Document: 394 U.S. 618 89 S.Ct. 1322 22 L.Ed.2d 600 Bernard SHAPIRO, Commissioner of Welfare the State Connecticut, Appellant,v.Vivian THOMPSON. Walter E. WASHINGTON et al., Appellants, v. Clay Mae LEGRANT al. Roger A. REYNOLDS Juanita SMITH Nos. 9, 33, and 34. Reargued Oct. 23 24, 1968. Decided April 21, 1969. [Syllabus from pages 618-620 intentionally omitted] Francis J. MacGregor, Fairfield, Conn., Richard W. Barton, Washington, D.C., William C. Sennett, Harrisburg, Pa., for appellants. Archibald Cox, appellees. Lorna L. Williams, Sp. Asst. Atty. Gen., Des Moines, Iowa, or as amicus curiae. [The balance this page left blank] Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 These three appeals were restored to calendar reargument. 392 920, 88 2272, 20 1381 (1968). Each is an appeal a decision three-judge District Court holding unconstitutional Columbia statutory provision which denies welfare assistance residents who have not resided within their jurisdictions at least one year immediately preceding applications such assistance.1 We affirm judgments Courts in cases. I. 2 In No. Connecticut Department invoked § 17—2d General Statutes2 deny application appellee Vivian Marie Thompson under program Aid Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). She was 19-year-old unwed mother child pregnant her second when she changed residence June 1966 Dorchester, Massachusetts, Hartford, live mother, Hartford resident. moved own apartment August 1966, no longer able support infant son. Because pregnancy, unable work enter training program. Her AFDC assistance, filed August, denied November solely on ground that, required by 17—2d, had lived before filed. brought action where court, judge dissenting, declared unconstitutional. 270 F.Supp. 331 (1967). The majority held that waiting-period requirement because it 'has chilling effect right travel.' Id., 336. also violation Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment denial relief those resident less than based any permissible purpose but designed 'Connecticut states quite frankly,' 'to protect its fisc discouraging entry come needing relief.' 336—337. noted probable jurisdiction. 389 1032, 784, 19 820 3 there are four Three them—appellees Harrell, Brown, Legrant—applied aid. fourth, Barley, applied benefits Permanently Totally Disabled. each case applicant filing application, 3—203 Code.3 4 Appellee Minnie now deceased, children New York Washington September 1966. suffered cancer be near members family Washington. 5 former Columbia, returned March 1941 committed month later St. Elizabeths Hospital mentally ill. has remained hospital ever since. deemed eligible release 1965, plan made transfer foster home. depended, however, upon Mrs. Barley's obtaining support. Disabled time spent did count determining compliance one-year requirement. 6 Brown two Fort Smith, Arkansas. third living Brown's father Columbia. When Smith Oklahoma, February child. approved insofar sought extent other children. 7 Legrant South Carolina 1967 after death mother. planned sister brother ill health July 1967. 8 several cases consolidated trial, convened.4 279 rested equal protection secured Due Process Fifth Amendment. 390 940, 1053, 1129 9 34, appellees, Foster, aid sole they been Pennsylvania prior 432(6) Code.5Appellee five minor December Delaware Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, lived. supported months until he lost his job. then received checks terminated. 1953 care h r grandfather invalid grandmother A Eastern 277 65 classification established 'without rational basis without legitimate function' therefore Clause. 67. further if statute erect barrier against movement indigent persons into prompt departure gotten there,' would 'patently improper implementation plainly impermissible.' 67—68. 1054, II. 10 There dispute create classes needy families indistinguishable except composed more, year, On difference first class granted may depend ability obtain very means subsist—food, shelter, necessities life. case, found appellees met test jurisdictions, well all eligibility requirements full applications. reargument, appellees' central contention prohibition creates constitutes invidious discrimination denying them laws.6 agree. interests appellants assert promoted either constitutionally government compelling governmental interests. III. 11 Primarily, justify protective device preserve fiscal integrity state public programs. It asserted people require during likely become continuing burdens Therefore, argument runs, can deterred entering jurisdiction programs assist long-time will impaired ubstantial influx newcomers.7 12 weighty evidence exclusion poor need specific objective these provisions. Congress, sponsors federal legislation eliminate consistently opposed representatives local agencies stressed fears States elimination result heavy individuals providing most generous benefits. See, e.g., Hearings H.R. 10032 House Committee Ways Means, 87th Cong., 2d Sess., 309—310, 644 (1962); 6000 Senate Finance, 81st 324—327 (1950). sponsor said support: 'I doubt should continue allow unlimited migration offering instant money permanent income make way regardless contribute economy.' H.B. 82, Assembly Proceedings, Special Session, Vol. II, pt. 7, p. 3504. shortly enactment requirement, Attorney issued construing strictly '(a)ny conclusion tend attract dependents our Commonwealth.' 1937—1938 Official Opinions General, 240, 110. constitutionality frankly defended seeking more might available elsewhere. 13 do waiting period suited discourage assistance. An desires migrate, resettle, find new job, start life doubtless hesitate knows must risk making move possibility falling back residence, acute. But inhibiting impermissible. 14 This long ago recognized nature Federal Union constitutional concepts personal liberty unite citizens free travel throughout length breadth land uninhibited statutes, rules, regulations unreasonably burden restrict movement. That proposition early stated Chief Taney Passenger Cases, How. 283, 492, L.Ed. 702 (1849): 15 'For great purposes w ich formed, we people, common country. United States; and, same community, pass repass through every part interruption, freely States.' 16 occasion ascribe source interstate particular provision.8 suffices Stewart Guest, 383 745, 757—758, 86 1170, 1178, 239 (1966): 17 'The another * occupies position fundamental concept Union. firmly repeatedly recognized. 18 '* (The) finds explicit mention Constitution. reason, suggested, so elementary conceived beginning necessary concomitant stronger Constitution created. event, freedom basic Constitution.' Thus, deterring in-migration indigents cannot serve justification created period, since If law 'no chill assertion rights penalizing choose exercise them, (is) patently unconstitutional.' Jackson, 570, 581, 1209, 1216, 138 Alternatively, argue even impermissible attempt deter indigents, challenged justified larger observe none statutes us tailored objective. Rather, barred newcomers all-inclusive, lumping collecting higher actual operation, therefore, enact what non-rebuttable presumptions came Nothing whatever records supplies fact presumption. 21 More fundamentally, try fence out seek generally. Implicit distinctio notion hope securing somehow deserving take consideration account. perceive why herself regarded considers, among others factors, level State's Surely moves order advantage better educational facilities. Appellants sustained distinguish between old contribution community payment taxes. difficulty seeing how long-term qualify greater present taxes recently arrived. contributions past residents, some question, factual matter, whether applicable record suggests 40% lengthy State.9 rest facts Appellants' reasoning logically permit bar schools, parks, libraries deprive police fire protection. Indeed apportion services according tax citizens. prohibits apportionment services.10 recognize valid interest preserving legitimately limit expenditures, education, accomplish distinctions could not, example, reduce expenditures education barring schools. Similarly, us, show saves money. saving costs otherwise classification.11 24 sum, neither deterrence migrating nor limitation contributing IV. 25 next advance certain administrative related objectives allegedly served requirement.12 They (1) facilitates planning budget; (2) provides residency; (3) minimizes opportunity recipients fraudulently receive payments jurisdiction; (4) encourages labor force. 26 At outset, reject appellants' mere showing relationship admittedly suffice classification. See Lindsley Natural Carbonic Gas Co., 220 61, 78, 31 337, 340, 55 369 (1911); Flemming Nestor, 363 603, 611, 80 1367, 1372, 1435 (1960); McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 426, 81 1101, 1105, 393 (1961). applicants moving exercising right, serves penalize unless shown promote interest, Cf. Skinner 316 535, 541, 62 1110, 1113, 1655 (1942); Korematsu States, 323 214, 216, 193, 194, 194 (1944); Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 524, 412, 417, 480 Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 406, 83 1790, 1795, 965 (1963). 27 budget predictability wholly unfounded. utterly devoid uses predict number year. None takes census collects data reveal Nor give notice assistance.13 authorities know many much circumstances, simply claim predictable. irrelevance budgetary underscored temporary, partial given residents14 reciprocal agreements.15 Finally, used belied imposed group receives bulk payments. short, rely methods estimates. Director Bureau Assistance Policies Standards testified experience elsewhere, office already estimated cost estimates changes 'have proven exceptionally accurate.' administratively efficient rule thumb residency similarly withstand scrutiny. distinct independent prerequisites relevant determination directly examined authorities.16 Before granting investigate applicant's employment, housing, situation course inquiry necessarily lern determine resident.17 28 use safeguard fraudulent receipt benefits;18 drastic available, employed, minimize hazard. Of course, preventing fraud applicant, newcomer denied, investigations conducted entail inquiries subject. addition, cooperation departments common. interim period. As matter officials send letter recipient's request information needed assistance.'19 like procedure effective hazard double Since prevented telephone call, unreasonable blunderbuss method entire 29 encouraging join force promptly. logic similar State. encourage employment imposing restriction only. 30 conclude suggested. traditional tests seem irrational unconstitutional.20 But, criteria apply here touches movement, judged stricter standard promotes interest. Under standard, clearly violates Clause.21 V. argue, challenge fail Congress expressly imposition jointly funded 32 Section 402(b) Social Security Act 1935, amended, 42 U.S.C. 602(b), that: 33 Secretary shall approve (state assistance) fulfills conditions specified subsection (a) section, imposes condition dependent children, respect residing aid, born parent relative whom birth.' 34 face, does approve, prescribe, merely directs Health, Education, disapprove plans submitted include requirement.22 suggestion enacted directive participation completely refuted legislative history section. discloses curb hardships resulting requirements. Rather constituting approval prescription plans, direc ive chosen funding persisted stipulating excessive 35 One passed, 45 years. Nine years town county. And county.23 determined combat restrictionist policy. Both Reports compel '(l)iberality requirement.'24 Not single instance debates committee reports supporting To contrary, few addressed themselves emphasized repeal revision existing congressional demand 41 drastically revise offending hardly enlist cooperation.25 36 assume, arguendo, responsive infringes rights. By itself absolutely restrictive effect. only pose question. 37 argued issue here, follows provision, permits authorize violate Perhaps induce wider school construction authorized joint funds building segregated seriously contended authorization secure cooperation? power federal-state authorizes Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 651, 1717, 1723, 828, n. (1966). VI. 38 Code involved though adopted power. terms power, '(W)hile contains clause, forbid 'so unjustifiable violative due process." Schneider Rusk, 377 163, 168, 84 1187, 1190, 218 (1964); Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 74 693, 98 884 (1954). For reasons invalidating provisions, invalid—the 39 Accordingly, 40 Affirmed. STEWART, concurring. joining Court, I add word response dissent my Brother HARLAN, who, think, misapprehended Court's says. 43 today 'pick human activities, characterize 'fundamental,' added *.' recognizes, must, gives demands. 44 recognized.' 757, 239. which, includes 'entering abiding Union,' Truax Raich, 39, 60 131, conditional subject regulation control conventional process standards.1 '(T)he Amendment.' supra, 760, 1179, 17.2 clear broadly assertable private interference action.3 Like association, NAACP Alabama, 357 449, 78 1163, 1488, virtually unconditional right,4 guaranteed all. follows, says, 'the offered impinges reflect true impinging tested Clause, regulatory law, Harlan wrote decade ago, '(T)o deterrent protected subordinating compelling." 463, 1172. 46 today, 'contriving principles.' deciding aegis law.5 47 WARREN, BLACK joins, dissenting. 48 stated: May acting enumerated powers, impose minimal nationwide so? believe exercised cases, dissent. 49 insists 'does requirement.' Ante, 639. From reading concludes intend examination materials compels, view, opposite conclusion, i.e., intended up 50 Great Depression 1930's exposed inadequacies dramatized Public Relief 1929—1939 (1940). Act, containing system unemployment old-age insurance categorical issue, major step ameliorate problems economic insecurity. primary provide greatly enhanced S.Rep.No.628, 74th 1st 5—6, 18—19 (1935); H.R.Rep.No.615, (1935). mean immediate increase amount paid conditioned remain units shift inadequate financial resources. Advisory Commission Intergovernmental Relations, Statutory Administr tive Controls Associated Grants 9—26 (1964). Significantly, categories corresponded existence States. 1929—1939, 26—32. area best described experiment 'cooperative federalism,' King 309, 317, 2128, 2133, 1118 (1968), combining solve depression. 51 contained allowed participating operative H.R.Rep.No.891, Sess. (1935) (old-age pensions); H.R.Rep.No.201, (aid blind). considerable discussion. favoring requirements1 opposing requirements2 pleaded hearings Act. Faced competing claims feared abolition organizations unfairness transient workers forced dislocation depression far homes. chose middle course. grants viewed acceptable maximum. However, accommodated allowing retain 52 quickly saw including operating expand improve told 1939: 53 rapid expansion country whole 1935 stands marked contrast relatively stable picture mothers' 4-year 1932 1935. extension last encouraged matching funds.' S.Rep.No.734, 76th (1939). 54 trend observed 1939 continued responded stimulus improvement scope Wedemeyer & Moore, American System, Calif.L.Rev. 326, 347—356 Residence combined state-federal adhered original face repeated attacks requirements.3 requirements, Congress' desire programs, indicates me impos d framed alone, so. Prudential Insurance Co. Benjamin, 328 408, 66 1142, 90 1342 (1946); re Rahrer, 140 545, 865, 572 (1891). Appellees insist congressionally mandated travel. import 'plenary'4 commerce, prohibited reach contrary am convinced compared requires uphold exertion 56 pursuant commerce variety restrictions taxed air rail fares gasoline cars trucks interstate. 4261 (air fares); 3469 (1952 ed.), repealed Pub.L. 87—508, 5(b), 76 Stat. 115 (rail 4081 (gasoline). Many safety carriers cross lines §§ 1—43 (railroad appliances); 1421 regulations). criminal purposes. E.g., 1952. Although operate persons, appears settled. Texas Pacific R. Rigsby, 241 41, 482, 485, 874 (1916); Southern 222 20, 2, 72 Zizzo, 338 F.2d 577 (C.A.7th Cir., 1964), cert. 381 915, 85 1530, 435 (1965). Zemel 1, 14, 1271, 1279, 179 (1965), inhibited circumstances inhibited.' 57 right-to-travel lend little view Most fall categories: state-imposed involved, see, Edwards California, 314 160, 164, 119 (1941); Crandall Nevada, Wall. 35, 744 (1868), concerning decisions remove impediments focus exceed bounds offers controlling principles. 58 confronted impermissibly burdened Kent Dulles, 116, 1204 (1958), invalidate travel; voided nonconstitutional issue. hand, flat designated areas rejected attack restriction. Aptheker State, 378 500, 1659, 992 (1964), invalidated prohibi ion combination compelled potential traveler First association. Hobson's choice, explained, forms rationale Aptheker. 16, 1280. Aptherker thus characteristics distinguishing Court: infringement prohibition, establish wherever please. right. 59 recent framework analysis. core imposed' 'extent necessity restriction.' 1279. noted, prohibited. Any inheres recipient loss limited residence. uncertain degree,5 Harvith, Constitutionality Tests Categorical Programs, 567, 615—618 (1966); Note, Requirements Statutes, Iowa L.Rev. 1080, 1083—1085 insubstantiality evaluated light possible 425—427, 1104—1105, emerge clarity belief cooperative federalism Given apprehensions inability adequate system, deliberately intermediate Such program, believed, assume responsibilities undertaking. Our finding scheme furtherance commerce. McClung, 379 294, 377, 290 Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 63 87 122 (1942). Certainly, concentrate resources increased rehabilitation ultimately flow progressively improved Commerce Clasue. fostered mobility. individual presented unfettered range choices migrate regard considerations dislocation. 61 Appelle suggest, motivated considerations. imposed, insist, illegitimate keeping migrating. point '(i)nto motives induced (act) court inquire.' Arizona 283 423, 455, 522, 526, 75 1154 (1931). attribute strike down statute. O'Brien, 391 367, 383, 1673, 1682, 672 (1968); McCray 195 27, 56, 769, 776, (1904). insubstantial, consistent Without powers sustain holds injustifiable process.' 642. While fully apparently believes words 694, (1954), constitute 'an arbitrary deprivation' liberty. opinion, seems departed precedents. uniformity acts Sunshine Anthracite Coal Adkins, 310 381, 401, 907, 916, 1263 (1940); Currin Wallace, 306 13—14, 379, 385—386, 441 (1939).6 suggest legislating classifications, (1964) counsel otherwise. Neither authority invalidation racial segregation schools rigid Loving Virginia, 388 11, 1817, 1823, 1010 native-born naturalized convenience. authorizing acted facilitate function conviction impediment commercial Nation removed courts, charged proper national illness. say powerless decide goal termed arbitrary. 64 interpreting manner gratuitously adds approaching questions sharply approach Street York, 576, 585—590, 1354, 1362—1365, 572. strains avoid crucial summarily treats when, interpretation materials, Assuming properly treated cryptic footnote 651—652, 1723—1724, (1966), conclusion. Footnote undercut equal-protection guarantee equality guise implementing understand reasonable dismisses remark protection, dispositive implication, ante, 638, employed vote questions. Despite Drueding Devlin, 380 125, 807, 792 affirmed Maryland's presidential elections, 292 610, interstate, appear follow depriving vote. nothing explain dichotomy. election raised pending, Hall Beals, 950, 1968 Term, await resolution validity voting era rubric reviewed wisdom regulations. Compare Adkins Children's Hospital, 261 525, 394, 67 785 (1923), Darby, 312 100, 451, 609 (1941). Speaking Helvering Davis, 301 619, 644, 904, 910, 1307 (1937), Cardozo section Act: 'Whether unwisdom resides set forth say. answer courts. concern often, wisdom.' 68 duration 69 reveals top iceberg. Lurking beneath multitude situations vote, engage professions occupations attend state-supported university. pains acknowledging ramifications decision, imp ications ignored. 70 71 kinds accomplished comparatively doctrine laws 'compelling' Amendment's enactments. Having decided 'compelling interest' principle applicable, 'compelling.' follow, disagree both reasoning. separate decision. first, arising appeal, (AFDC) permanently totally disabled having year.1 second, appeals, may, assistance.2 instance, alleged grounds: undue interstate; assured (in cases) analogous afforded case). basically relies ground, discuss first. 73 upholding argument,3 vintage: classifications 'suspect' affect 'fundamental rights' 627, 634, 638. doctrine, articulated explicitly before, increasingly significant exception longestablished rationally objective.4 branches. branch genesis involving have, (1944), inherently 'suspect.'5 criterion 'wealth' list 'suspects' alternative Harper Virginia Bd. Elec. tions, 663, 668, 1079, 1082, 169 Virginia's poll struck down. political allegiance Williams Rhodes, 23, 5, (1968).6 Today enlarged perhaps states, 634: unconstitutional.'7 think sound historically largely product eradicate legal founded race. extensions unwise. dissenting Elections, 680, 683—686, 1088, 1090—1092, consider wealth criterion. Constitution, resort Clause; instances, straightforwardly 15. 77 troublesome. right,' foreshadowed (1942), Oklahoma compulsory sterilization 'habitual criminals' 'strict scrutiny' mainly affected 'one civil rights.' After hiatus, re-emerged Reynolds Sims, 533, 561—562, 1362, 1381, 506 subjected unusually stringent 'any carefully meticulously scrutinized.' 562, 1381. appeared again Carrington Rash, 89, 96, 775, 780, 675 see case,8 abnormally severe servicemen indicating distinction civilians generally 'suspect.' alternate U.S., 670, S.Ct., 1083 supra.9 reappeared suggestion, 'food, life,' statement, '(s)ince interest.'10 particularly unfortunate unnecessary. threatens swallow rule. Virtually affects important held, affecting matters pursue occupation,11 smaller wages12 hours,13 inherit property.14 Rights extend go toward 'super-legislature.' dealt mentioned irrational, reiterate entitles pick test. 79 unduly burdening purely then, just forth, nonracial ordinary standards. familiar established. measure 'it basis, arbitrary.' (1911). enough results incidentally 'in inequality,' drawn 'with mathematical nicety,' ibid.; instead cause 'different treatments disparate, classification, Walters City Louis, 231, 237, 505, 509, 660 where, concerns withhold 'a noncontractual benefit social *, (of Amendment) thought interpose manifests lacking i justification.' 1373, (1960). hereafter infra, 672—677, legislature accomplishment objectives. advantages shared achieving goals. undeniable relation aims, 'arbitrary' 'lacking Hence, objection embodied fuller analysis rationale, amounts Four relevant: First, relied upon? Second, right? Third, requirements? Fourth, struck? 82 initial problem identify enforceable action. approval. playing ducks drakes does, 639—641, quoted fully, 638-639, directed '(t)he (AFDC aid) (equal year).' fair conferring reinforcement taking language value, overall context strong wished financing administer primarily previous Columbia.15 sensible despite impact interstate,16 program,17 feeling permitted strict genuine tests. agree THE CHIEF JUSTICE render 602(b) credible refrain expressing doubts about compatibility Act's beneficent With constitutionality, caused competence entirely incompatible aims provided all, rather Moreover, 1944 revised conform standards year's residence,18 strongly doubted consistency purposes.19 Justices suggested provisions sources governments: Clause;20 Privileges Immunities Art. IV, 2;21 Amendment;22 Amendment.23 clause plenary Congress,24 challenged. 2,25 irrelevant, settled limits prevents citizens, 'prevents discriminating favor own.' Hague CIO, 307 496, 511, 954, 962, 1423 (1939) (opinion Roberts, J.); Slaughter-House 36, 77, (1873). statute, welfare, 'No enforce abridge privileges immunities evident instances respective 602(b). approval, together statements leads affords additional help decisive often extends 'privileges immunities' 'arise grow government.' 520, 966 Stone, J.).26 State,27 presumably reason assigned Crandall: interfere intercourse Government citizens.28 kind vanish authorization, binding (as not), define Government. Some Justices, notably dissenters 83, 124 (1873) (Field, Bradley, Swayne, JJ., dissenting), concurring 177, 181, 170 (1941) (Douglas concurring), gone intimated citizenship stems relations Sl ughter-House citizenship, travel, natural 'which belong governments,' Wall., J.). government,' id., 114 (Bradley, J.), immune abridgement. validly abridged 91 laid emphasis generalized functioning stressing curtail contravene conception unity,' (Douglas, '(i)f (the interstate) nothing.' 183, 171 (Jackson, oppose obstacle delineation infringing Jackson citizen limitations 184, 172. prevent itself. Indeed, empower undertake negative implications Ins. (1946). question extra 92 Government: Amendment.29 element 'liberty' clause. 125—126, 1118, said: 93 deprived Freedom across frontiers inside well, heritage. *' 94 echoed remarks 505—506, 1663, added: 95 'Since involves Bill Rights, curtailing Button, 371 415, 328, 405, Thornhill 88, 736, 1093. (S)ince freedon closely speech demonstrating written prohibiting 516—517, 1669. 96 cast explained stemmed forbidden 'expression association part,' 'not being membership organization travel,' ibid., circumstance Zemel's proposed journey Cuba collect significance bring category. 97 specifying Id. 1178. (Footnotes omitted.) 99 'fundamental' purposes, 100 are: travel?; What condition? consequence contemplate payments, account arrival. proportion actually changing unknown. accepts put forward appellees,30 minuscule done away with, appreciable 101 Against indirect conditions. Legislatures benefits.31 certainly obliged furnish inhabitant jurisdiction, deems worthy subsidy.32 102 prevention fraud. workable intends indefinitely eliminating collection nonresidents receiving goal. fixed predicting future. appellant keep sufficient detailed predictions requirement,33 event large decrease tne adjustments laws. Obviously, conceivably predicated financed economy, taxes, too purpose.34 103 one: outweigh militate constitutionality. shown, separate, furthered th themselves, insubstantial. attempted National Government, legislatures arguments unwise, them. mature deliberation. 104 Fifth, longer-range importance, field widely fresh solutions consequently experimentation. Invalidation Governments establishing experimental Sixth finally, presumption attaches types us. Congressional enactments extremely validity. Wheat. 419, 436, 678 (1827); Hardware Dealers Mutual Fire Glidden 284 151, 158, 69, 71, 214 (1931); Butler, 297 67, 312, 319, 477 (1936); Dairy Corp., 372 29, 32, 594, 597, 561 Congress. Powell 127 678, 684 685, 992, 995—996, 253 (1888); Moines Nav. 142 510, 544—545, 308, 318, 1099 (1892). 105 factors urged said, opinions discussed, 669 671, acknowledged freedom. above ephemeral impinge heavily hence 'sweep unnecessarily thereby invade freedoms.' 288, 307, 1302, 1314, 325 York's Abuses Law;35 investigation shorter period; remote speculative goal; assurance investment obtained intervals 106 Taking account, definitely favors reaching tha importance real, accomplishment. abolish highly worthwhile experimentation field. clothed attended correspondingly although achieved means, judiciary especially slow fetter judgment legislatures36 choice methods. advantages, simplicity certainty, outweighs employment. cases—one year—is excessively unconstitutionality score. 107 following observations. Today's me, reflects unusual degree current possesses peculiar whose capacity lead troubles judicial ingenuity contriving principles meet arises. anyone myself, essential maintain divisions branches today's wrong direction. resurgence expansive 'equal protection' carries seeds process, indeed 'due process' (see Duncan Louisiana, 145, 171, 1444, 1458, 491, 522 (1968)), expressed potentialities setting judges 'at large.'37 roadblock occur threshold discussions regarding 'federalizing' aspects relief. Accord: Robertson Ott, 735 (D.C.Mass.1968); Johnson Robinson (D.C.N.D.Ill.1968); Ramos Health Services Bd., 276 474 (D.C.E.D.Wis.1967); Green Dept. Pub. Welfare, 173 (D.C.Del.1967). Contra: Waggoner Rosenn, 286 275 (D.C.M.D.Pa.1968); People ex rel. Heydenreich Lyons, Ill. 557, N.E.2d 46, 132 A.L.R. 511 All herein 601—609. specifications. 1351—1355. Conn.Gen.Stat.Rev. (1965 Supp.), 17—2c, provides: 'When person comes visible future applies chapter general 308 arrival, temporary arrangements return, ineligibility beyond maximum bona fide job offer self-supporting arrival thereafter. Conn.Welfare Manual, c. 219.1—219.2 D.C.Code Ann. (1967) 'Public awarded behalf date assistance; (b) birth; (c) chapter.' D. Handbook Procedures, HPA—2, EL 9.1, I, III (1966) (hereinafter c ted Handbook). Ex parte Cogdell, 342 196, 181 (1951), remanded Appeals Circuit 2282, requiring challenged, Acts pertaining mooted below, never resolved. Berman Parker, 348 26, 98, heard district courts hear statutes. Hobson Hansen, 265 902 2282 Congress.' (Emphasis supplied.) Pa.Stat., Tit. 62, Pa.Pub. Manual 3150—3151 (1962). 'Assistance (i) therein application; (ii) agreement year; (iii) married woman husband meets prescribed subclause clause; (iv) age parent, residing, (i), child's birth. Needy transients state, accordance regulations, department.' answered 'privilege' 'right.' 404, 1794, antecedents prevalent England Colonies centuries ejection charges. preamble Engligh Law Settlement Removal 1662 recited concern, numbers parishes liberal policies Coll, Perspectives Welfare: English Heritage, Review 3, earlier Elizabethan Poor 1601 models Colonies. Newcomers city, town, county charges 'warned out' 'passed on' locality. Initially, controversy responsibility localities States—first alone grants—assumed responsibility, contest nonresponsibility became Corfield Coryell, Fed.Cas. pp. 546, 552 (No. 3230) (C.C.E.D.Pa.1825), Paul (75 U.S.) 180, (1869), Ward (79 418, 430 449 (1871), grounded 2. 79, (1873); Twining Jersey, 211 97, 18, (1908). 183—185, 170, 171—172, reliance placed (73 (1868). (1849), employed. (1958); Americans outside Furthermore, parents D.C. 3—203; Handbook, I(C) Clearly, dealing tie individual's contributions. Rinaldi Yeager, 305, 1497, Jersey prisoners took unsuccessful reimburse institutional earnings furnishing trial transcript. repayments suspended sentence, probation, sentenced fine. prison not. Appellant Commissioner, disclaims contention. claimed functions. 65, inevitably unreliable registered while register welfare. Pa.Pub.Assistance 3154 entered open-ended compacts agreed durational compact. 17—21a 3150, App. 758, 1. waived agreements. 3151.21 '(r)esidence place abode remain.' wait himself months. 219.2. HEW Administration, 3650 (1946), distinguishes defines conventional, intent instructs interviewers 'are chapters Eligibility Payments, Requirements, Resources Reinvestigation indication thorough are. (1967); 3170 3330 investigations, spot checks, substitution declaration 'agency knowledge entitlement.' HEW, Determination Fed.Reg. 17189 Hoshino, Simplification Means Test Consequences, Soc.Serv.Rev. 241—249 Burns, What's Wrong Welfare?, 114—115 Presumably statement accepted system. unconcern apparent waiver agreements 15, supra. RV 2.1, II (B) 3153 basis,' 1367 imply tuition-free license practice profession, hunt fish, forth. or, other, penalties 1964, Alaska, Georgia, Hawaii, Kentucky, Rhode Island, Vermont, Guam, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands. Characteristics Plans (Pub.Assistance Rep.No. 50, 1964 ed.). Board, America 235—236 (1937). H.R.Rep.No. 615, 24; S.Rep.No. 628, 35. Report cited President Roosevelt's Message 'People want decent homes in; locate productive H.R.Rep. Clearly call addition report, Rep. Doughton (floor manager bill House) Vinson. Cong.Rec. 5474, 5602—5603 equally Hawaii statute) intimating limitation. security Schechter Poultry Corp. 295 495, 837, 1570 Throughout congressmen discussed taxing 5783 (remarks Cooper), once 402(b). contrast, 'right' international considered aspect 1204; 992. such, 'right,' regulated process. 179. adoption Cases. 702: square Guest. Supra, 762, 1180. emergency temporarily disaster area, remembered affirms different reached result. 622, 4120 831—832, 861 871 S. 1130 522—540, 643, 656 355, 385—405, 437 142—143 Heart Atlanta Motel, Inc. 241, 256—260, 348, 356—359, 258 disqualified disqualification. intimate taxation Lerner Stores 468, 341, 343, 343 Steward Machine 548, 584, 883, 889, 1279 (1937); LaBelle Iron Works 256 392, 528, 532, 998 (1921). asked 'States' (including 1301(a)(1)) infra. 1352(b)(1) 1382(b)(2), disability nine prescribes Barley institution charge eligibility. erred striking regulation's passing, remand presents state-financed state-authorized Pa. Stat.Ann., 432 states: 'Except hereinafter fined clauses assistance: '(1) Persons Commonwealth precluded law. '(2) Other *. '(6) it, initially divides classes: (if intended, provided' proviso surplusage); classes. federally assisted class, state-assisted class. characterizing laws, disregard phrases 'always interchangeable,' 499, myself explore differences Rapid Transit 303 573, 578, 721, 724, 1024 (1938). 662. cf. 694 Hirabayashi 320 81, 00, 1375, 1385, 1774 (1943); Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, (1886). 683, 1090. characterized standard.' satisfied opinion. Analysis complicated lassification exercise. drew exercised. Consequently, specify rest. Williamson Lee Optical 483, 461, 563 (1955); Kotch Board River Pilot Com'rs, 330 552, 1093 (1947). Bunting Oregon, 243 435, 830 (1917). Miller Wilson, 236 373, 342, 628 (1915). Ferry Spokane, P. S.R. 314, 358, 635 (1922). migrants, aired hearings. 861—871 persuaded "(l)iberality requirement." 640. objective, effectively contain (1944). 1962, replaced 3—203, 914. Cf., 639—641 nn. 24—25. (1849). 546 (1825) (Mr. Washington). concurring); (1908) (dictum). 125—127, 1151, Maryland Wirtz, 193—199, 2017, 2022—2024, 1020 Citizens entitled Kemmler, 136 448, 930, 934, 519 (1890); McPherson Blacker, 146 38, 869 (1892); Giozza Tiernan, 148 657, 661, 723, 599 (1893); Missouri, 152 382, 571, 485 (1894); 97—98, 79; 18. capital, access officials, seaports. 44. Professor Chafee interference. Z. Chafee, Human 1787, 192 (1956). surely Government; still Brief 49—51 70; 11; Supplemental Reargument 27—30. Problems Hungry Subcommittee Safety 85th Assembly, 1965 Feb.Spec.Sess., Representatives 3505. Appendix 96a—98a. enforcement significantly article critical discussion information, Harvith 'A useful per cent million dollars.' 909, essentially reasons, Conn. unlikely precise prediction possible, ascertaining open-ended, suggesting concerned accurate N.Y.Soc.Welfare Law, McKinney's Consol. Laws, 55, 139—a, conduct ascertain 'applicant accordingly undeserving ineligible figure variously calculated. testimony form 92a—93a. stipulated Appellant's 45a. also, 639-640 22. 675—680, 1083, 1086—1088, (Black, J., dissenting).

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