Document: 497 U.S. 547 110 S.Ct. 2997 111 L.Ed.2d 445 METRO BROADCASTING, INC., Petitioner,v.FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION, et al. ASTROLINE COMPANY LIMITED PARTNERSHIP, Petitioner, v. SHURBERG BROADCASTING OF HARTFORD, Nos. 89-453, 89-700. Argued March 28, 1990. Decided June 27, Rehearing Denied in No. 89-453 Aug. 30, See 1050, 15. 89-700 Oct. 1, 498 892, 238. Syllabus These cases consider the constitutionality of two minority preference policies adopted by Federal Communications Commission (FCC). First, FCC awards an enhancement for ownership and participation management, which is weighed together with all other relevant factors, comparing mutually exclusive applications licenses new radio or television broadcast stations. Second, FCC's so-called "distress sale" policy allows a broadcaster whose qualifications to hold license have come into question transfer that before resolves matter noncomparative hearing, but only if transferee enterprise meets certain requirements. The these attempt satisfy its obligation under Act 1934 promote diversification programming, taking position past efforts encourage industry had not resulted sufficient diversity, this situation was detrimental audience viewing listening public. Metro Broadcasting, Inc., petitioner sought review Court Appeals order awarding Rainbow Broadcasting comparative proceeding, action based on ruling substantial granted because outweighed factors favoring Metro. court remanded appeal further consideration light separate, ongoing Docket 86-484 inquiry validity policies. Prior completion inquiry, however, Congress enacted appropriations legislation fiscal year 1988, prohibited from spending any appropriated funds examine change Thus, closed reaffirmed grant Rainbow, affirmed. Shurberg Hartford, one respondents 89-700, approving Faith Center, Inc.'s distress sale Astroline Company Limited Partnership, enterprise. Disposition delayed pending resolution FCC, which, upon closing as discussed supra, allowing Astroline. then invalidated policy, it deprived Shurberg, nonminority applicant market, right equal protection Fifth Amendment. Held: do violate protection, since they bear imprimatur longstanding congressional support direction are substantially related achievement important governmental objective diversity. Pp. 563-601. (a) It overriding significance programs been specifically approved—indeed mandated—by Congress. In fact, owes appropriate deference Congress' judgment, see Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 472-478, 490, 491, 100 2758, 2772-2775, 2780-2781, 2781, 65 902 (opinion Burger, C.J.); id., at 500-510, 515-516, n. 14, S.Ct., 2786-2791, 2794, 14 (Powell, J., concurring); 517-520, 2794-2796 (MARSHALL, concurring judgment), need apply strict scrutiny analysis, 474, 2772-2773 519, 2795-2796 judgment). Benign race-conscious measures mandated Congress—even those "remedial" sense being designed compensate victims societal discrimination constitutionally permissible extent serve objectives within power objectives. Richmond J.A. Croson Co., 488 469, 109 706, 102 854, distinguished reconciled. 563-566. (b) objective. justify strictly remedies demonstrable communications media, rather selected them primarily This has long recognized axiomatic broadcasting may be regulated rights audience, wildest possible dissemination information diverse antagonistic sources essential public welfare. Associated Press United States, 326 20, 1416, 1424, 89 L.Ed. 2013. Safeguarding public's receive diversity views over airwaves therefore integral component mission, serves First Amendment values, is, very least, basis question. 566-568. (c) Government's interest conclusion there empirical nexus between greater consistent view prime determinant range programming available, product expertise entitled deference. means recent virtue history industry, also made clear advance goal programming. Great weight must given joint determination 569-579. (d) judgment link expanded does rest impermissible stereotyping. Neither nor assumes every case management will lead more minority-oriented expression discrete "minority viewpoint" airwaves. Nor pretend appeals minorities can labeled "minority" might so described nonminorities. Rather, maintain simply outlets will, aggregate, result corroborated host evidence suggesting owner's status influences selection topics news coverage presentation editorial viewpoint, especially matters particular concern minorities, special impact way images presented. addition, studies show owner likely employ managerial roles where station thus analysis than stereotyped reaction habit. Cf. Fullilove, U.S., 534, 4, 2787-2788, 4 (STEVENS, dissenting). type reasoning employed novel, utilized many areas law, including jury venires fair cross section, reapportionment electoral districts preserve voting strength. 579-584. (e) respects promoting endorsed preferences after study, painstaking available alternatives, emergence demonstrating race-neutral produced adequate Moreover, did act precipitately devising policies, having undertaken thorough evaluations 1960, 1971, 1978 adopting them. Furthermore, considered nature selecting illustrated fact rejected other, expansive types preferences—e.g., set-asides frequencies broadcasters. aimed directly barriers face entering industry. assigned licensing proceeding dearth experience. Similarly, addresses problem inadequate access capital effectively lowering price existing stations lack regarding availability providing licensees incentive seek out buyers. appropriately limited duration subject reassessment reevaluation renewal, manifested through series Acts finite continued hearings ownership. Provisions administrative judicial guarantee applied correctly individual frequent opportunities revisit their merits. Finally, impose slight burdens Award contravenes no legitimate, firmly rooted expectation competing applicants, number license, granting requires factors. undue burden nonminorities, invoked respect small fraction licenses, when licensee chooses sell low risk application filed. quota fixed quantity set-aside, nonminorities free compete vast remainder opportunities. 3019-3027. 277 U.S.App.D.C. 134, 873 F.2d 347 (CADC 1989), affirmed remanded; 278 24, 876 reversed remanded. BRENNAN, delivered opinion Court, WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, JJ., joined. filed opinion, post, p. 601. O'CONNOR, dissenting REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA KENNEDY, joined, 602. SCALIA, 631. 1 Gregory H. Guillot, Inc. 2 Daniel M. Armstrong, Washington, D.C., respondent, F.C.C. 3 Margaret Polivy Co. J. Roger Wollenberg, Com'n. 5 Harry F. Cole for, 6 [Amicus Curiae Information pages 551-552 intentionally omitted] 7 Justice BRENNAN Court. 8 issue cases, consolidated decision today, whether (1) program proceedings (2) program, permits category transferred minority-controlled firms. We principles. 9 * A. 10 us today best understood reference federal industry.1 1934, 48 Stat. 1064, amended, (FCC Commission) authority "public convenience, interest, necessity," persons wishing construct operate States. 47 U.S.C. §§ 151, 301, 303, 307, 309 (1982 ed.). Although decades constituted least one-fifth States population, during time relatively few members groups held licenses. owned approximately 7,500 country none 1,000 stations, TV 9, 161 349, 357, 495 929, 937, 28 (1973), cert. denied, 419 986, 95 245, 42 194 (1974); Civil Rights, Rights Enforcement Effort—1974, 49 (Nov.1974); 1978, less percent Nation's Minority Ownership Task Force, Report (1978) (hereinafter Force Report); 1986, just 2.1 11,000 National Association Broadcasters, Facts (Sept.1986). statistics fail reflect that, late entrants who often able obtain valuable broadcasters geographically markets audiences.2 11 suffers underrepresented among owners stations: 12 "Acute underrepresentation properties troublesome ultimately responsible identifying serving needs interests his her audience. Unless encouraged enter mainstream commercial business, portion our citizenry remain underserved larger, non-minority minorities." 1. 13 worked began formulating rules prohibit discriminating against employment.3 explained "broadcasting mass media form makes use belonging public, standard periodic renewals license." Nondiscrimination Employment Practices Broadcast Licensees, F.C.C.2d 766, 769 (1968). Regulations dealing employment practices were justified necessary enable NAACP FPC, 425 662, 670, 7, 96 1806, 1812, 284 (1976). Department Justice, example, contended opportunity could " 'contribute significantly toward reducing ending industries' 'enormous American life.' Practices, 771 (citation omitted). Initially, factor decisions, maintaining warranted record give assurances race would affect content station's service Mid-Florida Television Corp., 33 17-18 (Rev.Bd.), 37 559 (1972), rev'd, supra. District Columbia Circuit, Commission's "assurance superior community attributable . Black participation" required awarded. U.S.App.D.C., 358, F.2d, 938. 'Reasonable expectation,' held, 'not demonstration, merit accorded factors.' Ibid. Garrett 168 266, 273, 513 1056, 1063 (1975). 15 April 1977, conducted conference participants testified increasing viewpoint. 4-6. Building results conference, recommendations task force, decisions petition proposing several January Office Telecommunications Policy (then part Executive President) Commerce,4 May Statement Facilities, 68 979. After recounting expand concluded: 16 "[W]e compelled observe racial continue inadequately represented media. Adequate representation viewpoints enriches educates enhances diversified key Amendment." Id., 980-981 (footnotes 17 Describing actions "first steps," 984, outlined elements policy. 18 pledged When compares stations,5 looks principally six factors: control communications, full-time operation (commonly referred "integration" management), proposed service, record, efficient frequency, character applicants. Comparative Hearings, 393, 394-399 (1965); West Michigan 236 335, 338-339, 735 601, 604-607 (1984), 470 1027, 105 1392, 84 782 (1985). Ownership, announced hearing "plus" WPIX, 381, 411-412 (1978). awarded actively participates day-to-day station. 19 plan increase reassigned F.C.C.2d, 983. As general rule, assign until resolved doubts hearing. exception practice, designated revocation renewal FCC-approved ibid.; Regarding Advancement 92 849, 851 (1982). assignee meet basic qualifications, exceed 50 controlling.6 buyer purchase start 75 market value. today.7 B 20 (Metro), challenges proceedings. Several (Rainbow), involved select three proposals UHF Orlando, Florida, metropolitan area. evidentiary Administrative Law Judge (ALJ) Metro's application. 1073 (1983). ALJ disqualified "misrepresentations" 1087. On ALJ's decision, Review Board disagreed finding Rainbow's candor concluded qualified. 99 688 (1984). proceeded showing found Metro's. doing, ground 90 Hispanic owned, whereas partner 19.8 credit local residence civic advantage. 704. denied Board's largely without discussion, stating merely "agree[d] case." 85-558 (Oct. 18, 1985), 2, App. Pet. Cert. 61a. 21 appeal's disposition delayed; request, remand separate female credit. Notice Inquiry Racial, Ethnic Gender Classifications, F.C.C.Rcd 1315 (1986) (Docket 86-484).8 determined outcome depend whatever evaluation accordingly abeyance developments review. 1474, 1475 (1987). 22 President signed law 1988. measure policies.9 Complying directive, inquiry. Reexamination Order, 766 (1988). Broadcasting. 866 23 returned Appeals, divided panel Rainbow. controlled prior Circuit precedent noted supported 'highly showed recognition extreme perspectives media.' Winter Park Communications, 140, 347, 353 (1989), quoting Michigan, 613. petitions rehearing suggestions en banc we certiorari. 493 1017, 715, 107 (1990). 24 dispute emerged attempts Connecticut, station, execute sale. December 1980, Center's license. 80-680 (Dec. 21, 1980). February 1981, Center relief seeking permission 88 788 (1981), completed, apparently due purchaser's inability financing. September 1983, second request pursue another buyer. objections raised Alan acting capacity.10 54 Radio Reg.2d (P & F) 1286, 1287-1288 (1983); 55 41, 44-46 (Mass Media Bur.1984). consummated, similar financial difficulties buyer's part. 25 respondent (Shurberg), permit build Hartford. application, still pending. 1984, again approval sale, requesting Partnership (Astroline), applicant. opposed grounds, violated Shurberg's protection. urged deny schedule tendered alongside request. approved pursuant 1164 challenge "without merit." 1171. 26 appealed 559. prohibiting continuing 560, Hartford 868 27 A (1989). per curiam majority "unconstitutionally deprives narrowly tailored remedy diversity" "the unduly innocent nonminority, reasonably seeks vindicate." 24-25, 902-903. Petitions 1018, 736 II indeed, (1980), Chief writing himself Justices, observed although "[a] employs ethnic criteria calls close examination," employing benign classification agency explicit Congress, "bound approach co-equal branch charged Constitution 'provide Welfare States' 'to enforce, legislation,' guarantees Fourteenth 472, 2771; 2781; 510, 2791, institutional competence Legislature, 2780-2781 498, 2785 concurring), well powers Commerce Clause, 475-476, 2773 499, Spending 473-475, 478, 2772-2773, 2774-2775 C.J.), War Amendments, 476-478, 2773-2775 500, 508-509, 2786, 2790-2791 concurring).11 29 race-based issue. Three Members inquired "whether th[e] Congress" achieving objectives." 473, 2772 C.J.) (emphasis original). upheld classifications "serve 2796 today. Congress12—even 30 Our last Term 854 concerning set-aside municipality, prescribe level KENNEDY noted, 518, cannot read undermine Fullilove. much language lesson address different such prescribed state governments. For joined "Congress identify redress effects society-wide discrimination," 720, "need make specific findings engage relief." 489, 719.13 Echoing Fullilove's emphasis Legislature stands above factional politics, argued "social reality theory," Government unlikely captured used instrument discrimination. 522, 737 "[t]he struggle justice historically national society oppression States," "heightened danger political factions small, large, units." 523, 737.14 31 pass muster test announce find conclude 32 inequities stemming severe communications." H.R.Conf.Rep. 97-765, 43 (1982), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1982, 2237, 2261, 2287. discrimination, however. urge constitutional agree. "[b]ecause scarcity [electromagnetic] frequencies, permitted put restraints favor others should expressed unique medium." Red Lion 395 367, 390, 1794, 371 (1969). role distributing "traffic officer," 319 190, 215, 63 997, 1009, 87 1344 (1943); rather, welfare public." 1424-1425, 2013 (1945). mission. 'the interest" necessarily invites principles,' Citizens Committee 436 775, 795, 98 2096, 2112, 56 697 (1978), System, Democratic Committee, 412 94, 122, 93 2080, 36 772 "fiduciaries League Women Voters Cal., 468 364, 377, 104 3106, 3116, 82 "[T]he people whole retain speech [and forms broadcast] collective medium function consistently ends purposes Amendment," "[i]t viewers listeners, broadcasters, paramount." Lion, 1806. assure receives balanced issues importance otherwise addressed left entirely hands own stations." Voters, 3116. 34 Against background, enhancing Just "diverse student body" contributing 'robust exchange ideas' "constitutionally goal" university admissions predicated, Regents University California Bakke, 438 265, 311-313, 2733, 2759-2760, 57 750 Powell, J.), values. Wygant Jackson Education, 476 267, 314-315, 106 1842, 1868, 260 dissenting).15 benefits gain policies; redound found, benefit wider sources." 45, 2289; Stations: Hearing Subcommittee Senate Commerce, Science, Transportation, 101st Cong., 1st Sess., 66 (1989) (testimony Roderick Porter, Deputy Chief, Mass Bureau FCC) ("[T]he entire regardless composition, benefit"). 35 interest. One concerns relationship diversity; both exists. 'defer' question," "hesitate invoke determine fulfilled sensitivity" principles, 103, 208 pay attention factfinding analyzing With "complex" question, ibid., "great experience Commission." 102, 2086. increased promotes "ownership facilities [a] significant fostering inclusion area programming," "[f]ull programming." 981. Four years later, taken "steps enhance media" "increas[e] benefitting principle in- ing, 849-850. Jonesboro, 941, 945, (1985) (" '[T]here critical ownership, full realize fundamental goals ownership' ") expertise, accord practice Act. From inception, regulation premised assumption broaden audience.16 "it places primary reliance content, proved influential comment news." 938 added). never relied alone ensure met. Indeed, elementary regulatory assumptions purely driven; were, little integration residence, participation. vein, compared credits: 38 "[B]oth considerations scheme. Both complement underlie award [i]t expected [an] knowledge reflected Likewise, [because] 'minority viewpoint.' 945 39 years, Commission, legislation, alteration. remiss, ignored passage because, decades, encountered emphatic Limiting immediate legislative "would erect artificial barrier understanding process." 502, 2787 concurring). "special attribute [of Congress] body lies broader mission investigate facts opinions source acquires enactment earlier legislation. legislated repeatedly concern, reduce fresh prolonged debate considers area." 502-503, 2787; 2774 ("Congress, course, legislate compiling kind 'record' proceedings"). 40 1969, bill eliminated proceedings, avoid filing multiplicity applications, unknown" restore predictability process "give current holder doubt previous investment experience." 115 Cong.Rec. 14813 (1969) (letter Sen. Scott). heard testimony most ago, stage afford excluded groups, particularly entry industry.17 Opponents warned "exclude markets" "fr[eezing]" distribution licenses.18 bill. 41 confronted 1973 1974, subcommittees extensive extend period five modify renewals. Witnesses reiterated provided foothold industry.19 enacted, intact. During presented deregulate have, things, replaced lottery created fund Representative Markey, intended blacks women get systems point represented." 1978: Hearings H.R. 13015 House Interstate Foreign 95th 2d vol. 5, pt. 59 bill's sponsor, Van Deerlin, stated: "It hope, some reason framers bill, effective reach inadequacies doing something top, 3, 698. Branch objected proposal harm eliminating scheme developed FCC. 50. acknowledged structured alleviate attributing 85, preferred finely tuned Communication Act's ibid. (contending take account communities). 44 year, explore idea,20 1981 authorized procedure, established concomitant system preferences. Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Pub.L. 97-35, 736-737. initial construction received, qualified "through random selection," § 309(i)(1) ed.), "significant preferences" telecommunications facilities. 309(i)(3)(A). accompanying Conference "firm intention" [would] met." 97-208, 897 396, 1010, 1259. complained difficulty defining "underrepresented" problems statute,21 statute reaffirming intention unmistakable terms. Section Amendments 97-259, 1094 (amending 309(i) ed.)), directs receipt "[t]o diversify additional [is given] member group." Observing "has courts," "to consequent content," "is grounded 2284. mandate govern stations.22 45 October 1986,23 subcommittee chair message dismantle endorsed, courts direct otherwise." Minority-Owned 5373 Telecommunications, Consumer Protection, Finance Energy 99th (Rep.Wirth). issued holding abeyance, sales dispositive,24 bills codification introduced Congress.25 questioned representatives span months 1987 appropriation 1988,26 reauthorize 1988 1989,27 codify policies.28 46 Ultimately, chose keep place 1988.29 560. originating Appropriations explained: "The satisfies goals. Diversity improved audiences." S.Rep. 100-182, 76 continuity field noting "[i]n licensees, explicitly ownership." 76-77. twice extended prohibition repeal policies30 focus 1989 Senator Hollings, authorizing committee summary report prepared Congressional Research Service (CRS) entitled, Station Programming: Is There Nexus? Hollings reported, "clearly demonstrates airwaves." 134 18982 revealed historical evolution great determination. C assume audiences programming" representative produce variation drawn single racially ethnically homogeneous group. predictive about overall rigid how behave akin Powell's Bakke admission contribute, average, ideas.' 313, 2760. To sure, ironclad each contribute But neither assurance students interact admitted typical distinct viewpoints. 312, 2759 J.) (noting educational excellence "widely believed promoted body") added); 48, 2760, 'In hard know how, when, even if, informal "learning actually occurs' guided demand differences counterparts. judgment—and diversity—is evidence.31 Evidence suggests minorities. "[M]inority appear news,"32 inasmuch minority-owned tend devote stereotypes portraying minorities.33 policies.34 If "ensure licensees' fairly reflects tastes groups," difficult follow While illusion group share cohesive, believe legitimate inference draw policymaking varying 'analysis' 'stereotyped reaction' '[h]abit.' 2803, dissenting) 51 demonstrate permissible. recognized, fair-cross-section requirement Sixth forbids exclusion characteristics gender venire "[w]ithout requirement, State up lists manner pool prospective jurors disproportionately ill disposed towards classes defendants, yield petit juries disposition." Holland Illinois, 480-481, 803, 807, 905 step logic electromagnetic spectrum "fair section" content. Duren Missouri, 439 358-359, 363-364, 664, 665-666, 668, 58 579 (1979); Taylor Louisiana, 531-533, 692, 698-699, 690 (1975).35 worthy safeguarding 'effective exercise franchise' Jewish Organizations Williamsburgh, Carey, 430 144, 159, 97 996, 1007, 229 (1977) (plurality opinion), Beer 130, 141, 1357, 1363, 629 (1976), confined discriminatory districting apportionment." 161, 1007-1008. Voting 1965, 79 439, 1973c, "deliberately creat[e] preserv[e] black majorities complies 5"; "neither Fifteenth mandates se rule using 1007. D 52 study alternatives. 463-467, 2767-2769 511, 2791 attempted owners.36 first issue, 1946 Public Responsibility Licensees (Blue Book), stated bore responsibility issuing renewing four interest." 55.37 altered course somewhat, announcing principal ingredient licensee's diligent, positive effort discover fulfill tastes, needs, desires area, service." Network Programming Inquiry, Policy, Fed.Reg. 7295 (1960). advised ways: canvassing signal, meeting "leaders life bespeak community." 7296. 53 By 1960's, become obvious failed Kerner various "have communicated whites feeling frustrations Negro They shown appreciation of—and communicated—a culture, thought, history. world newspapers offer almost totally white. ." Advisory Disorders 210 response, promulgated regulations, 554-555, formal "ascertainment" requiring condition ascertain problems, residents he undertakes serve," specify "what proposes interests." Primer Ascertainment Community Problems Applicants, 650, 682 (1971).38 "no answer stations," 'significant proportion' concerns. 686 omitted).39 TheCom expressly included groups" segments consult. See, e.g., 418, 419, 442 (1976); Noncommercial Educational 767, 776 broadcaster's failure sizable was, itself, intent discriminate nonrenewal Chapman 282, 286 (1970). planning schedules communities licensed serve." Time-Life Broadcast, 1081, 1093 (1972); Mahoning Valley 52, WKBN 958, 970 (1971). Pursuant refused renew eight Alabama ninth, "did trouble inform itself consisting population Alabama" "fundamentally irreconcilable obligations authorizations Comm'n, 461, 473 (1975), citing ascertainment static; facilitate devised leader checklist institutions commonly communities, 418-419, improvements system. Primers Commercial Renewal Applicants Permittees 189 (1980). influencing generating "[w]hile responded positively strides practices, media." Statement, 980 support, cited "are network dramatic news. frequently seen token roles." Window Dressing Set (Aug.1977). "despite assuring appears appropriate. regard, believes 981; 850 (1982) ("[I]t became apparent voices spheres influence airwaves, necessary" beyond rules).40 short, demonstrated diversity.41 uphold today; contrary, undertook times—in 1978—before programs.42 endorsing preferences, agreed assessment alternatives achieve diversity.43 studied implement alternative setting aside Nighttime Operations Clear Channels, 3597, 3599-3600 (1988); Deletion AM Acceptance Criteria, 548, 555-558 (1985); Channel 78 1345, reconsideration 83 216, 218-219 aff'd sub nom. Loyola 216 403, 670 1222 released day preference, declined adopt require 45-day notice sold, advocated chance bid sold insiders ever coming market. 24560 (1978).44 Soon afterward, advanced revise brokerage, multiple policies.45 furthermore, force identified hampering growth financing, paucity availability, inexperience. 8-29; Alternative Financing Opportunities Final Report, Strategies Advancing 25-30 (May 1982). help Most acquisitions, necessity purchases desirable profitable portions spectrum, band.46 helps overcome choice isolated "appropriately duration, extension re-enactment." 2780 (footnote underscored emphatically thereby ensuring future reevaluations increases. ownership.47 contained statute, 309(i)(3)(A) instructed "report annually effect intended. tailor information, eliminate appropriate." Rules Allow Selection Among Certain Competing Applications Using Random Lotteries Instead 952, 974 provision cases,48 merits end Such carries natural limit, once achieved. plan, like Harvard contains seed termination. Johnson Transportation Agency, Santa Clara County, 480 616, 640, 1442, 1456-1457, 94 615 (1987) (agency's "express commitment 'attain' work force" ensures duration). nonminorities.49 challengers concede suffered loss already-awarded claim handicapped ability instance. "[a]s dedication eradicating called remedy," Wygant, 280-281, 1850 similarly congressionally mandated, benign, principles 484, 2777 ("It defect disappoint expectations effectuating properly cure 'a sharing burden' parties impermissible") omitted); 521, 2797 60 context slight. "[n]o 389, settled expectation[s]" Johnson, 638, 1454. 61 Respondent insists operates exclude firms completely applicants.50 317-318, 2766; 1455-1456. disagree imposes terms, discretion licenses—those qualification issues—and go set-aside. firm exercises occur all, designation. Clarification Distress Sale 479 prevent procedures timely manner.51 62 tiny 0.4 percent—of 1979. Brief 44. commenced 1978. Barrett, Market: What's Ahead 90's?, (Address Bay Area Conference, San Francisco, Apr. 1990). 0.2 Ann.Rep. (1988).52 Nonminority properties. Nonminorities buy file enterprises qualify treatment. 9-10. "relatively light" set works projects. 485, 72, 2778, 72. III affirmed, reversed, opinion. 64 ordered. concurring. Today squarely rejects proposition rests except wrong. Ante, 564-565. I endorse benefit, remedial justification, decisions.1 67 convinced, provide disparate treatment extremely rare situations "especially reasons clearly unquestionably legitimate." 534-535, 2804, (1980) (dissenting opinion). Court's explains satisfied. Specifically, classification—the imply abilities races kinds favored disfavored class stigmatized way.2 fall narrow heritage rational differential treatment.3 diversitylike integrated police force,4 composition school faculty5 professional school6—is my legitimate. Therefore, join 69 whom join, dissenting. 70 At heart Constitution's simple command treat citizens "as individuals, 'as components racial, religious, sexual class.' Arizona Governing Comm. Tax Deferred Annuity Compensation Plans Norris, 463 1073, 1083, 103 3492, 3498, 77 1236 Social scientists peoples' thoughts behavior provides allocate individuals ethnicity determines think. challenged programs, departs traditional compelling departure marks renewed toleration repudiation affirmation equally allciti zens. lessened finds Constitution. respectfully dissent. 71 Term, evaluate (1989); Bolling Sharpe, 497, 74 693, 884 (1954). "Strict scrutiny" upheld, abandons safeguard lower review, applies applicable routine Yet according concern. precedents marked actions. 72 (FCC) denies ethnicity. Except narrowest circumstances, bars denial ethnicity, laws." Const., Amdt. 1; cf. Croson, 493-494, 721-722. dangers clear. conception Nation blocs, escalation hostility conflict. Korematsu 323 214, 240, 193, 204, (1944) (Murphy, (upholding destroy dignity open door passions tomorrow"). embody race, evaluating efforts—their worth citizens—according criterion barred Accord, Mississippi Hogan, 458 718, 725-726, 3331, 3336-3337, 73 1090 Racial classifications, burdening stigmatize singled create considerable tension widely shared merit. 358-362, 2782-2785, J.). "Because seldom treatment, potentially harmful politic, 533-535, 2803-2804, binds classifications. companion Brown 483, 686, (1954), embedded Amendment's Due Process Clause segregated schools Columbia: "[I]t unthinkable same lesser duty Government." 695. Consistent view, indicated coextensive Fourteenth." Paradise, 149, 166, 16, 1053, 203 opinion) (considering classification); 196, 1079 (O'CONNOR, dissenting); also, Buckley Valeo, 424 93, 612, 659 Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 1225, 1228, 514 prolonging scrutiny. instances lightly coordinate branch. Nonetheless, yields vigilance defense corresponding diminution widower's Security Act, assertedly purpose illegitimate, "[t]his claims always precisely 2. varied entertaining measures. Heckler Mathews, 465 728, 1387, 646 (1984); Califano Webster, 1192, 360 (per ); Goldfarb, 199, 210-211, 1021, 1028-1029, 270 (traditional despite determinations) J.); 670; Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 684-691, 1764, 1769-1772, 583 (1973) And schools. latitude, presenting "unique 488, 718 implicate powers. empowers respecting administration officials. "power provisions article," shall person jurisdiction Reflecting "dramatic balance race," 720 section particular, structural oversight 488-491, 504, 718-720; 732, 3340 (§ grants enforce secure laws invasion,' Ex parte Virginia, 339, 346, 676, (1880)); 483-484, 2773-2774, 2777-78. asserts supports novel intermediate "benign" conscious 564. defeat claim. concerned reviewed percentage businesses contracts. authority, led program. ("[I]n organ government, federal, repose comprehensive guarantees"); 508-510, 516, 2790-2791, 2794 concur ring). Last point. contractors. exercising 727 Court); turned 5," latitude afforded redressing rested 5's "specific dictates 2781. KENNEDY's concurrence likewise should, 5. 734. affected carefully constructed 456-467, 480-489, 2763-2769, 2775-2780 498-499, careful acted solely illegitimate purposes. 486-487, 2778-2779 purpose, infra, 611-612, extends sense. ante, present "a President," 2772, outside power, today's adoption proffered rejected, Under suggested standard, 'substantially achievement' interests. 565. observes scrutiny, stringent 496, 2783-2784 concurring) (challenged "employs unless advancing interest"); ("means drawn"); 2798 (Stewart, Burger's WHITE conduct searching "any accomplish remedying goal." 480, 2776. STEVENS "[r]acial too pernicious exact connection justification classification." 537, 2805 Even MARSHALL's undermines today: That drew plurality involve action, 517-518, 2795, (internal quotation And, preceded citizen, race: Government, "deny "[a]bsent measures, determining what 'benign' 'remedial' motivated notions inferiority politics." 493, 722 494, 725, Equal Protection dependent burdened benefited classification"). 80 "benign classifications," 564, troubling. 'Benign' classification" contradiction Governmental distinctions circumstances costs carry dangers. hardly benign. personal right, Shelley Kraemer, 334 22, 836, 846, 1161 (1948), securing immunity predicated membership classifications" confidence distinguish good uses criteria. History teach humility. Untethered notions, independent meaning, acceptance generation's politically acceptable burden, imposed reasonable. fails "benevolent." distinguishing leaves possibility definition, "benign." Depending moment, directed white alone, teeming divergent knitted traditions carried forth, individuals. Upon basis, governed Constitution, citizens. 81 strike lawyers' quibble words, not. establishes allow signals resort readily. disturbing enough, embodies. reveals blatant visited programs. Many lacked wealth participate enterprises. undisputed falls markedly below demographic see, Service, (June 29, 1988) (minority possess 13.3 controlling 3.5 stations), shortfall traced patterns society. aspire untouched exclusion, equality defines citizens' daily law. reasons, harms attend possesses claimed broadly than, demands. 493-495, 498-502, 721-723, 724-726; Bd. Ed., yet suitable examination allocation power. concedes embodied Tr. Oral Arg. 40-42, disclaimed infected transform text material confirms rationale formulate refers bare suggestion, addressing passed "past inequities" "underrepresentation adversely sectors economy well." 2287; 566. statement indicates nothing identifies sufficiently 2763-2769 (surveying identification affecting contracting opportunities); 502-506, 2787-2789 evaluates agree 85 Modern doctrine interest: amorphous, insubstantial, unrelated otherwise. asserted be, "important." compounds error classification. casually justifications "[u]nless reserved settings, politics hostility." 722. Burger Fullilove: tolerance imposing invidious alert deleterious stray justifications." 2779. initiated insubstantial certainly insufficiently weighty endorsement trivializes guard loosed far-reaching disturbingly odds doctrine. 86 An capable justifying verifiable, defined compelling. 505, 728 (because city "failed apportioning race"). "generalized assertion" logical stopping point" unconstrained 724 "providing models [a system's] students, 274, 1847 "[s]ocietal more, amorphous classified remedy" "remedies ageless past, timeless future." 276, 1848. condemned goods essentially groups. 505-506, 507, 724, 727-728, 729; 1848 defects. amorphous: understandably suggest define viewpoint associated assess Like vague assertion linked proportional races. indefinite mixture continues mixture. deem amount core violation "outright balancing." 729. currently favored. schools, readily limit hiring teachers belonged 275-276, 1847-1848 limitations members' broadcasting. unwise restriction forestall result. Divorced undefined, shifting fashions changing acceptable. group, now not, themselves fashion disadvantageous majority's holding, constitutes "black viewpoint," "Asian "Arab on; underrepresented; deemed views. has, word, pursued albeit making express choosing concluding diverse. 979 (1978 ). accept supporting proscribed discrimination; important, apart generalizations impermissibly equating behavior. prove impossible naked valued views: No ability, distinctive perspectives. 91 short enough. obtaining statutory mandate, (1978); (1969); Storer 351 192, 763, 1081 (1956); (1945); (1943). run afoul usual marketplace ideas, inevitable peculiarly constrained spectrum. 389-390, 1806-1807. contrary presents, unsettled incorrect mix ideas supplement generally, amplify speakers. prohibits allocating ends. 226, 1014 ("But authorize choose [license] applicants political, economic social views, capricious basis. did, [First Amendment] wholly different"). context, suddenly enough race. IV requires, addition chosen accomplish, further, opinion); Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, 432-433, 1879, 1881-1882, 421 element "ensur[e] 'fit' [the] closely motive prejudice stereotype." 721 means, resting stereotyping indirectly furthering end, plausibly tailored. instead "substantially related" 569, far rigorous fit requirement. singling enhancement. embodies inheres applicant, "likely [that] perspective." 17; 981 (policies "representation programming"); (current structure creates deficient "minorities['] viewpoints"). equate belief behavior, establish preference. "premise color person's skin, real blessings [T]hat premise utterly irrational repugnant democratic society." 316, 1869 omitted; citation value presume think Steele 248 279, 285, 770 1198 "one cherished individual's beliefs, assessed categorizing presumed way"), vacated, 84-1176 31, (CADC, 1986). strong correlation justifies correct desired cannot, Additionally, improve dictate operating overcoming inclinations regard mediated forces, Powell discussion health care Bakke. 310-311, 2758-2759. case, medical prefer needing care. rationale, unsupported choices arguing equation "impermissible" cases. 579. Apart placing faith courts' "good" "bad" stereotypes, repudiates generalizations. embraces applicant's indicate perspective, notes "not corollary notion plain: Individuals unfavored backgrounds experiences background reveal disregard objectionable astereo type: generalization inevitably legitimately judged criterion. Los Angeles Dept. Water Power Manhart, 435 702, 708, 1370, 1375, 657 ("Even true insufficient disqualifying apply"). Similarly efficacious "in aggregate." reasoning: "Obviously, men supporters spouses children support. gender-based suffice denigration earnings families' support." 645, 1232 relying 709, 1375 ("Practices classify employees terms religion, sex thoughtful individuals"). "aggregate" probabilities abandoned heightened approximate tolerate leads better aggregate," text, foreclose premises. selective illustrates tailoring difficulty. "social, esthetic, moral, experiences," 1807, citizens, suspect focusing aspect genuine 314, 2760 (race-conscious aspects body). governing 'proxy germane bases classification.' 726, 3337, Craig Boren, 429 198, 451, 457, 397 proxy reflexive unthinking hallmark unconstitutional Wengler Druggists Mutual Ins. 446 142, 151-152, 1540, (1980); Craig, 198-199, 457-458; 643-645, 1230-1232. manifest. overinclusive: underrepresented, foreign. underinclusive: versed committed case-by-case determination, particularlyunjus tified individualized already occur, process. Orr Orr, 440 268, 281, 1102, 1112, 306 (1979). advances reviewing powers, waiver ensured served 487-488, 2779-2780 488-489, 718-719 survive untried accomplishing available. add goal. 584-585, 36. convenience excuses failure, excuse 1112; 457. exempt direct, argue bend Either directly; goal, comports fashion, resorting indirect means. Other exist, provide, offer, truly backgrounds, look broadcasting, rely Also, exist reasons. experience, financing inhibit 593-594. Race-neutral informational barriers. 101 develop guaranteeing nearly exclusively focuses 585-589. and, admission, toothless ineffective. According ascertained responsive presented." Stations, 1076, 1098 358 (1986), grounds Action Children's 261 253, 821 741 (1987); 1098-1101. Unsurprisingly, effective, throughout 1097-1101; 1099, nn. 78-80 abandoning requirements). posited relative absence viewpoints," absent deficiency necessitates effective. undertaken: 979-980. Relying cursory contained, existed necessary. 980-981. Not 1986 Ethnic, modified, 2377 solicited potential alternatives: asked F.C.C.Rcd, 1318. halted. Continuing Fiscal Year 100-202, 1329. Thus clear: race-neutral, 2757 existence viewpoints, fitted supra; 849 repeated links "cannot said perhaps outright defects flaw underscores assume, upon, tightly bound "nexus" owners' resulting lengthy 569-579, purports relation exists programming: i.e., rationally end. stronger claims, requisite obviously abandon argument's sake, science nexus. assuming true, begin turns degree complete, determinations replace considerably substantial. shapes tremendous extent. owners, attract audiences, 145-148, 358-361 (case below) (Wil liams, part) geared taste). presents acute sort. Unlike intend desire manage respect. 3005; Whatever managing absentee Third, absolutely factual existence. Until mid-1970's, 1965 precluded entitlement advantage 393 (1965). 929 (1974). grounds. 356-358, 936-938. arguments color-blind," incompatible statute. Instead, 357-358, 937-938; 272-273, 1062-1063 Principally panel's acquiesced 981-982. mid-1980's, prompted indicating predicate unanimously whether, extent, Chairman Congress: 108 "To predicates, discovered notwithstanding statements assumed established. "For examined either generically. to, told could, indeed must, nexus." (1986). Through initiate examination. 1329-31. discerned action. survey purport lavishly documented declaration hesitate accepting definitive Reports refer proposition. Conf.Rep. Admin.News, unresolved. Especially executive officials possessing declaration. Rostker Goldberg, 453 57, 83-85, 2646, 2661-2662, 478 (1981) (WHITE, process, frozen preventing reexamining altering originally crafted deliberation substantive TVA Hill, 437 153, 2279, 117 Andrus Sierra Club, 359-361, 2335, 2341-2343, 943 112 1850-1851 eventual exceptionally property community. burden. base specialized 100% observation, 598-599, seller would-be purchaser depends argument allocates sales, 599, misses mark. complete avoids programs: response school, discharged job, employers discriminate. 113 too, multifactor confused minor one. nonrace meet, sums stake, arrangement prevail alter dispositive Petitioner overwhelmingly factor. reply, admits 39, prevail." 597-598, 114 sum, met approves Of applied. determined, essence, agencies exempted, ill-defined degree, break greatly forbids. joins, 116 Almost ago Plessy Ferguson, 163 1138, 256 (1896), government-sponsored measure, Louisiana "equal accommodations" "white" "colored" railroad passengers. "reasonable," reasonableness, [the legislature] liberty usages, customs people, promotion comfort." 550, 1143. "race-conscious measures" reasonable riding pleasure errors Plessy, validation rank insult State, distorted demise explication parallels warn amiss here. accepts (Commission "broadcast diversity." Furthering told, cost audiences. upholding exhumes deferential broad 2802, (separate untied All approach, advanced, 731, judgment); 1867, "important" 118 Once takes step, forbidden, enacting stereotypical follows path becomes tortuous. decide favor. "minorities," 554, "nonminorities," 596, emphasized list. enumeration protected borrowed disavowed sustain scant welcoming return laws.1 119 trivial back clock sufficed invalidate early racebased doubtful validity, learned (1944). relaxed embraced validate useful. Strict surest equality. modern precedents, O'CONNOR explains, 734 case. 120 following overruled States: quotas here rigor devise test. says otherwise, pages. 121 agrees. way." 601 concurring).2 discrimination: "We underlying fallacy plaintiff's consist enforced separation stamps colored badge inferiority. so, anything act, it." 551, "confident" 564-565, 12, offers explanation so. 122 counterparts." 580. novel. Policies sensible observer statement, offered policy: concept superiority inferiority, differ, associations, loyalties, cultures, outlook, modes standards development." South Africa Rule (1968) (official publication African Government). 123 defended Today's dismissive aside, sustained "stigma supposed beneficiaries," 516-517, "foster intolerance antagonism classes," 547, 2810 disclaims it, seems demeaning ascribe views" Special foster inherently own. rightly wrongly, perceived targets exploitation opportunists monetary rewards inclusion.3 124 perceptions weighed, cardinal protects citizen individual, "stereotypical thinking" prompts "stigmatizes disadvantaged unproven charge discrimination." Whether "remedial," conveyed privilege. explanations. feel stigma evil intentional unconscious disadvantage discriminated anyone easy accept. 125 Another overlooked, wrongs grievous blame, irrelevant inequalities. premises willing analysis. candid classes, "animosity discontent" create, 532-533, 2803 dissenting), defending theory why bearing casual abandonment 126 Though Harlan foresaw, warning dissent apposite: destinies races, country, indissolubly together, common government seeds hate planted sanction law." 1147 Perhaps succeed arbiter disfavor skin. decency let rise escape condescension. peril enterprise, undertake it. regret century interpret move "separate equal" "unequal benign." term include "those Black, Surnamed, Eskimo, Aleut, Indian Asiatic extraction." 979, 980, 309(i)(3)(C) Wimmer, Deregulation Market Failure Socioeconomic Dimensions Reform, Comm/Ent L.J. 329, 426, 516 46, infra. 240 (1970); 354 (1975); 226 CFR 73.2080 Assistance Program, Papers Presidents, Jimmy Carter, Vol. Jan. pp. 252, 253 "[m]inority sensitivity 252. Ashbacker Corp. 327, 148, (1945), faced "mutually exclusive" bona fide license—that technologically—it obligated 333, 151. partnership holds "complete affairs." 855. tax certificate 983, 19; 850-851, Gainesville Media, 143, 149 (Rev.Bd.1978); 607, 651-652 (Rev.Bd.1978), 139-140, 352-353, 866, 867, grew Appeals' 1192 (1985), lacks credits owners. "[u]nder clear," 283, 1196, court's nevertheless questions vacated rehearing, requested considering reconsider granted. misgivings, 81, 902, 959 (Wald, banc), provided: "That repeal, retroactively changes in, reexamination of, licensing, certificates 1071, 1591, R.R.2d [1301] [69] 607 Rev.Bd. MM reinstatement lifting suspension suspended inquiry." Mr. sole O'CONNOR's suggestion Amendment, 606-607, incorrect. amalgam delegated powers." 2772. understand examples apartheid, "separate-but-equal" internment Japanese ancestry confident "examination history," 648, 1233, Univ. 728-730, 3338-3339, mere recitation compensatory automatic shield actual scheme." Weinberger, 1233; Brest, Foreword: Defense Antidiscrimination Principle, Harv.L.Rev. 21-22 Strauss, Myth Colorblindness, Sup.Ct.Rev. 99, 128-129. measures—even nonremedial purposes—is old Freedman's land, education, care, assistance Afro-Americans. Globe, 39th 630 (1866) (statement Rep. Hubbard) ("I nation gainer encouraging Bureau, cultivation wild lands, brings restoration insurgent States"). generally Sandalow, Preferences Higher Education: Political Judicial Role, U.Chi.L.Rev. 653, 664-666 Schnapper, Affirmative Legislative Va.L.Rev. 753, 754-783 THE CHIEF JUSTICE influenced 'congressionally mandated.' 'strict scrutiny.' 487, 718. 495-496, 722-723 Ely, Constitutionality Reverse Discrimination, 723, 728-735 (1974), "although precise contours uncertain, 'compelling,' higher 286, 1853 She "nothing forecloses 'important' 'compelling' affirmative policies." 612 1953, rules, "fundamental purpose" maximize viewpoints." Sections 3.35, 3.240, 3.636 Relating Multiple AM, FM, 288, 291. broadcast/newspaper cross-ownership, cable/television 73.3555, 76.501 focused select, edit, methods, presentation, 73.34, 73.240, 73.636 Standard, Second 1046, 1050 73.35, 306, 307 (1970) (multiple "promot[e] viewpoints"); 1476, 1477, 1482 (1964) 'an inordinate sense, regional level' "); Editorializing 1246, 1252 (1949) (ownership enables insure broadcasts"). Amend 1934: S. 2004 91st 128 Earle Moore, Broadcasting); 520-521 John Pamberton, Liberties Union); 566-567 David Batzka, Christian Missionary Society); 626-627 William Hudgins, Freedom Bank). 642 McLaughlin, associate editor America magazine). License Renewal: 5546 93d 495-497 E. Hanks, Pittsburgh Coalition Change); 552-559 Rev. George Brewer, Greater Dallas-Fort Worth Free Flow Information); 572-594 James McCuller, Better Community, Inc.); 686-689 Morton Hamburg, adjunct assistant professor New York University); Act: 325-329 (1974) Ronald Brown, Urban League); 376-381 Gladys T. Lindsay, Media); 408-411 Joseph L. Rauh, Jr., Leadership Americans Action); 785-800 Manuel Fierro, Raza Spanish Surnamed Americans). 1979 previously unassigned counted pool. Staff 3333, 1979" Section-by-Section Analysis, 96th 39-41 (Comm.Print 1979). Part Mutually Exclusive 257, 277-284 952 surfaced briefly 98th House. Participation Media: Sess. Parity Minorities 1155 Regulation Ownership: 6122 6134 2nd passed. 1315, 1319 introducing 1095, Lautenberg "[d]iversity others. not." 133 9745 860 (H.R. 293); 3300 1090); 13742-13745 (S. 1277). Judiciary, Related Agencies 1988: 2763 Appropriations, 100th Authorization: NTIA Authorizations: 2472 130-131, 211-212 Improvements 1987: 1277 "kind mental standstill," Park, 364 (Williams, part), unqualified uncertain topic further. Acts, laws, binding "passe[d] [by] Houses President." Munoz-Flores, 385, 1964, 384 (1990); 401, 1967 Will, 449 200, 222, 471, 392 Dickerson, 310 555, 1034, 1035, 1356 (1940). Departments Judiciary 1989, 100-459, 2216; 1990, 101-162, 1020. CRS analyzed data 8,720 FCC-licensed CRS, 1988). Afro-American reported 13. Only targeted while did. 13, "[A]n enhanced across adding then, data, contributed, turn, cover page. surveys Wisconsin Afro-American-owned, Afro-American-oriented playlists white-owned, Jeter, Analysis Black-Owned Black-Oriented Stations White-Owned 139 (University Wisconsin-Madison). Spitzer, Justifying Institute Technology Working Paper 19-29 (March 1990) (explaining behavior). Fife, Impact Images Local News, Communications: Key Economic Change, Selected Proceedings 15th Annual Howard (survey Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas); News Content: Multi-Market Study 1986) (report submitted Broadcasters). Massachusetts Boston 3,000 stories statistically difference events, depending K. Boston's 16-29 (Jan. 1987) (William Monroe Trotter Institute). comparison Afro-American-owned white-owned Detroit location different, newsmaker significance, station's] represent perspective [that station]." Program Case WGPR-TV's Content, Planning (Sept.1979). R. Wolseley, Press, U.S.A. 3-4, (2d ed.1990) (documenting ownership). hired Afro-Americans top job categories rates formats. Hispanic-owned Anglo-owned Spanish-language Honig, Relationships EEO, Regulation, Tenth 88-89 (O. Gandy, P. Espinoza, Ordover eds. 1983). half managers 9-10, 55-57 Hispanics positions, third managers, Anglo-owned, all. Schement Singleton, Onus Spanish-Language Radio, 78, 80-81 (1981). ("Many observers largest networks' poor makeup staffs"); supra 426-427 ("[M]inority-owned hire employees. time, employment, minority-responsive programming") Peters Kiff, 407 503-504, 2163, 2168-2169, (1972) ("[W]e unwilling Negroes relevance involving large identifiable segment remove room qualities human varieties unknown unknowable. vote conclude, do, events unsuspected presented"). eschewed 7293 (1960) ("[W]hile inquire done propose serve, private ought hear"). decree, familiarize monitor insurmountable practical difficulties, thousands myriad variations ambitious central feasible, "serious issues" "carry publish views," risked "government censorship program," official dominating broadcasting." 1810, (1969), Sanders Brothers Station, 470, 475, 697, 869 "avoid[ed] unnecessary restrictions discretion" interpreted "seek[ing] journalistic WNCN Listeners Guild, 450 582, 1266, 1275, 521 unsponsored advertisers hours "when awake listening." Blue Book 55-56. permitting popular unserved. 12. live self-expression. 56. "program[ming] devoted issues." final advertising aired licensee. "arbitrar[y] refus[al] refusal constitute nonrenewal. 705, 707 non-entertainment guidelines, nonentertainment subjects news, affairs, announcements, 1276, 41; Revision Commercialization Policies, Requirements, Log Requirements 1078 (1984) 968, 975 guideline amounts routinely processed staff; brought itself. recently guidelines. 975-999, 797 rev'd Church Christ 228 8, 1413 Television, 1096-1101, producing responsiveness issues. ("Ascertainment facing communities. Yet, effect") facilities" development electronic technologies" rendered fairness unnecessary," Concerning General Fairness Doctrine Obligations 197 abrogate call "regulations Syracuse Peace Council (Reconsideration), 2035, 2041, wanting. Post, 622. procedure incentives failure. FCC-mandated "diverse" fate, well. 36, 623, ignores "underrepresented viewpoints" hand, she criticizes failing definitions suggestion. Ibid.; spectrum") implies interprets "identifying 'Black viewpoint,' 'Asian 'Arab [and] underrepresented." 615. light, perceive vice "Black" "Asian" maintains experimented "[r]ace-neutral measures," evaluate. 574 (describing accompanied system), steps Ultravision 544, (1965), obstacle 11-12, subsequently reduced months. Financial Qualifications Standards, 784 (1979) (television applicants); Aural 407, 407-408 (radio applicants). eligible Small Business Administration agencies. 17-22. disseminated buyers EEO-Minority Enterprise Division, Facilities: 8-9 (Dec.1979). Despite initiatives, 1982 'dearth industry" remained concern." 852 workable technological limits, Implementation BC 80-90 Increase Availability FM Assignments, 1332 cross-ownership issue-oriented recognizing Deregulation, 359 (1986); 982-983. nonetheless substitute 977. followed 572-579, 93-1190, 6-7 Scott); Brown). chief "seriously flawed" "became highly ritualistic unproductive unseemly squabbling trivia." 165 witnesses "only fell 157 Clay Smith, Bar Association). "current process" unable acquire so." [gain] 2289. withdrawn vociferous opposition maintained causing delay presently station" disclosure confidential information. 24561 253; Petition Issuance Administration, 1593 blanket exemption then-existing restricting assignments 1.597 regulations facility overlapped another's 73.636; "Top 50" allowed VHF fourth (either UHF) markets. waivers inappropriate." 1597. mid-1973, 66.6 stations—and 91.4 stations—that mid-1989 Sixty-eight one-half Capital Cities/ABC, Amicus 11, 19. Its Fluctuating Commitment How.L.J. 859, 875, (reporting 1980 "tended properties"—those lowest highest hence smallest coverage). 578-579. "administrative fide. 2779-2780. Formulation Participants Prevention Abuses Process, 5179 Board, supervising detect sham Silver Springs Metroplex 8149, 8149-8150, 8159-8160 Northampton Associates, 5164, 5170-5171 (Rev.Bd.1988); Washoe Shoshone 3948, 3955 Mulkey, 590, 590-593 (Rev.Bd.1988), 5520, 5520-5521 Newton Limited, 553, 558-559, Magdelene Gunden 488-489 Tulsa Group, 6124, 6129-6130 (Rev.Bd.1987); Pacific Ltd., 1101, 1102-1104 (Rev.Bd.1987), 1700 Payne 1052, 1054-1057 (Rev.Bd.1986); N.E.O. 1031, 1033 Owners, 1180, 1190-1191 (Rev.Bd.1985); KIST 173, 186-190 (Rev.Bd.1984), 292-293, Telecasters, 255 397, 801 1436 evidenced unsuccessful attack credentials Astroline, 906, entertains participants. inferior Audiences speculate obtained license; contends proceeding. prevail. 945-946 Lamprecht, 1219, 1223 2527 (1988), pending, Lamprecht 88-1395 (CADC); Horne Industries, 603 Vacationland 514-517 Las Misiones de Bejar 191, 195 (Rev.Bd.1983), 84-97 1984); Waters 1204, 1211-1212 (Rev.Bd.1981). Metro, prevailed, (ALJ 1990); Richardson 7989, 7999 1989); Pueblo 7802, 7812 Poughkeepsie 6543, 6551, Barden, 7043, 7045 Perry 4603, 4618, 4620 Corydon 1537, 1539 remanded, Order Dec. 6, (Rev.Bd.); Breaux Bridge Broadcasters 581, 585 6587, 6600 1988); 4429, 4450 1988), aff'd, 1768, 1774 (Rev.Bd.1989), 830 Gali 6967, 6994 1987); Bogner 4792, 4805 Garcia, 4166, 4168, 1987), 1065 4767 Magdalene 1223, 1238 5513 7186 1149, 1162 (ALJ), 6124 4541 Tomko, 206, 209, 1987). Bernardino allegations fraud over-the-air solicitation cooperate investigation. designate prevented 1054 519 competitor foresee neglect fashion. disrupt competitor's expectations. windfall; indefinitely anticipate troubled phenomena; opt utilize enabling negotiated settlement Preservation 282 203-204, 893 1349, 1352-1353 bankrupt creditors "Second Thursday" doctrine, Thursday 515, (1970), granted, 112, 113-115 Northwestern Indiana (WLTH), 66, 70-71 (1977); elect defend 511-513, 731-732, 313-315, 1867-1869, 733-734; 545, 17, 2809, 17. Cleburne Living 432, 452-454, 3249, 3260-3262, 313 (in examining "rational basis" classification, "term 'rational,' includes impartial lawmaker logically transcends class"); Michael Superior Sonoma 464, 1200, 1218, (discussing cases). 1868 315-316, 1868-1869. "goal 'role models' faculty." n., 1854. 311-319, 2759-2763, constitutional, require. trace family 1492 "Hispanic" 190 precision beneficiary's qualifying ideals." 531-532, 2802 "If serious administered objectively, Reichs Citizenship November 1935, translated Nazi Conspiracy Aggression, Document 1417-PS, (1946)." Population Registration 1950, Statutes Republic STEVENS' "does curious. ultimate "imply furthers Company, beneficiary total capitalization $24 million. Hispanic-American 21% Astroline's equity 71% equity. His cash contribution $210. 68-69.

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