Document: 478 U.S. 421 106 S.Ct. 3019 92 L.Ed.2d 344 LOCAL 28 OF the SHEET METAL WORKERS' INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION and Local Joint Apprenticeship Committee, Petitioners,v.EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY COMMISSION et al. No. 84-1656. Argued Feb. 25, 1986. Decided July 2, Syllabus In 1975, District Court found petitioner union apprenticeship committee of guilty violating Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964 by discriminating against nonwhite workers in recruitment, selection, training, admission to union. The court ordered petitioners end their discriminatory practices, established a 29% membership goal, based on percentage nonwhites relevant labor pool New York City, be achieved 1981, also implement procedures designed achieve this goal under supervision court-appointed administrator. Thereafter, administrator proposed adopted an affirmative-action program. Appeals affirmed, with modifications. On remand, revised program, extended time meet goal. again affirmed. 1982 1983, civil contempt for disobeying court's earlier orders. imposed fine placed special Employment, Training, Education, Recruitment Fund (Fund), used increase its ultimately entered amended program establishing 29.23% met August 1987. affirmed Court's findings (with one exception), remedies, including order, modifications, holding that was proper did not violate or Constitution. Held: judgment is 753 F.2d 1172, Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion respect Parts I, II, III, VI, concluding that: 1. use incorrect statistical evidence evaluating petitioners' practices. Pp. 440-442. 2. fines order were remedies contempt. These sanctions clearly coerce compliance rather than punish contemptuous conduct, thus criminal citations. 442-444. 3. properly appointed supervise light difficulties inherent monitoring such compliance, especially record resistance prior state federal orders, appointment well within discretion. While may interfere operations, "interference" necessary put ways. 481-482. BRENNAN, joined MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, concluded IV, V, 1 Section 706(g) does prohibit from ordering, appropriate circumstances, affirmative race-conscious relief, as case, remedy past discrimination. 444-479. 2 (a) 706(g)'s language plainly expresses Congress' intent vest district courts broad discretion award "appropriate" equitable relief unlawful last sentence § 706(g), which prohibits ordering admit individual who "refused . any reason other discrimination" say only actual victims Rather, provision addresses situation where plaintiff demonstrates has engaged discrimination but can show particular would have been refused even absence neither nor required individuals had reasons unrelated 445-447. 3 (b) availability violations furthers purposes underlying statute. some effective means available ensure full enjoyment rights protected VII. 447-451. 4 (c) legislative history indicate Congress intended benefit identified Opponents charged employers unions racial quotas preferences avoid liability Supporters insisted require "racial balancing." debate concerning what culminated adoption 703(j), expressly states statute employer adopt simply because imbalance. But gave no intimation whether measures acceptable violations. An examination policy behind discloses intend action circumstances This interpretation scope remedial power confirmed contemporaneous Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Department, two agencies enforcing VII, 1972, by, inter alia, modifying empower "any deems appropriate." 452-470. 5 (d) decisions, Teamsters v. United States, 431 324, 97 1843, 52 396, Franks Bowman Transportation Co., 424 747, 96 1251, 47 444, Albemarle Paper Co. Moody, 422 405, 95 2362, 45 280, held make whole, suggest "make-whole" kind contrary, these cases emphasized should exercised both eradicate effects whole. Nor Firefighters Stotts, 467 561, 104 2576, 81 483, read might nonvictims. Such reading distort deprive important VII's guarantee equal employment opportunity. 470-475. 6 (e) foreclose instituting sorts discrimination, always proper. exercise eye toward concern invoked create racially balanced work force. Both agreed pervasive egregious it measure strict quota. Moreover, are temporary do unnecessarily trammel interests white employees. 475-479. 7 orders protection component Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment. They narrowly tailored further Government's compelling interest remedying 479-481. POWELL 8 acted authority granted numerical at issue. Neither plain supports view all must limited benefiting there injunction alone insufficient 483-484. 9 contravene finding below committed establishes governmental sufficient justify imposition classified remedy. eradicating carefully structured vindicate interests. As doubtful, given available. permanent requirement directly related Constitution requires balance workplace, and, indeed, forbids if own sake. Here, flexible application balance. appear nonminorities will burdened directly, all. P. 484-489. 10 J., announced POWELL, JJ., joined, II-A, VI O'CONNOR, joined. filed concurring part judgment, post, p. 483. dissenting part, 489. WHITE, opinion. 489 REHNQUIST, opinion, BURGER, C.J., 500. 11 Martin R. Gold, petitioners. 12 O. Peter Sherwood, respondents. 13 [Amicus Curiae Information pages 425-426 intentionally omitted] 14 STEVENS join. 15 engaging pattern practice black Hispanic (nonwhites) violation 1964, 42 U.S.C. 2000e seq., certain 1981. now challenge finding, Principally, issue presented see 2000e-5(g), empowers 16 * Petitioner Sheet Metal Workers' International Association (Local 28) represents sheet metal employed contractors City metropolitan area. Committee (JAC) management-labor operates 4-year training teach skills. Apprentices enrolled receive classes on-the-job experience. Upon completing apprentices become journeyman members 28. Successful completion principal attaining membership.1 17 State Human determined excluded blacks law. found, among things, never apprentices, "admission conducted largely nepot[is]tic basis involving sponsorship incumbent members," App. JA-407, creating impenetrable barrier applicants.2 Petitioners "cease desist" Supreme Commission's findings, directed objective standards selecting apprentices. Comm'n Farrell, 43 Misc.2d 958, 252 N.Y.S.2d 649 (1964). 18 When proved ineffective, commenced state-court proceedings effort originally indenture successive using nondiscriminatory selection procedures, stopped processing applications second apprentice class, requiring seek 244, 262 526, aff'd, 24 App.Div.2d 128, 264 (1st Dept.1965). subsequently denied union's request reduce size chastised refusing "except token gestures, integration process." 799, 800, 263 250, (1965). proceeded disregard results test third class ground received "unfair tutoring" passed unreasonably high numbers. results. 936, 277 287, 27 327, 278 982 Dept.), aff'd 19 N.Y.2d 974, 281 521, 228 N.E.2d 691 (1967). 1971, States initiated Executive Order 11246, CFR 339 (1964-1965 Comp.) enjoin (nonwhites).3 (City) intervened press claims violated municipal fair laws, frustrated City's efforts job opportunities minorities construction industry. 638, Enterprise Assn. Steam, Hot Water, Hydraulic Sprinkler, Pneumatic Tube, Compressed Air, Ice Machine, Air Conditioning, General Pipefitters, 347 F.Supp. 164 (SDNY 1972). 1970, plan projects employ minority trainee every four members. local comply voluntarily plan. early 1974, attempted assign six trainees working projects. After projects, JAC into enjoined causing stoppage affected sites. parties consent up 40 September 1974. stalled completed process threat 20 Following trial law EEOC 401 1975). Noting 1, 3.19% total membership, journeymen, nonwhite, qualified access through variety First, examined factors select entrance high-school diploma requirement, criteria adverse impact nonwhites, performance. observed funds subsidize sessions friends relatives taking examination.4 21 Second, restricted deny nonwhites. administer yearly examinations despite growing demand members' services.5 demand, recalled pensioners obtained doctors' certificates they able work, issued hundreds permits nonmembers; nonwhite. "despite fact saw fit [temporary workers] sister locals across country, allied plumbers, carpenters, iron workers, once sought them 400," comprised almost entirely Id., 485. permit system continuing tests, successfully "illegal effect, intention, denying industry." Ibid. 22 Third, selectively organized nonunion shops few, any, employees, admitted employees those shops. "[p]rior 1973 non-white ever became member organization non-union shop." that, insistent pressure Union contractors, stubbornly organize blowpipe industry large 23 Finally, discriminated favor applicants seeking transfer locals. noted 1967 accepted 57 transfers locals, white, after litigation first transfers, journeymen 400. occasion, president incorrectly told 400 eligible transfer. (O & J) enjoining specific practices discriminatory. Recognizing "the defendants replete instances bad faith attempts prevent delay action," id., 488,6 conjunction preference non-whites essential place position [Title VII]." devise recruitment administrator.7 25 proposed, adopted, Affirmative Action Program which, offer annual, examinations, according white-nonwhite ratio negotiated parties, conduct extensive publicity campaigns aimed minorities,8 secure administrator's before issuing permits, maintain detailed records, separate records whites 603 (1975). permitted extend benefits minorities, provided programs' operation. 26 Second Circuit determination liability, "consistently egregiously VII." 532 821, 825 (1976). upheld remedy, justified "long persistent discrimination," 830, powers appropriate, refusal change face However, modified pending implementation valid, job-related tests. certiorari review Appeals' judgment. Revised (RAAPO) incorporate mandate. RAAPO original accommodate claim economic problems facing made difficult additional year interim goals "afford Administrator device progress so warranted, provisions could reflect [sic] circumstances." JA-168. least 36 February 1977, determine future subject administrator.9 A divided panel entirety, 565 31 (1977). chose April 1982, moved contempt.10 alleged RAAPO's failure due numerous O J, RAAPO, Court, receiving how J operated over previous years, rest although 10.8% hearing. Instead, "failed date entry," Pet. Cert. A-156, identifying "separate actions omissions [that] impeded entry contravention court." A-150. Specifically, (1) underutilizing limit opportunities;11 (2) general campaign inform opportunities; (3) added collective-bargaining agreement favored older (older provision); (4) unauthorized locals; (5) failed submit reports administrator, making monitor 29 To contempt, $150,000 fund propose utilizing fund. deferred coercive receipt recommendations modifications RAAPO.12 30 brought proceeding charging various administrative failing accurate hours worked preventing shared opportunities, had: failed, timely manner, provide ethnic data new entering result merger five predominantly serve copies employing members, submitted inaccurate records.13 adjudicated pay computerized recordkeeping maintained outside consultants, ruling submission proposal. (Fund) "be purpose discrimination." A-113-A-114. purposes. paid liaisons vocational technical schools programs, created part-time summer jobs youths, financial assistance needy counseling tutorial services giving traditionally family friends. maximize support otherwise unable hire number matching attract funding programs.14 32 Amended Plan (AAAPO) several respects. AAAPO 31, area covered newly expanded abolished examination, occurred approach taken solve problem." A-112. selected three-member Board, each indentured. unless contractor written waiver 33 appealed adopting AAAPO.15 findings,16 except workers' provision.17 1172 (1985). "[p]articularly integrate combination [the Court] amply foot-dragging noncompliance adequately [its] JAC." 1183. modifications: set aside indentured apprentice,18 clarified allow objective, procedures.19 28's continued 1186, "will readily ascertainable group non-minority individuals." 1187. rejected argument distinguished invalidated 483 (1984), three grounds: unlike conflict bona fide seniority plan; Stotts discussion applied "make whole" address prospective contained order; involved intentional 34 petition writ certiorari. present review: relied data; nature without process; interferes right self-governance; unconstitutional. however, petitioners, supported Solicitor General, exceed We petition, 474 815, 58, 88 (1985), affirm Appeals. II 35 argue process. A. Under attain City. drawn areas accounted areas. Although concede correct derived, insist figure erroneous, error "significant."20 37 more decade ago twice either judgments. Consequently, we us correctness figure. See Pasadena Bd. Education Spangler, 427 424, 432, 2697, 2703, 49 599 AAAPO, obligated nonwhite-membership adjusted account Thus, assuming affect existing obligations us.21 B 38 underutilized recognized error, n. 20, supra, Court.22 explain whether, so, why, evaluation incorrect. Based our record, cannot resolution erroneous. Cf. National Collegiate Athletic Board Regents Univ. Okla., 468 85, 98, 15, 2948, 2958, 82 70 (1984); Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 623, 102 3272, 3278-3279, 73 1012 (1982). based, provides disturbing citation. observed, "failure independent symptom defendants' kinds conduct." F.2d, III 39 finance Fund, attorney's fees expenses. sanctions, while ostensibly punitive, proceedings, Fed.Rule Crim.Proc. 42(b); 2000h. reject contention. Criminal punitive court. Mine Workers, 330 258, 302, 67 677, 700, 91 L.Ed. 884 (1947). hand, "for purposes: defendant compensate complainant losses sustained." 303-304, S.Ct., 701; McComb Jacksonville 336 187, 191, 69 497, 499, 93 (1949); Penfield California SEC, 585, 590, 918, 921, 1117 (1947); Nye 313 33, 42, 61 810, 813, 85 (1941); McCrone 307 61, 64, 59 685, 686-687, 83 1108 (1939); standard, nature. 41 detriment prevented approaching court-ordered Fund—and it—sought increasing attempt encourage recruiting schools, students. Nonwhite tutorial, counseling, services. stimulate helped afford funds. considered character magnitude harm threatened contumacy, probable effectiveness suggested sanction bringing about desired," U.S., 304, 701, terms purge themselves ending achieving goal; then entitled, approval, recover moneys remaining Fund. levied conduct.23 IV Petitioners, EEOC, grant prohibited defines authorizes preferential discrimination.24 provision, since to, discrimination.25 argument, hold dissipate lingering states: "If finds respondent ., practice, include, reinstatement hiring back appropriate. No shall union, hiring, reinstatement, promotion employee, payment him pay, admission, suspended, expelled, advancement suspended discharged race, color, religion, sex, national origin title." 78 Stat. 261, forth 2000e-5(g). 44 364, 1869, 396 (1977); 771, 1267, 444 (1976); 421, 2373, 280 (1975).26 Nevertheless, take steps eliminate incidentally twists It not, suggest, (or employer) example, unqualified. confirms unqualified individual. Patterson Greenwood School 50, 696 293, 295 (CA4 1982); American Tel. 556 167, 174-177 (CA3 1977), cert. denied, 438 915, 98 3145, 1161 (1978); Day Mathews, 174 U.S.App.D.C. 231, 233, 530 1083, 1085 King Laborers' Union, 818, 443 273, 278-279 (CA6 1971). awarded case. 46 enacted systematic employment. "[I]t clear '[t]he crux problem [was] open Negroes occupations closed them,' prohibition primarily addressed." Steelworkers Weber, 193, 203, 99 2721, 2727, 480 (1979) (quoting 110 Cong.Rec. 6548 (1964) (remarks Sen. Humphrey)). "to equality remove barriers identifiable employees." Griggs Duke Power 429-430, 849, 853, 158 (1971); Teamsters, 364-365, 1869-1870; Franks, 763, 1263-1264, 1267; Paper, 417-418, 2371-2372. foster lower fashion most complete possible" 770, 418, 2372. cases, need cease make-whole victimized instances, effectively enforce Where particularly longstanding reiterating often prove useless endless enforcement litigation. recalcitrant roughly proportion force way e.g., Thompson Sawyer, 219 393, 430, 678 257, 294 (1982); Chisholm Postal Service, 665 482, 499 1981); Lee Way Motor Freight, Inc., 625 943-945 (CA10 1979); Chicago, 549 415, 437 (CA7), 434 875, 225, 54 155 (1977), modified, 663 1354, 1362 (1981) (en banc); Rios Steamfitters 501 622, 631-632 (CA2 1974); NAACP Allen, 340 703 (MD Ala.1972), remanded, 493 614 (CA5), remand sub nom. Dothard, 373 504, 506-507 Ala.1974) (Johnson, J.); Edwards Zaretsky, Preferential Remedies Discrimination, 74 Mich.L.Rev. (1976) ("[A] form opportunity when facts long class"). 48 Further, formally ceases engage informal mechanisms obstruct opportunities. employer's reputation discourage Morrow Crisler, 491 1053, 1056 (CA5) banc), 419 895, 173, 139 (1974); Carter Gallagher, 452 315, 331 (CA8 1971), 406 950, 2045, 338 (1972); Spiegelman, Court-Ordered Hiring Quotas Stotts: Narrative Role Moralities Web Ladder Discrimination Doctrine, Harv.Civ.Rights-Civ.Lib.L.Rev. 339, 388 (1985); Taylor Jones, 653 1193, 1203 1981) ("[I]n atmosphere shown, common forms adequate"); 6. assure devices fostered stratified environments disadvantage citizens." McDonnell Douglas Corp. Green, 411 792, 1817, 1823, 668 (1973); 348, 1861.27 "promptly outward visible signs yesterday's distinctions thus, impetus dismantling barriers, psychological otherwise, erected practices." 614, 621 (CA5 1974). find promotional development procedures. compromise between unacceptable alternatives: outright ban promotions, procedure. 50 previously utilize Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 100 2758, 2777, 65 902 (1980) (opinion C.J.) ("Where antidiscrimination laws violated, case include factor"); 513, 2792-2793 (POWELL, concurring) ("The Courts approved insuring business agency reasonably population"); University Bakke, 265, 353, 2733, 2780, 750 (1978) JJ.) ("[T]he VII"). unanimously used, VII.28 C 51 Despite opposite, indicates contention, rely principally statements throughout House Senate debates effect minorities. Our convinces context, upon reassure opponents bill treatment being America, AFL CIO CLC (1979), 205, 2728, 480. bill's supporters legislation, eventually 2000e-2(j). Contrary arguments wished emphasize merely having imbalanced force, consequently, 53 H.R. 7152, introduced Representatives June 1963, referred Judiciary. addressed employment, Judiciary adding H.R.Rep. 914, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., pt. pp. 26-32 (1963), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 2355. reported included version read, part: "No expelled cause." 12, 2405 (emphasis added). word "cause" deleted floor replaced origin." 2567-2571 Representative Celler, Chairman sponsor amendment, explained: "[T]he amendment specify cause. Here court, act other—and I 'other'—than grounds origin. discharge incompetence morals charge theft, consider charges That amendment." 2567. 55 2570 Rep. Gill) ("[W]e discharges ineptness, drunkeness" [sic]). 56 Even Committee's reached floor, Minority Report nowhere defined bill," administration intends 'discrimination' lack balance." 68, 73, 2436, 2441.29 demonstrate operate posited hypothetical situations, compel 'racially balance' classification Federal law." 69, 2438 original).30 response, Republican proponents statement emphasizing balance: confine activities correcting abuse, promoting mathematical certainty. regard, nothing title person Of greater importance, jeopardize existence seeks impose forced unions." 29. 58 7152 actually Celler respond imbalance constitute "discrimination" authorized "order races religious groups." 1518 (1964).31 accusations similar repeatedly raised floor. For Alger "demand law, privileges Negroes": "The Negro percent population said he kept represented Now asked ignore ratios mean, Government, far beyond represent." 1645. 60 Abernathy scenario "union [having] send out 'racially' staff organizers sign crew balanced' laborers, electricians, plasterers, roofers, forth, begin. 1620; 1633, 2557 Dowdy); 2558 Ashmore); 2571 Gathings). stridently balancing."S32 response roster, question comparable restrictions arise during debates. passing vote 290 130, ran equally strong opposition Senate. initially sent hostile legislation. motion focused merits bill; many Senators specter Senator Ervin substantive tell too few enter persons, thought needed wanted persons race." Cong.Rec., 4764. Similarly, Robertson stated: 62 "This suggests done overcome. contemplated colored community percentages establishment employs persons. 10,000 city 15,000 whites, would, overcome imbalance, personnel white. And, chance fire rectify situation." 5092. 63 Humphrey, vocal rose defense. He newspaper article quoting answers Department expert objections "objection" "[w]hite people fired, room Negroes," stated "[t]he authorize anyone firing 5094. Later, responding political advertisement suggesting interpret synonymous Humphrey stressed "does [not] Government prescribe, charges, 'racial classifications office staffs 'preferential minorities' " 5423. days debate, voted referring committee. 6417. 64 Kuchel, served bipartisan managers opened formal opponents' "[c]ontrary allegations title, give firing, 'quota' 6549. Kuchel elaborated: "[Title VII] pictured detractors intrusion inspectors life. presumably dictate regard classifications, called groups. Nothing truth. [T]he point consideration group." 6563. 66 sentiments echoed Case Clark, spoke team "captains" interpretative memorandum explained "[t]here his force." 7213. Clark repeated tried clear: "There bill, Negro. Jews gentiles, Italians English, women men." 7207. 68 2-month filibuster, raising remarked: "What mean? If think does, man quota discriminating." 7419 Smathers Sparkman conceded words quotas, feared 7800, 8500, 8618-8619. outsiders debate. Javits Governor Wallace Alabama "vested inspector who, allegation establish whereby employed." 11471. liability.33 Nonetheless, remained skeptical. verbal assurances dispute balancing," insert explicit disclaimer assuage fears. Dirksen comprehensive "Dirksen-Mansfield" substitute entire defining clarifying provisions. One provisions, specifically balancing": "Nothing subchapter interpreted organization, joint labor-management race exist [admitted program] comparison community, State, section, area, area." 71 "A subsection 703(j) deal occasions sort group. Since doubts persisted, (j) expressly. represent substance title. accurately along meaning." 12723. 72 12618 Muskie) (§ "limit[s] term 'unlawful practice' spelling situations unlawful").34 apparently calmed fears opponents, complaints balance" "quotas" died down considerably adoption. contrast heated 703, scant attention 706(g). Several emphasize, reference section fired Title." 11848 Humphrey).35 liberally quote excerpts, supporting confirm 706(g): 27. 14511. Rather setting Conference upon, passed, bill. 15897. sponsors repeated, time, "[did] balance, things saying it." 15876 Lindsay); 15893 MacGregor); ibid. McCulloch). 75 summarize, argued compelled liability. 2728. At same solely facilitate balancing. 207, 7, 2729, 7. strongly opposed violations.36 76 surprising, relatively little Act. More importantly, litigated resulted later apparent, sometimes considered. task preclude Brooklyn Savings Bank O'Neil, 324 697, 706, 902, 89 1296 (1945); Burnet Guggenheim, 288 285, 369, 370-371, 77 748 (1933). leads conclude exercising way.37 deliberately possible vestiges unfortunate ignominious page country's history," above, accomplish task. indication frustrate ability mandate, decline limitation ourselves. interpretations Department.38 enactment steadfastly have, decrees containing See, Alexandria, 1358 1980); 918 Contour Chair Lounge 596 809 167 1977); Masonry Contractors Memphis, 497 871 212 Brotherhood Electrical 472 634 1973); Wood, Wire Lathers 46, 471 408 (CA2), 412 939, 2773, 398 Ironworkers 86, 544, 548 (CA9), 404 984, 447, 367 Appropriate 1608 Uniform Guidelines Employee Selection Procedures, 1607.17; Op.Atty.Gen. 405 (1969). agencies' lends interpretation. Udall Tallman, 380 16, 801, 616 (1965); E.I. duPont de Nemours Collins, 432 54-55, 2229, 2234, 86 103, "such 2000e-5(g) (emphasized wide possible." 118 7168 (1972). section-by-section analysis undertaken "victims 7168, 7565, lacked Indeed, Senate's rejection amendments contrary conclusion. 79 During 1972 debates, counteract Labor's so-called Philadelphia Plan. pursuant Comp.), programs "specific manpower utilization." Eastern Pa. Secretary Labor, 442 159, 163 (CA3), 854, (1971). Attacking notorious example reverse," 1663, department, agency, officer reverse fixed variable numbers, proportions, percentages, goals, ranges." 1662. complained Labor ignoring 703(j)'s 1663-1664. 80 vigorously Ervin's targeted Plan, jettison whole concept 'affirmative action' developed 11246 1664 "deprive type sustained unjust illegal employment." 1665. point, printed Congressional Record decision Third sustaining Ninth affirming applicants. 1665-1675 (reprintingContractors Assn., supra).39 summarized attack follows: torpedo color grounds, hired, apply government private employers." 1675. Williams, Javits' examples adversely" "amendment strip basic fiber. proven 1676. defeated margin "Executive Numbered Order," 4917-4918; resoundingly. 4918.40 aware Judicial Branches discrimination,41 barred remedies. reaffirmed breadth authorizing resolve accept prevailing judicial regarding VII: "[I]n itself, intention indicated, assumed continue govern applicability 7166, 7564. "[e]xecutive, judicial, congressional subsequent passage conclusively bar 28, 2780 JJ.); Boston Chapter, NAACP, Inc. Beecher, 504 1017, 1027-1028 (CA1 1974), 910, 1561, 775 (1975); 212, 636; Elevator Constructors, 5, 538 1012, 1017-1020 1976); cf. North Haven Bell, 456 512, 534-535, 1912, 1924-1925, 299 Lorillard Pons, 575, 580-581, 866, 870, (1978).42 D decisions applying provision. refer proposition Ford 219, 3057, 721 Connecticut Teal, 457 440, 2525, 130 reliance misguided. cited supra (competitive seniority); 779, 1271 (same); 422, 2373-2374 (backpay). None statute; 1869; 2373. nonvictims; indeed acknowledged "devise therefrom." 361, 47, 1868, 47; 84 strongest (1984). Tennessee, decree Fire Department. Budgetary cuts lay off employees; city's last-hired, first-fired system, hired laid first. layoffs "insofar decrease black[s] presently 567, 2582. exceeded authority. expressed depart event layoffs. conflicted 703(h) VII,43 "permits routine absent proof discriminate." 577, 2587. motivated purpose, erred suggestion plaintiffs prevailed trial, overriding system. Relying abridge fashioning is, competitive against. none firefighters victim reasoned override therefore effectuate decree. 87 strictly result, went comment "[o]ur beneficiary consistent 706(g)" noted, "is 'make-whole' 579-580, 2588. language, reads broadly ignores differences discussed "policy" supplement interfered awarding seniority, backpay, promotion, inconsistent tantamount (in seniority) shown Note, Race-Conscious Versus Seniority Systems: 1784 St. Louis L.J. 269 (1985).44 action. dismantle patterns future. members; entitled beneficiaries discrimination.45 train individuals, invitation nonvictims.46 opportunity.47 E mean invokes "equitable courts," guided sound legal principles. particular, towards majority before, resort confronted Or Whether matter decide here. note imposing measures, care tailor correct.48 lead 90 observing [petitioners] action." F.Supp., 488. RAAPO. "[t]his observations longer apposite." 1186. "foot-dragging resistance" futile. similarly combat unlikely contacts substantial cease. insure sources. affirmative, guaranteed gives benchmark gauge deadline continually changes conditions meeting targets; believe legitimate explanations disavowed instead viewed symptomatic subsidiary sum, implemented quota.49 measures. "[p]referential [union members] soon [minority approximates [minorities] 208-209, 2730; 1366. scheduled terminate determines "as tool attempting 'maintain' 216, 2734 (BLACKMUN, concurring). 94 significant "unnecessarily trammel[s] 208, 352-353, 1863-1864. off, discriminate 2729-2730; U.L.J., 264. counterparts, stand absolute individuals; Many race-neutral (for workers), remain free V allege Amendment race. consistently bodies constitutionally Wygant Jackson 476 267, 1842, 260 (1986); (1980); Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg 402 554 agreed, analyzing constitutionality Wygant, 274, 1847 J.) (means chosen "narrowly tailored" "compelling interest"); 284-287, 1852 (O'CONNOR, judgment); 301-302, 1861-1862 (MARSHALL, dissenting); 313, 1867 (STEVENS, dissenting) (public pursued disadvantaged group); Fullilove, 491, 2781 (racial "a searching examination"); 519, 2795-2796 judgment) (remedial substantially achievement objectives); 305, 2756 accomplishment interest); 359, 2783 MARSHALL objectives). here, passes rigorous test—it problem, showing classifications. objective. efficacy alternative official stronger necessary. 510, 2791 concurring); Arthur Nyquist, 712 816, 822 1983); 621. devised tools marginal workers. 282-283, 1851-1852 1854 295, 1858 (WHITE, 309-310, 1865-1866 317, 1869-1870 dissenting). Again, again, safeguards Constitution.50 challenges unjustifiable interference statutory self-governance. 401(a). Preliminarily, oversee retains control affairs. numbers nonwhites; admitted, left officials. event, Civ.Proc. 53; Ruiz Estelle, 679 1115, 1160-1163 1982), 460 1042, 103 1438, 795 (1983); Gary W. Louisiana, 601 240, 244-245 1979). summarize today, agree may, benefitting IV—A IV-D, ---- dissenting), Part supra. Five err utilization II-B, violative Constitution, IV-E, judgment). hereby Affirmed. 101 join BRENNAN's granting write separately issues why contend forbidden victims. And doubt, am unpersuaded fairly evade contrary. There, us, answer question. There remains recently reiterated standard assessing constitutional classification: 105 'Any necessarily sure guarantees.' [100 2781, 902] C.J.). prongs examination. 'must interest' Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, [104 1879, 1882, 421] Loving Virginia, [87 1010] (1967); Graham Richardson, 403 365, 375 [91 1848, 1853-1854, 534] (1971) (alienage). 'narrowly goal.' 2776]." 273-274, 1847, (1986). establishes, My inquiry, therefore, focuses tailored," 6, 1850, is. 107 societal judgments courts. 303, until 'the consequent seriousness burden' defendants." 156, 701. focus years informally nonminorities. burden imposes slight. difficulty 108 raises different (1980), "minority enterprise" Public Works required, waiver, 10% public works grantees procure supplies businesses owned my considering Those were: (i) remedies; (ii) planned duration remedy; (iii) relationship force; (iv) met. 510-511, 2791-2792. final factor primary importance [remedy] innocent thirdparties." 514, 2793. Application comports requirements. 109 litigation, period best judge simple injunction, 1975 declaring "[i]n JAC's 'clean house' concludes Act." 467, 488 1975).1 facts, eliminating powerless duration. fourth factor, or, generally, flexibility reflects recognition workplace. 507, 2789-2790. "We recognized, account." 1850. choose balance; rather, confined elimination means, useful assist determining eradicated. 111 Union's prescribed Additional evidenced delayed 1987.2 112 Petitioners' counsel oral layoff nonminority Tr. Oral Arg. 21. distinguishable plurality "layoffs resulting serious disruption lives." 283, 1851-1852. here akin observed: 113 "In valid borne diffused considerable extent society generally. Though injury impose." 282, 1851.3 114 permissible endorsement indiscriminate use. imply pass muster.4 115 part. 116 insofar "goal" concerned, reach claims. rigid feasibly good-faith view, 2000e-2(j), together, this. dissent affirms mandatory quotas. 117 embodying subjected 579-583, 2588-2590. urged precisely advanced today—that extends nonvictims class-wide cases. 612-614, 2605-2606 unquestionably Stotts. technically dicta, rationale reached, accordingly weight today. 582-583, 2590. clear, believes confer non-victims ante, 444-475 483-484 J.). impermissible run counter be. 119 asserts "qualifies proscribes established." Ante, 464, 37. According plurality, institute concedes interprets limiting unions, 120 unduly narrow. provides: 121 employer, in, area", 257 122 "Section speaks Weber occasion exclusive purpose. require" applicable Therefore, quota, contravenes purported "on [a racial] imbalance." addition, limits "preferential race," plurality's distinction classwide ruled concerned. 123 restrictive rests history, sole fear liable authoritative statements—relied 580-582, 2588-2590—addressing least, 6549 ("Contrary balance") (Sen. Humphrey); 6566 ("[T]itle unions. .,") (memorandum sponsors); 14665 ("Under much less Commission, title") (statement newsletter filibuster). 124 defies sense. Legislators objected obviously restriction freedom follow across-the-board Racial inflict harms balanced, short expense 125 bottom, recognizes prefers cut loose moorings another notwithstanding irrelevant tacitly improper, improper virtue 703(j). says ----. locates appears recognize relevant, all, choice flexibly "used [can] [an union's] infer approves because, characterized court] quota." 126 correctly potential defense wit, employee "reasons 474, 45. clues defense, refuse applicants, undoubted 127 offers guidance separates Reference benchmarks estimate composed completely unrealistic assume gravitate exactitude That, course, disparity composition pool, population, inferred disparity. 339-340, 1856-1857, turns sensible rule thumb unjustified conclusion precise effects, prediction happen truly remedial, amounts 128 measuring unconditionally pain sanctions. regardless By contrast, come range demarcated itself. 129 understanding difference essentially definitions jointly Departments memorandum, Labor. Memorandum—Permissible Goals Timetables Practices (Mar. 23, 1973), reprinted CCH ¶ 3776 (1985) (hereinafter Memorandum); Fed.Reg. 38815 (EEOC Policy Statement Programs Agencies); Office Contract Compliance Priester Construction 78-OFCCP-11 (Feb. 22, 1983), OFCCP 970a3, BNA AACM D:9121 (1983). agencies, responsibility "would attained, exceeded," "regardless qualifications." Memorandum, Practices, 3856. realistically vacancies expected, market." sanction, employer] expected displace unneeded [the] goal." seems me workable relief. If, then, though nonvictims, holds, allows caution "take correct." suggests, generally Furthermore, likely attributable "concentrated small, persons." 1186 1985). creation courts, sparingly manifestly honored. 131 WHITE administered "not just [as] attain." Post, (dissenting). realize goes ones discusses approvingly, "admit 449. mirror 1987, variables needed. "[i]f attained date, threaten very existence." A-123. 132 value, certainly supplied conclusory assertion willing orders." 478-479, 49. Judge Winter persuasively below, led sharp skills "voluntarily 45% January 1981," apprentice. 1189. portion abuse discretion, ibid., willingness absolute. 133 postponed decision, approximately 1187, 3,100 15.5% 13. Absent enormous expansion program—which feasible dramatically increase—it cavil "voluntary" 1-to-1 Aug. respondents much. 31-32. 134 egregious, respects exhibited inexcusable recalcitrance timetable quite turn spawn curtailment met, replacement basis." 1195 (Winter, 135 unequivocal both, "remedy" stand. reasons, precluded enjoying, Accordingly, reaching 136 dissenting. 137 observes, circumstances. Hence, IV-A IV-D unusual Winter, critical parts excessive views, cumulative attain. heretofore now. Beyond this, convinced, was, doldrums declining practical equivalent insistence displacement class. inequitable 138 whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, Today, Cleveland, 501, 3063, (REHNQUIST, express belief pervasiveness practiced Act, go injured preferences. Terms Because question, - J.), approving class-based addition gain transferring "sister" union; battery level tests gaining shop periods nonmembers jurisdiction. formed 1888, "white unions" relegated subordinate 1913 union." 1946, 1969. (EEOC) substituted named Conditioning Contractors' (Contractors' Association) defendant. Division (State), third- fourth-party action, realigned itself plaintiff. regulations keep applicant's evaluate offered 1968 1969 arbitration manpower. Only validated accordance guidelines, Some tested impossible "After [State] Markowitz [in proceeding] to] 'truly union[,]' flouted mandate expending edge [apprenticeship examination]. exemption operating yet regulations, incorporated therein recently, unilaterally tables forty citations." backpay discriminatorily membership. earned well-deserved "operated still program." 487. consequently dispel reputation, advantage 300 1976, 200 thereafter, figures downward defer reason. proceeding. "journeymen comprise membership." A-151. contention underutilization blamed overlooked obstacles contend," "given condition trade years." A-156. modify viable timetable, memberships merged cross-motion terminating caused unexpected undue hardship. comments revealed concerned "inability data" errors discovered. "no verify membership," A-133, "[s]uch verification done, totally haphazard controls manner herein isolation, seen continuation contempt." A-138. financed proceeding, plus $0.02 per hour appeal denial cross-appealed claiming higher. cross-appeal. With mistakenly compared enrollees J. inconsequential, "only small overall 1180 advertise thereby help fill need. infra. "[m]any uncertainties reporting RAAPO." negotiated, implemented. instructed status with, vacated Association. "temporary rations unlawfully barred," cautioned extreme 'carefully found.' 1188, Against Bridgeport, 647 256, 1981). reached. brief, invalid Hazelwood 433 299, 2736, 768 (1977) (proof geographical locations). "did inferences area," "was direct overwhelming purposeful 36, "challeng[e] deliberate "[i]nasmuch [they] [29% membership] propriety derived relevant." Brief 35-36. place, "contempt reconsideration factual disobeyed retrial controversy." Maggio Zeitz, 333 56, 401, 408, (1948); Walker Birmingham, 307, 313-314, 1824, 1828, 1210 Rylander, 752, 756-757, 1548, 1552-1553, 521 C. Wright Miller, Practice Procedure 2960, 597-598 (1973). pointed entered: "sharp increase" contractors; average annually "increased dramatically"; unemployed decreased; mostly journeymen. evidence, shifted requirements assessment attorney expenses compensated costs occasioned conduct. curious position. Appeals, challenge. State's res judicata addressing legality A.S. Kreider 443, 445-446, 1007, 1009, 1447 Southern Clift, 316, 319, 126, 127, 283 (1922); Messenger Anderson, 225 436, 739, 740, 1152 (1912); 1B Moore, Lucas, T. Currier, Moore's 0.404 [4.-6], 141 (2d ed. 1984). has, asking implementing ratios, timetables. complaint, "selection JA-374. post-trial "establish cent non 28." JA-277. ratio, reasonable injustices permissable [sic ]." conferred wit liaison, stipend, loan powers. citing authority, maintains statute's providing 11. restricts powers, modeled 10(c) Relations 160(c). 769, 1266; 419, Principles "guide, bind, tailoring 226, 8, 3062-3063, formulate remedies: catalogue strategems circumventing policies define gamut infinite situations. leaving adaption empiric administration." Phelps Dodge NLRB, 177, 194, 845, 852, (1941). 29, 1266 ("[Section] grants broader discretionary [NLRB ]"). 277, (1986) ("to vestige segregation necessary"); 301, 1861 ("racial highly pernicious discrimination"); (upholding contract businesses); (state university admissions process); Jewish Organizations Williamsburgh Carey, 430 144, 996, 229 (reapportionment voting districts Voting 1965); McDaniel Barresi, 39, 1287, 582 (school board took redrawing school districts); (court starting segregation); Montgomery County 395 1670, (1969) faculty staff). E.g., Pennsylvania Operating Engineers, 770 1068 1985), 1060, 803, 779 Paradise Prescott, 767 1514, 1527-1530 (CA11 1985); Vanguards Cleveland 479, 485-489 Smith Segar, 238 147-148, 738 1249, 1293-1294 2357, 258 Williams Orleans, 729 1554, 1557 1984); 251, 293-294 934-945 Institute Equality Louis, 350, 364 1980), 938 (1981); 1358, 1363-1366 809, 813-814 Davis Los Angeles, 566 1334, 1342-1344 (CA9 moot, 440 625, 1379, 642 (1979); 436-437 (CA7 Constructors Tobacco 535 273 (CA4), 429 920, 286 Morgan Kerrigan, 431, (CA1), 426 935, 2649, 386 629-633 871, 877 634, 636 N.L. Industries, 479 354, 377 412-414 553-554 53, Heat Frost Insulators Asbestos Workers Volger, 407 1047, 1055 1969). Given commentators court-ordered, "settled." B. Schlei Grossman, Law, ch. 37, 1200, Sullivan, M. Zimmer, Richards, Statutory Law 13.2, Blumrosen, Rutgers L.Rev. 39-41 (1981). Much centered around EEOC's empowered judicially enforceable cease-and-desist (1963). allowing aggrieved permission, actions. bring suit, Attorney suit existed 2000e-6. litigate restored 1972. 4a, 104, 2000e-5. illustrative purposes, "examples": "Under carpenters' hall, say, men awaiting call, carpenters beneath stipulated roster contain names job, agent must, street recruit else 71, 2440. "Assume [a] firm stenographer; indefinable reason, above other, personality, superior alertness, intelligence, neatness. Assume learned good derogatory proof. balanced,' choice, next up, mind woman allowed employee." 72-73, 2441. imbalance' religion." "[n]o court," "[e]ven religion group, 1540 Lindsay) (The acceptance. whatever frequently report committee"); 1600 Minish) ("[U]nder incompetent vested job"); 1994 Healy) ("Opponents sets job[s]. that"); Goodell) ("There talking involved"). 7420 Humphrey) ("[I]f [Senator Robertson] start eating pages"); 8500-8501 Allott) sees it. bill"); 8921 Williams) ("[T]here employment"); 11471 Javits) (the "in standard"); systems employment"). introduction Dirksen-Mansfield Allott "an exists 9881. workforce," groups, qualifications, [EEOC]." Allott's superseded upon. ("No [§ ], makes implicit title; namely, fire, promote bad, origin"); 7214 (Interpretative 14465 (Civil Newsletter 28). 342, 17, 2774-2775, ("Even maintaining imply, ends"). contravened Hispanics VII"); ("§ 758, 1261 delineat[e] not"). notion somehow qualifies established. 174; 1019; 273; 1028; 631; brief described "To sure, construed employers' forces. assured duty forces ." O.T. 1978, Nos. 435 29-30 (citations omitted). state[s] 30-31. 337 217 1972): "I told, information reliable, week Bonsal York, minority-group apprentices." 1665 transferred (OFCC) EEOC. 1746, 92d 717(f) 92-238, 14-16, OFCC bid Dent read: Rec. 31784 adamantly upon: already applies Dent); 32091 Erlenborn). intact, came vote. Javits, had, amendments, 1971) 1055; Central Lines, 532, 560-562 (WDNC 1971); 10, EPD 8068 (NJ 1970). history. "[a]ny 1972." O.T.1978, 78-432, 78-435, 78-436, 31. Referring argued: Congress's keen awareness protests others numerical, 35. "Notwithstanding subchapter, compensation, terms, conditions, merit 2000e-2(h). protects exclude lawsuit. 1984, counsel, letter "affects [of ordered] 5. disposition appeal." Counsel ] challenged appellants relates retroactive 'make whole' remedies," like Court. deals let acts. Commissions' followed Justice, immediately following entitles great deference." 7-8. declined broadly, facts. 1527-1530; Turner Orr, 759 817, 823-826 485-489; Diaz Telephone Telegraph, 752 1356, 1360, Van Aken Young, 43, 44-45 Ed., 746 1152, 1157-1159 1984), rev'd Kromnick Dist. Philadelphia, 739 894, 911 469 1107, 782, 777 Grann Madison, 786, 795, 296, 231 Deveraux Geary, 1481, 1485-1487 (Mass.1984), 765 268 Detroit Police Officers 591 1194, 1202-1203 (ED Mich.1984). cautious commentator noted: "While circuit appeals indicated possess [to relief], reluctant appellate preferred harsh posting notices vacancies. tended demonstrated." L.Rev., 41. 6-7 Other struck characterize reality inflexible quota: "Although seven not. go. lenient defendants, understandable frustration faced shows expect unconstitutional attainder, visiting sins others." 33. merit. initial JAC] Corrected Draft, hope 'a battery. declared [August 1987], simplistic combined holdings withstand muster whereas specialized Wygant. inquiry diffuseness nonminorities, label differently. O'CONNOR assumes basis.' 1985) dissenting)). happens, JAC. enforced concerns O'CONNOR. satisfied one.

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