Document: 392 U.S. 236 88 S.Ct. 1923 20 L.Ed.2d 1060 BOARD OF EDUCATION CENTRAL SCHOOL DISTRICT NO. 1, etc., et al. Appellants,v.James E. ALLEN, Jr., as Commissioner of Education New York, No. 660. Argued April 22, 1968. Decided June 10, [Syllabus from pages 236-237 intentionally omitted] Marvin Pollock, York City, for appellants. Jean M. Coon, Albany, and Porter R. Chandler, appellees. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered the opinion Court. 1 A law State requires local public school authorities to lend textbooks free charge all students in grades seven through 12; attending private schools are included. This case presents question whether this statute is a 'law respecting an establishment religion, or prohibiting exercise thereof,' so conflict with First Fourteenth Amendments Constitution, because it authorizes loan parochial schools. We hold that not violation Constitution. 2 Until 1965, § 701 Law McKinney's Consol. Laws, c. 16, authorized boards designate use schools, purchase such books funds, rent sell students.1 In 1965 Legislature amended 701, basing amendments on findings 'public welfare safety require state communities give assistance educational programs which important our national defense general state.'2 Beginning 1966 1967 year, were required them without 'to children residing district who enrolled twelve complies compulsory education law.' The now loaned 'text-books designated any public, elementary secondary approved by education,' which—according amendment—'a pupil text semester more particular class he legally attends.'3 3 Appellant Board Central School District Rensselaer Columbia Counties, brought suit courts against appellee James Allen.4 complaint alleged violated both Federal Constitutions; if appellants, reliance their interpretation failed within counties Allen would remove appellants office; prevent this, complying submitting constituents budget including funds be lent pupils. Appellants therefore sought declaration was invalid, order barring removing office failing comply it, another restraining him apportioning districts students. After answer, upon cross-motions summary judgment, trial court held unconstitutional under entered judgment 51 Misc.2d 297, 273 N.Y.S.2d 239 (1966). Appellate Division reversed, ordering dismissed ground appellant had no standing attack validity statute. 27 A.D.2d 69, 276 234 On appeal, Court Appeals concluded 4—3 vote did have standing5 but different either N.Y.2d 109, 281 799, 228 N.E.2d 791 (1967). said law's purpose benefit children, regardless type they attended, only could loaned. It considered 'completely neutral respect merely making available secular at request individual student asking about what attends.' Section concluded, 'establishes religion constitutes aid religious schools.' 117 N.Y.S.2d, 805, N.E.2d, 794, 795. noted probable jurisdiction. 389 1031, 767, 19 819 (1968). 4 Everson v. Education, 330 67 504, 91 L.Ed. 711 (1947), decided most nearly point today's problem. Jersey reimbursed parents expenses incurred busing stated Establishment Clause bars passing 'laws one religions, prefer over another,' too 'tax amount, large small * levied support activities institutions, whatever may called, form adopt teach practice religion.' U.S., 15—16, S.Ct., 511. Nevertheless, Court, does extending benefits laws citizens regard affiliation prohibit 'New spending tax-raised pay bus fares pupils part program pays other valid even though its results 'children helped get church schools' 'some might sent compelled children's out own pockets.' 17, 512. As provision police fire protection, sewage facilities, streets sidewalks, payment some value school, nevertheless institution prohibited meaning Amendment. 5 later cases shown line between neutrality easy locate. 'The constitutional standard separation Church State. problem, like many problems law, degree.' Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 314, 72 679, 684, 96 954 (1952). See McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 81 1101, 6 393 (1961). Based Everson, Zorach, McGowan, cases, Abington Tp. Schempp, 374 203, 83 1560, 10 844 (1963), fashioned test subscribed eight Justices distinguishing forbidden involvements those contacts permits: follows: primary effect enactment? If advancement inhibition then enactment exceeds scope legislative power circumscribed That say withstand strictures there must neither advances nor inhibits religion. *.' 222, 1571. 7 apply, citation Schempp made clear how rule applied facts Everson. upheld having 'a reach same result requiring specified grades. express furtherance opportunities young. us nothing necessary effects contrary purpose. makes charge. Books furnished ownership remains, least technically, Thus financial schools.6 Perhaps make likely choose attend sectarian true state-paid alone demonstrate degree institution. 8 Of course buses. Most rides inherent significance, while common. However, language authorize books, claims right distribute literature. Although specific courses, each book authorities; receive approval. construed 'merely student,' supra, record contains suggestion been Absent evidence, we cannot assume authorities, constantly face problem selecting unable distinguish will honestly discharge duties law. judging proceed assumption unsuitable content. 9 major reason offered buses, critical teaching process, process employed However has long recognized pursue two goals, instruction education. leading Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 45 571, 69 1070 (1925), although Oregon's compel attendance meeting State-imposed requirements quality nature curriculum, Oregon interest publicly operated premise holding view State's served sufficiently accompanied training maintained Sisters. Since Pierce, substantial body confirmed States insist satisfy compulsory-attendance laws, institutions provide minimum hours instruction, employ teachers training, cover prescribed subjects instruction.7 Indeed, assuring these standards being met sufficient refusing accept home compliance statutes.8 These sensible corollary Sisters: instrument proper manner perform function. Another Cochran Louisiana 370, 50 335, 74 913 (1930), where students, attended serve purpose,' offended Speaking Chief Hughes, summarized follows conclusion Louisiana's provided properly concern: '(The State's) education, broadly; method, comprehensive. Individual interests aided common safeguarded.' 375, 336. Underlying underlying also judgments preceded decisions, recognition played playing significant valuable role raising levels knowledge, competence, experience. Americans care children. They high indispensable ingredient achieving kind nation, citizenry, desired create. Considering attitude, continued willingness rely systems, strongly suggests wide segment informed opinion, otherwise, found do acceptable job providing students.9 further evidence performing, addition function, task 11 Against background experience, unchallenged meager before case, agree processes intertwined fact instrumental comes after pleadings. Nothing supports proposition textbooks, deal mathematics, physics, foreign languages, history, literature, used No teachers, books. hold, based solely judicial notice, involvement reasons urged, 12 contend offends Free Exercise 'it show coercive operates his religion,' 223, 1572 contended way coerces individuals 13 affirmed. 14 HARLAN, concurring. 15 I join wish emphasize certain principles believe central determination think implicit Court's decision. 16 attitude government toward must, frequently observed, neutrality. Neutrality is, however, coat colors. 'government engage practices, favoritism among sects nonreligion, work deterrence belief.' 305, 1615, (concurring Goldberg, J.). Realization objectives entails 'no simple measure,' id., readily decided, suggest applicable present circumstances. contested governmental activity calculated achieve nonreligious purposes otherwise competence State, involve 'so significantly directly realm rise divisive influences inhibitions freedom,' 307, 1616 clauses 17 my action inaction, inconsistent principles. 18 BLACK, dissenting. here affirms sustained constitutionality supply owned sects. flat, flagrant, open together forbid Congress legislatures enact 'respecting For reverse Appeals' judgment. This, am confident, keeping deliberate statement 511, repeated People Illinois ex rel. McCollum 333 210—211, 68 461, 464—465, 92 649 (1948), that: 'Neither Government can set up church. Neither pass another. force influence person go remain away profess belief disbelief punished entertaining professing beliefs disbeliefs, non-attendance. tax small, can, openly secretly, participate affairs organizations groups vice versa. words Jefferson, clause intended erect wall State." 21 plainly interpret protecting taxpayers taxes agencies oppose. To residents put squarely happen strong enough politically write preferences prejudices into laws. links churches controlling lives destinies citizenship—a citizenship composed people myriad faiths, bitterly hostile completely intolerant others. escape precisely Nation's early immigrants fled country. consequences Amendment written passage 22 true, course, yet formally establish But takes great stride direction coming events cast shadows them. powerful propagandists succeeded securing help carry doubtless continue propaganda, looking complete domination supremacy brand religion.1 And always insidious approaches citadels liberty successfully attacked.2 23 know prior majority rightfully constitutional. saying unmindful purported follow me, authorizing reimbursement transportation attempt deny terms faith going school. Thus, treated paying streetcar fare midday lunches protection buildings, including, buildings well 24 Brother DOUGLAS forcefully shows, argument fully agree, upholding using buy Amendment's bar preclude which, 'secular,' realistically inevitably tend propagate views favored sect. essential tool since contain resources knowledge designed exploit. sense difficult heart fares, convenient helpful service. With former, actively assists propagation viewpoints bar; latter, provides nondiscriminatory service related substantive beliefs. 25 some, inroad amount excuse it. prophet foresee others federal property themselves, salaries finally cease voluntary contributions members waiting pick bills Arguments favor direction, namely, heretofore amounts discrimination already efforts money recent Act apparently allows that. Higher Facilities 1963, 77 Stat. 363, U.S.C. seq. 26 still subscribe constitutionally maintenance expenses, extent penny. prohibition generates discord, disharmony, hatred, strife people, supplies aids tyranny. protect minority country keep impregnable provide. affirmance bodes evil peace DOUGLAS, 28 review grounds involves 'secular textbooks' falls 711,1 divided 791. 29 empowers determine itself eligible loans subd. 2. initial crucial selection undoubtedly school's principal instructors, are, Roman Catholic normally priests nuns. 30 next step 'individual request' textbook (§ 3), Department ruled board 'private official.'2 Local accordingly requests 'by classes.'3 forms requisitions filled head provided.4 31 decide veto done determining first should 'approved' second 'non-religious,' 'non-sectarian.'5 broad discretion exercising power.6 32 statutory system ask wants. Can slightest doubt select best promote creed? 33 supinely submits approving supplying sectarian-oriented struggle separate lost. resists, battle drawn contest independent control. 34 Whatever ideological bus. There lunch, nurse, scholarship. turns considerations case. goes very chief, solitary, instrumentality propagating creed faith. How possibly approve religion? many, seeds dogma than prayer. Yet struck down Engel Vitale, 370 421, 82 1261, 601, official prayer denominational. emphasized violence when given religious-political prayers Id., 427, 1265. risk compounded giving initiative desire expense. 35 Judge Van Voorhis, joined Fuld Breitel, dissenting below, difficulty 'is reliable distinguished other.' N.Y.2d, 122, 809, 798. felt science non-sectarian subject (see n. 5, supra). Does mean 7—12 students? May John Scott's Adventures Science (1963) supplied program? teaches embryology following manner: 36 'To you animal usually means mammal, cat, dog, squirrel, guinea pig. new embryo develops inside mother until birth. fertilized egg becomes developing animal. Many cell divisions take place. time cells become muscle cells, nerve blood organs eyes, stomach, intestine formed. 37 human grows way, much remarkable animal, soul infused God. Human partners God creation. powers responsibilities, cooperation souls born heaven.' (At 618 619).7 38 Comparative economics seem nonsectarian subject. Will then, Arthur J. Hughes' history text, Man Time (1964), treats topic 39 'Capitalism economic man's freedom producing goods earn just profit investment. Man's stems Natural implanted self-preservation.' 560). 40 broadest definition socialism production distribution Many, all, Socialists nineteenth century believed crime existed poverty existed, eliminated, disappear. While poor surroundings unhealthy climates moral still, man check himself. Socialists, denied creation environment. Christ's message, often ignore Christ showed His life earth testing prepare eternal happiness. directed futile quest material goods.' 561—564.)8 41 Jackson said, '* suppose proper, indispensable, preparation wordly roles religions tragic story mankind.' 236, 477, opinion). Yet, inquired, emphasis Reformation, Inquisition, effort England "a Bishop King?" Ibid. What chosen subjects? 42 Even treatment blatantly sectarian, necessarily shadings lead another.9 43 Crusades, example, taught Christian undertaking 'save Holy Land' Moslem Turks 'became threat Christianity holy places,' 'they treat respect' (H. Wilson, F. B. Erb & Clucas, Out Past 284 (1954), essentially series wars political materialistic motives G. Leinwand, Pageant World History 136—137 (1965)). 44 Is dawn explained words, 'God created master earth' (P. Furlong, Old America (1937)), evolution T. Wallbank, Story 32—35 (1961))? slaughter Aztecs Cortes entourage lamented destruction culture Caughey, Franklin, May, Land 27—28 (1965), forgiven Spaniards 'carried Faith' barbaric practiced sacrifice P. Sr. Margaret, D. Sharkey, Yesterday (1963))? 46 Franco's revolution Spain crusade anti-Catholic forces Hoffman, Vincitorio, Swift, 666—667 (1958))10 reactionary elements regain control History, 512)?11 expansion communism areas world manifestation Evil campaigning Good? A. Time, 565—568, 666—669, 735—748. 47 difficult, 'where ends begins education.' 237—238, 478. once so-called 'secular' prize won selects book, positions Voorhis expressed fear end dominate Others group, gaining disseminate ideas congenial remembered existence school—whether Mormon, Presbyterian Episcopalian—is oriented faith.12 48 Father Peter O'Reilly matter succinctly disclosed happening school:13 'On February 24, 1954, Rev. Cyril Meyer, C.M., Vice President University, letter faculty, Catholics non-Catholics, science, mathematics: 49 "Dear Faculty Member: "As several spirited discussions Academic Senate, resolution passed self-evaluation effectiveness classrooms University. primacy spiritual university. Our goal equip marketable skills. far above this—to educate man, whole theocentric man. aware, strive personal social success society, leadership society. "May I, therefore, respectfully submit answers possible questions: "1. your courses theocentric? 52 "2. Do anything Administration colleagues assist presenting 'according philosophical theological traditions Church'? hesitate let know. objective University fundamental this. aware 'the classroom temple den.' 53 "Please try answers, size paper, returned me March 10." tendency monopoly: 54 Presbyterian-affiliated Lewis Clark College seems similar appearances autonomy, avoiding legal gifts foundations. change, legitimizes college autonomous institution, removes requirement presbytery representative board, wishes change relationship synod purposes,' promised elect minister nomination synod, consult purpose, defines Presbyterian-related college.'14 55 challenged leaves Regents, trustees, supervision program. 56 Regents (together Education) censorship statements seditious character, evince disloyalty United favorable nation war. 704. Those cut swath element.15 57 'boards trustees officer functions 1. generally elected, §§ 2013, 2502, 2, few cities appointed. 2553. Where elected. 1523, 1602, 1702. superintendents advise appointed trustees. 1711, 2503, 2507. 58 requisition desired' Powerful pressures desired. 59 battlegrounds Now pour rest assured on16 dominant group concludes reflect philosophy 60 stakes extremely high—just supra)—to obtain approval 'proper.' 'proper' radiate 'correct' well. 61 wrong basic premise, affirm below. Appeals, thought tying towards 123, 810, would, indeed, succumb 'sectarian' pressure So, however viewed—whether win gain control—the principle state, Amendment, today approve. 62 Madison wrote famous Memorial Remonstrance Religious Assessments highly pertinent here:17 63 'Who see authority Christianity, exclusion Religions, ease sect Christians, Sects? citizen contribute three pence establishment,18 conform whatsoever?' APPENDIX TO OPINION J., DISSENTING. 64 CODE—220-399-2-NYSTL REQ. NUMBER 6d TEXTBOOK REQUISITION PUBLISHERS NAME STREET ADDRESS CITY AND STATE SHIP —EDISON WAREHOUSE 65 —VAN GUYSLING AVE. 66 —SCHENECTADY, N.Y. COPIES BOOK TOTAL EDITION GRADE LEVEL PRICE PER Total Amount certify number individually requested indicated year 1967-68 accordance subdivision Law. Form submitted child. edition Public District. ________________________________ __________________________ 70 Name Parochial/Private Official Private B 71 LETTER FRANCIS CARDINAL SPELLMAN, NOVEMBER 1967. One precious rights civil society vote. exercised reverence understanding—particularly emotional feelings run high. 73 An opportunity Tuesday, November 7th. day asked old Constitution proposed provisions better changing needs families, neighbors, private. faced grave responsibility weigh choice carefully conscientiously. viewed concern tone past month's discussion disappointed opposition pluralistic equal dismayed overwhelmingly supported repeals Blaine 75 whole, closely command careful consideration. document addresses values fulfillment citizens. facilitate rebuilding communities, committing maximum development potential every citizen, enabling government, responsible mobilize meet enhance environment well-being. 76 At close Constitutional Convention produced worthy debate caused alter conscientiously fulfill civic duty serious consideration Constitution.* 78 FORTAS, 79 upholds ignoring vital aspect buy, selected themselves. points out, despite transparent camouflage reality authorities. child book. He used. 'approve' real significance. promise (but cf. dissenting, ante, 256, 6); remains 80 misleading say, does, charge.' (Ante, 243.) 'general' primarily Catholic, Jewish, Lutheran sponsored called same—the alike, program, features, hand-tailored Children special books—books establishments? beside point, 'assume,' 'books content.' 245.) (1947). Apart differences rides, call facility extended calls furnishing special, separate, specially, separately, particularly representatives infirmity, opinion. feature impossible, view, totally inaccurate suggest, here, specially sidewalks.' 242.) alike. basis specification patrons services facilities accorded agnostics atheists. 84 Sess. Laws 1950, 239, 703, 3, permitted qualified voters textbooks. 703 permits six. 320, (1967 Supp.): '1. boards, shall text-books '2. text-book, section attends. '3. officers function request, text-books. Text-books Such rules regulations regents authorities.' added amendment 1966, filed, rendered, amendment. Intervention plaintiffs' side Union Nassau County, appears co-appellant, defendants' appear co-appellees. Appellees challenge press claim taken oath Believing unconstitutional, position violating taking step—refusal 701—that bring expulsion reduction districts. thus 'personal stake outcome' litigation. Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 691, 663 (1962). opinions contained information transferred Boards parties suggested briefs oral summaries filed store premises administrative procedure 'Opinion Counsel' superintendents. consider permit procedures. So construing statute, find conformity request. appellants' previously not: intervenor defendants asserted purchased Keppel: 'Non-public rarely textbooks.' Hearings Elementary Secondary General Subcommittee House Committee Labor, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., Pt. 93 (1965). twice regulations. '(T)he 'require study sturcture organization guaranties liberty, inspire patriotism love country." West Virginia Barnette, 319 624, 631, 1178, 1182, 87 1628 (1943), quoting Minersville Gobitis, 310 586, 604, 1010, 1017, 1375 (1940) (Stone, dissenting). 'This may, send rather meets impose.' 18, 513 (1947) (citing Sisters). range regulation. E.g., Meyerkorth 173 Neb. 889, 115 N.W.2d 585 (1962), appeal want question, 372 705, 1018, 125 (1963); Hoyt, N.H. 38, 146 170 (1929); Donner, 199 Misc. 643, 99 830 (Dom.Rel.Ct.1950), aff'd mem., 278 App.Div. 103 757, 302 857, 100 48, 342 884, 178, (1951). regulates extensively, especially curriculum. 3201—3229 (1953). examinations 209. satisfying 'at substantially equivalent minors age attainments city minor resides.' 3204, 'each sixteen years age' unless completed 3205. Turner, 121 Cal.App.2d Supp. 861, 263 P.2d 685 (1953), 347 972, 785, 98 1112 (1954). 1965—1966 900,000 22.2% total enrollment, nonpublic Statistics Estimates 1966—67, Table comparable statistic Nation 10%. Bureau Census, Statistical Abstract States: 1967, 111 post, p. 254. Boyd States, 116 616, 524, 746. relied raised injects issues decision grant 913, issue raised. 370—373, 335; 29, 518, (dissenting Letter Herbert Johnson, Department, Village Superintendent Supervising Principals, Jan. reproduced Brief American Jewish Amici Curiae, 43, 44. Manual Instructions Recordkeeping Procedures Textbooks Loaned Conformance Provisions Textbook 2.3 (1967), National Commission Affairs Amicus 25. Appendix phrases 'nonreligious elaboration meant. 117, 794—795. legislature, 'statement policy' (Laws 1), speaks aiding 'non-sectarian subjects,' gives examples 'science, (and) languages.' (t)he (this eliminates denominational editions carrying 'imprimatur' 'nihil obstat' authority) Opinion Counsel 181. definitions found. advised Assistant Attorney 181 advisory binding. policy event taxpayer board's 'non-sectarian' 'approved.' last word matters specifically promulgate so, 'nonsectarian' unknown. example City limitations relevant sectarianism. 'promote program,' 'treat competently accurately,' 'be good taste,' 'have wholesome consonant conduct values,' harmony democratic ideals reflection dignity status race, implied, omission,' objectionable features over-dramatization, violence, crime.' Guiding Principles Schools Selection Use 'Non-Listed' Instructional Materials supra) simply states finds 'decide itself.' counsel 'nonsectarian,' carries imprimatur nihil obstat edition, 'must appropriate determination.' author priest, obstat. published press, Loyola Press, Chicago, marked 'denominational edition,' Accordingly, 181, approaching 'regulation' involved qualify 'non-sectarian.' nn. 6, supra. imprimatur. applicable, Counsel, 'advisory,' told; moreover, endorsements easily removed publisher printing. Some texts liberally sprinkled vignettes. creeping sectarianism avoids direct doctrine keeps continually reminded orientation Sharkey's mass 1526 near Chesapeake Bay, French missionaries Canada 1600's canonized 1930, men signed Declaration Independence superintendent Hudson Bay Company's outpost converted Catholicism 1842. 26, 73—74, 102, 140, 235. atmospheric conditions prevailing top Mount Everest, informs Sir Edmund Hillary scaled peak placed 'tiny crucifix' Benedictine monk supplied. 72. Yesterday, clergy (here priest nun layman) edition. 5—7. 'In 1936 popular-front victory elections. discordant preserve Violent anti-Catholics attacked burned monasteries, crimes. result, loved loyal revolted republic. able general, Francisco Franco, himself revolt, began July 1936.' 'Spain, War backward, proverty-stricken monarchy. 1931, king resigned established Spanish tried reforms, wanted back ways privileges rich property. Fascist, 1936, war started soon came 'dress rehearsal' II Fascist countries Italy Germany Franco rebels. hand, Russia loyalists (as armies republic called). loyalists, too, prevented doing so. defeated and, 1938, became dictator El Caudillo ('The Leader') iron hand.' beginning beyond peradventure. late Monsignor Ryan (1869—1945): fact, maintains satisfactory Catholics, inasmuch place morality realizes branches separated other, she maintain her instruction. *" Stokes, 654 (1950). curriculum main per cent historical subjects, Protestant school.' Some, character practical competition. See, e.g., Fleming, Fordham Trying catholic Small 'c,' Times Magazine, Dec. 32. St. John's I: Chronicle Folly, Continuum 233 (emphasis original). Cf. Adler 485, 380, 517; Barsky 442, 650, 829. proportions dated Cardinal Spellman read masses Sunday, opened door attached Writings 186 (Hunt ed. 1901). account poured S.Rep.No. 473, 90th 9—10 lobbyist urged avoid secularism monies distributed various operate '(T)here valueless school,' argued, other. S. H.R. 1198 Judiciary, 2d —- (1968) (statement Dr. Francis Brown, chairman, Association Personal Rights Education). HARLAN concurring somewhat similar. approval, basis, country's 'calculated State' involving "significantly sectarian" considerable diversion state's 'competence' health, safety, fund church's charity programs, renovating dilapidated upkeep, janitors' utility bills, safe healthful condition. short state-provided sacramental wine, like, could, apparently, virtual dependencies. Should that, unhappily, come pass, perhaps arm predicted Galbraith mature corporation.' Industrial Then circle return started. conceivable. proposals putting payroll addressed convention, since, BLACK scheme thoroughly rejected 1791 adoption

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