483, 77 1304, 1307-1308, 1498 (1957); Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 571-572, 62 766, 769, 86 1031 (1942); Near Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 283 697, 707-708, 51 625, 628, 75 1357 (1931). accepted view civil defamatory publications abridges press, majority jurisdictions publishers liable civilly regardless intent.4 Butts effected standards applicable actions. officials figures sue Later, nonpublic demonstrate some fault part and, least untruth shown, before imposed awarded. 7 These rested primarily conviction gave insufficient avoid self-censorship conditioned specified showing culpable publish falsehood. Given proof, however, press. 8 Nor did could On defendant. To liable, defamer know suspect false. kind fault, negligence perhaps,5 recovery. Inevitably, completely foreclosed, thoughts open examination. 9 our that, example, evident record subjected close examination indirect relied acted malice. verdict sustained without suggestion trenched upon forbidden areas.6 10 Reliance state-of-mind recent development arising Rather, deeply rooted common-law predating Amendment, permitted recover punitive enhanced damages.7 affirmed award Georgia "wanton indifference negligence" " 'ill will, spite, hatred intent injure .' 165-166, 1997. Neither Harlan, id., 156-162, 1997,8 Chief Warren, concurring,id., 165-168, 1996-1998, raised propriety having turn underlying evidence, plainly included going agents.9 long decided, qualified privileges developed malice.10 Malice defined numerous ways, general depended improper motive.11 hinged purpose made, belief statement, ill might borne toward plaintiff.12 12 Courts traditionally admitted defeat conditional damages.13 rules alike,14 courts across country accepting encountering objections.15 13 face history, old new, nevertheless declared announced unequivocal each Miami Herald Tornillo, 241, 2831, 730 Democratic National Committee, 412 94, 93 2080, 36 772 (1973), invalidated governmental pre-empt decision material. requirement air paid political advertisements inTornillo, newspaper's obligation print candidate's reply criticism. Insofar laws Tornillo System control advance content deemed invalid enjoin materials.16 But holdings dictate printed expressly impliedly immune whatsoever. 14 incredible believe silently contraction rights preserved like same day; contained overview developments relationship between hint companion narrowed available plaintiff. Quite opposite inference drawn opinion, since it, recited criticism facts indicating editor placed issue. degree forbidding falsity, foreclosed elements.17 15 sum, III 16 balance struck now modified protections circulating erroneous information individual reputation. uncommon improper, course, abandonment, modification, refinement existing interpretation, notable evolved submissions. represented widely perceived essentially protective freedoms, repeatedly actions brought figures. (1967); (1968); (1974); Time, Firestone, 424 448, 958, 47 154 (1976). At time, reiterated conviction—reflected all States—that individual's interest basic concern. 455-457, 966; 348-349, 3011. 17 thus being asked modify Herbert. making modification convincing, decline accept it. place, plain enough Times. As element, shown through publisher, proved only inferred. rarely successful mouth himself, relevance inquiries, recognized deny, hardly doubted. erect impenetrable barrier use side substance, particularly themselves prone assert good-faith publications,18 "convincing clarity." 285-286, 729. 19 opinions below state, explain, begins ends. Moreover, told willing testify "knew" "learned" interviews, opposed "believed," why cover reports.19 worth noting immunize internal communications occurring during place participants learned result collegiate exchanges. admissions colleagues third parties participating inquiry? little Nevertheless, override Spreading itself carries credentials. "[T]here fact." 340, 3007. 21 Realistically, error inevitable; difficulties separating fiction convinced Gertz, limit instances culpability eliminate risk undue suppression truthful Those requisite culpability, liability, aim compensate deter unprotected threatening Permitting decisions. results discourages known probably false, more contemplate does abridge 22 Of threatens strongly unreliable information, quite different. said, necessarily stifle seem concede, understand how suspect.20 Perhaps determinations inaccurate information. actors, affords opportunity refute inferences otherwise circumstantial suggests accurate obtained all, rather part, decisionmaker. Suppose, reporter contradictory plaintiff, damaging, published. resolving sense author, contribute accuracy. exonerating explanation, surely effect.21 Why trial? hand, accuracy, nevertheless, permitting inquiry. discouraged; inflict conduct, suggest, values threatened. 23 frank discussion among reporters editors dampened sound judgment endangered exchanges, oral written, plaintiffs.22 consultation hand other; injury, avoiding infliction harm unreasonable expect invoke whatever procedures practicable useful end. given exposure error, resort prepublication precautions, interchange opinion. Accordingly, find error-avoiding terminated stifled simply examined tiny percentage ensues. exchanges so distortion recurring misunderstanding judgments suits. evidentiary carry indeed, unconvinced chances winning undeserved said foreclosed. 24 say discussions casual There subjects private official merely satisfy curiosity serve end interest; were, survive scrutiny presently construed. No exists here, specific knowingly recklessly false.23 25 Evidentiary favored,24 Constitution give way proper circumstances. President, materials subpoenaed judicial proceeding. States Nixon, 683, 3090, 1039 (1974). holding, President powerful confidentiality himself advisers, yield demonstrated need evidence. stated, referring limited disclosure, "[w]hatever origins, exceptions demand every man's lightly created expansively construed, derogation search truth." 3108. 26 With considerations mind, urge. IV 27 litigation, including suits ancient phenomenon, true considerably changed profile gone by, out prima facie publication. Truth defenses. Intent, motive, except counter exemplary damages. expanded. almost attended publisher. consequence surprising; follow escalate become troublesome both defendants. needs perform task,25 indispensable system ours. process, repeated expressions concern uncontrolled voices joined chorus.26 until 29 once deposition-discovery accorded broad liberal treatment adequately informing litigants trials. Schlagenhauf Holder, 379 104, 114-115, 85 234, 152 (1964); Hickman Taylor, 329 495, 501, 507, 67 385, 388, 391, 91 451 (1947). provisions, injunction Rule "be secure just, speedy, inexpensive determination action." (Emphasis added.) end, 26(b)(1) "relevant" applied, neglect power restrict "justice [protection for] party annoyance, embarrassment, oppression, expense 26(c). authority hesitate exercise 30 Whether, nonconstitutional matter, trial properly applied 1292(b) us.27 31 So ordered. 32 POWELL, concurring. 33 I join write separately elaborate Part IV. my observations inconsistent opinion; rather, emphasize additional point supervising suit figure, court duty consider 34 agree explicit kind, articulated expanded create proceeding, "exercise judgment" enjoys depends entirely accords product judgment, namely, speech.1 makes clear, unnecessary safeguard speech. reversal Appeals. notes, "the discovery," us pursuant ante, 177. assume, therefore, continue review interrogatories declined answer. 35 Earlier Term, dissenting denial ACF Industries, EEOC, 439 1081, 865, 59 52 (1979), occasion comment abuse prime delay 1086-1088, 868-869. 1946 few after adoption stated "that treatment." 392, bar understandably responded affirmatively. passed, techniques tactics highly art—one infrequently exploited disadvantage justice. recognizes, situation reached "concern discovery." Ante, 176.2 Judge "uncontrolled." certainly protracted undoubtedly expensive concerned.3 initial enforcement request relevance. Whatever types arguably impinges measure concerns implicated. recognized, solicitude evidenced reflects free flow news commentary. Bank Boston Bellotti, 765, 781-783, 1407, 1418-1419, 707 (1978); Saxbe Washington Post Co., 417 843, 862-863, 2811, 2821, 514 (1974) (POWELL, J., dissenting). significant matters genuinely lawsuit. weighing exact science, function customarily carried areas law. performing task, judges—despite most them carry—are increasingly recognizing "pressing supervision." AFC 1087, 869.4 37 today emphasizes relevance, heeded, "district discovery" justice expense. 177; understanding heeding admonitions, ensure entitled weighed carefully striking balance. 38 BRENNAN, part. 39 Respondents representatives media. They Lieutenant Colonel (U. S. Army, Ret.), concededly figure. rejects respondents' "editorial privilege" shields reveal processes. insulates factual shield "mental processes." 995 1977) (Oakes, J.). hold, predecisional communication privilege, public-figure able satisfaction constitutes 40 presented whether, extent, conducted Sullivan type impermissibly work broadcasters." 979 (Kaufman, C. grouped inquiries objected five categories: "1. Lando's research investigations regarding people leads pursued, connection '60 Minutes' segment article; 42 "2. imparted interviewees persons interviewed; 43 "3. basis testified conclusion concerning persons, events; 44 "4. Conversations Wallace excluded publication; "5. intentions manifested include exclude material." 983. concluded: 45 "If allow selective journalist formulated print, condoning editor's thought inquiry, virtually boundless, endangers realm, unquestionably puts freeze ideas newsroom." 980. 46 categories shielded presents novel provides: "Parties privileged, supplied.) instant jurisdiction, 1332(a), Evid. 501 states proceedings, defense supplies rule decision, witness [or] shall determined accordance law." limits claims, federal libel. "rule decision" contention, encompasses Thus apply grounded, as, executive self-incrimination. McCarthy Arndstein, 266 34, 16, 69 158 (1924). existence never 48 approached premise normally "accorded (1947), generally discouraged. past, "interests relationships regarded social justify incidental sacrifice needed administration justice." E. Cleary, McCormick Evidence (2d ed. 1972). For attorneys' products because, "[t]he legal profession demoralizing." 511, Similarly, Roviaro 353 53, 623, 636 (1957), "informer's furtherance effective enforcement." 59, 627. 49 purposes goals scheme embodied "some sacrifice" inflexible result: justifications support which, instances, requirements 50 Brandeis reminded half century ago "[t]hose won OUR INDEPENDENCE VALUED LIBERTY BOTH AS AN END AND MEANS."1 Whitney California, 274 357, 375, 641, 648, 71 1095 (1927) (concurring opinion). instrumental aspect, serves foster democratic self-government. several senses. bars imposing citizens authoritative vision truth.2 prohibits interfering communicative prepare self-government.3 And censure expose abuses.4 various senses sometimes weave together, seen letter 1774 addressed Continental Congress inhabitants Quebec, listing "a profligate [English] Ministry striving, force arms, ravish us": "The last right mention, regards consists, besides advancement morality, arts general, diffusion sentiments Government, ready subjects, consequential promotion union them, whereby oppressive shamed intimidated, honourable modes conducting affairs."5 different contexts distinct emphasis development, share characteristic attainment great mistake aspect solely filter rights.6 meaning litigant challenge constitutionality statute overbroad "prohibits privileged exercises discloses engaged conduct." NAACP Button, 371 415, 432, 83 328, 337, 405 (1963). Our reasoning freedoms "are delicate vulnerable, supremely precious society," 433, 338, therefore standing "vindication expression." Dombrowski Pfister, 380 479, 487, 1116, 1121, (1965). Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 97-98, 736, 744, 1093 (1940). malice" set forth 279-280, 726. Even intrinsic worth, 1326, (1968), particular expression absence "to insure ascertainment affairs, ones." Ibid.7 53 recognition served referred receive suitable access social, political, esthetic, moral, experiences," Red Lion FCC, 395 367, 390, 89 1794, 1807, (1969) (emphasis supplied), circulation guaranties." Grosjean American Press 297 233, 56 444, 449, 80 660 (1936) supplied). Hill, 385 374, 534, 456 (1967), benefit us. broadly assures maintenance society." 389, 543. 54 analyzed determine significantly analysis note media, "press media," 343, 3008, (1974),8 played dominant role serving "informative function," Branzburg Hayes, 408 665, 705, 92 2646, 2668, 626 (1972), special institution educating public, offering criticism, providing forum debate." 781, 1418, (1978).9 newspapers, magazines journals country, safe say, shed shed, business affairs nation instrumentality publicity; informed potent restraints misgovernment, abridgement publicity afforded grave concern." 449. An personal "as agent large. representative public's context right." 863-864, 2822, (Powell, down Florida granting candidate equal space criticisms newspaper. "Even newspaper comply compulsory forced forgo inclusion reply, fails intrusion editors. passive receptacle conduit news, comment, advertising. choice newspaper, limitations size paper, issues officials—whether fair unfair—constitute yet regulation crucial exercised time." 258, 2839-2840. 57 Pittsburgh Comm'n Human Relations, 413 376, 2553, 2561, 669 (1973); 120, 124-125, 2097, (1973). Through composed; regulate expression. autonomy speaker thereby compromised, large urban pamphleteer. organizational structure, exist institutions becomes concern.10 58 government likelihood actions, discourage process.11 And, stated: "What bring likewise damage awards invoked Alabama markedly inhibiting prosecution statute." 277, 724. course substantive defining block states: "[I]f Amendment." 171. independent extent impair values. functional manner, format selected. identified aspects mental 'choice material' F.2d, subjective "thought processes," "thoughts, conclusions." 980, 984 journalists "would chilled very thought." 984. implausible. Since processes, ceasing altogether. exceedingly generous seems unlikely. removed malice—in truth.12 Subsequent turns journalist's falsity." 3004 6. anomalous attitude attitude. be, margin—those falsity malice—who discouraged chill emanates chiefly 61 second involves newsroom," 980 J.), editors." 993 Oakes "[i]deas expressed conversations, memoranda, handwritten notes like, discoverable, future 'likely' muted, less vigorous creative give-and-take room." 993-994. Kaufman "[a] editor, aware justified often dissuaded verbal testing, probing, hypotheses alternatives sine qua non journalism." protecting analogous "advisory recommendations deliberations policies formulated." Carl Zeiss Stiftung V. B. Zeiss, Jena, 318, 324 (DC 1966). interpreting Exemption Freedom Information Act, 552(b)(5), "factual" material, "deliberative policymaking EPA Mink, 410 73, 89, 827, 837, 119 rationale succinctly 3106: "Human experience teaches dissemination remarks temper candor appearances own detriment decisionmaking process." applies proposed Just possible consequences undermine Executive Branch, NLRB Sears, Roebuck & 421 132, 151, 95 1504, 1516, (1975), possibility dampen full candid publications. impaired "clearly" affects quality" decisionmaking, ibid., too muted affect quality resulting remain silent; investigative restrained; counsel caution tongues. short, thoroughness profundity consequent diminished. 63 diminution embraces "accurate reporting media." 863, 2821 "Those independence confidence fearless spread economic truth. Abridgment impairs opportunities education correcting popular government."13 95, 741, figure; "[o]ur citizenry legitimate engage uninhibited debate involvement events 'public officials.' 164, 1996, (1967) (Warren, concurring result). coverage fearful inhibited, effectiveness, undermined, suffer abridgment. 64 compelling sufficiently material.14 concedes stating "[w]e 173. contents curious observation "given opinion." 174. Because "prepublication precautions" extraordinarily blithely assume "precautions" instituted, "frank interchange" potential 65 fully concede paradoxical. sake inaccuracies press; name application bound. paradox, inheres concept privilege: enable effectively implement people, kept ignorance workings government. paradox unfortunately condition. Judgment evaluate competing perspectives. 66 accommodate tension society's "pervasive strong preventing redressing attacks reputation," Rosenblatt Baer, 383 75, 86, 669, 676, 597 (1966), fine resolved abstract. balancing stand "demonstrated, 713, 3110. Conversely, statement prevail concrete demonstration necessity secrecy. Reynolds, 345 1, 11, 528, 533, 97 727 (1953). Other similarly dependent exigencies 639 informer's "on taking consideration crime charged, defenses, significance testimony, factors." 62, 629. ad hoc work-product achieved, far constituting mere "formalism," 175 23, conflicts interests. must, reference case. preserved. best accomplished functions claims damaged If, establish, judge, falsehood,15 demonstrable, yield.16 understood Times." 170. Requiring burden, eventually chief.17 protects deliberative adequate acquire redress 68 principles difficult, objectionable impossible encompassed category. appear four covered fourth category—"Conversations publication" noted, pre-telecast 982 Whether waiver instance remand waived privilege; not, overcome falsehood; scope STEWART, dissenting. 70 me process" figure relevant, permissible. 26(b). come greatly regret phrase malice." "malice" used mean word commonly understood. understanding, hostility,1 determining person's motivated ask "why." enunciated hostility "why" totally irrelevant. restrictions progeny, convincingly following elements: (1) defendant, 74 (2) (3) untrue, 76 (4) falsity. Rosenbloom Metromedia, 403 29, 1811, 296 (plurality opinion); Ocala Star-Banner Damron, 401 295, 57; Pape, 279, 633, 45; Monitor Patriot Roy, 265, 621, 35; Greenbelt Coop. Pub. Assn. Bresler, 398 90 1537, 6; 262; Beckley Newspapers Corp. Hanks, 389 81, 197, 248; 1094; 597; supra. Cf. 154; 789; Letter Carriers Austin, 264, 2770, 745; 456; Linn Plant Guard Workers, 657, 582. gravamen lawsuit What ultimately publisher's published, motivation it—not words, words ordinarily 78 lawyers led astray another instructed jury "spite, deliberate intention harm." reversing instruction constituted "error magnitude." 10, 1540. 281, 2780; 83-84, 675. 79 overtly committed egregious Bresler. Both correct test. 985 (opinion Oakes, 156-157. followed trail, explainable unstated misapprehension malice," arrive reflected phrases opinions: judgment," "how judgments," selection press," heart process," "reasons exclusion passim. Similar "improper motive," "intent made," "ill will," lengthy footnote spite 162 164. Once bearings taken, irrelevant, clearly conceptualized list issue.2 Suffice 26(b).3 81 went deposition alone lasted intermittently year filled 2,903 pages transcript, 240 exhibits. had, Kaufman's "already discovered knew, saw, wrote investigation." That, me, sufficient. 82 procedure whose goal action,4 time-consuming burdensome enough, arguable bounds irrelevant intolerable. Like directions strictly criteria progeny. invasion truly MARSHALL, professing maintain accommodation unresponsive constraints "uninhibited [and] robust" contemplated, 270, 720, respectfully dissent. familiar dimension. undeniably affording individuals unwarranted attacks. Libel assuring reputations publicly vindicated dignitary injuries compensated, incentives considered compromises integrity. 341-342, (1966). Against objections balanced promoting unfettered importance. inevitable debate, guarantee assertions, critics suppress believed "because [truthfulness] so." 725. incompatible tenets founded. government, electorate precondition responsive Associated 326 20, 1416, 1424, 2013 (1945); (1936); A. Meiklejohn, Free Speech Relation Self-Government 88-89 (1948). widest insights, margin tolerated. Thus, Yet accomplish ends conceived. Insulating unlikely avert deep pocket facially complaint unconstrained viable, reassessed procedural realities conducted. context. members bench designed facilitate expeditious resolution disputes tools harassment delay.1 Capitalizing mandate reaffirmed 240, "broad liberal" scope, transformed devices attrition. many self-perceived victims animated something rational calculus recovery.2 arise, plaintiffs' maneuvers fashioned eye deterrence retaliation unearthing germane Not terrorem pronounced context, societal attending magnitude. Rather submit intrusiveness confident motion summary prudent 'steer wid[e] unlawful zone' keeping cognizance." 1824, (1971) citation omitted). Faced prospect attorney's fees, diversion journalistic endeavors, potentially sensitive reflect vindication.3 acknowledging abuse, remedy lies elsewhere, "major Procedure." somewhat inconsistently, asserts abuse." Ibid. agree. Where critically implicated, incumbent exercise. leaving directives unqualified abdicated responsibility.4 impelled confine attach roving discovery. inapposite superintend unnecessarily tangential requests measured strict Further, threat intrude warranted. subsuming kinds requests. journalist, principally bases compiled investigation. broadcast. 978 Reasoning forms intrusive, inhibiting, essential. 975. syllogism withstand analysis. unclear faced "chilled Regardless strictures think, best, argued failure insulate inhibit editing final product—that specter induce refrain accurate. Brother BRENNAN 192-193, emanate Sullivan's standard, incremental dispositive, manner inevitable. implausible suppose asking likely incisive journalism decision.5 "nothing do" (SDNY inform monitor phase assuming discharged unduly inessential 206, am unpersuaded impact threaten endeavor threshold contemplated Sullivan. External stands footing. chilled. Journalists stop forming tentative hypotheses, cease articulating openly. dialogue freely reluctant reservations explore presenting comment. unchecked collegial dynamics. 3106, "[T]hose (Footnote omitted.) (1975). Society's enhancing ill-served tending muffle uncertainty. preserve climate journalists, conversation guaranteed. believe, accord 197-198 Unless knows certitude misgivings enjoy protection, unexpressed. 994 (OAKES, concurring). whenever erred particular, demonstrably inhibited approach. hypothesis, valuable. foreclose substance conversation.6 Shielding category preclude valid claims. verification, inherent implausibility, concessions deny marginal view, acceptable price pay preserving conducive first, second, discussions. Criminal prosecutions limitations. Garrison Louisiana, 64, 209, 125 (1964). summarized follows: 983 Respondents' petition leave order, granted, pre-trial governed 254 [84 686] (1964)?" See, e. g., Restatement Torts 580 (1938); Pedrick, Law Libel: Modern Revised Translation, Corn.L.Q. 581, 583-584 Developments Law—Defamation, Harv.L.Rev. 875, 902-910 (1956). Peck Tribune 214 185, 189, 554, 555, 960 (1909), Holmes reviewing rendered citizenship action: "There portrait mistake, purported be. fact, one, excuse. libellous took risk. Lord Mansfield, 'Whatever man publishes peril.' King Woodfall, Lofft 776, 781. plain. harmful face. sees fit manifestly hurtful individual, justification advertisement piece usual tort else." definition responsibility laws. 347, 3010, 156-159, 1992-1993, plurality reviewed preferred figures, upheld Warren independently upheld. 168-170, 1998-1999. amounts testimony fall editorial-process depositions author article, assist preparation, sports Saturday Evening Post, managing chief. revealed Post's motives story (Record, O.T. 1966, 37, pp. 706-717), (id., 364, 662-664, 719-720, 729), 363-367, 721-737), relating interviewed investigated 666-667, 699-700, 734-736, 772-774), 732-735, 737, 771-772, 776), 714-716, 770). WHITE, standard. arrived forbidden. entered Walker, 158-159, 1993; 165, 1996 concurring); 391-394, 543-545, (1967). drafts allegedly libelous cross-examination author. During examination, writer explained detail preparation conclusions, beliefs line-by-line explanations additions deletions drafts. proof. Hanson, Related ¶ 163 (1969); supra 938; Am.Jur.2d, Slander 352 (1970); C.J.S. 260 (1955). originally provided section defamations. 1068 (Tent. Draft 13, 1936): "One another's caused causing legally interest." provision omitted explanation general. (Proposed Final 3, 1937). 350, 3012, entitlement damages, still awardable Harlan considering assess 'the reliability, nature acceptance rejection care checking assertions.' 156, 1992 added). amiss 172-174, 2000-2001, instructions differently turning compensatory Nalle Oyster, 230 179-180, 1043, 1047, 1439 (1913); White Nicholls, How. 286-292, 591 (1845); T. Plucknett, Concise History Common 502 (5th 1956); Hallen, Character Belief Necessary Conditional Privilege Defamation, Ill.L.Rev. 865 290-291, surveyed "We taken authorities treat doctrines distinction ordinary slander, written unwritten, styled communications; character exempt partake character. been, called intimately connected happiness individuals, quiet good society. investigation propound thereto. 1. That writing, printing, pictures, imputes renders punishment, infamous, odious, ridiculous, implies towards whom made. Proof described, complaining itself: justification, excuse, extenuation, proceed 2. description recognised communications, founded apparently legal, fairly presumed relieves implication deduced. impose remove presumptions flowing seeming obligations situations parties, home motive conduct. Beyond presumption operate, sanctify indulgence however wicked, express, forms. proved, existed proceedings court, legislative body, tribunal authority, tribunal, grievance it; express petition, render character, actionable, thereof libel." 866-867. forfeited negligently true. 867; 291. 7, 455: ways. competent circumstantial, resorted to, surrounding transaction remote, threats, defamations, rivalry, show rights, custom usage items consideration. pistol uttered complained of; tried kiss embrace failed question. questioned (Footnotes citations Odgers, Digest 271-* 288 (1st Am. Bigelow 1881); 455; C.J.S., 213. 271; F. Holt, 1818); Billet Times-Democrat 107 La. 751, So. (1902). scores admissibility behalf plaintiffs. Johnson Davis, 271 Ala. 474, 124 So.2d (1960) (editor cross-examined conveyed passages article); Freeman Mills, Cal.App.2d 161, 217 P.2d 687 (1950) (malice person, inferred); Scott Times-Mirror 181 Cal. 345, 184 P. 672 (1919) (all admissible); Sandora 113 Conn. 574, 155 819 (1931) circumstances—city extensively motives, practices); Rice Simmons, Del. 309, Am.Dec. 766 (1838) (where issue, declarations res gestae ); Western Union Telegraph Vickers, Ga.App. 204, S.E.2d 440 (1944) admissible, circumstances); Cook East Shore Newspapers, 327 Ill.App. 559, N.E.2d 751 (1945) defendant); Berger 132 Iowa 290, 109 N.W. 784 (1906) evidence); Thompson Globe Newspaper 279 Mass. 176, N.E. 249 (1932) (only agents entrusted material); Conroy Fall River News 306 488, 729 (1940) (any malice); Cyrowski Polish-American 196 Mich. (1917) (testimony advised Friedell Blakely Printing Minn. 226, 203 (1925) 227 Mo. 471, 127 S.W. 332 (1910) (evidence manager Butler Gazette App.Div. 767, 104 N.Y.S. 637 (1907) Briggs Byrd, N.C. 377 (1851) (express McBurney R.I. 331, A.2d 170 (1961) (relevant rebut Lancour Assn., 112 Vt. (1942) Farrar Wash.2d 549, 358 792 admissible). uniformly Bohan Record Cal.App. 429, 634 (1905) faith); Hearne De Young, 670, 150 (1898) precautions Ballinger Democrat 1095, 212 557 faith Snyder 161 671, 143 519 (1913) Courier-Journal Phillips, 142 Ky. 372, 134 446 (1911) Conner Standard 183 596 (1903) information); Davis Marxhausen, 103 315, 504 (1894) publishing); Julian Kansas City Star 209 35, 496 (1908) Paxton Woodward, Mont. 195, 215 (1904) faith, sources); Las Vegas Sun, Franklin, Nev. 282, 867 (1958) Lindsey Journal N.J.Misc. 1275, 245 Kohn P D 169 580, 455 (1915) (source); Hains Journal, 734 (Sup.Ct.1930) Goodrow Malone Telegram, 235 255 812 (reporter's source); 233 41, 251 364 (defendant introduce publication); Kehoe Tribune, 229 220, 241 676 (1930) imposition damages); Varvaro Agriculturist, 222 213, 225 564 lack Van Arsdale N.Y.S.2d 951 (Sup.Ct.), aff'd, 265 919, Weichbrodt (Sup.Ct. 1939) cause); Cleveland Leader Nethersole, Ohio 118, 735 Cobb Oklahoma Okl. 314, 140 1079 (1914) (defendant's Ray, S.W.2d 471 (Tex.Civ.App.1927), 165 (1929) Pfister Milwaukee 139 Wis. 627, 121 938 (1909) malice). None discoverability trial. "no 'government agency—local, federal—can tell cannot.' 255-256, 2838, quoting Relations Comm'n, 400, 2566, (1973) (STEWART, (1976), fault. POWELL STEWART concurrence, "depends careful Time's 'Milestones' article." 465-466, 971. considered, staff. 467-470, 971-972 5. collected 15, asserted, upheld, argument form, "who," "what," "when," "where" type. Tr. Oral Arg. 32-34. soliciting answered, Deposition 21, L. 7; 1892, others category, 666, 20; 774, 5; 877, 12; 880, 1488, 3; 1893, 11; 46. seek answering admission, easiest 31: "[T]hey set-up side. [T]hese answer." Often see, Record, 1963, 39, p. 762, cited (1974): extend excusing in-house contemplates bifurcated trial, trials complications delay. if, likely, minitrial conflicting credible assertion smacks satisfied affidavit simple verification pleadings. imbed formalism Constitution. Elkins 1437, 1454, 1669 (Frankfurter, dissenting): "Limitations operation principle [of testimonial privilege] refusal excluding transcending predominant utilizing ascertaining J. Wigmore, 2192 (McNaughton rev. 1961); Works Jeremy Bentham 321 (J. Bowring 1843). defending lawsuits intimidate self-censorship, smaller newspapers broadcasters noted continued volumes containing nearly 3,000 out-of-pocket expenses deposition, associates diverted gathering amount time. Blue Chip Stamps Manor Drug Stores, 723, 740-741, 1917, 1928, 539 (1975); (1979) REHNQUIST, JJ., certiorari); Burger: Agenda 2000 A.D.: Need Systematic Anticipation, Address Pound Conference, 83, 95-96 Committee Practice Procedure Judicial Conference amendments ameliorate problem. Preliminary Proposed again disputed questions. reveals correctly excused them. inappropriate rulings relevancy. theory status rest fundamental coerced views, suppression, violates ABA, Report Follow-Up Task Force, 159, 191-192 (1976); Erickson, Recommendations: Blueprint Twenty-First Century, 288-290 Bell, Follow-Up: Response Department Justice, 320, 328 Powell, Reforms Long Overdue, N.Y.C.B.A. 458, 461-463 176 n.25. enforcing demand, hope reduce demanded. pertinent opposed, postponed resolved. human community speech; dignity. democracy own, incommensurate respect. Cohen 24, 1780, 1788, 284 (1971): medicine society diverse populous arena discussion, putting voiced largely hands us, capable perfect polity approach comport dignity rests." arguments self-expression. short shielding Professor Zechariah Chafee, Jr., 1946: adopt wisest way. sifted vigorously constantly 33. broader theoretical formulation: "Persecution perfectly logical. you your premises want naturally wishes sweep away opposition. men realized upset fighting faiths, foundations desired better trade ideas—that test get competition market, safely out. rate experiment, life experiment. While experiment think eternally vigilant attempts check loathe fraught death, imminently immediate lawful pressing save country." Abrams 250 616, 630, 17, 22, 1173 (dissenting 1806, (1969). "Just point, decide denied acquaintance disbelief ill-considered, ill-balanced planning good. mutilation thinking directed. springs necessities Nature Reason deduction agreement decided universal suffrage." Political Freedom: Constitutional Powers People Virginia Board Pharmacy Citizens Consumer Council, 425 748, 1817, 1827, 346 Brennan, Supreme Meiklejohn Interpretation Blasi, Checking Value Theory, 1977 Am.Bar.Found.Research 521. Erskine, while Thomas Paine seditious offered compact eloquent position: "Gentlemen, insisted, length, origin governments, detailed heard subject, support, foundation liberty Burke admit freedom, ought free, all; addresses speculations amendment, soever, illegal criminal; have, re-call, delegated authorities, act, none subjects; arraign acts, shake supported unalienable reform change governments. resolves wrest power. liberties keeps governments subjection duties." Speeches Erskine 524-525 High 1876). position predicated natural adversity Bickel, Morality Consent 80-88 Mills 384 214, 219, 1434, 484 "[T]he antidote abuses chosen elected selected serve. Suppression praise criticize clamor contend muzzles agencies thoughtfully deliberately improve keep free." Journals 108 (1774) (W. Ford 1904). "[I]t useless define talk rights. agitator speak, wage war. deadlock. boundary line fixed realize classified interests, safety 2, 35. has, protest, exclusionary rights: primary police Fourth Post-Mapp [v. Ohio, 367 643, 1684, 1081] right. privacy victim seizure, '[r]eparation comes late.' Linkletter 381 618, 637, 1731, 1741, 601 Instead, judicially deterrent Calandra, [414 348, 613, 620, 561 (1974)]." Stone 428 465, 486, 3037, 3048, 1067 Compare (1964): "In Barr Matteo, 360 564, 575, 1335-1341, utterance absolutely 'within perimeter' duties. Analogous citizen-critic official's administer." monopoly enlighten." 782, 1419. informative organized performed lecturers, pollsters, novelists, academic researchers, dramatists. Almost accurately contributing 2668. imply merit protection. ways well. uncover revealed, embarrassing affected. reprisals disclosed Reporters Telephone 192 U.S.App.D.C. 593 1030 "checking" function. official, claiming suffering chill. Elements petitioner's privacy. framed Were using My writes weigh Amendment" 180. concludes "whatever 'exercise judgment' speech," 178, "is speech." meaningfully true, difficulty exactly expects He suggesting respond litigant. stricter involving defendants, marginally decreased, Cooperative (1970). stake. nn. weighty NLRB, 301 103, 650, 953 (1937); (1945). Fed. Webster's International Dictionary 1367 1961). random samples: "Did ever Capt. Laurence Potter presentation 4th?" filmed interview Sgt. Carmon program?" "When prepared draft aired, Col. Vietnamese?" "Do recollection discussing anybody CBS sequence broadcast?" "Prior discuss CBS?" provides part: objection inadmissible appears evidence." Follow-up: 328-329 Erikson, Lasker, Crunch: View Bench, 245, 252 Litigation Section, Special Study Discovery Abuse (Oct.1977); Stanley, President's Page, A.B.A.J. 1375 Burger, A.D.—A Moore, 26.02[3] 1976). Anderson, Self-Censorship, Texas L.Rev. 422, illustrate, considerable. consumed days transcript. Brothers display greater elide Hickman, "was published," 200 proceeded admonishing "interest justice," 180 J.) "undue expense," adds guidance mitigate Hickman's directive remains force. discussion. infra, 208-209. considerable broadcast: "Lando answered innumerable seen; intimate details interviewees; frequency sources. exhibits transcripts interviews; notes; videotapes series telecast. reactions documents both." (footnote abstract proposition, self-evident sought, presumably elicit self-serving responses. Indeed, acknowledges, "rarely himself." seriously "increase actions." 191 generate Schuchat, 166 351, 355-356, 510 735-736 Goldwater Ginzburg, 414 324, 334-335 1969), cert. denied, 1049, 701, 695 Varnish Best Medium 608, 612 1968), 394 987, 1465, 762 intimation, 169-170 apart implicated lower displayed sensitivity assessing motions confidential Cervantes 464 986, 992-994 (CA8 1972), 409 1125, 939, 257 Keogh, 32, 34-35, 365 965, 967-968 1011, 708, 548 Different would, conjunction proceedings. Jascalevich, 1301, 3060, (1978) (MARSHALL, chambers); 712-713, 3109, 3110, (1972); 741-743, 2680-2681

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