Document: 473 U.S. 667 105 S.Ct. 3375 87 L.Ed.2d 481 UNITED STATES, Petitioner,v.Hughes Anderson BAGLEY. No. 84-48. Argued March 20, 1985. Decided July 2, Syllabus Respondent was indicted on charges of violating federal narcotics and firearms statutes. Before trial, he filed a discovery motion requesting, inter alia, "any deals, promises or inducements made to [Government] witnesses in exchange for their testimony." The Government's response did not disclose that any "deals, inducements" had been its two principal witnesses, who assisted the Bureau Alcohol, Tobacco Firearms (ATF) conducting an undercover investigation respondent. But Government produce signed affidavits by these recounting dealing with respondent concluding statement were without threats rewards reward. waived his right jury trial tried before District Court. testified about both charges, court found guilty but charges. Subsequently, requests pursuant Freedom Information Act Privacy Act, received copies ATF contracts during stating would pay money commensurate information furnished. then moved vacate sentence, alleging failure contracts, which could have used impeach violated due process under Brady v. Maryland, 373 83, 83 1194, 10 215, held prosecution's suppression evidence favorable accused upon request violates where is material either guilt punishment. Court denied motion, finding beyond reasonable doubt existence disclosed it disclosure affected outcome, because witnesses' testimony primarily devoted acquitted, exculpatory Appeals reversed, holding requested impeachment conduct effective cross-examination required automatic reversal. also stated "disagree[d]" Court's conclusion nondisclosure harmless doubt, noting fact inculpatory Held: judgment case remanded. 719 F.2d 1462 (CA9 1983) reversed Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion respect Parts I II, erred prosecutor's effectively important requires Such constitutes constitutional error reversal conviction only if sense might outcome trial. Pp. 674-678. BLACKMUN, joined O'CONNOR, Part III, nondisclosed at issue there probability that, defense, result proceeding different. A "reasonable probability" sufficient undermine confidence outcome. This standard materiality sufficiently flexible cover cases prosecutorial defense regardless whether makes no request, general specific request. Although respond fully may impair adversary having effect representing certain does exist, this possibility impairment necessitate different materiality. Under above, reviewing consider directly adverse preparation presentation defendant's case. 678-684. WHITE, THE CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST, being view reason elaborate relevance specificity defense's disclosure, generally case, concluded mandated simply failed apply question. P. 685. David A. Strauss, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Thomas W. Hillier, Seattle, Wash., announced except as III. 1 In 87, 1196, 215 (1963), "the prosecution punishment." present concerns be applied determining should prosecutor witnesses. 2 * October 1977, Hughes Bagley Western Washington 15 On November 18, 24 days motion. sixth paragraph requested: 3 "The names addresses government intends call Also prior criminal records App. 18.1 4 James F. O'Connor Donald E. Mitchell. Mitchell state law-enforcement officers employed Milwaukee Railroad private security guards. Between April June they 5 apparent reply motion's ninth "[c]opies all Jencks material,"2 produced series between 12 May 4, while progress. These recounted detail dealings time Each affidavit statement, "I freely voluntarily rewards, reward me return it."3 6 December 1977. At 23, 7 mid-1980, 1974, U.S.C. §§ 552 552a. He form 3, entitled "Contract Purchase Payment Lump Sum Therefor." printed portion vendor "will provide" "upon receipt such Regional Director, Firearms, representative, accomplishment objective sought obtained use satisfaction said United States will sum services rendered." 22 23. contained following typewritten description services: 8 "That provide regarding T-I other violations committed Bagley, Jr.; purchase ATF; cut [sic ] capacity assist gathering testify against violator court." Ibid. 9 figure "$300.00" handwritten each line "Sum Be Paid Vendor." Because pretrial motion,4 28 § 2255 sentence. alleged Mitchell, supra. 11 came same Judge presided respondent's bench An evidentiary hearing Magistrate. Magistrate blank when them representative until after January 1978, decision payments $300 contracts.5 agent dealt compensation expenses, characterization borne out record. There documentation expenses amounts; payment forms authorizing treated rewards. adopted Magistrate's findings last one "[n]either nor expected receive from Pet. Cert. 7a, 12a, 14a. Instead, "probable" compensation, addition assistance, "though perhaps Id., 7a. expressly rejected, ibid., conclusion, id., 14a, that: "Because neither witness promised testimony, withhold, discovery, 'deals, inducements' Nor suppress defendant, violation [83 215] (1963)." 13 however, agreements proved offenses convicted. 8a. reasoned: Almost indictment. Respondent, acquitted those concerning relatively very brief. cross-examination, counsel seek discredit facts distribution rather show controlled substances question supplies prescribed personal use. answers tended Thus, claimed helpful Accordingly, 14 Ninth Circuit reversed. Lumpkin, (1983). began according precedent Circuit, properly analyzed error, resulting must unless doubt. noted over agreement Appeals, conclusion. 1464. particular, disagreed Government's—and Court's—premise therefore "his own witness." 1464, n. 1. apparently based reversal, theory impaired confront noted: "In Davis Alaska, . Supreme denial 'right cross-examination' ' "constitutional first magnitude" requiring reversal." F.2d, 1464 (quoting 415 308, 318, 94 1105, 1111, 39 347 (1974) ) (emphasis added Appeals). sentence opinion, concluded: "we hold government's so cross-examine 16 We granted certiorari, 469 1016, 427, 354 (1984), we now reverse. II 17 Maryland "material U.S., S.Ct., 1196. See Moore Illinois, 408 786, 794-795, 92 2562, 2567-2568, 33 706 (1972). explained Agurs, 427 97, 104, 96 2392, 2397, 49 342 (1976): "A fair analysis indicates implicit requirement concern suppressed trial." admissible punishment guilt, Brady's conviction. affirmed lower court's restriction new 18 rule process. Its purpose displace system primary means truth uncovered, ensure miscarriage justice occur.6 deliver entire file counsel,7 suppressed, deprive defendant trial: 19 "For omission deprived verdict set aside; absent violation, breach duty disclose. 20 ". reiterate critical point, significance 108, 2399. 21 evidence. showing bias interest. Impeachment evidence, well falls within rule. Giglio States, 405 150, 154, 763, 766, 31 104 "evidence accused," Brady, effectively, make difference acquittal. Cf. Napue 360 264, 269, 79 1173, 1177, 1217 (1959) ("The jury's estimate truthfulness reliability given determinative innocence, subtle factors possible interest testifying falsely life liberty depend"). constitutionally According court, "even more egregious" than "because threatens witnesses." Relying (1974), " 'constitutional magnitude' supra, 1111). 23 has rejected distinction similar is, promise key prosecuted Government. said: "When 'reliability innocence,' affecting credibility th[e] [of ]. do not, automatically require whenever 'a combing prosecutors' files possibly useful likely changed verdict. .' Brady. 'the false likelihood jury. 766 (citations omitted). 25 Appeals' inconsistent our precedents. 26 Moreover, reliance Alaska "automatic reversal" misplaced. Davis, crucial probationary status juvenile delinquent. intended faulty identification order shift suspicion away himself feared jeopardized satisfactorily police obtaining Pursuant procedure statute making adjudications inadmissible, judge prohibited cross-examination. conviction, ruling direct scope "would magnitude amount want prejudice cure it." Brookhart Janis, 384 1, 3" [86 1245, 1246, 314]." 1111 Smith 390 129, 131, 88 748, 749, 956 (1968)). Cronic, 466 648, 659, 2039, 2047, 80 657 (1984). 27 contrast, involve free relevant subject, including any, disclosing As discussed amounts deprives Consistent "our overriding guilt," 112, 2401, occurs, undermines III It remains determine applicable Our starting point framework evaluating established Agurs. Agurs distinguished three situations involving known unknown defense. situation knowing perjured or, equivalently, convict false. well-established "a fundamentally unfair, aside jury." 103, 2397 (footnote omitted).8 terms treat subject harmless-error review,9 easily considered justified ground involves misconduct and, importantly, corruption truth-seeking function process." 2397. 29 extreme itself, fails accused. situation, every thus imposing counsel.10 111-112, 2401. time, demonstrate probably resulted 111, "If usual newly discovered State's possession neutral source, special obligation serve cause justice." absence stricter lenient newly-discovered-evidence standard. 30 third identified responsive evidence.11 define situation,12 suggested 106, 2398. receives seldom, ever, excusable." relied reformulated undisclosed subsequent arising outside context. discussion distinguish among described Valenzuela-Bernal, 458 858, 874, 102 3440, 3450, 73 1193 (1982), unavailable deportation "only trier fact." And Strickland 668, 2052, 674 introduced incompetence "there counsel's unprofessional errors, different." 694, 2068.13 defined outcome." 32 find formulation test "no request," "general "specific request" accused: suggests reasonably cases. Brief 31. notes incomplete exist. misleading representation, abandon lines independent investigation, defenses, strategies otherwise pursued. 34 agree manner. specifically putting notice value, assume decisions basis assumption. materiality, assess occurred light totality circumstances awareness difficulty reconstructing post-trial course taken misled response. B 35 think significant misleadingly induced believe impeached offered Defense asked supplied led [the Government]." gave direct, stake guaranteed through binding contract, contingent end result, served strengthen incentive secure providing implicating activity. fact, day contracts. While technically correct constitute "promise reward," natural induce provided affidavits, ultimately information, "inducements." 36 Court, nonetheless, disclosed, If sustained immaterial even testimony. express "disagreed" error. appears factual premise based. reasoned O'Connor's Mitchell's concluded, record, reverse remand determination inducement 37 ordered. 38 POWELL took part whom REHNQUIST join, concurring judgment. 40 overturned can withheld "material," join opinion. purposes inquiry, Ante, 682. correctly observes, "sufficiently flexible" instances Given flexibility inherently factbound nature applied, see attempt inquiry proper necessitates concur 41 MARSHALL, BRENNAN joins, dissenting. 42 When withholds cannot deemed precisely affirm further proceedings. 43 grand respondent, intent distribute. Following counts knowingly intentionally distributing Valium, several lesser included offense substances. sentenced six months' imprisonment parole term five years count distribution, imprisonment, suspended, years' probation, second count. suspended probation convictions. 44 record plainly demonstrates sentences hinged guards aided Bagley. 1977 guards, worked Railroad; years, social acquaintances often shared coffee breaks. Tr. 2-3; 2a-3a. separate occasions visited home, responded complaint extremely anxious giving him Valium pills. total, $8 O'Connor, cost prescription suffered bad back, 963-964. No contrary introduced. worn concealed transmitters body recorders meetings, tape recordings insufficiently clear admitted corroborate 45 detailed things, 17-19. sworn prepared closed declaration, quoting Memorandum Points Authorities Support Habeas Corpus, CV80-3592-RJK(M) (CD Cal.) Exhibits 1-9. Both agents thereafter, promises, inducements. Counsel pressure job, not. 89-90. silence deals inducements, pursue guard. 46 turns out, seven months provided. Therefor," would, 22-23. invited Bureau's charge Agent Prins, recommend paid "worthy compensation." Prins personally presented signatures. declared reward, forms. After $500, reduced "rewards" each. "it probable expect some kind above though 47 Upon discovering relief Bagley's original able decision, four earlier, convictions: 48 read entirety transcripts firearm With possessing intention them, relating aspect defendant." foregoing remands consideration, seriously flawed face. First, describes imprisonment. If, claimed, "vendors" "very brief" shows weakness harmlessness weak cumulative, corroborative, tangential, conceivably harmless. start finish quite necessarily drawn. 50 Second, suggest ignores realities strategy, factually erroneous well. Initially, coupled made, lead most careless lawyer step wide questions combination attorney basis. firm avowal assistance employee, devastating wise necessity, alternative strategy. 51 asking pressured threatened job jeopardy, get cooperate. answered negative, stopped questioning. addition, attempted argue closing argument, "fabricated" accounts, 1117, proposition: 52 "Let say you. hard really fabricated. mistaken. You know, impression men trying least here 1117-1118. (Emphasis added.) 53 saying, seen motive "mak[ing] case" Yet, points size related success "personal stake" "incentive conviction." 683. 54 unique. Whenever fails, truth-finding thrown askew. overall corrupts degree instances, (1972); (1959); 121, 2406, (1976) (MARSHALL, J., dissenting), Giglio, Napue, 1177), depend[s] almost entirely on" witness, witness' irrelevant, ordered jury: 55 "[W]ithout [Taliento's testimony] indictment carry Taliento's understanding future know it. 56 reasons, requirements enunciated cited earlier 154-155, 766. 57 Here, too, potentially dispositive, particularly since allegedly corroborating audible. contract promising whose depend "on result," ante, 683, sway cast allege. absolutely develop Whatever infra, instance undoubtedly met. 58 Indeed, essentially compels result. similarities are evident. cases, triers left unaware individual prosecutors acted good faith 151-153, 764-765; 13a (Magistrate's it). sole lies affirmatively made. place affirmative trial—although misrepresentation affidavits. powerful reasons "[T]he corrupted withholding contradictory prosecution." 120, 2405 dissenting). order, relief. 59 Instead affirming, today chooses application here, remained despite particular standard, serious doubts definition adequately takes account interests protect (1963). 60 begin fundamental premise, hardly bears repeating, "[t]he much acquittal innocent person one." Application Kapatos, 208 F.Supp. 883, 888 (SDNY 1962); Giles 386 66, 98, (1967) (Fortas, judgment) convict, far possible, emerges"). enhances quest truth; toll inquiry. small piece may, create just prevents returning guilty. whys wherefores deliberations pose impenetrable barrier ability make, difference. 61 precludes gaining access thereby Unlike exists uncovered it, already has, resting files, defendant. minimum effort, improve real fairness enormously, assuring government. proposition new. long recognized limit state's identify so-called files. See, e.g., Pyle Kansas, 317 213, 215-216, 63 177, 178-179, L.Ed. 214 (1942) (allegation deliberate authorities "charge deprivation rights Federal Constitution").1 62 recognition stems frequently considerable imbalance resources defendants offices. Many, most, represented appointed counsel, minimal wages operate shoestring budgets. unlike police, scene crime, arrest, instead comes into late. government, position gain inexperienced, unskilled, unaggressive unable amass support necessary hands chance ingredients decision. grim reality, course, poses challenge traditional model process,2 reality longstanding processes, change cautious halting. gone full road complete investigators assure opportunity discover existing cf. Ake Oklahoma, 470 68, 1087, 84 (1985) (access psychiatrist need). acknowledgment fashioned compromise, possesses. small, albeit important; toward equality justice.3 element Since decided, struggled, decisions, how best effectuate recognized. To my mind, reasoning underlay combine give prosecutor, turn Formulation right, imposition duty, essence law. State tries man, insure fair." 809-810, 2575-2576, (1972) dissenting part). denied, shirked, developed rights. Chapman California, 824, 705 (1967). 64 My practice consequently inadequate protection offer. implement courts work confines animated seemingly incompatible notions: model, justice, reflects latter goal ways odds competing sporting event. goal, then, integrate harsh, daily discordant 65 level, devolves prosecutor; dual role play obstacle implementing trade, zealous advocate. trained aggressively convictions behalf victimized public. state, foremost hierarchy truth. advocate pore objectively obviously unharmonious role, surprising advocates oftentimes overlook downplay absolute faith. need Fourth Amendment's intermediary, tests strength policeman-advocate's facts, recognize curious imposes prosecutor. One telling example, Newman Attorney, suffices: 66 recently occasion discuss [Brady] PLI Conference New York City large group prosecutors. put case: prosecuting bank robbery. talked tellers customers They look your line-up, said, 'This man.' you another customer day, viewed suspect, back 67 was, name who, 'that man'? room large, went up. felt information. Yet what thought easiest case—the clearest information!" J. Newman, Panel Discussion Judicial Second (Sept. 8, 1967), reprinted Discovery Criminal Cases, F.R.D. 481, 500-501 (1968) (hereafter Newman). 68 familiarity increased 1967, play, pressures creates, changed. 69 surely greets moment little enthusiasm. perusing difficult favorable, decide side err faced advocate, clear. equally clear, contrary. Evidence doubtful worth eyes inestimable value fact. 70 Once suspects implications credibility, why all, indisputably prosecution, way arguably precautionary potential consequence mistakenly overlooked. By way, dispositive torn roles play. kind, presumption favor facilitate admittedly task removing substantial unguided discretion. 71 just, seem countervailing keep stage slight: seeks avoid administrative hassle prevent intimidation manufactured rebuttal evidence.4 Neither concerns, counsels close ambiguous contrary, simplifying complex. inevitably open policy, anticipated wrongdoings lawyers, indeed fears warranted. mechanisms disciplining unscrupulous counsel; hamstringing clients them. warrants presumptively proceeding, enable defend himself. 72 analysis, straightforward: divulge erring disclosure. C offers complex alternative. defines reference usefulness preparing presenting retrospectively, holds states "material" looks like review, see, (1984) (adopting review), relies review contours adhering articulated (1976)—that impact trial—the permits withhold impunity undeniably burden virtually defies definition. 74 articulates enables acting bounds obligation. Numerous examples definition, view. Sperling, 726 69, 71-72 (CA2 1984) (prior testify), cert. 467 1243, 3516, 82 824 (1984); King Ponte, 717 635 (CA1 statements witness); Oxman, 740 1298, 1311 (CA3 (addressing "disturbing" tendency later argue, benefit hindsight, "material"), pending sub nom. Pflaumer, 84-1033. veer sharply basic notion increases access, disavow ideal 75 other, problems. Besides legitimizing clearly asks predict various pieces evaluate defendant—of presumably knows little—and perform impossible deciding bearing mind shoulder heavy proving best, places responsibility speculate, times foundation, normally strategy useful. worst, invites conflicting, gamble, odds, take dispositive. vented frustration unfortunate consequences: 76 "It seems [for materiality] encourage unilateral decision-making [T]he root problem adopt retrospective whether, prove material. adversarial instincts, determined unilaterally faith, court. emerges always material." 1310. 77 encourages jury, wholly belongs convinced too irrelevant unpersuasive draws judgments Accordingly disclosed. ideally approaches perspective, guilty, verdict, pressures, again understandable, finalize judgments, better 78 become entangled determinations affect decade convinces come "too deference common law policy discouraging regard defendants." 1310-1311. Apparently reversals handed sparingly, rigorous Eager "materiality" stage, do, lose sight principles underlying doctrine. reassert trial; mere be, suffices mandate disclosure.5 D appeal minimal, yield readily convey search benefits tempered legitimate desire retrial However, harmlessness, normal (1967); 119-120, dissenting).6 Any dilutes extent practical effect, argued, propose—that review—and adopts—that leads Capra, Access Exculpatory Evidence: Avoiding Problems Prosecutorial Discretion Retrospective Review, Ford.L.Rev. 391, 409-410, 117 For disagree. differently persistent egregious comply disciplinary actions courts. Third, protective chosen placing actions. foolish gambled glibly review. finally, unrealistic ignore appellate avoiding That 81 disagree merely "materiality." one; 691-692, same. entitlement ought faces class reaffirm belief applies strict remove gamble harmlessness. especially proof, provides ample simple reached. true speculative review: 'what been' context system. vacuum; rather, built upon. usefulness, hence use, access. counsel." 412. consequence, less substitute slippery test. inclination "correct" obvious inability ever narrow proof affirmances impact. 85 Even careful focus available quantity Otherwise, acknowledges, risks overlooking 86 Without develops missing preclude pursuing effective. His client convicted additional pure exculpation. circumstances, sure supporting reach shown competent trial.7 argued fabricated accounts drug distributions, argument lack motive. 690. turned monetary assistance. "served said; Appeals. STEVENS, 89 straightforward misdescribed rule, 674-678, respectfully dissent unwarranted rewrite itself. 90 outset 669, (1976), situations, third. 91 demonstrating exemplified Mooney Holohan, 294 340, 791 (1935), error—the likelihood" "could affected" 2397.1 88, 1197 ("would tend exculpate"); accord, (1982) ("reasonable likelihood"); 272, 1178, ("may outcome"). willful "more importantly," "corruption process" 2398.2 confession inadmissible outcome" issue. punishment," therefore, former." Materiality describe 93 extended, perjury request—that automatically, "might helped 110, 2400.3 covered requested. later-discovered value. 106-107, 2398-2399. Consequently, volunteer "obviously evidence." 107, Necessarily describing "inevitably imprecise" appropriate occurs omitted creates exist." 2399, 2401.4 What restricted no-request context.5 "standard materiality" amounted unnecessary categories "outside context." 3383. 95 itself unquestionably "material"—and supra —and choice, MARSHALL's dissent, follow instance. Hasting, 461 499, 516-517, 103 1984-1985, (1983) (STEVENS, judgment). am confident sets reformulation confidence. requested, "would" altered [trial]." 682, 684. single nondisclosure, because, "consider directly" threatening 683 (opinion J.).6 97 agree. approach stretches concept recognizable scope, transforming probative innocence result-focused include weight affirming suppression. still suppressible MARSHALL rightly criticizes incentives "to dispositive." 701. 98 reduces numerous "may" J.). faithful "[w]hen expressed attach great face possession. actively misleads representation exist when, (i.e., perjury)—indeed, aptly "sides coin." Babcock, Fair Play: Favorable Accused Effective Assistance Counsel, Stan.L.Rev. 1133, 1151 (1982). 99 although vacated remanded proceedings, applied. ¶ 10(b) "[p]romises representations persons limited immunity, etc.," "[a]ll establish Employees formed warrant." 18-19. 3500, disclose, examination relates matter CV-3592-RJK(M) Assistant Attorney stipulated existed furnished 13a. found, respectively, $90 $80 reimburse impeaching represents departure model. recognized, transcends adversary: "is ordinary party controversy, sovereignty shall win done." Berger 295 78, 629, 633, 1314 (1935). 87-88, 1196-1197. 2398, (1976); 795, 2568, California Trombetta, 479, 488, 2528, 2534, 413 interpretation broad, alter character balance systems 117, 793, 818, 737 (dissenting opinion). Furthermore, commits accused, insignificant, impose finality judgments. roots obtain refuted deception perjured" rudimentary demands 341. reaffirmed principle broader (1942), allegations deliberately violation. (1959). consideration solicited allowed go uncorrected appeared. conviction—even goes witness—is "implicit liberty." 1177. Finally, bound 271, 1178. conducted "may derives 1178). antedated (1967), "harmless doubt" established. little, formulated, 'whether complained contributed conviction,' 'requiring beneficiary contribute obtained.' 24, 828 Fahy Connecticut, 375 85, 86-87, 229, 230-231, 171 (1963)). concedes, 36-38, precedents indicate equivalent extrajudicial accomplice. 84, 1195. 11, language indicating explains meaning quantum Strickland: challenges factfinder respecting guilt." 695, 2068-2069. early 1807, Addressing Aaron Burr's claim letter General Wilkinson, Burr treason, Chief Marshall wrote: communication essential him. producing opposed: "First, principle, universally acknowledged, oppose him, declarations subject. possesses bring forward declarations. positively say; waits heard late meet former Those declarations, mass precaution, positive necessity decided Burr, F.Cas. 30, (No. 14,692d) (CC Va. 1807). Fortas, Fifth Amendment: Nemo Tenetur Prodere Seipsum, Clev.B.A.J. 91, (1954) defendant] meet, contemplates, equals—strength strength, resource resource, argument"); 1142-1145 (discussing model). recent stringent ineffective crucial. guarantee relative abilities skewed, becomes significantly greater. 712-715, 2077-2079 dissenting); 1163-1174 interplay counsel). F.R.D., 499 (describing "serious" arises witnesses). Brennan, Prosecution: Sporting Event Quest Truth?, 1963 Wash.U.L.Q. 279, 289-290 (disputing argument). "violates observed Third "state rule." 86, articulates. strong word sense, mean, essentially, germane ex rel. Almeida Baldi, 195 815 1952), 345 904, 639, 1341 (1953), appeals petition habeas corpus mitigated "relevant" "pertinent," 819, "We Commonwealth outlined instant conflict justice. 820. Similarly, Thompson Dye, 221 765 (CA3), 350 875, 100 773 (1955), drunkenness "vital" 123 759, 762 (WD Pa.1954). observing credit issue, "be unimportant here." 767. distinct attributes Weinstein, synonymous words "ultimate fact," "operative "consequential which, states, 'fact action.' Weinstein & M. Berger, Weinstein's 401[03], Fed. Rule Evid. 401). treatise components "Materiality relation propositions issues help immaterial." Cleary, McCormick 185 (3d ed. 1984). "Probative value" proposition. Wigmore, (P. Tillers rev. 1982). nothing anything relate merit refer relevant, inherent applying, speculation knowledge, consequential slip experience past conclude Of exceptions exigent enforcement needs. misconduct, proper. Certain kinds infect discrimination selection. Peters Kiff, 407 493, 2163, effort category antithetical vision Butler Maroney, 319 622 1963), first-degree murder. Trial temporary insanity During shooting accidental struggle, eyewitness victim struggled seen, emphasized struggle. Note, Prosecutor's Constitutional Duty Reveal Defendant, Yale L.J. 136, 145 (1964). Unless utilized overwhelming murder, Ashley Texas, (CA5), 931, 331, 263 death psychiatrist's report sane, reports psychologist insane. self-defense. prevented developing psychiatric examinations threw off preparation, order. consider—in actually returned—the evaluation previously development Field, Assessing Harmlessness Error—A Process Need Rationale, 125 U.Pa.L.Rev. test). case," 678 added), 2401 (rejecting "every error" contexts). written, Due Clause explication demonstrates, 685-692, innocence. "Contract[s] Information" undercut central doing. final demurred, "direct, conviction," nevertheless egregiously demand available, exculpate reduce penalty helps shape heavily casts architect comport standards ." "[W]e decide, all. so, gives rise duty." reflect guilt. permissible supported establishing follows committed." depends "character prosecutor." 2400. Nevertheless, implicitly acknowledging broad discretion area, prudent resolve disclosure." vary context, depending "if questionable validity, minor importance doubt." 113, 2402. ("Our "); 681 (referring evidence"); 700 dissenting) trial"). 1148 (Agurs "distinguished" contexts "where pro-defense continue"). 679-680, 9, 684, 706, intact. note envisions formulated specific-request

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