Document: 472 U.S. 38 105 S.Ct. 2479 86 L.Ed.2d 29 George C. WALLACE, Governor of the State Alabama, et al., Appellantsv.Ishmael JAFFREE al. Douglas T. SMITH, Appellants v. Ishmael Nos. 83-812, 83-929. Argued Dec. 4, 1984. Decided June 1985. Syllabus In proceedings instituted in Federal District Court, appellees challenged constitutionality of, inter alia, a 1981 Alabama Statute (§ 16-1-20.1) authorizing 1-minute period silence all public schools "for meditation or voluntary prayer." Although finding that § 16-1-20.1 was an effort to encourage religious activity, Court ultimately held Establishment Clause First Amendment does not prohibit from establishing religion. The Appeals reversed. Held: Section is law respecting establishment religion and thus violates Amendment. Pp. 48-61. (a) proposition several States have no greater power restrain individual freedoms protected by than Congress firmly embedded constitutional jurisprudence. adopted curtail Congress' interfere with individual's freedom believe, worship, express himself accordance dictates his own conscience, Fourteenth imposed same substantive limitations on States' legislate. choose creed counterpart right refrain accepting established majority. Moreover, conscience embraces select any faith none at all. 48-55. (b) One well-established criteria for determining statute under must secular legislative purpose. Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 612-613, 91 2105, 2111, 745. requires be invalidated if it entirely motivated purpose advance 55-56. (c) record here only establishes 16-1-20.1's endorse religion, also reveals enactment clearly particular, statements sponsor testimony before indicate legislation solely "effort return prayer" schools. such unrebutted evidence intent confirmed consideration relationship between two other statutes—one which, enacted 1982 as sequel 16-1-20.1, authorized teachers lead "willing students" prescribed prayer, 1978 predecessor, meditation" only. State's endorsement, prayer activities beginning each school day consistent principle government pursue course complete neutrality toward 56-61. 705 F.2d 1526 (11 Cir.1983) 713 614 Cir.1983), affirmed. John S. Baker, Jr., appellants. Paul M. Bator, Cambridge, Mass., United amicus curiae, special order Court. Ronnie L. Williams, Mobile, Ala., appellees. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion 1 At early stage this litigation, three statutes questioned: (1) 16-1-20, 1978, which meditation";1 (2) 1981, prayer";2 (3) 16-1-20.2, 1982, "Almighty God . Creator Supreme Judge world."3 2 preliminary-injunction case, distinguished 16-1-20 statutes. It then there "nothing wrong" 16-1-20,4 but §§ 16-1-20.2 were both invalid because sole "an part activity."5 After trial merits, did change its interpretation these statutes, they because, opinion, has establish state chooses do so.6 3 agreed Court's initial them unconstitutional.7 We already affirmed Appeals' holding respect 16-1-20.2.8 questioned valid.9 Thus, narrow question decision whether authorizes "meditation prayer," within meaning Amendment.10 4 * Appellee Jaffree resident Mobile County, Alabama. On May 28, he filed complaint behalf minor children; second-grade students third kindergarten. named members County School Board, various officials, plaintiffs' defendants.11 alleged brought action "seeking principally declaratory judgment injunction restraining Defendants maintaining allowing maintenance regular services forms observances Public Schools violation made applicable states Constitution."12 further children had been subjected acts indoctrination "from year September, 1981";13 defendant "on daily basis" led their classes saying certain prayers unison;14 exposed ostracism peer group class participate;15 repeatedly unsuccessfully requested devotional stopped. original reference statute. 5 amended seeking certification,16 30, second naming officials additional defendants. amendment statutes: 16-1-20.2.17 6 August 2, evidentiary hearing appellees' motion preliminary injunction. hearing, Senator Donald G. Holmes testified "prime sponsor" bill 16-1-20.1.18 He explained our step direction."19 Apart school, unequivocally "no mind."20 A week after entered injunction.21 court likely prevail merits reflect purpose.22 7 November 4-day merits. related primarily 1981-1982 academic year—the prior 16-1-20.2. found during activities, even being informed objections activities.23 8 lengthy conclusions law, reviewed number opinions interpreting Amendment, embarked fresh examination imposes barrier official reviewing length what perceived newly discovered historical evidence, concluded "the clause first Constitution religion."24 separate dismissed challenge failure claim relief could granted. court's dismissal based conclusion bar religion.25 9 consolidated cases; surprisingly, noted considered rejected arguments persuasive, misapplied doctrine stare decisis.26 teachers' violated Amendment.27 With stated "both activities."28 quoted approval efforts " 'to activity. Even though are permissive form, nevertheless involvement religion.' "29 "specifically type addressed Engel [v. Vitale, 370 421, 82 1261, 601 (1962) ]."30 10 suggestion rehearing en banc denied over dissent four judges who expressed full should reconsider panel insofar unconstitutional.31 When probable jurisdiction, limited argument those thought worthy reconsideration. issues presented appeals Wallace Jaffree, 466 924, 104 1704, 80 178 (1984). II 11 Our unanimous affirmance concerning makes unnecessary comment remarkable obstacle Alabama's Before analyzing precise issue us, appropriate recall how jurisprudence States. 12 As plain text, conscience.32 Until added Constitution, Amendment's restraints exercise federal simply apply States.33 But when depriving person liberty without due process legislate always power. This endorsed elementary time again.34 13 Writing Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303, 60 900, 903, 84 L.Ed. 1213 (1940), Roberts explained: 14 ". hold statute, construed applied appellants, deprives contravention fundamental concept embodied liberties guaranteed declares shall make prohibiting free thereof. rendered legislatures incompetent enact laws. inhibition subject double aspect. one hand, forestalls compulsion acceptance practice form worship. Freedom adhere organization worship may cannot restricted law. safeguards chosen religion." 15 Cantwell, course, case identified central unifies Clauses Amendment.35 Enlarging theme, THE CHIEF JUSTICE recently wrote: "We begin against includes speak freely speaking See Board Education Barnette, 319 624, 633-634 [63 1178, 1182-1183, 87 1628] (1943); id., 645 S.Ct., 1188] (Murphy, J., concurring). system secures proselytize religious, political, ideological causes guarantee concomitant decline foster concepts. complementary components broader 'individual mind.' Id., 637 1185]. 16 17 "The supra, faced required participate ceremonies honoring flag words traditional salute gestures. overruling Minersville Gobitis, 586 [60 1010, 1375] 'a ceremony so touching matters political attitude [not] upon authority powers committed Constitution.' U.S., 636 1184]. Compelling affirmative act involved more serious infringement personal passive carrying motto license plate, difference essentially degree. Here, we measure forces individual, life indeed constantly while automobile view—to instrument fostering adherence point view finds unacceptable. doing so, 'invades sphere intellect spirit reserve control.' 642 1187]." Wooley Maynard, 430 705, 714-715, 97 1428, 1435, 51 752 (1977). 18 Just mind, merely proscribed preference Christian sect another, would require equal infidel, atheist, adherent non-Christian Islam Judaism.36 underlying examined crucible unambiguously all.37 derives support interest conviction beliefs product choice faithful,38 recognition fact forestalling intolerance extends beyond among sects—or "religions"—to encompass disbeliever uncertain.39 Jackson eloquently West Virginia 642, 63 1187, 1628 (1943): 19 "If fixed star constellation, official, high petty, can prescribe orthodox politics, nationalism, force citizens confess word therein." 20 less States, basic truth. III 21 called construe breadth Clause, developed many years. 745 (1971), 22 "Every analysis area cumulative Three tests gleaned cases. First, purpose; second, principal primary effect neither advances nor inhibits Allen, 392 236, 243 [88 1923, 1926, 1060] (1968); finally, 'an excessive entanglement Walz Tax Comm'n, 397 664, 674 [90 1409, 1414, 25 697] (1970) ]." 23 most plainly implicated case. correctly recognized, necessary purpose.40 For satisfy criterion, see, e.g., Abington Schempp, 374 203, 296-303, 83 1560, 1610-1614, 844 (1963) (BRENNAN, concurring), religion.41 24 applying test, ask "whether government's actual disapprove religion."42 answer dispositive. provides us unambiguous answer, purpose—indeed, IV became Holmes, inserted into record—apparently dissent—a statement indicating schools.43 Later response returning schools, stated: "No, I mind."44 present purpose.45 26 contained measures common, nonsecular wholly character later evident text. differences examined, equally clear character. 27 There textual 16-1-20: earlier applies grades through six, whereas grades; uses "shall" "may"; refers "meditation" relevance litigation kindergarten grade year. impact mandatory language continued six.46 significant addition "or 28 is, quite different protecting every student's engage moment schoolday. right, containing nothing prevented student engaging silent minute meditation.47 fully served 16-1-20.1. text 16-1-20.1: convey message endorsement promotion prayer; No suggests meaningless irrational act.48 must, therefore, conclude Legislature intended existing law49 Governor's expressly admitted; history revealed; Holmes' frankly described. legislature despite existence expressing indicates characterize favored practice. Such religion.50 30 importance permit treat inconsequential involving few symbolic speech majority.51 whenever itself speaks subject, questions intends disapproval religion."52 well-supported concurrent findings Appeals—that schools—make unnecessary, inappropriate, evaluate practical significance Keeping place scheme myriad, subtle ways values eroded,"53 31 32 ordered. POWELL, concurring. 33 concur Ala.Code (Supp.1984) My concurrence prompted persistence attempting institute state-sponsored enacting successive statutes.1 agree O'CONNOR's assertion some moment-of-silence constitutional,2 set forth well. Ante, 59. 34 write separately views respond criticism three-pronged test.3 identifies standards proved useful decisions courts. coherent test majority ever adopted. Only once since Lemon, resort test. Marsh Chambers, 463 783, 103 3330, 77 1019 (1983).4 overruled modified. Yet, courts feel decide cases ad hoc basis.5 35 inquiry "secular purpose." 612, 2111. O'CONNOR recognizes, "sincere"; will pass muster articulated "sham." Post, 75 (concurring judgment). Stone Graham, 449 39, 101 192, 66 199 (1980) (per curiam ), example, requiring posting Ten Commandments Kentucky asserted goal educational. interpreted prong however, "exclusively secular" objectives.6 Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 681, n. 6, 1355, 1363, 79 604 If requirement existed, much conduct approved past invalidated. See, 90 697 (New York's property tax exemption organizations upheld); Everson Education, 330 1, 67 504, 711 (1947) (holding township reimburse parents cost transporting parochial schools). 36 Code (Supp.1984), acknowledged "to ante, 57, 43. single legislator's statement, particularly following enactment, necessarily sufficient post, But, manifested including sequence 58-60. 37 consider critical purpose, (enjoining enforcement pending merits), said "not James, 544 F.Supp. 727, 732 (SD Ala.1982). Instead, activity."7 Ibid. likewise "a lack Legislature." 1526, 1535 (CA11 1983). objective "advancement below unable discern arguably valid normally hesitate find one. vote uphold Mueller 388, 394-395, 3062, 3066-3067, 721 (1983) (the "reluctan[t] attribute unconstitutional motives plausible program discerned face statute"). Nothing failed identify nonreligious reason statute's enactment.8 Under circumstances, precedents fails therefore Clause. 39 reach prongs note "effect" straightforward unlikely "advanc[e] inhibi[t] religion."9 243, 89 1060 (1968). Nor "foster 2111 quoting Comm'r, 674, 1414. 40 join 41 O'CONNOR, concurring judgment. 42 laws prohibits voluntarily praying before, during, facilitated inclined day. parties concede validity enactment. subsequent officially silence. that, light my view, little doubt peculiar features render invalid, explain why manifest infirmity. Free Exercise validates struck down today. 43 Religion coupled ordered liberty, preclude Nation making (1940). distinct enveloped Clauses, common secure liberty. 430, 1266, (1962). principles remains unanimous. 44 again demonstrate, "it far easier underlies obtain agreement govern application." 694, 1424, (opinion Harlan, J.). appeared workable standard impermissible establishments (1971). now familiar Despite promise, problematic. "entanglement" modified questioned, see 403, 11, 3071, (1983), upheld (1983). author apparently test's general applicability. 679, 1362, REHNQUIST today abandon entirely, limit discrimination sects designation particular church "state" "national" ----. 45 Perhaps am new struggle, ready aspects announced reexamined refined achieving strive erect "signpost," Hunt McNair, 413 734, 741, 93 2868, 2873, 923 (1973), followed ignored predilections dictate. frame adjudication grounded amendment, capable application relevant problems." Choper, Schools: Proposed Constitutional Standard, 47 Minn.L.Rev. 329, 332-333 (footnotes omitted). Last Term, proposed refinement mind. 687-689, 1366-1367 opinion). 46 suggested infringed person's standing community. Direct endorsing approach "sends nonadherents outsiders, community, accompanying adherents insiders, community." 688, 1367. Lemon's examine actually conveys endorsement. analytic content gives Lemon-mandated effect. country, operate Because coexistence, inevitable interests frequently intersect, conflict, combine. ostensibly promotes often incidental helping hindering sectarian belief. Chaos ensue criminalize murder fear thereby promote Biblical command killing. task sort out practices whose go grain 48 acknowledging taking account policy. conveying belief preferred. infringes nonadherent, "[w]hen power, prestige financial placed behind belief, indirect coercive pressure minorities conform prevailing plain." 431, 1267. general, embody A. 49 Twenty-five observe classrooms.1 provide alone. Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 15-522 (1984); Conn.Gen.Stat. 10-16a (1983); R.I.Gen.Laws 16-12-3.1 (1981). typical calls schoolday meditate, pray, Ark.Stat.Ann. 80-1607.1 (1980); Ga.Code Ann. 20-2-1050 (1982); Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 122, ¶ 771 Ind.Code 20-10.1-7-11 Kan.Stat.Ann. 72-5308a Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 24, 15-1516.1 (Purdon Supp.1984-1985). divided Compare Gaines Anderson, 421 337 (Mass.1976) (upholding statute), Cooperman, 572 1561 (N.J.1983) (striking statute); Duffy Las Cruces Schools, 557 1013 (N.M.1983) (same); Beck McElrath, 548 1161 (M.D.Tenn.1982) (same). Walter 610 1169 (S.D.W.Va.1985) amendment). Relying disapproving vocal Bible reading (1963); (1962), generally 50 dispositive cases, exercises. Engel, New York prayer. business compose American people recite carried government." 425, 1264. Abington, Pennsylvania Maryland morning readings exercises, violate 223-224, 1572. share left participating, compromising nonadherent's beliefs, withdrawing, calling attention her nonconformity. coercion implicit statutory schemes, 1267, turned sponsoring manifestly exercise. reading. inherently religious. Silence, unlike reading, need associated Second, pupil participates compromise beliefs. During silence, objects thoughts, compelled listen thoughts others. simple reasons, stand fall according regards Scholars least Member recognized distinction constitutional. 281, 1602 concurring) ("[T]he observance reverent opening class" serve purposes jeopardizing either community proper degree separation spheres government"); Tribe, Law 14-6, p. 829 (1978); P. Freund, Legal Issue, (1965); Minn.L.Rev., 371; Kauper, Prayer, 61 Mich.L.Rev. 1031, 1041 (1963). matter, agree. difficult threat room silent, thoughtful schoolchildren. 52 By mandating activity might occur period. Cf. Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 272, 102 269, 275, 70 440 (1981) ("[B]y creating forum [State] ideas aired there"). specifies pray silently quiet moment, encouraged specified alternatives. Nonetheless, possible drafted implemented, effectively favor child prays not. seem inescapable teacher exhorts use designated pray. Similarly, seeks alternatives, rather dedicated inclined. crucial conveyed attempted prayer.2 answered abstract, instead history, language, administration determine operates Lynch, 1370 opinion) ("Every judged unique circumstances constitutes religion"). 53 endorses observations scope order. deferential limited. 507, (courts extreme caution" assessing purpose). psychoanalyze legislators. McGowan Maryland, 366 420, (1961) Frankfurter, expresses history,3 disclaims alternatives silence,4 defer intent. Committee & Religious Liberty Nyquist, 756, 773, 2955, 2965, 948 (1973); Tilton Richardson, 672, 678-679, 2091, 2095-2096, 790 troublesome denigrate postenactment legislators interested persons witnessed drafting improper purview "was law's existence." Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 108, 266, 228 Since pedagogical value face, responsible administrative agency 54 "means little," omit references." trivial endorsements That precisely tailored Clause's assuring intentionally enunciate sham distinguishing sincere one, help close where doubt. While alone rarely determinative striking serves important function. reminds share. sense squarely helps enforce. 55 fact: 56 "[W]hether communicates fact. submissions it, like racial sex-based classifications communicate invidious message, large legal basis judicial social facts." 693-694, 1370. 57 observer, acquainted implementation perceive Bose Corp. Consumers Union Inc., 485, 517-518, 1949, 1969, 502 (1984) (REHNQUIST, dissenting) (noting fighting "likely provoke average retaliation," Street York, 394 576, 592, 1365, (1969), allegedly obscene material "prurient interests," Miller California, 15, 2607, 2615, 419 mixed properly de novo appellate review). implemented meditation, reflection period, alternative others, B 58 above scrutiny meditate reflect. footing. However deferentially examines however objectively public, unavoidable accordingly Appeals, upheld. 59 relies elicited hearing. 56-57. reasons above, give little, any, weight Nevertheless, leaves corresponds notable 40, 1. Appellees statute—indeed, validity. Brief 2. specify Any removed history. reflected schools." App. 50. anything contradict Given surprising conceded classroom 44. below, state-prescribed silence.5 690, 1368 opinion), seems observers selects record, candor admit encouragement 669, 1411, flexible enough "permit exist sponsorship interference." "without sponsors reason, 62 dissenting 91-106, reviews Clauses. His long line inconsistent drafters Bill Rights. urges correct inaccuracies embracing presumably R. Cord, Separation Church (1982). brief, sweeping modification principles. Government's "accommodation" desire silently. accommodation contemplated Government implicates values, -mandated Amicus Curiae 22. 64 element truth helpful suggestions. Particularly page worth volume logic." Trust Co. Eisner, 256 345, 349, 506, 65 963 (1921). Whatever provision issue, continue believe "fidelity notion —as opposed purely judicial—limits governmental impose heavy burden accepted [the provision] constitutionally impermissible." Tennessee Garner, 471 26, 1694, 1709, 85 (1985) (dissenting looked upholding exemptions houses Sunday closing laws, 81 1101, (1961). observed, "[i]f thing practised hundred years consent, strong affect it." Jackman Rosenbaum Co., 260 22, 31, 9, 9-10, 107 (1922). assert, enjoyed uninterrupted Rights era. education virtually nonexistent late 18th century. 238, 7, 1580 existed government-run ratified anticipated problems interaction Sky, Congress, An Historical Perspective, Va.L.Rev. 1395, 1403-1404 (1966). adoption Southern still private hands, movement supported taxation taken hold. Brown 347 483, 489-490, 74 686, 688-689, 98 873 (1954). uncertainty Framers mean ignore guidance role education. done so. Illinois ex rel. McCollum 333 212, 68 461, 466, 92 649 (1948) (Frankfurter, unclear, employ analysis. raised REHNQUIST's Presidents Thanks schools.6 think very least, Presidential Proclamations distinguishable received noncoercive setting directed adults, readily susceptible unwilling indoctrination. government-sponsored exercises impressionable attend result coerced 792, 3336; 2099. touchstone problems, concern here. arguments, lies comport mandate compel exempt requirements Thomas Review Indiana Employment Security Division, 450 707, 1425, 624 (1981); Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, (1972); Sherbert Verner, 398, 1790, 965 grant exemption, violating Gillette 401 437, 453, 828, 838, 168 (1971); Braunfeld Brown, 599, 1144, 563 posed define limits facilitate rigid invalidate exempting obligations. definition, promoting deference purports completely vitiate pertaining viewed rights. Indeed, provided salary supplements, textbooks, instructional materials send obvious "if expanded logical extreme, tend clash other." Walz, 668-669, 1411. exacerbated conflict "neutrality" 88 square "complete neutrality," ----, sometimes observer otherwise obligation. confers benefit explicitly neutral Welsh 398 333, 372, 1792, 1813, 308 (WHITE, dissenting). 69 solution "neutrality," identifying interference concern, plausibly assert pursues lifts government-imposed falls category, accordingly. disingenuous look lifting burden. acknowledge legitimated further. statute—that belief—courts assume "objective observer," promotes. Thus perceptions, resentment exempted requirement, entitled strongly exemption. reconcile standards, save protect state-imposed lifted (Supp.1984). prevents irrespective Of argue protects sponsorship. Phrased terms, Abington. remove burdens itself. 71 hostile precludes affording schoolchildren opportunity To contrary, applied. holds crossed affirmatively fine draw it. 72 Chief BURGER, dissenting. 73 Some trouble read ironic—perhaps bizarre—that heard session opened invocation Divine protection. Across park yards away, House Representatives Senate regularly open These just duration, extended, invocations guidance. They given, 1789, clergy appointed chaplains paid Treasury chapels Capitol, expense, Members others pause meditation—or Inevitably wag bound say reflects historic justified Judiciary Still controversy "much ado about nothing," earth—including Congress—can stop pupils plan day—or elect points today's curious holding. 76 "endorsed silence," (O'CONNOR, judgment) (emphasis added). suggest "prayer" unconstitutionally not, manifests hostility decades religions forbidden "endorsed" chaplains, opens God. Today's recalls Goldberg: "[U]ntutored devotion results partake noninterference noninvolvement commands, brooding pervasive dedication passive, active, but, me, prohibited 78 306, 1615, inexplicable aspect foregoing opinions, Legislature. Rather whole,1 rely factors concluding "wholly religious" review, (Supp.1984): (i) sponsor, (ii) admissions James' complaint, (iii) predecessor Curiously, mention sponsor's relied upon—including "inserted" Journal—were passed statute; indeed, given well enacted. concede, 18, shred whole shared motive house aware passed. statements, personal, subjective legislator. 195-year supports disconcerting idea post-enactment legislation. after-the-fact rationally relevant, fail up widespread misunderstanding schoolchild legally steps inside building. 53-54. upon, surely permissible complaint. Strangely, neglects bearing statutes; states.2 absence Superintendent made. Record 187. know whether, tried, offered contravene allegations inappropriate accord answer. preceding proves inclusion phrase reasoning way focusing exclusively component examining whole. logic—if that—would hold, reimbursement bus transportation schoolchildren, add providing students. Pledge Allegiance ago "under God." Act 14, 1954, Pub.L. 396, Stat. 249. Do unconstitutional? consequence method whole.3 mockery decisionmaking And correct, clarifying building.4 extended treatment "test" naive preoccupation easy, bright-line addressing issues. cautioned caliper resolving sought "signposts." "In [Establishment Clause] line-drawing; fixed, per se rule framed." 678, event, responsibility tidy formulas rote; duty decision, perhaps understandable concerns underlie (d) borders on, trespass into, ridiculous. remotely threaten liberty; furthers tolerance designed protect. Without pressuring wish creates think, plan, wishes—as chapels. accommodates private, choices meaningful appreciate absolute wishes. "endorses" tolerated and, possible, accommodated. accommodate needs manner, "benevolent neutrality" quickly translate "callous indifference" consistently require. wise admonition Goldberg ability willingness distinguish real mere shadow." 308, 1616 innocuous strikes rise level "mere paradoxically acknowledges: "It schoolchildren." 73.5 "even pray." mountains labored mouse.6 WHITE, agreeing JUSTICE, invalidating do, apparent proscribe provides, initially passed, approve asked affirmative. outset "May pray?" infirm, explication Against undertook reassess dealing reconsideration precedents. REHNQUIST, Thirty-eight 16, 512, (1947), summarized exegesis thus: Jefferson, wall State.' Reynolds [98 145, 164, 244 (1879) 94 Reynolds, Jefferson's letter Danbury Baptist Association "I contemplate sovereign reverence declared 'make thereof,' building State." Writings Jefferson 113 (H. Washington ed. 1861).1 95 impossible build sound mistaken understanding unfortunately freighted misleading metaphor nearly France Amendments known short courtesy, written Congress. detached ideal source contemporary 96 fellow Virginian, James Madison, whom joined battle 1786, play anyone advantages regard: leading turn Madison's contributions thereto, picture highly simplified "wall debates Thirteen Colonies ratification used opponents guaranteeing potential tyranny. delegated powers, occasion liberties. satisfied some, another amendments Three—New Hampshire, Virginia—included declaration freedom. J. Elliot, Debates 659 (1891); 328. Rhode Island North Carolina flatly refused ratify nature 334; 244. identical guarantees freedom: "[A]ll men equal, natural unalienable society ought established, others." 659; 244.2 99 8, Madison rose "reminded heretofore bringing forward Constitution." Annals Cong. 424. remarks urging adopt drafts advocate wisdom prudent statesman harm great deal good. said, alia: 100 appears me prudence, let proposing Legislatures, things incorporated acceptable them. wish, something done, friendly proving sincerely devoted Republican Government, charged wishing lay foundation aristocracy despotism. desirable extinguish bosom member apprehensions countrymen deprive valiantly fought honorably bled. desired injure ingrafted satisfaction doubting fellow-citizens, friends evince concession hitherto distinguished." 431-432. this: civil rights abridged national pretext, infringed." 434. them, formed referred Whole, weeks' delay Select consisting revised proposal regarding read: "[N]o 729. Committee's revisions debated 1789. entire debate columns "Annals," illuminating. 729-731. Representative Peter Sylvester dislike version, tendency abolish altogether." Vining parts sentence transposed; Elbridge Gerry changed "that law." Roger Sherman Connecticut opposing provisions Rights—that "make establishments"—and amendment. Daniel Carroll proposed, "[h]e contend gentlemen phraseology, object substance manner wishes honest 106 spoke, "he apprehended be, enforce observation contrary conscience." 730. conventions Necessary Proper infringe prevent effects presumed intended, admit." Benjamin Huntington "be latitude extremely hurtful cause understood gentleman Virginia; convenient put construction Huntington, concerned England state-established exception, able entertain claims obligation bylaws contribute minister hoped patronise professed all." 730-731. 108 responded insertion "religion" version minds criticized language. "He believed feared pre-eminence, combine together, conform. 'national' introduced, directly prevent." 731. Samuel Livermore dissatisfied better altered "Congress infringing 109 spoke opposition feelings government, created Constitution. withdrew insisted "national religion" Livermore's motion, against. 110 week, debate, voted alter thereof, 766. floor secret, reported Annals. September 3, back House: 111 articles mode Antieau, Downey, E. Roberts, From 130 (1964). 112 accept Senate's changes conference; emerged conference thereof." 114 days, form. 115 Representatives, undoubtedly architect Rights, sensible compromise, incorporating Convention, obviously zealous believer necessity felt good, harm, condition propose Rights.3 "nor established" separation" latter-day commentators ascribed him. explanation language—"that law" ilk. replied came House, urged inserting front "religion." 116 indisputable glimpses thinking, actions saw sects. irreligion. Everson—while bracketing together exertions home Liberty—is totally incorrect suggesting onto become 117 repetition error (1948), sounder historically. Finally, 214, 1567, (1963), truly preceded States" (footnote have, demonstrably matter history.4 varying succeeding possesses fact; decisis bind 118 None 15th slightest indication Committee, evil aimed at, absolutely concerned, church, another; definitely aid evenhandedly. follow advice BRENNAN, 1578, 844, "practices consequences deeply feared; short, interdependence prevent," broadly another. 119 reenacted Northwest Ordinance governance Territory confirm took introduced Rights; draft yet simultaneously piece territorial conflicted proposals. Ordinance, 50, 1787 "[r]eligion, morality, knowledge, good happiness mankind, means forever encouraged." 52, (a ). Land grants until 1845 land Territories nonsectarian 788; 163 120 ratified, Elias Boudinot resolution asking President Thanksgiving Day Proclamation. "could letting offering joining voice, Almighty thanks blessings poured them." 914 (1789). Aedanas Burke objected "this mimicking European customs"; Tucker knew event such, us." 915. laudable itself, warranted Holy Writ: instance, solemn thanksgivings rejoicings Solomon, temple, point. thought, imitation occasion. ." 121 Boudinot's 25, Sherman, Proclamation, Clauses; Tucker, 122 Within weeks Joint Resolution include "recommend thanksgiving observed grateful hearts signal favors God, especially peaceably safety happiness." Messages Papers Presidents, 1789-1897, (1897). Proclamation couched words: 123 "Now, recommend assign Thursday, 26th next, service glorious Being beneficent was, be; unite rendering unto Him humble kind care protection country previous becoming nation; manifold mercies favorable interpositions providence war; tranquillity, union, plenty enjoyed; peaceable rational enabled constitutions happiness, lately instituted; blessed, acquiring diffusing knowledge; pleased confer us. 124 "And humbly supplications Lord Ruler Nations, beseech pardon transgressions; enable all, stations, perform relative duties punctually; National blessing wise, just, discreetly faithfully executed obeyed; guide sovereigns nations (especially shown kindness us), bless governments, peace, concord; knowledge true virtue, increase science us; generally, mankind temporal prosperity knows best." 125 Washington, Adams, issued Proclamations; saying: 126 "Fasting exercises; enjoining discipline. Every times tenets; never safer deposited 429 (A. Lipscomb 1904). 127 moved 19th century, appropriated moneys Indian organizations. Typical treaty Kaskaskia Indians, annual cash Tribe's Roman Catholic priest church.5 1897, Indians reached $500,000 annually, decided thereafter cease appropriating money 62, 79; cf. Quick Bear Leupp, 210 77-79, 694-696, 954 (1908); O'Neill, 118-119 (1949). 61-82 shows fallacy amount" levied 15-16, 511-512. 128 Joseph Story, 1811 1845, professor Harvard School, published comprehensive treatise appeared. Volume Story's Commentaries 630-632 (5th 1891) discussed way: 129 "Probably [First Amendment], universal sentiment America Christianity receive incompatible attempt religions, policy utter indifference, disapprobation, indignation. 131 [First] [A]mendment countenance, advance, Mahometanism, Judaism, infidelity, prostrating Christianity; exclude rivalry sects, ecclesiastical hierarchy exclusive patronage government. cut off persecution vice pest former ages), subversion trampled almost days Apostles age. (Footnotes omitted.) 132 Cooley's eminence rivaled Story. Cooley Limitations went say: 133 "But careful establish, protect, defend equality, contain authorities superintending Providence transactions inspires, meet finite dependent beings. shades fitness recognizing human affairs control Great Universe, boundless favors, bowing contrition visited penalties broken fast appointed; army navy; sessions Scriptures, teaching Undoubtedly require, avoid denomination sect; susceptibility abuse. *470-*471. 134 "[t]his mainly, law; induce institutions charity seminaries instruction incline institutions, conservators morals valuable, indispensable, assistants preservation order." *470. 135 acquired well-accepted meaning: forbade denominations. dictionary defined "establishment" establishing, founding, ratifying ordaining," "[t]he episcopal called, England." N. Webster, Dictionary English Language (1st 1828). irreligion nondiscriminatory constitutionalized Everson. 136 Notwithstanding theory separation, albeit misguided analytical concept, unified principled opposite, unfortunately, true; unified. recent hopelessly pluralities,6 embarrassing "blurred, indistinct, variable barrier," "is accurate" "dimly perceived." 614, 2112, 677-678, Wolman Walter, 433 229, 2593, 2599, 714 (1977); 673, 1359, 137 Whether unworkability, "wall" useless adjudication. illustrates too Cardozo's "[m]etaphors narrowly watched, starting devices liberate end enslaving Berkey Third Avenue N.Y. 84, 94, 155 N.E. 58, (1926). 138 greatest injury mischievous diversion intentions "crucible litigation," adapted adjudicating factual disputes court, amount errors true. State" bad judging. abandoned. 139 mortar Everson's three-part 614-615, offer metaphor. Generally stated, proscribes effect, 140 cited (1968), "purpose" Allen explains, inherited elements Schempp Everson, described above. 1926. deficiencies itself: drafters. 141 proven mercurial defined, operate. void aids accompanied condemn utters says aiding depend importantly, leave out. references, that. Faced Larson Valente, 456 228, 262-263, 1673, 1692-1693, (1982) 142 However, aid, textbooks rides children, target largesse. words, expressed, E.g., supra. 143 (1970). time-honored "undermine ultimate [of illuminated history," 671, 1412, determined entangle intrusion Interferences dealt case's broad survey property. 144 Walz's reflective entanglement, however. Wolman, 254, 2608. difficulties divorced logic "insoluable paradox" cases: closely watched lest use, supervision create entanglement. Roemer Bd. Works, 426 736, 768-769, 2337, 2355-2356, 179 (1976) buses field trips, charge trips onerous. self-defeating certainly ensure religions. 145 ignores myriad regulations curriculum, attendance, certification fire churches. Avoiding relations automatic hardly church-related receipt assistance. 146 arise grounding rests. represents craft historically faulty doctrine; attempts service. adequate deciding slowly come realize. worse, caused fracture unworkable plurality depending action. show difficulty encountered yield results. 147 lend geography textbooks7 maps class.8 colonial film projector class. workbooks, workbooks write, nonreusable.9 pay schools10 zoo museum trip.11 diagnostic conducted therapeutic building; "services" forbidden, Meek Pittenger, 367, 371, 1753, 1764, 1766, (1975), testing school. 241, 2602. Exceptional counseling, take outside school,12 trailer parked street. 245, 2604. state-written state-ordered reporting services,13 funds teacher-prepared subjects.14 school,15 release elsewhere, attendance truancy laws.16 148 forbid governments [provide] welfare benefits distributed individuals, individuals 'aid' worship." 799, 2989, (1973) (BURGER, C.J., part). usefulness 149 assistance, soon began describing "guideline," [a] signpos[t]." 394, 3066, citing Larkin Grendel's Den, 459 116, 505, 297 easily applied," Meek, 358, 1759, WHITE Regan, 444 646, 840, (1980), "sacrifice[d] clarity predictability flexibility." 662, 851. reiterated binding declined 150 interpret, yields unprincipled results, produced unpredictability, continuation sisyphean trying patch 'blurred, indistinct barrier' Kurtzman." U.S, 855 (STEVENS, straining 1947, perceive" wall. Tilton, perception clouded mists 151 seen 671-673, 1412-1413; 673-678, 1359-1362. inscribed deviation frustrates permanence Charter plagued 152 asserting "incorporation" via discriminating abundantly shows, strictly irreligion, pursuing legitimate ends means. 153 wished "characterize practice." 60. shock Americans learn majority, "endorsing" himself, request proclaimed "public History judge Father Country today, strayed 154 regulating conducted. understood, generalized "endorsement" reverse Appeals. reads follows: "At commencement sixth announce exceed maintained engaged in." abandoned unconstitutional. provides: duration "From henceforth, educational institution homeroom class, willing God: You world. Your justice, truth, peace abound countrymen, counsels sanctity homes classrooms name Lord. Amen." infirmity prescribes wrong quietness." Comm'rs 554 1104, 1128 Ala.1983). 1535-1536 511-12, (1947). 4-7. 4. 7. 8-9. 17. 21. nn. 47-49. 52. 727 Insofar plaintiffs proscription outweighs defendants Granting maintain status quo [§ 16-1-20.2] evidenced preamble, sharing spiritual heritage country. Journal 921 Fifth Circuit 'prayer .' Karen B. Treen, 653 897, 901 Cir.1981). [374 224, 1572, 844] remaining two-parts necessary. [370 601] precedent substantial likelihood merits." F.Supp., 730-732. "Defendant Boyd, E.R. Dickson singing phrase: 'God great, 'Let thank him food, 'bow heads fed, 'Give bread. 'Amen!' recitation throughout 1981-82 Pixie Alexander Craighead reciting food.' "Further, following, Lord's Prayer: 'Our Father, heaven, hallowed Thy name. kingdom come. earth heaven. Give bread forgive debts debtors. temptation deliver thine glory forever. Amen.' phrases "Ms. Green admitted she leads song: 'For health strength praise name, Oh Lord.' "This year, Ms. plaintiff want above-mentioned song." 1107-1108. 1128. 1130, 1132 January 1983. February 1983, capacity Eleventh Circuit, stay dissolving 1982. POWELL accurately proceedings: situation, briefly, Beginning applicants' classes, recitations Prayer. time, one-minute 'for prayer' day's (Supp.1982). permitting Ala.Acts 735. "Applicants, objecting suit enjoin activities. granted 731, 'obligated enforcement' 733. conclusion. Commissioners 1104 teachers, violative ruled 'that erred.' dissolved "There conducting decisions. Murray Curlett, district's Prayer school's participation voluntary. "Unless reconsiders decisions, appear obligated 1314, 1315-1316, 842, 842-843, 924 exceptions lower higher court. Am.Jur.2d Courts 183 (1965). "Federal district circuit controlling Hutto Davis, [454 370, 375, 703, 706, 556] Rehnquist emphasized 'unless anarchy system, be.' 706]. Also, Thurston Motor Lines, Inc. Jordan K. Rand, Ltd., [460 533, 535, 1343, 1344, 260] 'Needless say, overrule precedents')." F.2d, 1532. 1533-1534. petition writ certiorari 926, 1707, 181 1535. noting invalidity aggravated composed proponents section "amounts religion," (Ala.Code advancement involves (MD Tenn.1982). demonstrates Additionally, advancing imply barred schools; guise, teacher-led meditation. scrutinize. clause." 1535-1536. 1983) thereof; abridging speech, press; assemble, redress grievances." Permoli Municipality No. City Orleans, How. 589, 609, 739 (1845). 714, (1977) (right refuse offensive motto); Terminiello Chicago, 894, 895, 1131 (1949) speech); 637-638, 1185, (1943) offends one's conscience); (1940) faith); Hague CIO, 307 496, 519, 954, 965, 1423 (1939) Stone, J.) assemble peaceably); Near Minnesota Olson, 283 697, 625, 628, 1357 (1931) publish unpopular newspaper); Whitney 274 357, 373, 641, 647, 1095 (1927) (Brandeis, Communism); Gitlow 268 652, 632, 1138 (1925) (Holmes, opinion); 215, approvingly Minor, Ohio St. 211, 253 (1872), bulk enterprise eminently interests, lying province Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 438, 441, (1944), position appellant doubted insured Article All preferred scheme. Schneider State, 147, 146, 155; 1213. interwoven together. Differences are, modes unity charter's prime sources functionings." 274, (stating discussion "are association Amendment"). Story constitution, christianity state, indignation." 1874, 593 (1851) volume, continued: christianity; christian establishment, persecution, ages,) 1877, 594 supplied). 511, 'establishment religion' Neither church. prefer another." 513 "requires groups believers non-believers"); 216, 1568 ("this contention forbids another"); 226, 1573 ("The exalted achieved tradition reliance home, inviolable citadel heart recognize bitter experience invade citadel, oppose, retard. man neutrality"); Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 495, 1680, 1683-84, 982 ("We repeat reaffirm profess disbelief non-believers, founded beliefs"). "Memorial Remonstrance Assessments, 1785," wrote, part: "1. undeniable owe [Manner discharging and] conviction, violence.' man; right. unalienable; men, minds, men: also; towards Creator. homage, only, believes Religion, man's Civil Society, cognizance. "3. Because, alarm experiment jealousy citizens, [the] noblest characteristics Revolution. freemen wait till usurped strengthened exercise, entangled principle, avoided denying principle. revere lesson much, forget Who Christianity, exclusion Religions, ease Christians, Sects?" Complete 299-301 (S. Padover 1953). 435, 1269, ("It sacrilegious antireligious writing sanctioning function themselves guidance"). Barnette explained, appraisal quality motive, freedoms: "Struggles coerce uniformity essential waged men. Nationalism relatively phenomenon places security, dynasty regime, plans saving souls. moderate methods attain failed, bent accomplishment ever-increasing severity. becomes greater, strife be. Probably deeper division proceed provocation youth embracing. Ultimate futility coherence drive stamp disturber pagan unity, Inquisition, dynastic Siberian exiles Russian failing totalitarian enemies. Those elimination exterminating dissenters. Compulsory unification achieves unanimity graveyard." 640-641, 1186-1187. 1267 ("a union tends destroy degrade 680, 1362-1363, concurring); 1371-1372 MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, JJ., dissenting); 271, 275; 40-41, 193-194, ); asks review disapproval. invalid"). indicated, pertinent "Gentlemen, passage writers local philosophies hundreds Alabamians continuous coming worked hard accomplish moral fiber." activity." 732; elaborated admission (then Fob James) "clarify State's] activity," compare Second Amended Complaint 32(d) (App. 24-25) Answer 40); "expressed 'return schools,' &Par; 32(b) 24) 40). Appellant argues best terms "statute conforms criteria." 5; Smith "accommodates affected"); 47. burdened appearing curiae candidly acknowledges contexts aside day." 10. accommodating meditative diminishing atmosphere." 11. undisputed impeding schoolday; thus, "accommodate" Div., ("While deny anyone, meant machinery What missing appellants' eyes 16-1-20.1—and unconstitutional—was Larson, Larson's Book Cults 62-65 Whittier, Silent Meditation World Religions 1-7 (Congressional Research Service 1982). tenable, remain common-sense presumption usually Champlin Refining 341 290, 297, 715, 719, 949 (1951) passed"); 298, 720 (refusing pointless facts contrary); 78, 80-81, 955, 956-957, L.Ed.1226 (rejecting legislation). 42, 194 792-793, 2975-2976, ("A compels 'neutrality' religion"); 109, 273, 215-222, 1567-71; 1266 ("Neither denominationally Clause"); 211-212, 465-466 (1948); 513. 1267: showing direct nonobserving not." 1262. public-school context mandatory. Frankfurter reality 227, 473 opinion): "That reduce constraint; eliminate operation influence sacred domain. operates, non-conformity outstanding characteristic children." 1607 3336, (distinguishing adults "religious indoctrination" "peer pressure"). Further, observed: [Boards Education] educating young citizenship scrupulous strangle mind teach discount platitudes." 637, 1185. 690-691, (moment meditation); prayer); (teachers prayer). span repealed implication. summarily invalid. address 41-42. stating treated prayer: "A U.S.,] 281 [, 1602] ('[T]he class' 'the government'); 'The Issue,' 6-7 asserts "standards Amendment." 68. discard entirely. (dissenting). 1971. word, Respect Lemon. Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 528, 559, 1005, 1022, 1016 (POWELL, stability precipitous multiple ."). Nebraska Legislature's chaplain "part fabric society." 3336. (1972), carefully six Justices. followed. "now well-defined test" 772, 2965. (1984), "confined criterion sensitive area." 1362. symbols celebration Christmas. focused "question display creche." 1363. recognizes criterion." 56. schools—even teacher—did erred. Justice, stayed appeal Circuit. (in chambers). criticizes [with test] stem prong." Wallace, seq. "effects" immature pupils. notes, [even purpose] types subjects youthful with, "moment silence" child. Yet families, choice. (Supp.1984); Del.Code Ann., 4101 (as Del.Op.Atty.Gen. 79-1011 (1979)); Fla.Stat. 233.062 72.5308a La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 17:2115(A) (West 1982); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 20-A, 4805 Md.Educ.Code 7-104 (1985); Mass.Gen.Laws 71, 1A Mich.Comp.Laws 380.1565 (Supp.1984-1985); N.J.Stat.Ann. 18A:36-4 Supp.1984-1985); N.M.Stat.Ann. 22-5-4.1 N.Y.Educ.Law 3029-a (McKinney 1981); N.D.Cent.Code 15-47-30.1 Rev.Code 3313.60.1 15.1516.1 Tenn.Code 49-6-1004 Va.Code 22.1-203 W.Va. Const., Art. III, 15-a. comparison Note, Daily Moments Silence Analysis, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 364, 407-408 Zorach Clauson, 343 313-314, 683-684, (1952), encouraging dicta Zorach, inapposite. encourages adjusting schedule events needs, follows traditions." election student, needs. converts inoffensive minority 1573, emphasis 1954 88. disagree. God" Pledge, codified U.S.C. 172, acknowledgment solemnizing occasions, [and] confidence future." 693, 1369, disagree JUSTICE's invalidates "prayer." 85. 73, "[e]ven alternatives." assuming taxpayer practice, Valley Forge College 464, 752, 700 (1982), probably withstand process: "To Ala. 150, 307, 410, 938, 967. vocal, classroom. Report amending affirm "our [are dependent] directions Creator." H.R.Rep. 1693, 83d Cong., 2d Sess., "acknowledgment," "endorsement," judgment), infinitesimal grasp. similar survive decision. 59; true, comprehensible, "impermissible" 'I wouldn't that's unless activity.' Malone, Prayers Relief, A.B.A.J. 61, col. (Apr. 1985) (quoting Jaffree). Horace, Epistles, bk. (Ars Poetica), 139. theory." 512. inapt; Mormon's polygamy proposals similar. Elliot's Debates, 328; 334. sent France, planned "anxiously disservice." 271 (G. prevalent centuries. Mass. Const. 1780, Part III; N.H. 1784, VI; Md. Declaration 1776, XXXIII; R.I. 1633 (superseded 1842). whereas, Tribe baptized attached, annually seven dollars [a]nd dollars, assist erection church." 79. 1789 1823 trust endowment 12,000 acres Society Brethren, propagating Gospel Heathen." 46, 490. renewed periodically renewals signed Jefferson. Congressional Indians. Company, acreage reauthorized 1792. 257. 1833 sell proceeds whatsoever. 618-619. 677, 2095, 217 (1975) (partial); (1976); Many bare 5-4 majorities. Levitt Liberty, 472, 2814, 736 (1973). 362-366, 1761-1763. book permissible, kit 249, 2606. 354-355, 252-255, 2608-2609. 241-248, 2602-2605; 352, 367-373, 1756, 1764-1767. 648, 657-659, 848-849. Levitt, 479-482, 2818-2820. (1948). (1952).

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