Document: 438 U.S. 478 98 S.Ct. 2894 57 L.Ed.2d 895 Earl L. BUTZ et al., Petitioners,v.Arthur N. ECONOMOU al. No. 76-709. Argued Nov. 7, 1977. Decided June 29, 1978. Syllabus After an unsuccessful Department of Agriculture proceeding to revoke or suspend the registration respondent's commodity futures commission company, respondent filed action for damages in District Court against petitioner officials (including Secretary and Assistant Agriculture, Judicial Officer, Chief Hearing Examiner who had recommended sustaining administrative complaint, attorney prosecuted enforcement proceeding), alleging, inter alia, that by instituting unauthorized proceedings him they violated various his constitutional rights. The dismissed on ground individual defendants, as federal officials, were entitled absolute immunity all discretionary acts within scope their authority. Appeals reversed, holding defendants only qualified available counterparts state government. Held : 1. Neither Barr v. Matteo, 360 564, 79 1335, 3 1434, nor Spalding Vilas, 161 483, 16 631, 40 L.Ed. 780, supports petitioners' contention sued this case are absolutely immune from any liability even if course enforcing relevant statutes infringed rights violation was knowing deliberate. Nor did either those cases purport abolish officers actions manifestly beyond line duty; accountable when stray plain limits statutory authority, it would be incongruous hold may nevertheless willfully knowingly violate without fear liability. Pp. 485-496. 2. Without congressional directions contrary, untenable draw a distinction purposes law between suits brought under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, Scheuer Rhodes, 416 232, 94 1683, 90, directly Constitution Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 91 1999, 29 619. Federal should enjoy no greater zone protection rules than do officers. 496-504. 3. In suit arising unconstitutional action, executive exercising discretion specified supra, subject exceptional situations where is demonstrated essential conduct public business. While will not liable mere mistakes judgment, whether mistake one fact law, there substantial basis generally with impunity discharge duties way known them n manner know transgresses clearly established rule. 504-508. 4. Although general rule charged violations, some whose special functions require full exemption 508-517. (a) light safeguards provided agency adjudication assure hearing examiner judge exercises independent judgment evidence before him, free pressures parties other agency, risk act presiding at outweighed importance preserving such judgment. Therefore, persons these restraints performing adjudicatory judicial acts. 508-514. (b) Agency perform analogous prosecutor must make decision move forward intimidation harassment. Because legal remedies already defendant provide sufficient checks zeal, responsible initiate continue parts decision. 515-516. (c) There difference function presenting brings court, since agencies can interest adjudicate complete record, arranges presentation record based introduction evidence. 516-517. 5. remanded application foregoing principles claims particular petitioner-defendants involved. P. 517. 535 F.2d 688, vacated remanded. Daniel M. Friedman, Washington, D. C., petitioner. David C. Buxbaum, New York City, respondents. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 This concerns personal Executive Branch violations citizens' Respondent1 number claiming instituted investigation retaliation criticism agency. Economou U. S. Dept. 688 (1976). doctrine both vindication guarantees effective functioning government, we granted certiorari. 429 1089, 97 1097, 51 534. 2 * Respondent controls Arthur Co., Inc., which time registered merchant. Most factual allegat ons lawsuit focus earlier sought company's registration. On February 19, 1970, following audit, issued complaint alleging respondent, while merchant, failed maintain minimum financial requirements prescribed Department. another amended 22, 1970. A held Department, recommendation complaint. Officer whom delegated decisional authority proceedings, affirmed Examiner's petition review, Second Circuit order Officer. It reasoned "the finding willfulness . made customary warning letter, conceded might well have resulted prompt correction claimed insufficiencies." 494 519 (1974). pending initially enjoin progress proceeding, but he regard. March 31, 1975, second seeking damages. Named individuals served during events; Examiner; several Commodity Exchange Authority;2 proceeding; auditors investigated witnesses respondent.3 4 stated prior issuance complaints been "sharply critical staff operations Defendants carried vociferous campaign reform Defendant Authority obtain more regulation trading." App. 157-158. also that, 19 company ceased engage activities regulated defendants. each notice required law; furnished "to interested others furnishing answers well"; "deceptive" press release "falsely indicated [respondent's] resources deteriorated, knew statement untrue so acknowledge[d] previously said assertion untrue." Ibid.4 5 then presented 10 "causes action," purported United States Constitution. For example, first "cause action" alleged denied due process because unautho ized proper knowledge longer regulatory jurisdiction. third means discouraged chilled [plaintiff] directed them, thereby deprived [his] expression guaranteed First Amendment Constitution."5 6 moved dismiss "as barred official ." Id., 163. relied affidavit submitted litigation original respondent. He involvement named acted "within duties." 42-149. 7 Court, apparently relying plurality 1434 (1959), could show "their outer perimeter discretionary." Pet. Cert. 25a. examining nature concluded: "Since shown discretionary, them."6 28a. 8 reversed Court's dismissal respect "represen[t] last word evolving area," F.2d, 691, governing elucidated later decisions dealing officials. E. g., Pierson Ray, 386 547, 87 1213, 18 288 (1967); 90 (1974); Wood Strickland, 420 308, 95 992, 43 214 (1975). These opinions understood establish need suit, good faith reasonable grounds. rejected proposed pursuant 1983 Constitution, noting "[o]ther circuits concluded Supreme development offic als applies equal force cause derived types serve same protecting citizens government officials." 695 n. 7. recognized Imbler Pachtman, 424 409, 96 984, 47 128 (1976), prosecutors turned documentary proof veracity work involve constraints information present criminal cases. 696 8. court "adequately protected permitting avail themselves defense 'good faith, grounds' type approved Wood." 696. summary genuine issues trial, further proceedings. II 9 single submission behalf petitioners position earnestly ably States, quite sure unsound consequently reject it. 619 (1971), victim arrest search violative Fourth agents. Repeating declaration Marbury Madison, Cranch 137, 163, 60 (1803), " '[t]he very essence civil liberty certainly consists right every claim laws,' U.S., 397, S.Ct., 2005, stating "[h]istorically, regarded ordinary remedy invasion interests liberty," id., 395, 2004, plaintiff's lay operating merely nullify authorization. We agents gives rise consequent upon conduct. Ibid.7 11 compensable injury constitutionally vindicated invoking federal-question jurisdiction courts,8 reserved question involved "immune virtue position," determination. remand Circuit, has faced question,9 sufficiently according superiors immunity. 12 our view, Courts reached sound results. cannot agree contrary support now urges us embrace. Indeed, see it, Government's early days Republic. 13 Government places principal reliance (1959). case, acting director malicious defamation two employees suspension misconduct announced release. privilege, trial jury returned verdict plaintiff. 14 1958 Term,10 certiorari determine circumstances petitioner's privilege stood bar maintenance despite allegations malice complaint." 569, 1338. divided reversing Appeals, Court.11 inquired complained among "matters committed [the official's] control" concluded, after analysis specific circumstances, "outer duty" "an appropriate exercise officer rank possess service effectively." 575, 1341. 780 (1896), privileged tort malice.12 false damaging publication, otherwise official's itself actionable become being maliciously. choose discuss director's defeated showing grounds believing true false, although issue came Appeals.13 15 does control case. address duties, care into inferred unauthorized, surely releases expressly forbidden statute, upheld. inference supported STEWART, agreeing Harlan, dissented release, duty. 592, 1350. apparent different ignored express limitation not, therefore, depart rule, long prevailed, ignore limitations controlling placed powers. began execution law. See Osborn Bank Wheat. 738, 865-866, 204 (1824).14 outside strictly trespassory Little Barreme, 170, 243 (1804), commander American warship seizure Danish cargo ship high seas. Congress President intercept vessels reasonably suspected en route French port, authorized going ports, vessel seized destination. speaking through Marshall, President's instructions "change trans ction, legalize which, instructions, trespass." 179. probable believe engaged traffic French, class seizures statute effect. Wise Withers, 331, 457 (1806). 17 Bates Clark, 204, 24 471 (1877), similar alcoholic beverages Indian country, issue, orders superior, country. "objection fatal defenses locality seizing officers] utterly premises" hence answerable 209. As demonstrate, tortious "To out defence protect him." Cunningham Macon & Brunswick R. 109 446, 452, 292, 297, 27 992 (1883); Belknap Schild, 10, 443, 599 (1896). Since act, viewed contemplation defense.15 SeeunitED STATES leE, 106 u.s. 196, 218-223, S.CT. 240, 258-263, 171 (1882); Virginia Coupon Cases, 114 269, 285-292, 903, 911-915, 185 (1885).16 Barreme Bates, mistakenly conclude warranted seizure, observe making category make. Kendall Stokes, How. 87, 506 (1845), addressed situation. Postmaster General erroneously suspending payments creditor Post Office. Examining and, necessary, creditors Postmaster's normal appeared simply conferred im. "a officer, best sense duty, matter account [is not] error judgment." 97-98. Having examine account" 98, fell error, provided, however, "from duty malice." 99. 20 Four years later, involving military discipline, ruling, exculpating failure prove exceeded exercised erroneous manner: "[I]t enough wilful error." Wilkes Dinsman, 89, 131, 618 (1849). 21 relies, motive render inflicted circulating postmasters assertedly injured reputation plaintiff interfered contractual relationships. General's notice. doing so, "recognize[d] taken head reference matters palpably having less connection supervision." 498, 637. Concluding circular "was duties," major case—whether "maintained allegation what done maliciously?" 493, 635. Its department "held communications Congress, authority," however improper motives been. issuing "did exceed pass duty," 499, 637, irrelevant maliciously.17 22 clear intent liability.18 But official, construing applying statute.19 immunize imposed "manifestly palpably" standard reach power suggested gloss Kendall, Wilkes, none overruled.20 evident If drawn respects, excused obvious powers statute. 23 Insofar concerned,21 untilBarr Matteo. there, set above, though publication contained inspalding. Opinion barr appear— salthough discussion matter—to extended releases, assumed therefore deliberately misusing Accepting extension claims, confident purpo t wrong local fundamental fairness embodied Constitution.22 Whatever level interference executing doubted authorization, confronted Spalding. position. Beyond neither 25 dealt officers,23 times instructive purposes. III 26 (1967), decided intended abrogate judges existed common applicable Bradley Fisher, Wall. 335 (1872). "whether segment branch most frequently exposed give police officer." 244-245, 1690. Relying "good cause," subsequently proved unconstitutional. observed, "[t]he never unqualified immunity, one." 555, 1218. "higher branch" governments 246, 1691. There, Governor State, senior subordinate National Guard, university president suppressed disturbance manner. explained liability, grounded essentially construction, mutually dependent rationales: 28 "(1) injustice, particularly absence bad subjecting required, obligations position, discretion; (2) danger threat deter willingness execute office decisiveness good." 1688. often swiftly supplied others, acute "atmosphere confusion, ambiguity, moving events" created disturbance. 246-247, quoting length Matteo,24 high-ranking Rather considerations discussed above indicated: 30 "[I]n varying scope, variation responsibilities based. existence belief formed coupled good-faith belief, affords performed conduct." 247-248, 1692. 31 Subsequent applied contexts. (1975), school administrators board member lose "he took sphere responsibility student affected, intention deprivation student." 322, 1001. O'Connor Donaldson, 422 563, 2486, 45 396 superintendent hospital. Procunier Navarette, 434 855, 55 (1978), prison adequately outlined Wood. emphasized, least malice, unless "clearly established" violation. 32 None furnishes transgressions. impressive unanimity, receive degree government.25 Scheuer, "[a]lthough officers, court's appear equally officers." Marine Lines Shultz, 498 1146, 1159 view 33 "it 'incongruous confusing, say least' develop standards causes founded Constitution." 695, 456 1339, 1346-1347 (C.A.2 1972) (on remand).26 34 Ninth reasoned: 35 "[Defendants] offer significant reason distinguishing, far concerned, contrast, practical advantage just self-evident. Further, stake Bill Rights worthy 1983." Mark Groff, 521 1376, 1380 36 Other courts conclusions. Apton Wilson, 165 U.S.App.D.C. 83 Brubaker King, 505 534 (C.A.7 1974); Weir Muller, 527 872 (C.A.5 1976); Paton La Prade, 524 862 (C.A.3 1975); Jones 536 269 (C.A.8 G. Leasing Corp. 560 1011 (C.A.10 1977).27 37 perception direction higher infringement accorded identical 1983. injuries magnitude responsible. uncertainties facing decisionmakers little affecting officials.28 governor immunizing department; administrator hospital liable; warden vulnerable; distinguishing participating investigation. Surely, 38 argues distinguishable reflect preserve effectiveness fully below, similarly "drained meaning" Cf. 248, 39 Moreover, place undue emphasis origins determining observed once "in large part making." 1338; Doe McMillan, 412 306, 318, 93 2018, 2027, 912 (1973). Section Civi Act 187129—the predecessor 1983—said nothing about mandated person color subjected party law.30 ascertained deemed variety (1976); supra. competent direct officer. presence authorization is, course, infer Bivens, noted "absence affirmative Congress" looked "special factors counselling hesitation." 396, 2004. Absent impelled think carefully sustained normally damages, handle questions raised claim, 2011 (Harlan, J., concurring judgment). 41 completed, return again resolving determined violation, how reconcile compensation decisionmaking processes department. guide tension myriad arise, why supply dilemma precedents analyzed terms policy considerations, its conclusion, quoted universal terms. limited Accordingly, deem vindicate That decided, passage Fourteenth Amendment, enact legislation specifically requiring respond failures hardly excusing To create system monitors closely stand design head. IV said, citizen suffering invoke district award monetary official. pointed out, vital providing redress violated. barrier sovereign impenetrable.31 Injunctive declaratory relief useless injured. "For people Bivens' shoes, nothing." 410, 2012. 44 Our put aside question; contemplated absolute.32 If, argues, exempt citizen, committing wrongs. Government, Tort Claims prohibits recovery stemming acts, abused.33 seriously erode basic guarantees. broad possessed enables subordinates undertake wide range projects—including infringe important liberty, property, speech. makes agent warrantless forcible entry citizen's house pursuit evidence, actually burglary potential regime lawless Extensive opportunities massive scale. abuse, vindicating 46 jurisprudence rests assumption individuals, whatever law: "No man country No defiance impunity. All highest lowest, creatures bound obey it." Lee, 220, 261. 48 (1803); 239-240, 1687-1688. principle, seek bear burden requires scope. 49 fail consider here, related encouraging vigorous Yet unfair knows insisting awareness unduly interfere business.34 50 principle consistent (1959); (1896); (1847). holding, do, workable context Insubstantial lawsuits quickly terminated alert possibilities artful pleading. Unless states survive motion dismiss. concerning proceed properly immunity.35 250, 1693. responding motion, plaintiffs play dog manger; firm Rules Civil Procedure ensure harassed frivolous lawsuits. V recognize 335, 646 (1872); undertaken considered inquiry historically behind 421, 990. 52 tainted motives. functions" settled English many centuries, denied, aware of, country." Wall., 347. value experience. Judges called decide "[c]ontroversies great pecuniary interests, character parties, exciting deepest feelings." 348. Such adjudications invariably produced losing party, w uld "accep[t] anything soundness explanation judge." Ibid. "Just proportion strength convictions correctness own apt complain ascription maintained "that independence judiciary respectable useful." Thus, "for corruption whilst jurisdiction." 354.36 53 affirmance Yaselli Goff, 275 503, 155, 72 395 (1927), aff'g 1926). detail common-law extending process: judges, grand jurors, petit advocates, witnesses. Grand jurors received 'lest biased vicious consciences (the easily insinuated powerful men warmly thoroughly prepossessed justice side espouse).' 403, W. Hawkins, Pleas Crown 349 (6th ed. 1787). prosecutor, deciding prosecution shall followed up, performs much jury.' 404, Smith Parman, 101 Kan. 115, 116, 663 (1917). citing affirmed. 54 recently reaffirmed Goff examination leading led conclusion underlie immunities 422-423, 991. prosecutor's role likely provoke "with frequency" retaliatory angry 425, 992. adverse effect system, discouraging initiation prosecutions, seeid., 426 24, 993, trial. "Attaining system's goal accurately guilt innocence hampered use concern resulting triers evidence." 426, 993. 56 advocate, "activities [which] intimately associated phase process, thus reasons apply force." 430, 995.37 Despite precedents, case—including Examiner, prosecuting attorney—were circumscribed unlike judge, face conflict representation Branch. "some analogized prosecutors, initiated [respondent], therein," 8, found attorneys "serious information" 58 here are—from perspective—employees location responsibilities. point underlined prosecutors—themselves members Branch—are immune. "It functional comparability judgments referred 'quasi-judicial' termed well." 423 20, 59 cluster participants judge-supervised trials stems characteristics rather location. suggested, 348-349, controversies intense erupt capped decree. loser forum another, charging animus. 554, 1217. Absolute necessary respective harassment intimidation. At time, built tend reduce private insulation political influence, precedent controversies, adversary correctability appeal few judges.38 Advocates restrained professional obligations, assertions contested adversaries open court. Jurors screened remove possibility bias. Witnesses are, rigors cross-examination penalty perjury. features enhance reliability impartiality pressing correct error. 61 shares participate conflicts examiners resolve bit fractious come points out: "When controversy involves amounts property relates concern, touches numerous disappointment occasioned decision, finds vent imputations [malice]." 348, 646. contain process. nature. 555(b) (1976 ed.). They conducted trier insulated influence. 554(d). oral 556(d), transcript testimony exhibits together pleadings constitute exclusive 556(e). findings conclusions fact, record. 557(c). 62 doubt modern framework "functionally comparable" judge. His often, generally, comparable judge: subpoenas, proffers regulate hearing, recommend decisions. 556(c). More importantly, currently structured Prior Administrative Act, considerable prosecutorial investigative work, see, e. Wong Yang Sung McGrath, 339 33, 36-41, 70 445, 447-450, 616 (1950), Ramspeck Trial Examiners Conference, 345 128, 73 570, 572, (1953). securing fair personnel heart formal adjudication," Final Report Attorney Committee (1941), contains provisions designed guarantee examiners. inconsistent 3105 When conducting APA, 554 ed.), to, supervision performance 554(d)(2) consult including opportunity participate. 554(d)(1). assigned rotation practicable. 3105. removed establishe Service Commission 7521. Their pay controlled Commission. 63 safeguards, women. Those review. 64 certain able corporation like prosecution. An sanctions sought. Futures Trading Commission, whenever "reason believe" "is violating chapter rules, regulations, Commission." 65 distorted complete. 993 24. anyone willing legally authorize cf. 438, 998 (WHITE, judgment), serious response. targeted react angrily vengeance courts. muster effort prevent sanctions. millions turn decisions, strong incentive counter-attack."39 66 ample challenge legality proceeding. administrator's scrutiny itself. impartial justified. heard quash entered 1974). 67 68 finally fact. pres nting court.40 attack cross-examination, rebuttal, reinterpretation opposing counsel. Evidence unpersuasive personally guarantors quality hesitate bring documents. "This difficult impossible objective truth falsity present." 440, 999 Apart possible unfairness personnel, VI 69 remains task attempt instance, vacate opinion. So ordered. 71 REHNQUIST, THE CHIEF JUSTICE, STEVENS join, dissenting part. I concur ante, 514, adjudication, 516, agree, allegedly regardless responsibilities, protestations notwithstanding, misconstrues logic precedent, perhaps will, fear, "dampen ardor resolute, irresponsible, unflinching Gregoire Biddle, 177 579, 581 1949) (Learned Hand, J.). noticeable unnaturally co strained reading landmark indeed went maliciously carrying left result 74 "We convenience demand superior functions, apply, extent heads Departments acts." 75 today attempts explain away language observing overrule 493 18. observes, "liable judgment" 98. likewise exonerated defendant. indicate dictum 99; was, forced admit today, 492-493, point. short, inescapably stands proposition suit. 76 unquestionably bar. contends Secretary, $32 million wandered completely off reservation authorizing regulations promulgated "futures merchants," precisely assistants empowered do. occasion mistaken merchant concomitant adjudication; "maliciously" 77 distinguish predicated simpler concept observes vulnerable 'manifestly palpably' powers." Ante, From proposition, undeniably accurate, appears anytime paint grievance colors, faith. all, "authorize" notion underlies strongly supposedly deal ac ing acting. 489-491. 78 Putting illogic impracticability shortly, sort badly misses mark. saying until someone alleges unconstitutionally. all: "immunity" disappears moment needed. action; chief. turns "when official] law," Spalding, words, bounds Only approached meaning. occasionally injustices doubted, nevertheless. Judge Learned Hand 581: "The justification tried, submit innocent guilty, inevitable outcome, dampen duties. Again calls mistake, find himself hard satisfy punishing truant duties; exposing honestly suffered errors. answer balance evils alternative. instance thought end better leave unredressed wrongs dishonest try constant dread retaliation. 80 laid bare folly approaching 81 have, indeed, always powers; argued powers, exist good, cover occasions aim, dishonestly necessarily overstep bounds. moment's reflection shows, meaning defeating whole doctrine. What meant justified using vested him. 82 unfortunately fares hand Here recognizes reaffirms stands—that 495. distinguished, "those fund mental allow unconstitutionality, obviously unproved made, Cabinet-level pertains, defend merits, abolished form. ease pleaded this, readily converted neophyte denial procedural Fifth that. fails consumption effort, money defending merits. damage "interests people," "require[s] [Cabinet officials] deterred tort. inhibits long, claim. viewing functionally—indeed, especially functionally torts question. Even logical raising novel clear. Framers susceptible legislative derogation enshrined immutable hierarchy individuals. heinous impact on, aggrieved technical proscription. 84 purports distinction, result, underlying (1803) cognate afforded Undoubtedly rationales superficial appeal, withstands careful analysis. leaves insulate followed, equitable-type mandamus injunction. amount million. undoubtedly argument injunctive relief, determines plaintiff, sets future. Cabinet tailoring competing rights, hand, need, other, unafraid take interest. 85 suggests sweeping 'drained meaning' transgressions." 501. slender reed rely abrogating place, given 1218, event, follow grant side, thinks grievances appropriate, waive allowing States. allows deprivations limiting influences inhibit sorts abrogation 2680(h) intentional "investigative 86 looks Anderson Nosser, 183, 205 (CA 1971), "one Athens Rome," target. Homilies replace area, however. And -type abundantly cases, supplies compelling situations. eviscerate Bivens. waived permits risks internally supervise check situated strike balance, Hence necessity differing Columbia Carter, 409 418, 602, 613 (1973): "Although threads thoughts running debates 1871 seems primarily response unwillingness inability enforce laws others." 607. 88 "[T]he [basic] rationale Congress' [was] keep 429-430, 609. 89 avoid suggesting vests basically equivalent 502 30. tha suggestion evinces misunderstanding courts, matter, jurisdiction, provision, creates action. clear, giving itself, date, privateright except premises Amendment. equate 1331 ed.) fails, observation—that officials—remains doubt. My biggest impracticality today's disruption invites. steady increase litigation, governmental virtually framed terms, escape casual observer. 1961 1977, increased 296 13,113. Director Office Ann.Rep. 189, Table (1977); 173, defies experience suggest back minds considering pursue. strains credulity taking event. doubtful, actor timid, affected problem solutions. First, ever pleader, weed insubstantial claims. 507. That, shows optimism prescience. extreme, belies hope direction. affidavits inappropriate central, only, mind. Wright, Law (3d 1976) (It feasible mind"); Subin Goldsmith, 224 753 1955). 92 solution offered satisfactory. holds "where business," extended. form "absolute immunity" exists name only. vexatious decision-making twice thrice prosecute litigious commodities played fast loose profit. Careful consideration thing; timorous reluctance weapon another. mortal, get precise judgmental desired human failings dictate "engaged [him] law."* Today's shouldered formidable insofar seeks justify rejection views Harlan expressed companion Howard Lyons, 593, 1331, 1454 juridical jousting, placement hierarchy, disregards 579 1949). History condemn achieve finely product mill, retain ability govern yet victims capable achieved practice, 1896, 1959, 1948. inexperienced neophytes lacked vision define accomplish possible. obsequious toadies attitude toward coordinate branches Government. prescience trade-offs forthrightly accepted occasional wrongdoing espoused, lesser evil impairment govern. history look approvingly reaching charitable spoused gain middle deference, teachings equals held. dissent evils, markedly worse carry avoided unprincipled erratic "screening" adherence departing substance. Either caused wrongdoing, frankly openly Biddle. Economou, heads, Board Trade, respondents convenience, refer singular, "respondent." included Administrator Authority, Compliance Division, Deputy Registration Audit Regional Region. Also Authority. detailed incidents efforts relief. "illegal punitive nature" fourth alleged, privacy answers. fifth containing facts false. Respondent's remaining allege torts: abuse prosecution, privacy, negligence, trespass. Bell Hood, 327 678, 773, 939 (1946), federally invaded, beginning adjust relief," 684, 777, reserved. concerned here. 325, 2031, Black (C.A. 1146 1376 1977); 1976). before, 1957 Term. appealed privilege. Barr. 100 319, 244 767 (1957). 355 171, 179 (1957), directing qualified-privilege did, 103 176, 256 890 (1958), described maliciously, spoken lack true, defeat qua ified privilege." new time. Harlan's joined three Justices. majority concurrence Black, emphasized separate ventilate ideas run. 576, 1342. wrote deliberate falsehood Judgment respects ruling controlled. broadly framed: "Whether suits, extends statements policy-making below cabinet rank, O.T. 1958, 350, p. subsuming true. Marshall explained: "An ordered individual. usual, punished obeying order. security implied unusual thing congress imply, expressing, State collectors revenue, carriers mail, mint establishment, institutions nature, examples employed congress. incidental in, created, secured alone violations. Milligan Hovey, F.Cas. 380 (No. 9,605) (CC Ind.1871); Griffin Wilcox, Ind. 370, 372-373 (1863). Engdahl, Immunity Accountability Positive Governmental Wrongs, U.Colo.L.Rev. 1, 50-51 (1972). espoused therein applied. Atchison, Topeka Santa Fe Co. O'Connor, 223 280, 287, 216, 217, 436 (1912). disagreeably impressed injuriously affects individuals." 499. addressing General, (1872), "judges [are] excess corruptly." law." plainly Fisher principles, applicable; text, revealed Stokes willful misapplication Also, opinion, BRENNAN, 587 3, 1348 point: much, more, advantageous relationships libel reviewed statement. 487-493, 633. publishes statement, factually inaccurate, relating Department's competence, publication. leaned heavily contents (which defamatory) publishing officer's discretion, foreclosing 489-493, 637." disagree characterization Gray, Private Wrongs Public Servants, Calif.L.Rev. 303, 336 cited approval handed down scant month announced. 18, 445 During period Barr, lower torts. Kennedy, App.D.C. 121 40, cert. 314 665, 130, 532 (1941); Papagianakis Samos, 186 257 (C.A.4 1950), 341 921, 741, 1354 (1951). collected supra 337-338. posture, issues. memorandum focused exclusively reasoning See, read context. Huntington Towers, Ltd. Franklin Nat. Bank, 559 863, 870, (1977), sub nom. Reserve Y., 1012, 726, 756 (1978). limited. (1973), privacy—but Speech Debate Clause. legislators behest printed distributed documents 247, 1691, 573-574, 1340-1341. spoke Matteo "[i]n suit." Elsewhere somewhat parallel actions." 242, 1689. mentioning 242 246 1689 1691 1971, Judge, Bell, specially recorded "continuing ancillary nation, federal, accountability (1971). objected Rome." recent abandoned criticized. "incongruity" arise Columbia, 1347; Carter Carlson, 144 401, 447 358, 371 (1971) (Nichols, concurring), rev'd Sixth Circuits torts, Berberian Gibney, 514 790 (C.A.1 Mandel Nouse, 509 1031 (C.A.6 1975). 32, 83, (1974), Leventhal compared department: relevant, depends 'scope office,' conclusive Like state, Each tentative unambiguously optimal retrospect. Both maintaining order; impel 'in atmosphere events.' wider territorial fewer sources expend inquiring localized problem. go belief;' inappropriate. department, chief immunity." 1871, Stat. 13, pertinent part: "[A]ny who, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage subject, subjected, privileges, shall, purpose 1217, insure 427-428, 607: "At adopted, Rather, 'Congress laws.' Zwickler Koota, 389 241, 245, 391, 394, 444 (1967). With growing misplaced, indirect over (Footnotes omitted.) situation entirely different: sympathetic removal Willingham Morgan, 402, 1813, (1969); Tennessee Davis, 257, 648 (1880). 1875 circuit encompassed 470. pertaining prohibited "Any assault, battery, imprisonment, arrest, libel, slander, misrepresentation, deceit, contract rights." 2680(h). lift author efficient argue protective flagrant patently unjustified 411, 2012 (concurring concurring). Pursuant 2680 "(a) Any employee abused." Dalehite 346 15, 956, 1427 relegated traditional "In scheme limit asserting valid power: lost 390-391, 2002. Although, accord transgressed limits, assert accurate report Handler Klein, Defense Privilege Defamation Suits Against Officials, Harv.L.Rev. 44, 61-62, 75-76 (1960). Of judge's controversial arouse feelings litigants. errors corrected unsatisfied litigants hound corruption. Imposing contribute principled fearless intimidation." aspects cast advocate." 430-431, 995. 35, 54-55. Expeditions Unlimited Aquatic Enterprises, Inc. Smithsonian Institution, 184 566 289, 293 pending, 76-418. central Imbler, distinguished prosecutions former proof. key "often decide, interest, sharp complexity quantity adduced full-scale suspect. ultimate irony area body fashioned system. 1926), summarily aff'd, (1927). Similarly, interpreted doctrines Stump Sparkman, 435 349, 1099, 331 (1978); hazard informed guess treatment obtains, mine forgotten nonjudicial committed. cynical unreasonably feel unfortunate example treating machinery "lesser breeds

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