Document: 369 U.S. 186 82 S.Ct. 691 7 L.Ed.2d 663 Charles W. BAKER et al., Appellants,v.Joe C. CARR al. No. 6. Reargued Oct. 9, 1961. Decided March 26, 1962. S. Rhyne, Washington, D.C., and Z. T. Osborn, Jr., Nashville, Tenn., for appellants. Jack Wilson, Chattanooga, appellees. Solicitor General Archibald Cox, the United States, as amicus curiae, by special leave of Court. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion 1 This civil action was brought under 42 U.S.C. §§ 1983 1988, U.S.C.A. 1983, 1988 to redress alleged deprivation federal constitutional rights. The complaint, alleging that means a 1901 statute Tennessee apportioning members Assembly among State's 95 counties,1 'these plaintiffs others similarly situated, are denied equal protection laws accorded them Fourteenth Amendment Constitution States virtue debasement their votes,' dismissed three-judge court convened 28 § 2281, 2281 in Middle District Tennessee.2 held it lacked jurisdiction subject matter also no claim stated upon which relief could be granted. 179 F.Supp. 824. We noted probable appeal. 364 898, 81 230, 5 193.3 hold dismissal error, remand cause Court trial further proceedings consistent with this opinion. 2 consists Senate 33 House Representatives 99 members. provides Art. II follows: 3 'Sec. 3. Legislative authority—Term office.—The authority State shall vested Assembly, consist Representatives, both dependent on people; who offices two years from day general election. 4 4. Census.—An enumeration qualified voters, an apportionment made year one thousand eight hundred seventy-one, within every subsequent term ten years. 5. Apportionment representatives.—The number shall, at several periods making enumeration, apportioned counties or districts, according voters each; not exceed seventy-five, until population million half, never ninety-nine; Provided, any county having two-thirds ratio entitled member. 6 'Sec senators.—The Senators districts electors each, one-third representatives. In different counties, fraction may lost up such Senate, near practicable. When district is composed more they adjoining; divided forming district.' Thus, Tennessee's standard allocating legislative representation her total resident respective only minor qualifications.4 Decennial reapportionment compliance scheme effected each decade 1871 1901. apportionment5 preceded 1870 requiring enumeration.6 1881 involved three statutes, first authorizing second enlarging 25 75 members, third membership Houses.7 1891 there were apportionment.8 abandoned separate favor reliance Federal Census passed Act here controversy.9 than 60 since action, all proposals Houses have failed pass.10 8 Between 1961, has experienced substantial growth redistribution population. 2,020,616, whom 487,380 eligible vote.11 1960 reports 3,567,089, 2,092,891 vote.12 relative standings terms changed significantly. It primarily continued application shifted enlarged voting gives rise present controversy. 9 Indeed, complaint alleges statute, even time its passage, 'made accordance formula * *, but instead arbitrarily capriciously representatives without reference logical reasonable whatever.'13 'because changes 1900, failure Legislature reapportion itself 1901,' became 'unconstitutional obsolete.' Appellants argue that, because composition legislature Act, form state amendment change entire mechanism reapportioning, other short difficult impossible.14 concludes votes.'15 They seek declaration unconstitutional injunction restraining appellees acting conduct elections it. pray unless enacts valid reapportionment, should either decree mathematical formulae most recent figures, direct elections, primary general, large. appropriate. I. 10 THE DISTRICT COURT'S OPINION AND ORDER OF DISMISSAL. 11 Because we deal case appeal order granted appellees' motions, precise identification issues presently confronting us demands clear exposition grounds rested dismissing case. recited sustained '(1) lacks matter, (2) fails can *.' 12 setting this, embrace possible reasons dismissal: 13 First: That facts injury alleged, legal bases invoked creating rights duties relied upon, sought, fail come language Article III jurisdictional statutes define those matters concerning Courts empowered act; 14 Second: That, although cognizable establish infringement appellants' result departing standard, will proceed considered unsuited judicial inquiry adjustment. 15 treat ground 'lack matter.' consider justiciable action. 16 Court's issued conformity court's per curiam reveals lack subject-matter attempting distinguish between these grounds. After noting challenged existing Due Process Equal Protection Clauses, summarizing supporting allegations requested, 17 'The before defendants' motion dismiss predicated grounds: first, matter; second, complaints granted; third, indispensable party defendants Court.' F.Supp., 826. 18 proceeded explain turning case's presenting 'question distribution political strength purposes.' For, 19 'From review (numerous Supreme Court) decisions doubt rule, enunciated applied Court, courts, whether inappropriateness consideration, intervene cases type compel reapportionment.' 20 went express doubts feasibility various remedies sought plaintiffs. 827—828. Then reflected view violation impotence correct violation: 21 'With plaintiffs' argument guilty constitution entirely agrees. agrees evil serious corrected delay. But so remedy situation clearly does lie courts. long been recognized accepted doctrine indeed some guaranteed courts cannot give redress.' 828. 22 light treatment case, today (a) possessed (b) appellants would appropriate relief; (c) raise issue standing challenge statutes.16 Beyond stage able fashion if violations found, improper now what prevail trial. II. JURISDICTION SUBJECT MATTER. 23 uncertain our withholding consideration—what designated 'nonjusticiability.' distinction significant. instance nonjusticiability, consideration wholly immediately foreclosed; rather, necessarily proceeds point deciding duty asserted judicially identified breach determined, right molded. 'arise under' Constitution, treaties (or fall enumerated categories III, 2), 'case controversy' meaning section; described statute. Our conclusion, see U.S., pp. 208—237, S.Ct., 705—720, infra, presents nonjusticiable 'political question' settles Under heading 'Jurisdiction Subject Matter' set forth arise 1343, 1343. 24 2, Power extend Cases, Law Equity, arising Laws Treaties made, Authority 'arises Constitution. effects deprives Amendment. Dismissal would, therefore, justified 'so attenuated unsubstantial absolutely devoid merit,' Newburyport Water Co. v. Newburyport, 193 561, 579, 553, 557, 48 L.Ed. 795, 'frivolous,' Bell Hood, 327 678, 683, 66 773, 776, 90 939.17 must 'very plain.' Hart B. F. Keith Vaudeville Exchange, 262 271, 274, 43 540, 541, 67 977. Since obviously correctly did deem frivolous, want matter. And course merits relevant determination said earlier Tennessee: 'It obvious court, jurisdiction, controlled deemed merit averments right. very nature controversy Federal, and, existed, whilst might furnished reason, afforded sufficient States.' Swafford Templeton, 185 487, 493, 783, 785, 46 1005. 'For well settled proper calls judgment jurisdiction.' 682, 776. See Binderup Pathe 263 291, 305—308, 44 96, 98—99, 68 308. plaintly sets power defined Congress assign Courts. exercised 1343(3), 1343(3): 26 original authorized law18 commenced person (t)o deprivation, color law, ordinance, regulation, custom usage, right, privilege immunity secured *.'19 27 An unbroken line precedents sustains courts' claims nature. redistricting purpose electing Congress. Ohio legislation against attack repugnancy I, 4, affirmed expressly refused 'In characteristics inhere ex rel. Davis Hildebrant, 241 565, 570, 36 708, 710, 1172. Minnesota suit enjoin Secretary legislation, reviewed reversed Smiley Holm, 285 355, 52 397, 76 795. companion New York Appeals Missouri Koenig Flynn, 375, 403, 805; Carroll Becker, 380, 402, 807. exercising predecessor permanently enjoined officers Mississippi conducting election act, questions Wood Broom, 287 1, 53 77 131, reversing 134. A similar same Kentucky reversed. Mahan Hume, 575, 223, 505, 142.20 refer Colegrove Green, 328 549, 1198, 1432, Appellees misconceive holding precisely contrary reading Seven participated decision. Unlike many field assumed discussion opinions filed discussed question. Two expressing views four Justices, majority, flatly Black joined Douglas Murphy stated: my had *,' citing supra. 568, 1210. Rutledge, writing separately, expressed agreement conclusion. 564, note 1208. questionable Frankfurter, Justices Reed Burton, doubted Such inconsistent professed willingness turn decision majority concurring 551, 1199. 29 Several decided summary statements. None Cook Fortson, 329 675, 21, 91 596; Turman Duckworth, ibid.; Barrett, 330 804, 973, 1262;21 Tedesco Board Supervisors, 339 940, 70 797, 94 1357; Remmey Smith, 342 916, 72 368, 96 685; Cox Peters, 936, 559, 697; Anderson Jordan, 343 912, 648, 1328; Kidd McCanless, 352 920, 157; Radford Gary, 991, 540; Hartsfield Sloan, 357 78 1363, 1363; Matthews Handley, 361 127, 80 256, 180.22 30 after likewise plainly imply jurisdiction. MacDougall 335 281, 69 93 3, enforcement requirement nominees state-wide supported petition signed minimum persons least 50 102 counties. disagreement concluded particular merit. South 276, 641, 834, Georgia 'county unit' system founded reached lower allegedly existed 1343(3). words 'Federal consistently refuse exercise equity powers posing state's geographical electoral subdivisions.' 277, p. 642. 31 complaint. III. 32 STANDING. 'pronounce void, irreconcilable constitution, except called adjudge litigants actual controversies.' Liverpool, N.Y. & P. Steamship Commissioners Emigration, 113 33, 39, 352, 899. Have personal stake outcome assure concrete adverseness sharpens presentation largely depends illumination questions? gist question standing. is, course, law. 34 residents Davidson, Hamilton, Knox, Montgomery, Shelby Counties. Each vote representing his county.23 These sued 'on own behalf further, situated *.'24 State, Attorney General, Coordinator Elections, Elections; County Election appoint.25 35 do maintain suit. support Many rather articulated premise claims.26 supra, squarely allege showing disadvantage themselves individuals sue.27 bring actions.28 protect vindicate interest own, situated. Their substance, constitutes arbitrary capricious offensive irrational disregard prescribed effecting gross disproportion assert classification disfavors reside, placing position constitutionally unjustifiable inequality vis-a -vis irrationally favored citizen's free impairment when resulted dilution false tally, cf. Classic, 313 299, 61 1031, 85 1368; refusal count votes selected precincts, Mosley, 238 383, 904, 59 1355, stuffing ballot box, Ex parte Siebold, 100 371, 717; Saylor, 322 385, 64 1101, 88 1341. 37 necessary decide will, ultimately, entitle relief, If produce legally injury, asserting 'a plain, adequate maintaining effectiveness Coleman Miller, 307 438, 975 merely 'the citizen 'to require government administered law *'.' Fairchild Hughes, 258 126, 129, 275, 499; compare Leser Garnett, 130, 217, 505. hearing claims. essence liberty certainly individual laws, whenever he receives injury.' Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 163, 60. IV. 38 JUSTICIABILITY. 39 justiciable, cases.29 rule understand read cited compelling conclusion unconstitutional, presented therefore nonjusticiable. question.' contrary. 40 Of mere fact seeks mean objection 'is little play words.' Nixon Herndon, 273 536, 47 446, 71 759. Rather, argued cases, whatever wording involve resting guaranty republican government,30 based clause 41 pleaded neither rests nor implicates Guaranty Clause justiciability foreclosed involving clause. misinterpreted Green relied. Appellants' being 'discrimination sufficiently shown, diminished discrimination relates rights.' Snowden 321 11, 497. To show why reject Clause, examine authorities appears uncertainty questions, specifically like contours doctrine. discussion, price extending opinion, requires expose attributes doctrine—attributes which, settings, diverge, combine, appear, disappear seeming disorderliness. undertaken solely demonstrate singly collectively nonjusticiable, explore implications contexts. relationship judiciary coordinate branches Government, judiciary's determining falls (the question) category, appropriateness attributing finality departments satisfactory criteria dominant considerations.' 433, 454—455, 972, 982, 83 1385. nonjusticiability function separation powers. Much confusion results capacity label obscure need case-by-case inquiry. Deciding measure committed another branch government, exceeds committed, delicate interpretation, responsibility ultimate interpreter less analyze representative infer analytical threads make then none catches Foreign relations: There sweeping statements effect touching foreign relations questions.31 Not resolution frequently standards defy application, discretion demonstrably executive legislature;32 uniquely demand single-voiced statement Government's views.33 Yet error suppose touches lies beyond cognizance. seem invariably discriminating analysis posed, history management branches, susceptibility handling posture specific consequences For example, though ordinarily inquire treaty terminated, 'governmental regarded controlling importance,' conclusive action' construe find answer. Compare Terlinden Ames, 184 270, 285, 484, 490, 534, Society Propagation Gospel Parts Haven, Wheat. 464, 492—495, 662.34 Though undertake manner hesitancy obtains clash Whitney Robertson, 124 190, 456, 386, Kolovrat Oregon, 366 187, 922, 218. 45 While recognition governments strongly defies republic whose existence know nothing,'35 follows nation sovereignty over disputed territory,36 once area politically determined declared, resulting status independently applies area.37 Similarly, belligerency abroad responsibility, proclamations explicit answer, seeking, determine designed American neutrality become operative. Three Friends, 166 63, 66, 495, 502, 503, Still again, determines person's Hitz, 111 766, 698, 592, executive's construed where re Baiz, 135 854, 222. Similar absence recognizedly authoritative occurs seizure vessels owned friendly governments. Republic Peru, 318 578, 63 793, 87 1014, Mexico Hoffman, 324 30, 34—35, 65 530, 532, 89 729. Dates duration hostilities: broadly declared necessity declare cessation, cessation requires,' Commercial Trust 51, 57, 486, 488, 489, 858, too isolable presence underlying departments' war ended. Dominant determination, emergency's 'A prompt unhesitating obedience,' Martin Mott, 19, 537 (calling militia). Moreover, hostilities end power. Hamilton Distilleries Co., 251 146, 161, 106, 110, 194, includes evils arisen progress' continues during emergency. Stewart Kahn, Wall. 507, 176.' Fleming Mohawk Wrecking 331 111, 116, 1129, 1132, 1375. deference habit.38 seriously implicate considerations finality—e.g., public program importance (rent control) yet central emergency effort.39 Further, definable available. barrier away: '(A) shut eyes mistake, validity truth declared. (It can) exigency still operation depended.' Chastleton Corp. Sinclair, 264 543, 547—548, 405, 406, 841.40 Woods Cloyd Miller 333 138, 421, 92 596. On hand, private litigation directly feature powers, discoverable drive even-handed impel dates hostilities' beginning ending. Protector, 700, 463. Validity enactments: how proposed remained open ratification, prior rejection congressional escaped grasp.41 apply enacting process: respect due coequal independent departments,' certainty about contribute reluctance whether, passed, complied requisite formalities. Field Clark, 143 649, 672, 676—677, 497, 499, 294; 218, true delve into legislature's records quest: enrolled effective date, hesitate journals preserve enactment. Gardner Collector, 890. doctrine, tool maintenance governmental order, promote disorder. Indian tribes: Indians tribe, while reflects familiar questions,42 Holliday, 407, 419, 182, unique element relation marked peculiar cardinal distinctions exist else. (The are) domestic nations pupilage. resembles ward guardian.' Cherokee Nation Georgia, Pet. 16, 17, 25.43 Yet, too, blanket rule. 49 "It (Congress) interests release (the) condition tutelage' meant community body people range calling tribe Sandoval, 231 28, 46, 6, 58 107. Able discern 'distinctly Indian,' ibid., strike down heedless extension label. stand impotent manifestly unauthorized apparent formulations vary slightly settings describe question, elements identify essentially Prominent surface found textually demonstrable commitment department; manageable resolving it; impossibility initial policy kind nonjudicial discretion; undertaking government; unusual unquestioning adherence already made; potentiality embarrassment multifarious pronouncements 51 Unless inextricable bar, non-justiciability question's presence. questions,' cases.' 'no suit' bona fide denominated 'political' authority. semantic cataloguing. shares constitute category considered, Constitution's guaranty, IV, s government. bar confidently care. discover question,' reason other, particular, nothing organization. Republican government: Luther Borden, How. 581, simply damages trespass was, Daniel Webster opening defense, 'an case.'44 defendants, admitting otherwise tortious breaking entering, justify agents established lawful Rhode Island, martial defend active insurrection; plaintiff engaged entered orders arrest plaintiff. arose 'out unfortunate differences agitated Island 1841 1842,' How., 34, wherein groups laid competing government.45 plaintiff's recover depended recognition; receive evidence hear issue, charge jury 'charter' lawful, verdict 54 Chief Taney's reasoned (1) acts unjustified charter period follow government's actions—laws enacted, taxes collected, salaries paid, accounts settled, sentences passed—were effect; carried (were) answerable trespassers, criminals.'46 room de facto uphold officer jure, defeated inevitably produced significant chaos, consequence avoided done abnegation 55 No settlement locus 'it displaced not,' department acknowledged change. 56 (3) '(t)he relates, altogether, State,' overturning them.47 57 (4) provision Clause. Having whereby choice independently, Taney textual practical concluding resolve judiciary: 'Under article State. guarantee not. senators admitted councils Union, appointed, character, binding questioned tribunal. contest last enough issue; placed there, 'So, above-mentioned providing demestic violence. Congress, adopted fulfill guarantee. (B)y act February 1795, provided, 'in insurrection thereof, President (when convened) call militia for, judge suppress insurrection.' 'By bound interfere, given President. 'After acted out militia, Circuit right? extends far, contained anarchy, order. 62 governor him took measures interfere *. (C)ertainly knowledge decision, recognizing opposing nations, always justice. *' 42—44. Clearly, factors thought 'political': unambiguous President, authority; decision; republican.48 significance immediate purposes repository utilize resort Clause—which alone purpose—as source invalidating Taylor Marshall Beckham (No. 1), 178 548, 890, 1187 (claim Kentucky's contested gubernatorial deprived nonjusticiable); Pacific Tel. 223 118, 224, 377 initiative referendum negated Kiernan Portland, 151, 231, 386 municipal Dye, 250, 92, 206 Indiana's procedure O'Neill Leamer, 239 244, 54, 249 delegation drainage 'futile'); 1172 invalidation negates nonjusticiable);49 Mountain Timber 243 219, 260, 685 workmen's compensation violates Bryant Akron Metropolitan Park District, 281 74, 228, 74 710 justice Highland Farms Dairy Agnew, 300 608, 835 agency control milk prices violated rejected). Just held, reasons, challenges inconsistency Stanton, 50, 721, bill execution Reconstruction Acts, claiming political, legal, constitutional, juridical sense,' new Acts 'Instead keeping forcible overthrow invaders insurgents, destroying force.'50 recognize character suing State.51 seemed required extraordinary restore form, Congress' behest claimant relying guaranty.52 few pass allow employ passing seats. pointed territories attained warrant polularly elected legislature. Downes Bidwell, 182 278—279, 770, 783—784, 1088 (dictum).53 come, finally, umbrella natural common descriptively present. none: consistency decided, Nor risk abroad, grave disturbance home54 take constitutionality challenged. appellants, succeed ask enter determinations lacking. Judicial developed familiar, enactment determine, must, policy, does, sense, allocation conceivably added seen, futile. succeeded heard tender. True, enmeshed render actually itself. here. connection attention 377. corporation tax enacted attacked ostensibly process; protection; aid contention invalid passage: defendant company contend pay license tax. opportunity amount taxed, anything inhering intrinsically raised, Instead, however, doing things, character. Its manifest understanding assault advanced makes (sic) tax, state. addressed framework levying passed. entity, (reducing essence) testing power, assailed exertion injuriously affected limitation, form.' 150—151, 231. process happened claim, place dealt through believed verbal view, entailed questions. compared 685, length, rejected, arguments 249, Nebraska's taking purpose. conclude arises embodiment 'political,' bearing Finally, emphasize involvement feature, Specifically, touch Brief examination demonstrates this. 73 respecting administration affairs conducted'55 amenable correction, claim. Boyd Nebraska Thayer, 135, Governor continue office. Kennard Louisiana Morgan, 480, 478, Foster Kansas Johnston, 112 201, 8, 629, removed office procedures Amendment's had. Term, Gomillion Lightfoot, 339, 125, Fifteenth redrafting boundaries discriminatory rights, face legislatures draw redraw boundaries.56 Negro City Tuskegee, Alabama, recast exclude practically Negroes. claimed elections. Court's, 167 Appeals, Cir., 270 F.2d 594. unanimously answer enjoyed unrestricted was: 'Legislative municipalities, scope limitations imposed opposite urged respondents, sanction achievement cloaked garb realignment subdivisions. inconceivable guaranties embedded thus manipulated existence." 344—345, 129. argument, responded lifted so-called arena conventional sphere litigation' racial minority violating worked deprivations petitioners' immune employed redefinition boundaries. redefining metes bounds, established, inescapable human essay geometry geography despoil colored citizens, theretofore Green. 'When exercises domain interest, insulated review. insulation used instrument circumventing federally protected right.' 347, 130.57 79 overlooked Sawyer, 200, 482, Walton 265 628, 1115, proceeding remove officer. explicitly reflect traditional limit White Berry, 171 366, 917, 199, withheld staying removal Wilson North Carolina, 169 586, 435, 865, unsuccessful upset procedure, presented—that comport requirements frivolous. 1009, 1187, losing candidates election, posited ousted suffered property law.58 Since, tendered affecting seems again reasoning later cases. Some concerned legislature, case; others, precedents, 795; 805, 807, Smiley, redistricting. followed dissent seven justiciability, comprising opinions, 566, 1209, problems confided 5, XIV, 2. Rutledge said: 'But ruling I supposed provisions Times, Places Manner Elections thereof; alter Regulations *'; (but vesting states 'according Numbers'; house sole qualifications But, judgment, rules contrary, save degree. Assuming stand, think afford justiciable.' 564 Accordingly, affirmed. His shortness remaining (before forthcoming elections) doubtful could, taken secure petitioners seek. think, properly, should, decline join disposition cause.' 565—566, 1208.59 relate govern legislatures. However, award equity. curiams came Colegrove. appeals Fortson (Turman Duckworth), 596, moot. void office, minimal Problems timing critical prematurely brought, 708; denying mandamus convening court—movants advance 'Inasmuch lapse normal business defeat cause, inasmuch problem inherent equity's powers; holding, quoted, 203, 703. 697, implicated 'state action.' 208 Ga. 498, S.E.2d 579. Terry Adams, 345 461, 809, 97 1152 1357, indicates raised districting city council seats, especially rational justification districting. La.App., So.2d 514. 1328, certain discretionary writ, barred 200 Tenn. 273, 292 S.W.2d 40, invalidate remedies, i.e., officers,60 norm numbers precluded ground, appeal, 157, Anderson, bear just Smith 220 Minn. N.W.2d 914, Magraw Donovan, 163 184; 177 803, inability grant assuming affirming session apportion, comply, so. 180, income statute—urged malapportioned—that adequacy available suits including constitutionality. Lastly, 1262, concurred equity, explained supra: nonexercise equitable declaratory precedent differ.' n. 22, (Citations omitted.) 84 complaint's denial reach remanded 86 Reversed remanded. WHITTAKER participate APPENDIX TO COURT Code Annotated '3—101. Composition—Counties each.—The assembly thirty-three (33) ninty-nine (99) representatives, Until next following elect representative, wit: Bedford, Blount, Cannon, Carroll, Chester, Cocke, Claiborne, Coffee, Crockett, DeKalb, Dickson, Dyer, Fayette, Franklin, Giles, Greene, Hardeman, Hardin, Henry, Hickman, Hawkins, Haywood, Jackson, Lake, Lauderdale, Lawrence, Lincoln, Marion, Marshall, Maury, Monroe, Moore, McMinn, McNairy, Obion, Overton, Putnam, Roane, Rutherford, Sevier, Stewart, Sullivan, Sumner, Tipton, Warren, White, Weakley, Williamson Wilson. (Acts (E.S.), ch. 1; 1901, 122, 2; 1907, 178, 1915, 145; Shan., 123; 1919, 147, 1925 Private, 472, 1932, 140; 1935, 150, 1941, 58, 1945, 68, C.Supp.1950, 140.)' '3—102. Counties Gibson Madison. 3; 124; mod. 141.)' '3—103. Knox Hamilton. 4; 125; 142.)' '3—104. Davidson County.—Davidson six (6) 5; 126; 143.) '3—105. County.—Shelby (8) Said numbered (8), coextensive county, district. 6; 126a 1932; 144; 1957, 220, 1959, 213, 1.) '3—106. Joint jointly, follows, 'First district—Johnson Carter. 'Second district—Sullivan Hawkins. 'Third district—Washington, Greene Unicoi. 98 'Fourth district—Jefferson Hamblen. 'Fifth district—Hancock Grainger. 'Sixth district—Scott, Campbell, Union. 101 'Seventh district—Anderson Morgan. 'Eighth district—Knox Loudon. 103 'Ninth district—Polk Bradley. 104 'Tenth district—Meigs Rhea. 105 'Eleventh district—Cumberland, Bledsoe, Sequatchie, Van Buren Grundy. 106 'Twelfth district—Fentress, Pickett, Clay Putnam. 107 'Fourteenth district—Sumner, Trousdale Macon. 108 'Fifteenth district—Davidson 109 'Seventeenth district—Giles, Lewis, Maury Wayne. 110 'Eighteenth district—Williamson, Cheatham Robertson. 'Nineteenth district—Montgomery Houston. 'Twentieth district—Humphreys Perry. 'Twenty-first district—Benton Decatur. 114 'Twenty-second district—Henry, Weakley Carroll. 115 'Twenty-third district—Madison Henderson. 116 'Twenty-sixth district—Tipton Lauderdale. 7; 145, 127; 1933, 167, 2.) 117 '3—107. senatorial districts.—Until comprise 118 district—Johnson, Carter, Unicoi, Washington. 119 120 district—Hancock, Grainger, Scott. 121 district—Cocke, Hamblen, Jefferson, Blount. 122 district—Knox. 123 district—Knox, Loudon, Roane. district—McMinn, Bradley, Polk. 125 district—Hamilton. 126 district—Rhea, Meigs, Buren, Cumberland. 127 Clay, Jackson. 128 district—Marion, Grundy Warren. 129 district—Rutherford, DeKalb. 130 'Thirteenth district—Wilson Smith. 131 132 133 'Sixteenth district—Davidson. 134 district—Bedford, Coffee Moore. 136 district—Lincoln Marshall. 137 district—Maury, Perry Lewis. 138 district—Hickman, Cheatham. 139 Lawrence 140 district—Dickson, Humphreys, Houston Stewart. 141 'Twenty-fourth district—Henry 142 'Twenty-fifth district—Madison, Henderson Chester. district—Hardeman, Decatur Benton. 144 'Twenty-seventh district—Gibson. 145 'Twenty-eighth district—Lake, Obion Weakley. 146 'Twenty-ninth district—Dyer, Lauderdale Crockett. 147 'Thirtieth Shelby. 148 'Thirty-first district—Haywood Fayette. 149 'Thirty-second district—Shelby. 150 'Thirty-third 128; 146; 146.)' 151 Today's changes. example: 152 1/2 c. 220. 213. 1957 abolished Twenty-seventh Representative included Fayette 153 Marion whole seat sharing joint Franklin County. 178. repealed change, restoring quo ante. reversal reversed, 147. 154 James five Seventh Ninth District. longer exists advised dissolved. 155 Roane Sixth Seventh, Monroe Polk Sixth. 11. 156 DOUGLAS, concurring. 157 merits, word explanation necessary.1 put side Executive. phase recurring agencies. More particularly, extent weight heavily another's. 158 So far concerned, large gaps envisaged Section House—and Senate—are chosen people. time, manner, left (Article XVII) regulatory 'republican form' promised invasion.2 Ibid. specify implicit Electors (voters) numerous legislature.' provision, Seventeenth Amendment, governs Senators. Within limits fixed Lassiter Northampton Board, 360 45, 985, 989, 1072. Yarbrough, 651, 663—664, 152, 158, 'owe sense depend exclusively state.' prescribe override commands require. 159 Race, color, previous servitude impermissible 110. Taper, versus Lightfoot (1962), 12—17. 160 Sex Nineteenth 161 freedom prescribing weights another? 162 test invidious discrimination,' selects race nationality oppressive treatment.' Skinner Oklahoma, 316 535, 1110, 1113, 1655. Universal equality test; weighting. As Lee Optical 348 483, 465, 563, prohibition goes discrimination.' agree Brother CLARK established. told single Moore County, Tennessee, worth Chester nearly times prove 'invidious discrimination' 164 competence regards segregation. legality determination. Adjudication often perplexing complicated. example extreme complexity task seen water States. Wyoming, 325 589, 665, 1332, 1373, 1815. guide vague, Commerce Clauses show. intricate. Courts, Harv.L.Rev. 1057, 1083—1084. 165 are, competence. Where performance 'duty' good officer, way (Commonwealth Dennison, 717), Cf. Communications Comm. Broadcasting 309 134, 437, 442, 656. assigns indivisibly3 department, intervene. Oetjen Central Leather 246 297, 302, 309, 310, 726. controversies Civil Rights 'under law' 'right, citizens 1343(4), 1343(4) 'any vote.' (Italics added.) covers wide range. 326, 1043, 1368: 168 'Misuse wrongdoer clothed of' law.' Pape, 365 473, 492. received 1343(4). Discrimination voter account penalized (Ex 274) struck down. 759; Allwright, 757, 987; Admas, 1152. Fraudulent dilute 717. 'right one's counted' creed 905, 'as box.' 324—325, 1042; 170 Holt Ashby Ld.Raym. 938, 956 (a awarded officials accepting vote, 320) that: 'To publick careful observe cities boroughs, partial commonly great growing mischief, tends prejudice peace nation.' 172 prophylactic here, entrenched regimes illusory Parliament been.4 173 Intrusion Government machinery forms—investigations (Hannah Larche, 363 420, 1502, 1307); criminal supra; supra); collection penalties (Smith (Terry practices. Raines, 362 519, 524. 174 Judge McLaughlin Dyer Kazuhisa Abe, 236 (an Hawaii moot, 256 728): 175 thrust today's climate discrimination. ludicrous preclude mainspring impaired. Legislators land responsive legislators.' 176 With exceptions 1432; spawned, removes impediment cognizance fashioned wellknown principles equity.5 CLARK, One emerging rash accompanying clashing himself suffering mental blindness. holds refuses undisputed—and guidance whatever. dissenting bursting go much little, contemns massive repudiation experience past.' Another describes conclusory 'incorrect,' 'arbitrary,' 'obsolete,' 'unconstitutional.' believe shown distinguishable dealing patent formulated. 180 (1948), Illinois hindrance Although upheld, represented policy. 181 strange indeed, doctrinaire, applying broad concepts deny diffusion thinly populated concentrated masses, latter opportunities exerting polls former.' Id., 284, (Emphasis supplied.) Brethren dwell inapposite. widely heralded 1432 (1946), bobtailed PRANKFURTER'S alternative ground.1 argument.2 served Mother Hubbard feel ill cast side.3 Likewise, involves criteria, indicates. Cases 540 (1957) (lack equity); (1956) (adequate judgment); 1328 (1952) grounds); (failure exhaust procedures), controlling. county-unit-system 834 (1950), viewpoint MacDougall, refrain intervening behind system.4 183 disputed. record 37% 40% 6o House. 563 (1955), 'statutory aside reasonably conceived it.' McGowan Maryland, 426, 1105, 393 (1961). incorporated numerical qualifications,5 one. county-by-county comparison plan thereon naturally disparities qualifications. mind problems, overall reasonable. root trouble admittedly followed. seats created Try may, fit pattern cut finding referred dissenters, relevance done.6 frequency magnitude inequalities admit Table 262, 734, conclusively picture topsy-turvical gigantic proportions. say disparity explained, table examined—comparing contrasting smaller larger counties—it leaves namely crazy quilt basis. At accused picking horribles allude series examples admitted, small samples are: two7 (2,340) one-eleventh Rutherford (25,316) representation; (5,563) Carter (23,303) population; likewise, Loudon (13,264), (3,084), (33,990) representation, 1.25 each. illustration underrepresented contain municipalities 10,000 'urban' classification, rationalizing attempt ruralurban balance. caught backlash bull whip, exceeding 10,000, County............... Population. Representation Carter................. 23,303. 1.10 Maury.................. 24,556. 2.25 Washington............. 36,967. 1.93 187 Madison................ 37,245. 3.50 municipality suffer discrimination: 188 County............. Grundy............... 6,540. 0.95 Chester.............. 6,391. 2.00 Cumberland........... 9,593. 0.63 Crockett............. 9,676. Loudon............... 13,264. Fayette.............. 13,577. 2.50 189 effort attain balance rural urban populations. population, rational. discriminates horizontally areas themselves,8 vertical urban. 190 insisted above (see 7) 'patently deficient' eliminates together coming rely proposition voice voter' 'approximate equality.' say, 'bare numbers.' use floterial theory splintered represent meet 'adjusted 'total representation" loco. using HARLAN formula: 191 Population Washington........... 2.65 Madison.............. 4.87 Carter............... 1.48 Greene............... 23,649. 2.05 Maury................ 3.81 Coffee............... 13,406. 2.32 Hamblen.............. 14,090. 1.07 192 now, formula, 'rural' population: Moore................ 2,340. 1.23 Pickett.............. 2,565. .22 Stewart.............. 5,238. 1.60 Cheatham............. 5,263. .74 1.36 .69 Smith................ 8,731. 2.04 Unicoi............... 8,787. 0.40 194 take: 195 Sullivan............. 55,712. 4.07 Blount............... 30,353. 2.12 196 'distorted effects,' dissenters crazier' quilt. 197 that—although hours' (three ordinary case) carefully Conference individually—no one, basis 198 one—except advocating formula—contends design pattern—as said, My contends plans disparities. Instead chasing rabbits pause proof counters generalities 'classic judgment,' 'significant discrepancy,' 'de minimis departures.' submit casual glance shows conclusions fanciful. all, cost. Like met burden 'Tennessee (federal) 199 offends intervention Tennessee. 'PRACTICAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR EXERTING THEir polls' referendum. searched diligently 'practical opportunities' strait jacket. 'informed, civically militant electorate' aroused popular conscience,' sear conscience people's representatives.' riveted constituencies, incumbents prevented. rebuffed hands Assembly; tried convention route, originate it, fruitless. result,9 Governors fought tide flounder. recourse perhaps be, standpoint substance. date stymied saddled msut modes relief. forums debate, conventions assemblies. hope bringing relieving fashioning blackjacking reapportioning lacking decree, difficulty start consolidate them, released egregious Other possibilities effective. suggested stranglehold permit redistrict 201 regard rationale representation. believing throughout required, albeit permissive Nevertheless, formula. isolated 'crazy quilt' category. inequalities, rational, explainable. exactness application. Only where, incommensurables 202 detailed study problem, merits. hold, sub silentio, present, remands formal voluminous papers extended position. contradict factual claims; offered apportionment; indicated known emphasized, factually background gained remand, time. muster dispose concur acquiesce remand. fairness idea faces proceed. 203 John (later Justice) ago Constitutional Convention, chief national rights.10 supports forebears died, namely, fully conformable principle representative.11 keystone survive. practice self-restraint discipline adjudication, infringed National enhanced forthright rendering nugatory interposition subterfuges. greatest tradition TABLE Present Proposed 204 (appellants' 205 J. plan), 1950 J.Clark's Harlan's Buren. 2,039. .63 .23 .11 Moore.. .18 Pickett. .70 .24 Sequatchie. 2,904 .33 .19 Meigs.. 3,039. .93 .48 .17 3,084. .46 Trousdale. 3,351. 1.33 .43 .12 Lewis.. 3,413. .39 .25 Perry.. 3,711. 1.50 .71 .40 Bledsoe. 4,198. .49 Clay... 4,528. .42 Union.. 4,600. .76 .37 .45 Hancock. 4,710. .62 1.75 .41 .72 .20 Cannon. 5,341. 1.43 .52 5,563. .79 Lake... 6,252. 1.44 .95 Humphreys. 6,588. 1.39 Johnson. 6,649. 207 209 6,719. De Kalb. 6,984. 1.56 .68 7,023. 1.01 .66 Fentress. 7,057. .64 7,125. .94 .65 Wayne.. 7,176. Polk... 7,330. .73 Hickman. 7,598. 1.85 .80 Macon.. 7,974. .61 8,308. .59 .75 Scott.. 8,417. Smith.. .67 Rhea... 8,937. 1.42 .21 White.. 9,244. 1.69 .90 Overton. 9,474. 1.70 1.83 .89 Hardin. 9,577. 1.61 9,593 .87 1.66 10,199 .78 .96 Marion. 10,998. 1.73 11,288. 2.28 .84 Dickson. 11,294. 2.29 Jefferson. 11,359 1.03 McNairy. 11,601. 1.74 1.13 Cocke. 12,572. 1.46 Sevier. 12,793. 1.47 Claiborne. 12,799 1.34 Monroe. 12,884. 1.68 1.30 .28 13,337. 1.89 Coffee. Hardeman. 13,565. 1.86 1.11 2.48 Haywood. 13,934. 2.52 Williamson. 14,064 2.33 2.96 1.71 210 211 212 Hamblen 14,090 1.67 14,297 1.95 14,413 2.45 Bedford 14,732 1.45 Lincoln 15,092 2.72 1.77 Henry 15,465 2.83 2.76 15,847 2.22 1.81 Giles 15,935 2.54 Tipton 15,944 3.00 Robertson 16,456 2.62 16,459 3.03 1.21 16,472 2.88 1.82 Hawkins 16,900 Putnam 17,071 Campbell 17,477 1.40 1.94 17,639 1.26 18,007 2.63 Bradley 18,273 1.92 McMinn 18,347 1.97 18,434 2.30 20,062 2.36 Sumner 20,143 3.56 23,303 2.55 23,649 2.68 24,556 2.85 25,316 3.02 2.39 Montgomery 26,284 3.73 3.06 29,832 5.00 2.86 Blount 30,353 2.19 33,990 3.62 Washington 36,967 3.45 Madison 37,245 3.69 Sullivan 55,712 5.57 131,971 6.00 15.09 140,559 7.25 8.96 15.21 211,930 12.50 12.93 21.57 213 312,345 15.50 16.85 31.59 STEWART, 214 writings Brothers stray convey, distressingly inaccurate impression decides. appropriate, joining say. 215 decides things more: '(a) statutes.' 197—198, 699. 216 asserts utterly arbitrary—without rationality. quite properly expresses subject. Contrary suggestion HARLAN, structured approximate voter.' 332, 772. prevent irrationally, choosing structure thinks best suited interests, temper, customs people.' 334, 773. assuredly 'may another?' 724. 217 'deny Term—that permits affect differently others.' 425, 393. establishing unconstitutionality assails Casualty Ins. Brownell, 294 580, 584, 538, 1070. 218 back precedents. repeat, only: controversy; convincing prima facie has, imagination ingenuity, hypothesized possibly system. now. defense 219 FRANKFURTER, joins, dissenting. reverses uniform dozen rejected ago. impressive rulings equally regarding representation—a franchise race, religion sex. past destructively novel role scheme. Disregard 'judicial Power' presages futility conflict forces determined. impair organ supreme Land' vast entangled feeling, pronounce. authority—possessed purse sword—ultimately confidence moral sanction. feeling nourished complete detachment, appearance, entanglements abstention injecting settlements. 221 hypothetical abstract assumptions affording foreshadows deeper pervasive difficulties consequence. vouchsafe courts—state federal—guidelines formulating specific, definite, unprecedented inevitable litigations umbrageous stimulate motivated reapportionments setting, promulgate meaningless. reality brooding omnipresence sky,' conveys intimation any, capable invite ducks drakes judiciary. enforce withhold turnabout, manifests odd esoteric—conception propriety. elucidated commentary, unwittingly affords disheartening preview quagmire (apart divers inappropriate elusive determinants) catapults country adumbrating calculus extrication. Even intellectual disinterestedness part judges matters, reliable analogies judgments. accommodating incommensurable underlie puzzles attribute, however flatteringly, omnicompetence judges. Framers persistently proposal embodied assumption Thomas Jefferson entertained 222 Recent appropriately atrocity ingenuity,' unique. Considering units almost shrinks enforceable courts.* Room allowed implies geography, economics, urbun-rural conflict, non-legal ruled undefined vista opened reapportionments. extent—aye, there's rub. effect, empowers devise fifty unable discharge task, satisfy notion soothingly worry effectively rhetoric, heed admonition. euphoric hope. sorry confession frank acknowledgment undesirable deliberate forethought enthrone situation, nature, belong Appeal informed, electorate. democratic society ours, sears event unseemly self-defeating terrorem pronouncements, indulge empty sounding promise ear, sure disappointing latest restrictions allocate populations subdivisions.1 comes statutory amended seeking injunctive Tenn.Code Ann.1955, 3—101 3—109, apportion ninety-five 224 plaintiffs, respectively Tennessee,' or, alternatively assert, situated.' Knoxville Mayor Nashville—on pursuant Nashville Council, city's residents—were permitted parties plaintiff.2 charged elections.3 225 avers, following.4 declares 'elections equal,' age, citizenship specified residence attached suffrage, prohibits suffrage conviction infamous crime. 1. each5 decennial enumeration. II, Notwithstanding provisions, reapportioned Reapportionment year, Tenn.Acts 3—109,6 allocated arbitrarily, unequally discriminatorily, measured 1900 census. irrespective obsolete' 1911 Continuing 'purposeful systematic discriminate class persons,' Legislatures failed, predecessors, enact bills introduced. shifts proportionate denies live additional entitled, renders 'not residing Plaintiffs 'suffer incorrect, arbitrary, obsolete totality malapportionment's effect—which thirty-seven percent twenty forty sixty-three ninety-nine House—results distortion system' Constitutions, prevents 'from 'contrary basic philosophy anglo-Saxon jurisprudence 226 Exhibits appended purport complain. Based population,'7 figures Senator populous represents two-tenths district, corresponding eighteen discriminated overrepresented revenues, notably school highway-improvement founds,8 effective' Legislature's prayer below striking Ann. 1955, directing atlarge basis—the receiving highest elected.9 227 Motions granted, 824, rehearing denied, 825, 701, reargument full bench 828, 193. altered request suggesting 'step-by-step approach.' step directions vacate retaining spur proves insufficient, 'additional spur' prohibiting Act's unconstitutionality, both. failing, invited greatly daring, master. brief reversal, asks 'jurisdiction' entertain statute's undefined, unadumbrated found. reargument, 907, 1082 Term. 228 sustaining suit, overruled disregarded. Explicitly begins colegrove 1946, roots run deep historic adjudicatory process. 229 adjudicate constitutionality, written sitting Both agreed dictated strict divergence considerations, important points concurrence. predominant concern, avoiding traditionally making; difficulty—in country—of drawing devising opposed determinations, criterion power; relief—particularly, unequal 230 applicability considerations—summarized loose shorthand phrase, question'—in localities led variety situations. (In Court.) commensurate 'one structure.' Rescue Army Municipal 1409, 1420, 1666. challenging Illinois' legislative-apportionment laws. proportion forty-five years—during extensive rendered grossly unequal—and thereafter. 540. 685. declined hear, division selection councilmen fell afoul 921, 1334, 'devaluation' Georgia's county-unit Democratic candidate. subsequently injunction; steps court; file writ act. 283, assume practicalities government,' 'such laws,' id., formation securing signatures attacking dismissal, saying 232 diversities comprehensively ground—Colegrove federal, state, involved; tried; Gary Oklahoma initiative, whereas darken counsel discuss assertedly distinguishing context Suffice serve fours dissent, ago, momentum unvarying respected, governing exact persuasive distinctly varying circumstances arrangements degrees influence geographic 233 repeated innovation. experience. From earliest lend remedies. classify instances questions' stating revealing analysis.10 labelled emerge unifying compelling. 234 affairs, usually country's speaking matters. concern undoubtedly decisions,11 pattern. hardly embarrass transactions litigants, terminated. See, e.g., 463; Brown Hiatts, 177, Adger Alston, 555, 234; Williams Bruffy, 176, 192—193, 716. suffice Ludecke Watkins, 160, 1429, 1881—deferring Presidential deport alien enemies—that intruction impede President's war. true; 537; Lamar Browne, 193, 650; Warehouse 194; Kahn 255 469. tribes communities Indians, group retains confer power.12 E.g., 182; Tiger Western Investment 286, 738; factor kinds complex agencies expendiency, ascertainable judged. adjudication accepts Chicago Southern Air Lines, Inc. Waterman S.S. Corp., 103, 431, 568. Rogers, 567, 572, Worcester 515, 483.13 235 Questions unwavering bright lines. Often structures by, presuppositions of, '* restraints processes.' Wickard Filburn, 317 120, 82, 87, 122. tribes, subjects unreviewed. 841. acknowledge differ degree thereby kind, continuum, tell logic, quiddities disharmonies manifest. contentions logically distorting Hunter Pittsburgh, particularly unwilling interven organization institutions entry greater marks approach guarantees. 'We reluctant supervise plain departure fundamental propriety remain, aggrieved life, liberty, constitution.' 439, 865. 1187; 1115; 221, 492—493, 402. 237 Where, determinative resolved narrow, proceedings. 103. explains local lawmaking misconceived restriction superior requirements. demanding accommodation conflicting readily accessible McPherson Blacker, 869, treated select presidential cl. mode absolute Pope Williams, 621, 573, 817; Breedlove Suttles, 302 205, 252. literalness abstracted danger conceptions 'justiciability' derived talk probing beneath actions organs decisive 'jurisdictional' disfranchisement exception imperative. command unequivocal. motive War Amendments. terms, Fourteenth. Slaughter-House 36, 67—72, 394; Strauder West Virginia, 303, 306—307, 664; 447, Thus Negro's damages,14 but, circumstances, relief.15 Schnell Davis, 336 933, 749, 1093; 1152.16 Injunctions noted, restrained statewide Harris, 475, 639, 909. 'abstract sovereignty, government.' Massachusetts Mellon, 485, 597, 600, 1078. Texas Interstate Commission, 162, 261, 531; Jersey Sargent, 269 328, 337, 124, 289. aspect, policies 'standing': litigant official himself, distinguished dissatisfaction frame functioning government—a awry. Stearns Wood, 75, 229, 475; Public Workers America (C.I.O.) Mitchell, 89—91, 556, 564—565, 754. What non-justiciable parties;17 involved, adjudicated forms controversy.18 crux instruments contests non-judicial forums, unmade. 227; Hart, 646, Phillips Payne, 649; Marsh Burroughs, Fed.Cas.No. 9,112, 463, 471—472 (Bradley, Justice); Shaw, 24, 233, 351; Coyle 688, 853. restrain assimilated territory abrogated cognizable. 25.19 military extinguished replaced Constitution:20 240 'That bill, prayers property, denied. invoked, corporate privileges. infringed, threatened infringement, court.' 77.21 converging considerations—the caution lacking, unquestionable mandate, unwillingness arbiters historically adjustment illadapted—has reaching century, guaranteeing Form Government,'22 249; Cochran Education, 370, 335, 913; Dairy, 835.23 Claims adoption institution, 569, 1172, amendment, 256—257, 94, 206. Telephone Telegraph 377, licensetax ruinous destruction purely occasioned giving underlies propositions contended for,'24 242 (The) (of claim) assailed, starting 581. Dorr Rebellion 1841—1842. England, continued, royal Charter, alterations. provided law; limited freeholders. 1830's, towns propertied freehold estates, addition, caused dated yield influence, voters. felt underrepresented, agitation began reform. respond, meetings broader delegates drafted constitution. universal manhood (with qualifications); expansive obtained. ratified convention, organized head, insignificant skirmish, routed followers. meanwhile peacefully 1843.25 244 Borden Dorr's supporters entering house. plaintiff, reply, Evidence tending rightful Court; lawful; 245 Taney, Island—that deeming unfit attacks regard. 39—40. compulsion said—referring Guarantee Fourth Article—'* concerns department.' 42. courts.' Ibid.26 247 non-justiciable, sensitive varied applications discussed. adverted delicacy government.27 entrusted processes,28 processes decision.29 guiding critical, rightfully depended, part, recognized—the rebellion fought. 248 (I)f inquiry, qualification it? province expound functions away given; privileges to, decision.' 41. Woodbury (who dissented law) issues: 250 'But, fortunately excitements duties, officially umpire political. belongs principles. adjusted inclination,—or compromise, often. alone, naked intrinsic 'Another evil, alarming foreseen, final arbitrament dispute people, finally. (D)isputed constitutions, depending often, inclination, resolves, ever controversies, nor, frequently, judgments dethrone lose invaluable birthrights; building way—slowly, surely—a sovereign republic, respects irresponsible unchangeable dangerous, least, worst elective oligarchy 51—53.30 252 non-justiciable. masquerading invoke fact, same—unless speaks particularity situation. admonished avoid tyranny labels.' Snyder Massachusetts, 291 97, 114, 330, 674. else, unenforceable. plaintiff) casts action,' Pan Petroleum Superior 656, 662, 1303, 1307, brings wanting, invoking another. laid, well, 'dispelling expression, considering substance 140, 227, 253 Here perceived hurts them. 'distortion system,' Accepting formulation handsaw hawk. forum debate. 254 rest simpliciter. complained Does characterization, derived, add case?31 blush, underrepresentation appearance private, impersonal assertion askew. appear prejudiced class, contradistinction polity entirety. conceive share influence. This, Hardly nonrepublican operate groups, advantage politic. ingenuous see, consciously blind deny, real battle referendum, authority, disparate given. shift works composing society. What, then, apportionment? counted.32 counted. polls, ballots, send councils. powerful—in short, dissatisfied. Talk 'debasement' 'dilution' circular talk. speak value worth. asked choose really, theories philosophy—in 257 ignore unrealities; betray reason. device oblique sophisticated, Negroes Jews redheaded sixth vote. illustrates old widespread method representation—representation division, population—in preference forsooth, appealing. arbiter disagreement. guarantees comports, assurance voter's conception ought reasonableness unspecific rewrite Certainly, 'equal protection' foundation permissibility 'Republican Form.' Indeed laws' challenged, presupposes relationship. apportionment, theoretic base acceptably equal-protection Republican-Form basically, allowed. divorce Form' half 259 proportioned spread universally man preserved Amendment—that government'—is, bluntly, true. However desirable desired thinkers framers generally practiced, past. English system, colonial predominantly practiced today. judges, wisdom Constitution—views honesty reality, partisan politics inescapably controversies—the 'itself historical product,' Jackman Rosenbaum 260 31, 10, 107, oversight problem. Great Britain. Writing 1958, Professor M. Mackenzie aptly summarized British "Equal districts' formed programme radical reform England 1830s, realised.'33 late nineteenth relevant) unit: borough returned units, regardless population.34 Prior Reform 1832, northern industrial centers, grown size advent Industrial Revolution rotten borough, playing Crown's struggle Commons.35 1831, southernmost numbering quarter thirty-five parliamentary northernmost sixty-eight.36 eighty appointed Commons.37 Less century earlier, Federalist remarked Scotland.38 261 product fierce occasion charges gerrymandering foundation,39 eradication unreformed adopt disfranchised enfranchised centers—still numbers.40 wake inequality: boroughs Cornwall sixteen weightily, judged county's eastern division; average agricultural manufacturing divisions; Honiton, inhabitants, thousand.41 1866 advocated House, 1867, evenly, gauged standard.42 increased surviving inequalities; 1884 twenty-two Birmingham Manchester, forty-to-one elsewhere, sum, 1870's 1880's, fourth electorate House.43 distribute Redistribution 1885.44 ratios one,45 fifteen 1912.46 1918 'shockingly bad' conditions inequality,47 inspiration,48 redistribution.49 1944, periodic footing Commons (Redistribution Seats) year,50 continuing administrative (Boundary Commissions Scotland, Wales Northern Ireland, respectively).51 Commissions, guidance, prepare intervals Home Secretary's submission Parliament, along draft Order Council Commissions' recommendations. significantly modified practicable, conditions, size, shape accessibility constituencies. 1944 (subject Act) single-member deviate twenty-five quota (population constituencies). apparently recommendation Boundary Commission eliminated restrictive 1947, flexible constituencies subordinated preserving boundaries.52 Free drew run, high one.53 twice 1954—the judgment—and Judges Hammersmith Borough England,54 Harman, J., interference, Harper Secretary,55 Appeal, Evershed, M.R., quoting approval, adverting remarking engage conclusion.56 1958,57 amendments Responsive England,58 interval doubled, maximum years.59 ease future labours irritation Rule (requiring constituency practicable) recommendations appeared intention Rules,'60 directed inconveniences attendant alteration ties break. erect presumption strong them.'61 Colonies theorists Revolutionary generation, salient aspects inequality, model avoided, followed.62 entities, approximately early colonies.63 some, account, rough fashion, allotting increasing quotas classes graduated colonies numbers.64 units.65 Carolina another.66 appeared,67 struggles King governors legislatures,68 later, older tidewater regions interior.69 Philadelphia Convention 'inequality *'70 arguing ultimately regulate times, places selecting Representatives,71 forestall counties' overrepresentation Charleston's bone country, Virginia spoke Connecticut's town-representation system.72 survived period. numbers. Convention;73 solution—involving Senate74 three-fifths compromise House75—left chamber proportionately allotted tidewater.76 Notes recorded unequal' there: differing seventeen nineteen Virginia's men lived rivers seacoast delegates.77 1790, white twenty-nine seventy members; uplands eleven fifty-four assemblymen.78 266 interior insistent. quarrel major precipitating 1829. Bitter animosities racked threatening disunion. gave west thirteen senators, east, commanded agreement. western dissatisfied threats revolt Maryland.79 267 disproportions. 1820, Calvert Frederick twenty.80 county-representation allotment. And, struggle, mid-century, attendant, inequalities.81 268 ratification admitted. scenes sectional strifes representation.82 methods ways degrees. Particularly pertinent appraisal limiting 1870, ratification. groups: (A) ratifying shortly thereafter, work conventions;83 (B) Reconstruction-Act All significant, unfounded practice, baseless mold which—if sound—struck silentio provisions. constitutions importance, scarcely solicitous readmission rebel ratifications approved which—again, contemporaneously offended A. twenty-three group, demanded houses population,84 unqualifiedly preservation boundaries.85 base, ratio—a moiety two-thirds—should representative.86 chambers, fractional operate—and, Michigan, operated87—to sparsely counties.88 Iowa combined district,89 compromised assuring Houses.90 Maine device. former ratio, three-quarters, ratios, ratio.91 latter, town inhabitants thousand, twenty-six inhabitants—towns representatives: seven.92 systems apparent: Maine, incidence categories, minimum. small, six.93 Hampshire ratable male age increment figure;94 paid.95 Pennsylvania, taxable inhabitants; taxables district; senators.96 271 Connecticut97 Vermont98 basis; senator cities,99 Jersey, counties.100 Nor, numbers: Connecticut senators101 Vermont, one;102 assured representative;103 city, one-sixth House.104 272 Among Confederate strictly population.105 Carolina,106 Carolina,107 Louisiana,108 Alabama,109 (in Louisiana, parish) numbers—a exhausted, respectively, then-existing one-quarter, two-fifths assignment moreover, member Charleston sent two.110 Florida's registered representatives;111 distributed forty-four contiguous counties,112 assigned thirty-one populous, ninety-five.113 expected, one-representative-per-county proved incompatible equality,114 county-clustering representative-ratio disparities, largest smallest sixty one.115 constitutions116 Union showed Six boundaries.117 House,118 Idaho, (after session) law,' representative.119 county.120 Montana enumerations law121 senator.122 Alaska123 Hawaii124 districts; periodically Alaska125 Hawaii's areas.126 Arizona house, reapportionment.127 274 Contemporary apportionment. Detailed studies present-day States.128 twentieth-century trend exclusive Today, provide substantially unqualified standard,129 chamber. 'Specific increasingly 19th century. *'130 nine branch, unit's inhabitants. numerically 'These over-representation areas. *'131 curb dominance metropolitan regions, entitlement (or, city) house—another disproportion.132 275 kept it.133 capita rural, relatively areas—the finds expression provisions,134 elsewhere135—has, inaction shifts.136 Throughout suburban tend higher areas.137 276 stark practices prevailing standard.138 Examples endlessly multiplied. senator.139 7,290 107,246 inhabitants.140 Rations California ninety-seven one.141 roughly constituencies.142 Colebrook, Connecticut—population 592—elects representatives; Hartford—population 177,397—also elects two.143 fifth products subordinate regional inaction; derives sources. survey thirty inhabit States.144 variations equality. not—as been—a measured. 277 Manifestly, supplies clearer Apportionment, complexity, involving—even theoretical compromised—considerations demography, convenience, economic social cohesions divergencies communications, lobby machine, ancient traditions proven senior status, mechanics, censuses compiling data, host others.145 responses glaringly confirmed evaluations staple equipped training native wit. strand complicated, intricate web values contending politics.146 battles overwhelmingly intra-party contests.147 virulent friction tension federal-state embroil them.148 278 Appellants, abridge face, give, allot 279 analysis. derive St. L.R. Browning, 310 362, 968, 1254. Castillo McConnico, 674, 622; Coulter Louisville N.R. 599, 608—609, 342, 344 345, 615; Owensboro Waterworks Owensboro, 38, 361; Hebert 312, 316—317, 104, 270; complain allegations, maintains districts. purposefully retained 40; 157. Browning 369, case: 280 Here, petitioner's conforming systematic, years, narrow confine 'laws' books, gloss life Settled supplant guarantees, write formalism Deeply carrying petitioner complains, tougher truer dead text. (T) candor. cull unenforced judiciary, unenforceable footing, Connecticut,149 unaffected repugnance rely.150 McCanless introduces litigation, emphasizes declining weighty reapportions paralyze centers threaten dislocation foreseeable. implied idle threat.151 Surely remap State: complexities fortiori impossible imponderables enormous implications, informed 282 closed off unsatisfactory dangerous alternatively, large, Chancellor coercive judgment. despite elected, possess reapportion, disruption 'There State.' S.W.2d, constituted Chancellor's demurrer disrupt orderly sustained: 283 '(4) expired passage nonexistent. Therefore Assembly. 284 deprive itself.' 281—282, 44. enforcing not, sure, remedial doctrines impropriety state-law control. grounds, decennially, and—under McCanless—deprive law-based branch. Oregon cases.152 286 restricted subject, Dissenting FRANKFURTER joins. 288 join, abrupt putting concerns—an instance, enter. 289 detract panorama unfolds, evincing steadfast domains, tendency, variants becloud 290 Once cuts thicket devoted 'jurisdiction,' 'standing,' 'justiciability,' emerges straightforward disclose words, 1343(3) 1983? observes, 'sub silentio.' 733. true, parsed whole, 'failure granted.' Fed.Rules Civ.Proc., 12(b)(6), essential is. allocated, fix runs 131. favors sections communities. Stripped essentials purports breadth: 293 weight. Short legislators unreasonable Legislature, 295 event, flies FRANKFURTER'S 325—327, 768—769, untenable, further. two. 296 elsewhere impliedly voter. refuted history, strikes heart acceptance backs basically concern. 297 analysis, core difference surely permissibly bare account. that. asymmetrical Hence accept choice, realistically, philosophies. internal undesirable, wise unwise. 298 measures, 'day gone uses unwise, improvident, harmony thought.' 563. intimate imposes limitation committing Government.' (ante, 308—317, 759—764), immutably minds founders draftsmen 299 observed 'assume reaffirmed 834. census levy income. stands better dispassionate 301 enactments identity rigid Allied Stores Ohio, Inc., Bowers, 358 522, 527—528, 440, 441, cited; 425—426, 1104, prohibited permissible borne unconstitutionality; condemn capriciousness policy? arranged religious intentionally underrepresented. indulged sheer caprice throw dice, determinant unreasonably refusing occurred meantime. 303 invalid, discrepancy; added. perfectly evident attributable circumstance remainders departures significance, statistics substantiation capricious. 304 reduced essentials, arbitrariness conceived. 305 continuance becomes vulnerable classic judgment? demographical stability defer 306 imbalance cities. burdens, Sugar Rfg. 89, 43, 102, repeatedly Capper-Volstead Stat. 388, 292; Agricultural Adjustment 1938, 601 seq. exemption activities Tigner Texas, 141, 879, 1124. impose stricter government? sit also, fundamentally, originally bulwark affords. respect, facile arithmetical Part CLARK's (369 253—258, 729—732) tenable instance. (See Appendix opinion.) 308 legislators, actuated self-interest perpetuating unworthy motives. Fletcher Peck, motives legislators. California, 423, 455 7, 526, 1154. ends appears, undisputed facts, recognizable interesting STEWART pains disclaim suggest, accord strength. Concurring 265, 736, 737. so, what, asked, complaint? 'obsolete' 'unconstitutional' amounting conclusions—do dismissal. 497; Collins Hardyman, 341 937, 1253. proving statute; emphasized 266, 737), "the 1070.' suggest previously supportable majority's grips Constitution—an dismiss— furnish permitting catch premises obtain grievances lead stretch intervention. eschews explaining how, consonant decisions, provision. pressed field, 'malapportioning' quickly respond becoming reckon store optimistic prediction fulfilled. adventure experimentation solid piece adjudication. Whether 682—683, 777, 939, correct. 311 agree, citizen, do, deprecate, judge, Those observers refuge correction injustice, source, applaud break 312 affirm. MR. JUSTICE HARLAN. 314 INADEQUACY ARITHMETICAL FORMULAS AS MEASURES RATIONALITY OFTENNESSEE'S APPORTIONMENT. 315 concede Legislature. rationality' 736); pattern' 258, 732). suggests unconstitutionally arbitrary. proportions' 254, 730), text thereto. defective representation' footnote 255, 730, 731), faulty foundations, ignores justifying sort failing focusing patently unsound, CLARK'S submit, basrelief well-established formulas rationally inequalities. outset, determinations: units; prohibit population—at county—a 'direct representative'; create 'floterial' (multicounty districts) county; (5) adjoining counties.1 unavoidably leads unreliable arithmetic egregiously deceptive CLARKS'S applied. 319 computes adding representatives' elect; jointly 'floterial district'; triple alone; multicounty fractions items computed seat, district.2 320 deficient result, unrealistically senator, addition Moore's Eighteenth Senatorial negligible. 2,340 30,478 one-fifteenth senator. Assuming, arguendo, figure 1.23, 2.3 thinks, life. representative's 'function district' 731). gainsaid candidate, district? 'adjusted' touchstone rationality plan. shows, proportional principal 323 'A' 'B' 'fair distribution' accords tested quilt.' Humphreys Warren discrepancies appear. somewhat 10% 75% 13% voters.4 fault statistical hand used, multitude legitimate policies, Others judging remembered 'rationality' considered. list 'horribles' 'underrepresented' semiurban: population.5 'urban rural' outweigh desire achieve interests. area, factor.6 Or location industry strength.7 Again, combination neighbors inequalities.8 326 broadly, accounted economic,9 political,10 geographic11 considerations. allegation record, briefs, attest forward By disregarding turned highly elementary puzzle. blinking Apart quo. Rigidity reapportionment. stability, permanent forever ignoring achieved subdivisions cities, towns. Harvey, Reapportionments Legislatures—Legal Requirements, Contemp. Probs. (1952), 364, 368—372. search ruban accompanied development decade. slight overcome foremost motivation notwithstanding conceded is—the give-and-take conflict—the (1901), 3—107. 237, 720. who, features 'that significant,' convene court. 652. Term reargument. 1082. than, Representative. Tenn.Const. number-of-voters total-population county. Const. N.J.Const. N.J.S.A. 'qualified voters,' exhibits over. outset. (1st Sess.), Commissioner enumerate 'all twenty-one upward, January, 1871. Reports compiled submitted Tenn.S.J., 1871, 41—43. then-governing qualifications: citizenship; months, months; payment poll preceding exemption. (2d 10. (These Shan.Tenn.Code 1167, 1220 (1896; Supp. 1904).) Still, Resolution (redistricting) returns 46—47, 96. correlation 1870. reported 259,016 upward Statistics 635 (1872). Report, reported, 237,431. Using arrived 250,025. indicate finally abandonment figures. notes infra. Tenn.L.Rev. 235, 236, trial, current Reports, apposite. 146. 124. commissioners 'access 1880, Clerks auxiliary required. Ibid., 330,305 Tenth Compendium 596 (1883). Report 343,817, Tenn.H.J. Extra.Sess.), 1881, 12—14 (1882). mandate 1,500,000. S.J.Res. III; (1881). 1891, 22; (Extra.Sess.), Reference 7. 402,476 males Eleventh 1890, (Part I) 781 (1895). 399,575. ,1 473—474. 1260, 35; recently accurate ascertained expense attempts 909—930; Documented Survey 1870—1957,' exhibit prepared Historian, Dr. Robert H. White. preliminary 1911, Redistricting Committee 1910 60, 315. appointment committee 47, 1219. 224; 1403. H.J.Res. 65, 1114. Twelfth 1) (1901); 2) (1902). Population: 1960, Characteristics—Tennessee, complaints, 'wholly lawfully whatever.' Convention. Amendments chosen. Alternatively, proposals. separately convention. Conventions oftener XI, 1951, 340, 1953 1959 Representatives. Assembly's 'relating senators' excised. Tenn.H.J., 784. introduced unfavorably Rules Chambliss County), Relative 'WHEREAS, rumor Limited postponing reapportionment; pending Conventions, forbidding frequent sentence Eleven, paragraph, to-wit: "No years.' 'Now, THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED, consensus hereinbefore 'BE FURTHER possibility forced Sovereign avoided. adjourned broaden authorize empower provide, whe electorate, Tenn.Constitutional Journal Debates, 35, 278. amendment. statutes. Insofar unnecessary proofs Whether, taxation anything, presented, decide. have—if develops allegations—a putatively consider, let enforce, protections assess Anglo-Saxon accuracy dismissals Hood. provides: 'Every custom, Territory, subjects, causes subjected, thereof privileges, immunities liable injured predecessors Jeannette, 877, 1324; Stefanelli Minard, 117, 138; Condon, 73, 984; 492; Egan Aurora, 514, 684, 741. mootness, Brownlow Schwartz, 216, 263, 620. Boeing Aircraft 1262 ('the jurisdiction'). affirm 470. following, text, . .' Cities Chattanooga (Hamilton County) (Knox residents, press intervenors capacities. contains averment sue Tennessee.' over-represented 'Defendant, Joe Carr, duly furnishing blanks, envelopes information slips Commissioners, certifying officio charged, examining declaring results, applicable Annotated, Chapter 1949, inter alia. George advising 23—1107 attacked, ex-officio 2—140 Annotated. Jerry McDonald, official, (chapter 148). 'Defendants, Sam Coward, Alexander, Hubert Brooks constituting appointing Flection supervision biennial Statutes Title Sections 2—901, aforenamed capacities, impracticable inclusive; aforesaid jurisdictions, appoint registry certify preparing ballots 2—1201, 2—301, alia.' named remains 361, 397 ("citizen, elector taxpayer' state'); 379, 403 ("citizens voters' ('citizen Mississippi, candidate Congress'); supra (candidate office). sue, individuals.' He 467, 975, 988, 1208, 1209. Commentators Frankfurter's standing: 'This damage exclusion citizens. wrong, wrong polity.' 552, Jaffe, Standing Secure Review: Actions, 1265, 1298 (1961); 1081—1083 (1958). intended quotation Lane 268, 272—273, 872, 874—875, 1291. 282, 'Progressive Party,' Senator, Electors, offices, voters'); 642 ('residents 542 county'); State'); Hawke 871; 505; 437—446, 974—978, 1262; 834; Invasion; Application Executive Violence.' U.S.Const. legislative—'the political'—departments 311, Doe dem. Clark Braden, 635, 657, 1090; Morton, Fed.Cas. page 733, 13,799 (C.C.D.Mass.) (Mr. Curtis), affirmed, 481, 277. 1090. Allen, 1431, 1633. Klintock, 144, 149, 55; Palmer, 610, 634—635, 471. Elam Neilson, 253, 307, 415, Suffolk Insurance 226. Vermilya-Brown Connell, 142, 76; Lima 743, 746—754, 1041. Building Loan Ass'n Blaisdell, 398, 413. Contrast Dakota Dakota, 184, 509, 510, 910. Dillon Gloss, 994. Sprague, 716, 732, 222, 640. Fellows Blacksmith, 372, 684; OldSettlers, 427, 466, 650, 666, 509; departments, noteworthy impact Cherokees abolition Unquestionably lay vortex fiery embroilment. History (Rev. ed.), 729—779. spite suit: 'foreign novo interpretation acts,' distinct society, separated Do constitution?' 16. political' polity, entity soluble issue: phrases times. hampered interference program. Marshall's dictum savours department,' 20, Cherokees' breadth sought. 77, 721. customary context, parties,' voiding conviction. 483. There, datum contributing heated opposition reverse isolation 581; 29. Writings Speeches (1903). Mowry, exhaustive bibliography. surrounding 185—195. 'Dorr head jail treason, habeas corpus prisoner sentence. Dorr, 39. 40. wrote unrestrained Guaranty, absolute: 'Unquestionably 45. would. form,' away, remain barriers presented. obliterate Guaranty's limits: republican, guaranteed, designated. parts instrument, compelled ascertain intended. adopted. extent, specially provided. were, presumed provide. unmistakable Constitution.' Minor Happersett, 175—176, 627. women. Duncan, 449, upheld murder codes invalidly enacted. administration, reposed bodies, themselves; governments, bounds sudden impulses majorities.' 577. violated. Prohibition 350, 946. Wall., 66. First opened: 'Whereas (and) *; enforced loyal established: 428. 14. Johnson, executing ministerial. ministerial, 'general forbid excrcise discretion.' 499. 554, 725; transgressing Collector Day, 113, 125—126, overruled, Graves O'Keefe, 595, 927. implication admission undercut footing. sustained. 720, 183, 389, (Field, dissenting). 594, alia, 151. Douglas, dissents Whittaker, (if all) 'fencing out' group. Cave Newell, Missouri, Mo. 653, S.W. 1014; Rutledge's footnote, 1209: "The irreparable imminent." Federation Labor Watson, 582, (593) 761, (90 873) cited.' congressmen participating decision) gravity great, collision Government), admonition (against avoidable ones brethren shared disposed 1929 carry 13, bill.' 1208 1212. Broom. Buford 334 726; Sanborn Comm'rs, 36,391 Tenn.Sup.Ct., 29, 1954 (unreported); Vand.L.Rev. 501 (1955). wrongly decided. approve held. 42, maintainable. Executive, invasion. returns, members.' abdication (7 41), peculiarities Rebellion, principle. opinion—the modern panoply Today regime (id. 45—46) indefensible, maintained dissent. Id. him: moment, suspended itself, permission, writs suspended, substituted emergency?' 67. say: unlimited legislatures, executive, checks, jealous encroachments emergency, look grateful indemnity pardon, allow, beforehand, overturned, thing mercy bayonet. 'No tribunal dispense tyrannical Stuarts, repeal, abolish, suspend them; dictator armed men. 'Whatever stretches ventured crises, prostrate ride triumphant exigency, hastily constitutional. omnipotence attainder, belonging family 69—70. tradition, Hughes Sterling Constantin, 378, 401, 196, 375: 'What allowable discretion, overstepped questions.' narrower indicate. 'Even (Stockdale Hansard (1839) E. Bowles Bank (1913) Ch. 57), 'Parliament' recognised Sol.Jour. 995, 996. 84—85, M., Bill Rights, Parliament. unrepealed, prolonged, acquiesced Crown taxation, resolution, Ways Means resolutions necessitated hasty imposition taxes, Parliament.' Pocket Veto Case, 655, 894, undertook veto Georgia—laws destroyed force entertained. Pennsylvania 658, 1117; Youngstown Sheet Tube 863, 1153; Alabama 347 272, 689. Fidel Castro, takes everything suspends laws? Milligan, Duncan Kahanamoku, 304, 606, 688. civilian beginning. Wise Withers, 331, 457; Institute Officers brief: 'Regardless decades lives suburbs, Apportionments located undermining 'As consequence, 4960 horse buggy environment heavy 1970 living wide-spread preponderance main, vitally interested facing administrators. 'Since World explosion intense education, transportation, housing. Adequate chiefly weakness municipalities. considerable under-representation states.' Amicus brief, 2—3. unfair scheme, nonetheless (City Cedar Rapids 948, 964, 262—263; 40) fear disastrous enjoins goal respondent eliminate injustices. Asbury Press Woolley, N.J. A.2d 705, jurisdiction: 'If changing serves franchise, restorative doors him. existence.' 14, 711. sequel Lamb, N.J.Super. 822, 825—826. 901, saying, 187: 'Here Early January 61st Session convene, newly November 4th year. comply (including relief), 'heed redistrict." acted. 1199 'could Broom (287 (1932)).' Act. 1357 (1950). 976, (1947) mentioned unit HARLAN'S 341, Sessions deliberately (constitutionally) applied.' Walters, 949 (1935). 'Total (33 members) (99 credited calculation 1/99. senate 1/99, calculation, two; 1.5/99, 1.50. comparisons clear. tabulations plan, Scholle Mich. (1960). Farrand, Records 1787, Kant, Perpetual Peace. reminding dividing South. Michigan's census, Louisiana's. Sixteenth 93.1% urban, 802,994 twelfth, 47.6% 177,431—one-fifth persons. Louisiana's Sixth, 53.6% 536,029 persons, Eighth, 36.7% 263,850—nearly half. Gross approximation Illinois, Georgia. Department Commerce, Release, 1962, CB62—23. 131; 703; 829, 296, 704; 1334; 180; Folsom, 874 (D.C.N.D.Ala.); (D.C.D.Minn.); (D.C.D.Hawaii). Keogh Neely, (C.A.7th Cir.). capacity, behalf. residents. materially proceeding. City, 15, 120. Commissioners. Knoxville, below. Defendants moved dismiss, parties, administrators therewith. deferred motion. Inasmuch looking prospective corrected, necessary, Jurisdiction R.S. 1979, Provided member.' modifications adjusting material reveal forth, Population, 1950, Volume (Tennessee), 41, 76—91. County; electors,' qualify fulfilling requirement, twelve months offers disqualification attaching offenses. 2—201, 2—205. 92—97, unknown variable significance. funds' portion gasoline one-half one-quarter building, repairing improving roads bridges. 54—403. urge discriminatory. suggested, at-large Bickel, Foreword: Passive Virtues, 634, 471; Divina Pastora, 52, 512; 226; Kennett Chambers, 316; Jones 202, 80, 691; 534; Charlton Kelly, 945, 1274; Arredondo, 691, 547. Nation's simple mechanical scant unity external relations. 76, Pink, 796. Obviously, equivalent 'constitutionally requisite' sense. left, observance organs. Also 640, 871. 588, 946; Myers 932, 1349; 1281; 987. improperly rejecting elector's Brown's 62; 938; 320, precipitated intraparliamentary dimensions. Hansard, Parliamentary (1810), 225—324, 376—436. racial-discrimination implication, 1005, Wiley Sinkler, 84, preventive 637, 1971(c), amending 2004. 524; Thomas, 612, 535. 1233, concurring), Thompson, 20. reserved 'unnecessary decide,' 'more doubtful' 'part occupied prays possession,' concurring, 75. 437. Considerations Stanton celebrated Nabob Carnatic East India Ves.Jr. *371; *56, attribution company. factional Duke York's Claim Crown, Rotuli Parl. printed Wambaugh, (1915), advocates Lords role. invasion; violence.' Dryer 71, 79; Soliah Heskin, Houck Little River Drainage 266. restricts States' creation, alteration, insofar themselves, Laramie Com'rs Albany 552; Pawhuska Oil Gas 394, 1054; Trenton 937; Risty Chicago, R.I. P.R. 389 390, 241, 641; Baltimore, 1015, undifferentiated preservation. 'standing' infringing structure—a precludes disputes Indiana, Braxton 192, 450; 206; 227. (T)he contention, sound, validity, us, function, judicial, assumed, founded, character.' How, 38—39, 581: mentioned,—if annulled government,—then nullities; wrongfully collected; illegally paid; settled; null criminals. undertakes Bowen, Contest (1844); Frieze, Concise Efforts Obtain Extension Suffrage Island; Year 1811 1842 ed. 1842); Wayland, Affairs 1842). reasoned, violence Congress; emplowered support. 46—47. 41—42. evaluating 'had sympathy press. issue.' 1937), 186. burdens benefits. violate proceeding, Dane 1107; Wallace, recitative 'right' counted 1355; conspiracies commit sharp officers. Bathgate, 269, 676. Mackenzie, (1958) (hereafter, Mackenzie), 108. Ogg, Politics 1936) (hereafter Ogg), 248—250, 257; Seymour, Electoral (1915) Seymour), Ogg 257—259; Seymour 45—52; Carpenter, Development Political Thought (1930) Carpenter), 45—46. 258. 51. Federalist, (Wright 1961), 382. 49. localunit 52—76. 264—265; 318—319. 320—325. 333—346; 265. 349, 490—491. 489—518. 108; 513—517. 270. 253. 270—271. 273—274. Geo. VI, two, consolidated Eliz. 26. Butler, Seats, Administration depart boundary excessive quota, neighboring Craig, (1959) 23. 127. 108, 113. Dec. 1954, cols. 3—4. (1955) 238. Acts. Note Periodical (Cmd. 9311) (1954), par. 19. 1949 1958 582 H.C.Deb. (5th ser. 1957—1958), 230. Federalistic, 56, 38; Tudor, Life Otis (1823), 188—190. Griffith, Rise Gerrymander (1907) Griffith), 23—24. Luce, Principles Luce), 336—342. Griffith 25. 15—16, 28. Carpenter 48—49, 54; 28—29; Luce 339—340. 87; 26—29, 31. (1911), 241. Elliot's Debates 1891), 367; op. cit., 70, 321: affair Representation; adjusted, surmountable.' 408—409. 369—374. 130. (Peden 1955), 118—119. (Memorial 1903), 160—162. 139—140. 102—104. 104—105. 343—350. 25, 17—18, 1824 Providence Island's seventy-two Providence, double Newport, Newport's 130—137; 364—367; 116—117. 428; Various indices N.J.Const.1844, Ill.Const.1848, 8; twenty-one, Ind.Const.1851, Tenn.Const.1834, excluded aliens, N.Y.Const.1846, (and untaxed color); personnel, Neb.Const.1866—1867, differences, unimportant divergences theory, Ore.Const.1857, 9; Minn.Const.1857, Wis.Const.1848, Mass.Const.1780, Amends. XXI, XXII; Nevada's 1864, XV, interim houses, intervals. splitting severe 9. University Bureau Research, (1956), 21—23. idiosyncratic factors, (two-thirds entitles House); W.Va.Const.1861—1863, (one-half Mich.Const.1850, thereafter House). major-fraction excess multiple ratio. 85, Const.1857, 37, Bone, Attempting Comply Contemp.Prob. 387, 391 (1952). section altogether clear, senators. 37. (except County); Kan.Const.1859, censuses, Const.1851, Me.Const.1819, Pt. First, Second, Mo.Const.1865, 8. Towns fifty, inconvenient' purposes, representative. N.H.Const.1792, IV XI; XXVI. Pa.Const.1838, amended, Conn.Const.1818, Third, Vt.Const.1793, R.I.Const.1842, Amend. V, Ark.Const.1868, Va.Const.1864, (this Amendment); Va.Const.1870, constitution); Miss.Const.1868, Tex.Const.1868, 34. Constitutions Texas' numbers, Arkansas, authorized, commanded, periodically; N.C.Const.1868, S.C.Const.1868, 34; La.Const.1868, Tit. Arts. 21. Ala.Const.1867, VIII, Fla.Const.1868, Ga.Const.1868, unclear, permanent. three-tiered Durfee, Legislature: Study Mich.L.Rev. 1091, 1097 (1945); Short, Met (1952); 370 excellent deriving one-member-per-county Aumann, Rural Hangs On, Nat.Mun.Rev. 189, 191—192 (1957). Dauer Kelsay, Unrepresentative 571, 574 (This Ga.Const.1945, 2—1501, art. 1868.) Florida, Fla.Const.1885, VII, 587. Colo.Const.1876, 47; N.D.Const.1889, S.D.Const.1889, Wash.Const.1889, Utah Const.1895, IX, N.M.Const.1911, Colorado periodically. Wyo.Const.1889, Department, Idaho Const.1889, Okl.Const.1907, 10(b) (j). 9(a), 9(b) Mont.Const.1889, Alaska Const.1956, conform perimeters preserved. Const.1950, proportions used. sub-apportionment 'basic' areas, obtains. Ariz.Const.1910, A.R.S. yielded, senatorial-ratio differential Mohave Cochise Maricopa Thirteenth (1910), 71—73. tabular XIII Book (1960—1961), 58; Greenfield, Ford Emery, Reapportionment: Perspective (University Berkeley, 1959), 81—85. outdated useful 114. discussions 114; Shull, Partisan Implications 417, 418—421 unicameral count. 128, 367. Tabor, Gerrymandering Districts, Md.L.Rev. 282—283 (1956). Mather Ray, Districts Can Be Reapportioned—A Possible Plan, L.Rev. 536—537 (1954). Walter, Urban Representation, Annals Academy Social Science 12—13 (1938); 87. contributed country. Baker Vote, Value, 116—117; 364—367, 370; Merriam, Ideas (1929), 244—245; Legislation, John's 341—342 impressed advantages (that compact regions) enjoy scattered conveniently electorates prefer severance purposes'—that Initial 7260) (1947), 110—111; Grazia, Theory 261—262 133; Ill.L.Rev. 37—38 (1942). urban-rural 1093—1094; 381. Baker, Versus 11—19; MacNeil, Legislatures, Mayors, People, People (ca. 1947). (all containing text), Hurst, Growth Law, Makers 41—42; Assn., (Zeller 1954) 34—35; Gosnell, Democracy, Threshold Freedom 179—181; 1059 1064 (1958); Friedman, Myth, Nat.Civ.Rev. 185—186 (1960); Cong.Rec. 14901—14916 (remarks materials); H.R.Rep. 2533, 85th Cong., 2d Sess. 24; H.R.Dec. 198, 84th 1st 38—40; Hadwiger, Mo.L.Rev. 180—181 (1959); Beardsley Coats, Indiana: observations Suggestion, Notre Dame 368—370 Corter, Ponders Temple L.Q. 279, 283—288 (1959). Concerning classical gerrymander, passim; 395—404; Brooks, Parties (3d 1933), 472—481. disproportion, Hogan, (1945), 95; Finer, Practice Modern 1949), 551—552. 1960. N.J.Laws 52:10—3 seat. command, N.J.Const.1947, Note, Minn.L.Rev. 617, 618—619 Problem (1959), 16—29. Labor's Economic Rev. Second Schedule 61, Interim Reapportionment, (1951) Report), 37: geographic—the socio-economic—the desires people—the officeholders—the parties—all legitimately 'relatively factor, contiguity compactness. outside theoretically districts.' situation; another, considerably determination.' topographical barriers, divergent communication rail highway, disinclinations standing, requesting averages conditions.' Re-apportionment Delegates, H.Doc. (1922), 1—2. Planning 'tradition (which) loyalties friends fellow circumstance, region.' Pub. page. 52. line's Celler, Congressional Apportionment—Past, Present, Future, apportionment: debates (from contemporary Congresses) permeates problem.' Standards (Apportionment), Hearings Subcommittee Judiciary, 86th 23, laying districts: 'Mr. KASEM. You embodying language: practicable') inclinations judge? CELLER. Are you impugning integrity judiciary? No; frailties.' torn, fancy, Lashly 560, 1017, Higbee, Mo., 613, S.W., 1037. 139—143, Decisions State-court shaping institutions. specificity totally attempted utilization review, N.Y.Const.1938, Press, 705. given, 'spur' discussion. 6: spelled inferred 7.25. (value 3.00); two-county .50); four-county .75). 264, 734—736. measuring counties—which purportedly population—do all. Rather has. 55% proximity outweighs Eighth Floterial serious, proposal. illustrative examined distribution, 2,340, (voting 23,302) 20% 33,990), 33% 25,316). Murfreesboro, (pop. 16,017); Elizabethton, 10,754); Oak Ridge, 27,387). Blue Book, 143—149. 60% square miles, 'semi-urban,' Alcoa, Aluminum Company aluminum smelting rolling plant. Maryville. 6,391) overrepresented. proposal, Consequently, .19. 734.) disenfranchising Rhea County's 9,000 diluted complaining malapportionment (along Memphis Nashville). principally density, highest. reduce east. sound chambers workable numbers; 33. desirable, ceiling conscious manner. surrounded (which representative), qualifying Consequently combining nonadjacent

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