Document: 508 U.S. 165 113 S.Ct. 2014 124 L.Ed.2d 84 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, et al., Petitionersv.Vincent James LANDANO. No. 91-2054. Argued Feb. 24, 1993. Decided May Syllabus * Respondent Landano was convicted in New Jersey state court for murdering a police officer during what may have been gang-related robbery. In an effort to support his claim subsequent state-court proceedings that the prosecution violated Brady v. Maryland, 373 83, 83 1194, 10 215, by withholding material exculpatory evidence, he filed Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests with Federal Bureau Investigation (FBI) information it had compiled connection murder investigation. When FBI redacted some documents and withheld others, this action District Court, seeking disclosure requested files' contents. The claimed under Exemption 7(D), which exempts agency records law enforcement purposes authorities course criminal investigation if records' release "could reasonably be expected disclose" identity of, or provided by, "confidential source." held articulate case-specific reasons nondisclosure given anyone other than regular informant, Court Appeals affirmed relevant part. It source is confidential there has explicit assurance confidentiality circumstances from such could inferred. However, rejected Government's argument presumption arises whenever any individual institutional supplies declined rule based on particular investigation's subject matter. Rather, that, justify Government provide detailed explanations relating each alleged source. Held: 1. not entitled all sources supplying are within meaning 7(D). Pp. ____. (a) A should deemed "confidential" furnished understanding would divulge communication except extent thought necessary purposes. Contrary respondent's position, Congress intended limit exemption only those who promised complete anonymity secrecy, because at time interview conducted, neither nor ordinarily knows whether will need disclosed. (b) Nonetheless, argues case unwarranted, does comport common sense probability. During investigation, collects diverse information, ranging extremely sensitive routine, variety sources. While most expect confidentiality, offers no explanation, administrative ease, why expectation always presumed. justifications presuming even less persuasive, wide asked give. Considerations fairness also counsel against rule. Its is, practice, but irrebuttable, requester without knowledge about very rarely position offer persuasive evidence interest confidentiality. 7(D)'s to" language Court's decision United States Dept. Justice Reporters Committee Press, 489 749, 109 1468, 103 774, inferences they do investigative exempt. Nor FOIA's legislative history indicate create 2. Some narrowly defined can basis inferring For example, reasonable infer paid informants normally their cooperation kept confidential. Similarly, character crime issue source's relation determining cooperated implied Most people think witnesses likely unwilling speak conditions. erred declining rely circumstances. This more particularized approach consistent Congress' intent workable FOIA rules. And when document containing requested, generally possible establish nature it. Thus, realistic opportunity develop inference To proof compromise legitimate interests, still attempt meet its burden camera affidavits. 956 F.2d 422 (CA3 1992), vacated remanded. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion unanimous Court. John F. Daly, Washington, DC, petitioners. Neil Marc Mullin, West Orange, NJ, respondent. O'CONNOR 1 7(D) Act, 5 U.S.C. § 552 (FOIA), "compiled . authority investigation" 552(b)(7)(D). concerns evidentiary showing must make We decide (FBI Bureau) 2 Vincent Newark, Jersey, Snow received considerable media attention. Evidence trial showed robbery orchestrated Victor Forni motorcycle gang known as "the Breed." There testimony Landano, though Breed member, recruited job. maintained did participate Forni, he, killed Officer Snow. He contends violation 215 (1963). 3 Although efforts obtain postconviction federal habeas relief thus far proved unsuccessful, see Rafferty, 897 661 (CA3), cert. denied, 498 811, 111 46, 112 23 (1990); 856 569 1988), 1014, 1127, 189 (1989); State 97 N.J. 620, 483 A.2d 153 (1984), apparently currently pursuing courts, 970 1230, 1233-1237 506 ----, 412, 121 336 (1992); Brief Petitioners 3, n. Seeking claim, involvement Snow's murder. sought Bureau's files both Forni. released several hundred pages documents. these, however, altogether. 4 entire contents files. response, submitted declaration Special Agent Regina Superneau explaining portions included five types sources: informants; were local agencies; private financial commercial institutions. Declaration, App. 28. explained why, view, presumed deleted coded type involved. materials. Id., 33-41. On cross-motions summary judgment, largely categorical explanations. See 751 F.Supp. 502 (NJ 1990), clarified reconsideration, 758 1021 1991). dispute undisclosed constituted concluded met establishing disclose evidently willing assume sources, "case-specific non-disclosure" F.Supp., 508. 6 Third Circuit (1992). Relying history, stated " 'from inferred.' 433 (quoting S.Rep. 93-1200, p. 13 (1974)). An "assurance confidentiality," said, promise absolute "an directly indirectly interviewee unless determined important success objective." F.2d, 434. 7 then addressed As phrased it, "whether fact supplied alone sufficient probably unnecessary her occur." Ibid. question "close." one hand, tends investigate significant matters, targets investigations resent cooperating witnesses. especially so where, here, highly publicized, possibly shooting. 434, 5. recognized "there undoubtedly many routine interviews unlikely give rise similar apprehensions part interviewee." 8 number courts adopted position. See, e.g., Nadler Justice, 955 1479, 1484-1487 (CA11 1992); Schmerler FBI, 283 U.S.App.D.C. 349, 353, 900 333, 337 Donovan 806 55, 61 (CA2 1986); Johnson 739 1514, 1517-1518 (CA10 1984); Ingle Department 698 259, 269 (CA6 1983); Miller Bell, 623, 627 (CA7 1981) (per curiam ), 456 960, 102 2035, 72 484 (1982). Considering itself bound previous Lame 654 917 1981), took different view. either proposed matter Instead, 'detailed source.' 435 Lame, supra, 928). 9 granted certiorari resolve conflict among Courts over FBI's 51, 21 II A. permits withhold 11 "records purposes, production source, including State, local, foreign institution basis, and, record ., 12 bears applies. 552(a)(4)(B). described evolution elsewhere. Doe Agency Corp., 493 146, 155-157, 110 471, 476-478, 107 462 Abramson, 615, 621-622, 2054, 2059-2060, 376 enacted 1966, broadly protected 'investigatory available party.' 621, S.Ct., 2059. revised statute 1974 demonstrated six enumerated harms. version 14 [the which] 622, 15 current 1986. 1986 amendment expanded "records" information," replaced word "would" phrase to," "only" before source," state, institution. 16 Under usually treats confidential, spoke remain According Conference Report amendment, "provided express inferred." (1974) U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News pp. 6267, 6291. case, attempted demonstrate made promises That sort often possible: policy discussing every discussions occur, agents them. Tr. Oral Arg. 7-8, 47-48. precise us, then, how parties two issues: "confidential," whether, absent specific contrary, inferred B 17 might obliged sources' names Brady, Jencks 18 3500, discovery rules, Fed.Rules Crim.Proc. 16, 26.2. points out invariably called testify publicly trial. takes assured, explicitly implicitly, disclosed one. agree cannot intent. define "confidential." usage, limited secrecy. statement "in confidence" speaker shared long expects published indiscriminately. Webster's International Dictionary 476 (1986) (defining mean "communicated, conveyed, [or] acted confidence: few: disseminated"). secrecy agent receiving share personnel. Dow Jones Co. 286 357, 571, 579 (1990) (Silberman, concurring denial rehearing en banc). Such course, little use Bureau. 19 aware obligations applicable procedural rules realized reach public "waives" right Irons 880 1446 (CA1 1989) (en present suffices note aforementioned ways. covered total be, practical matter, all. Cf. Doe, U.S., 152, 475 (FOIA exemptions "are meaningful application"). therefore used refers degree C 20 objects Appeals' requirement individualized respect 'inherently implicit' cooperates 18-20 627). essentially confidential; overcome previously upheld presumptions supported considerations "fairness, policy, probability, well judicial economy." Basic Inc. Levinson, 485 224, 245, 108 978, 990, 99 194 (1988). propriety judicially created statutes provision use. ibid. But we persuaded warranted. 22 sometimes describes "categorical," see, 33-41, much universal, least us presume virtually confidential: informant infiltrates underworld organization; eyewitness violent crime; telephone company releases phone records; furnishes address. "sources" presumptively (though exempt provisions) newspaper clippings, wiretaps, undercover realize communicating FBI. recognize efforts, say sweeping comports "common probability." Inc., 246, 991. 35-41. cover range matters. 28 533 authorized "crimes States" conduct "regarding official matters control State"); 540 certain felonious killings officers). participated interstate "unlawful flight" warrants apprehend suspects. 2, appear quite diverse. emphasizes difficulty anticipating ways ultimately prove harmful, communications receives routine. 24 maintains communicates risk reprisal negative attention inherent investigations. 37-38. acknowledges, threatened case. 38. true many, most, ease administration, offered persuasive. "is convinced" willingness agencies furnish depends "traditional confidentiality." 40. argument, affect adversely otherwise deterred providing nonsensitive information. suggest institutions "possible legal loss business" became known. 41. suggestion conclusory. Given provide, cases. 25 "fairness" 990. acknowledges presumption, rebuttable theory, practice irrebuttable. 22-23. Once asserts requester—who being withheld—very U.S.App.D.C., 355, 577. 26 our 774 (1989). construed 7(C), allows constitute unwarranted invasion personal privacy." 552(b)(7)(C). "rap sheet" categorically constitutes privacy. 780, 1485. Our approval invoking 7, id., 756, 9, 1473, "replace focus effect 'with standard reasonableness objective test,' 778, 22, 1484, 98-221, (1983)). fully Part III, below, characteristically similarly able detailing surrounding interview. Neither Committee, supports proposition category 27 relies extensively history. debated adoption Senators importance argued jeopardize effectiveness 120 Cong.Rec. 17036, 17037 (May 30, 1974) (Sen. Thurmond) ("It just [of confidentiality] encourages individuals walks life ."). expressly blanket FBI; requires cites presented prior passage emphasizing threat exposure deters potential Oversight: Hearings Subcommittee Civil Constitutional Rights House Judiciary, 96th Cong., 2d Sess., 97, 99-100, 106 (1980) Dir. William Webster); Act: Constitution Senate 97th 1st 990-1040 (1981). none changes squarely here. short, satisfy instance simply asserting communicated Had meant rule, done clearly. III unreasonable point inference. below recognized, respondent concedes, informant's ongoing relationship Bureau, typically "only locations conditions assure contact noticed," 36, 29 generic fairly suggested concerned potentially shooting probative. So too crime. condition 30 circuit decisions (including favorably) justified examining factors Keys 265 189, 197-198, 830 337, 345-346 (1987) (individuals subject's Communist sympathies, activity, operatives worried retaliation); 60-61 (on facts investigated American churchwomen El Salvador, "it doubted severely curtailed, perhaps, rendered ineffective feared disclosure"); Parton 727 776-777 (CA8 1984) (prison officials attack inmate faced "high probability reprisal"); 628 self-proclaimed litigious enlist them "anti-government crusade" "strong harassment"); Nix States, 572 998, 1003-1004 (CA4 1978) (risk guards prison inmates informed allegedly beat another finding confidentiality). 31 ' "workable" rules' disclosure. 779, 1485 FTC Grolier 19, 27, 2209, 2214, 76 387 (1983)); EPA Mink, 410 73, 80, 93 827, 832, 35 119 (1973). deny Armed IV 32 forcefully ability maintain vital effective enforcement. prophylactic protecting identities serve objectives simple administer. free engraft choice onto passed. discussed, obligation construe favor disclosure, 475; Air Force Rose, 425 352, 361-362, 96 1592, 1599-1600, 48 (1976), hold provides 33 More circumstances, witness' presumption. incorrectly lacked discretion Accordingly, vacate judgment remand further opinion. 34 ordered. syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber Co., 200 321, 282, 287, 50 L.Ed. 499.

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