Document: 394 U.S. 11 89 S.Ct. 773 22 L.Ed.2d 44 UNITED STATES, Plaintiff,v.LOUISIANA et al. The LOUISIANA BOUNDARY CASE. No. 9, Orig. Argued Oct. 14, 15, 1968. Decided March 3, 1969. Rehearing Denied April 21, See 994, 1451. [Syllabus from pages 11-13 intentionally omitted] Archibald Cox, Washington, D.C., for plaintiff. Victor A. Sachse, Baton Rouge, La., and J. B. Miller, New Orleans, defendants. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered the opinion of Court. 1 In United States v. Louisiana, 363 1, 80 961, 4 1025, Court held that by Submerged Lands Act 19531 had quitclaimed to Louisiana lands underlying Gulf Mexico within three geographical miles coastline.2 was declared entitled further seaward. decree, as in Act, 'coast line' defined 'the line ordinary low water along portion coast which is direct contact with open sea marking seaward limit inland waters.'3 We reserved jurisdiction 'to entertain such proceedings, enter orders issue writs may * be deemed necessary or advisable give proper force effect this decree.'4 Before now are cross-motions Louisiana5 a supplemental decree designating boundary under owned Louisiana.6 segments lie outward 'that sea' most part easily determinable. controversy here primarily over location coastline consists waters.' 2 More than years ago, California, 381 139, 85 1401, 14 296, we Congress left task defining 'inland waters' adopted purposes definitions contained International Convention on Territorial Sea Contiguous Zone, ratified 1961.7 asserts same should determine 'line Louisiana. other hand, contends has already been determined pursuant an 1895 directed drawing 'lines dividing high seas rivers, harbors waters,' proposed based upon contention. Alternatively, argues that, even assuming applicability reflects too restrictive construction Convention's provisions derogation relevant principles international law. I. 3 'Inland Water Line.' Comprehensive congressional regulation maritime navigation began 29, 1864,8 promulgated rules applicable all vessels domestic registry any waters. These were patterned emerging standards, when nations subsequently changed their rules, 1885 enacted conforming 'Revised Rules Regulations' govern American ships 'upon waters States, except otherwise provided for.'9 1864 therefore repealed 'within harbors, lakes, States.'10 1889 Maritime Conference drafted new Rules, promptly Congress.11 Article 30 those '(n)othing these shall interfere operation special rule, duly made local authority, relative harbor, river, waters.'12 5 registry. order clarify areas Inland would respectively apply,13 'on rivers States.'14 went provide: 6 'The Secretary Treasury hereby authorized, empowered time designate define suitable bearings ranges light houses, vessels, buoys objects, lines 7 authority thus vested since transferred several times various federal officials resides Commandant Coast Guard;15 authorized have designated portions coast. When passed 1953, drawn only some shore,16 but year Guard drew off coast.17 1954 Legislature it 'accepted approved' demarcation, calls Line,' its boundary.18 encloses 'coastline' meaning Act.19 8 initially pari materia Act. Congress, said, must contemplated technical term different statutes. phrase appears, however, quite contexts two pieces legislation. While established boundaries between Nation, Congress' concern problem close Nation's shores. There no evidence legislative history purpose 1953 tie statute. For instance, during Senate Committee hearings following exchange took place Senator Anderson Assistant Attorney General Louisiana: 9 'Senator ANDERSON. Was there not so-called Government Louisiana? 10 'Mr. MADDEN. Only partial line, Senator. I remember old statute believe first assistant Treasury, fix show demarcation seas. think attempted draw east side through hearing couple found value us whatsoever.'20 12 Louisiana's position necessarily read referring tenable.21 After lengthy review reached conclusion deliberately 'chose leave definition where it—in Court's hands.' at 157, 1412. adhere view, turn arguments support 13 decided California Zone best workable available,' U.S., 165, S.Ct., 1415, them Yet precluded decision adopting Line' case. Essentially argument intended either exclusive determinant territorial divest nation long considered subject sole jurisdiction. By long-standing, continuous, unopposed exercise regulate said traditional suggests exclusivity virtue assertion sovereignty, created 'historic bays' exception Convention.22 concluded, nothing enactment administration indicates ever treated boundary. Under generally accepted law, navigable divided into zones, distinguished nature control contiguous can them.23 Nearest nation's shores inland, internal complete sovereignty nation, much if they land territory, coastal privilege exclude foreign altogether. Beyond waters, measured edge, belt known marginal, sea.24 Within extensive cannot deny right innocent passage nations.25 Outside seas, dominion single nation.26 15 Whether particular depended historical well factors. Certain shoreline configurations confine bodies water, bays, inland. But also recognized closely connected shore, although do meet precise test achieved status manner nation. As agreed historic title claimed 'coastal traditionally asserted maintained acquiescence nations.' 172, 1419.27 16 accord waters,28 universally reasonable alone sufficient constitute claim On contrary, incident sea. 17 embodies principle declaration '(f)oreign exercising (in sea) comply laws regulations State and, particular, relating transport navigation.'29 Because itself, enforcement could whose border measured.30 base continuous navigation,31 clear accrue disclaims reach leas last 25 years, twice re-enacted both Rules,32 responsible consistently disclaimed navigational significance completed entire declared: 18 establishment descriptive solely shipping. Federal boundaries, nor describe waters.'33 19 early 1943 differentiated significance. Its manual Admiralty Law Enforcement, published year, discussed law jurisdictional attributes sea, then contrasted 20 'NAVIGATION RULE: Now let consider another demarcation. shown Chapter V, 'high seas': Rules. apply previous definition, adopt one convenience. Commerce fixed series our coast, natural curvature shores, three-mile perimeter, inside while outside line. 21 'Quite obviously, artificial does truly separate States. It simply marks area apply, control.'34 States' disclaimer decisive 'questionable assertions disputed 175, 1421. case, extrajudicial disclaimers title, never delimiting anything navigation.35 23 indication enacting authorizing designation believed determining boundaries.36 Indeed, seems unlikely result delegated exercised his discretion 'from time' reference aids rather accordance prevailing Consistently limited statutory purpose, always drawn, frequently altered, regard contemporary needs.37 And instance called attention mentioned relations, Department 1929 cautioned represent purposes.'38 reject contention historically waters.39 24 Finally, adoption current will fulfill 'requirements definiteness stability attend grant property rights belonging States.' 167, 1416, 296. Any application ambulatory vary frequent changes shoreline. This lead, continuing uncertainty endless litigation concerning because constantly shifting Mississippi River violent storms remold soft, silt-like delta soil. encountered rockhard, comparatively straight requires given every coast.40 Just free solved problems concludes, case more suited peculiarities highly unstable shore. not, so broadly construe function Our 'for Act,' delineating coastline. used state whatever method might seem appropriate extraordinary authorize permit court wholly meanings cases, require stronger showing congression l intent justify assumption unconfined power. note inconvenience proves substantial, obstruct resolution legislation agreement parties. Such might, example, freeze agreed-upon date. 26 Even varying convinced policy favor certain stable coastline, strong is, outweigh countervailing considerations desirability 'a conduct future relations.' 1415. completely odds desideratum. Moreover, create encourage coastlines unsure which, either, applied them. compounded absence around assume envisioned ownership potentially vast resources thereafter Guard, acting interest 27 reasons, conclude Zone. II. 28 APPLICATION OF THE CONVENTION ON TERRITORIAL SEA AND CONTIGUOUS ZONE. 29 Many issues divide parties Some issues, involve interpretation Convention, able decide basis materials before us. Others, factual questions involving respect particularized configurations. Several disputes properly resolved without evidentiary hearings, others wise events unfamiliar benefit, preliminarily, judgment detached referee. Accordingly, refer Special Master resolving submerged 1. Dredged channels. A recurring question whether dredged channels leading comprise waters.41 channels, such, relies principally Convention: 31 'For outermost permanent harbour works form integral system regarded forming coast.' 32 Incontestably, argues, 'form system'; 'harbour works' obvious enormous cost effort expended dredging maintaining 33 convincingly, applies raised structures. discussions 1958 Geneva Commission reveal connoted 'structures' 'installations' 'part land' sense enclosed sheltered within.42 enough 'integral structures fit description, lighthouses, unless 'connected coast.'43 Thus, provides coast' (emphasis supplied), description hardly fits underwater 'coast,' breadth harbor low-water lines, possessed channels.44 establish 34 reveals include Early versions bill included 'channels.'45 later deleted, deletion avoid waters.46 150—160, 1407—1413, reviewed length pertinent concluded sure inference thought courts. remain view. far word 'channels' deleted encompassed From context likely referred bordered land.47 35 2. low-tide elevations. deals elevations: 36 '1. elevation naturally-formed surrounded above tide. Where situated partly distance exceeding mainland island, baseline measuring 37 '2. own.' 38 presented provision sea—or, Act—is elevations across mouth bay point island.48 39 'at mainland' situs. Rather uses width measurement circumlocution failure agree uniform width.49 distance—three case—is 'mainland,' baselines mark dry land. interprets covering ele ations anywhere mouths bays step determination 'mainland' theory argued, longstanding law—that practically assimilated legal it.50 40 face dispositive issue, language preclude construction.51 Each party, therefore, origins statements drafters. 1952, follows: 41 'Elevations bed though tide, taken consideration sea.'52 (Emphasis supplied.) 42 amendments rapporteur's draft,53 version substantially meaning: 43 'Drying rocks shoals points departure sea.'54 supplied). discussion clear, drafts covered however measured. embody long-standing law.55 45 draft serious objection, led amendment Commission. If own, 46 country like Holland extend very considerably advancing shoal another, claiming itself sea.'56 47 To undue extension final revised 48 rock drying sea.'57 49 11, 'territorial extended enclosing bays.58 initial proposals indicate 'drying once extending process repeated leap frogging, were, another.'59 50 changing present change meaning. Precisely opposite conclusion, flows inspection Convention. advanced States; yet explanation proposal slightest basic intended.60 Surely measure situs alter significantly prior existing consensus.61 Instead, expert Secretariat explained article corresponded entirely intentions Commission.'62 bay-closing extends.63 51 3. semicircle test. 7(2) defines 52 articles, well-marked indentation penetration proportion contain landlocked mere An large as, larger than, semi-circle diameter indentation.' 53 (a) raise what extent indentations tributary latter closing 'Outer Vermilion Bay' Tigre Point Shell Keys. That body Bay, joined channel Marsh Island, included. Similarly 'Ascension Bay,' headlands jetties Belle Pass west Southwest east, 7(2).64 Again, satisfy Barataria Bay-Caminada Bay complex, separated outer string islands.65 54 primary indentation. 7(3) '(f)or measurement, lying shore joining entrance points.' italicized phrase, constitutes direction follow wherever goes, including indentations, perimeter bay. general rule recognized, among others, calculating test.66 55 notion qualify independently nonetheless test; denies existence includible. 7(2), emphasizes, refers indent tion.' inner included, reasonably single, linked narrow passages channels.67 56 lawsuit, find unnecessary provide answer posed test, Bay. includes West East Cote Blanche Bays Atchafalaya opens Island au Fer. Recognition unitary follows insistence followed If, posits, western headland Point, Fer exceeds 24-mile imposed 7(4).68 neither 57 complex meets Those islands entrances.69 ignored, Caminada sufficiently wide approach.70 '(i)slands 58 defeat consuming consistent permitted sealing rest. Treating 'as areas' tion lie, test.71 59 (b) Another arises Delta.72 Since seawardmost headlands—the tip jetty southern end South Pass—it just 7(5) wide,73 satisfies 60 analogy unsound. wider nevertheless true bay, carves out own features 61 'well-marked indentation' identifiable 'landlocked' point. criteria, hold met. accept ipso facto qualifies fly plainly treats minimum requirement. awkward construction. 62 4. Islands provides: 63 points. Where, presence islands, mouth, sum total lengths mouths. 64 stated relevance purposes.74 openings Lake Pelto-Terrebonne Bay-Timbalier questions: landward mainland? 65 appear separating islands. position, refuted 7(3), 'across mouths' tips suggestion caused located (the bay's) 'natural points' may, instances do, coincide edges automatic correlation, selected according mainland. 66 alternative connect event mainland.75 expressed Commentary Commission: 67 'Here, Commission's intention tends link mainland, alteration ratio indentation.'76 68 evident, designed enlarge contract waters; served permitting intersected pull inward, particularly islands.77 Rather, enclose maximum island waters.78 69 undermined, described Commentary. 'presence mainland,' tend entrances physically excluded anomalous indeed say No doubt size, shape, relationship where, covers percentage points, distinct sensibly 'inland.' 70 purports '(i)lands indentation,79 headlands. cannot, mainland-to-mainland (the) Nor forms 'within' it. 71 clearly distinguishes creating multiple mouths, areas. 72 sum, closed 73 5. bays. With many island.80 flatly prohibits 'indentation' 'projection' lies contemplates unbroken opening bay's entrance. deprive quality required 74 concludes question. elsewhere positively excludes Waters despite surely lose characteristic account additional delimited 'low-water shore' mean continuous.81 75 establishes piece technically Of course, understanding been—and certainly remains mainland,82 bay.83 coasts play restricted role delimitation usual mold. marshy, insubstantial, riddled canals waterways, places numerous small clumps spots receded rigid insular really mainland.' formation, 76 past realistic approach similar formations. Mississippi, 202 45—46, 408, 420, L.Ed. 913, wrote: 77 'Mississippi peninsula St. Bernard marshes word, insists archipelago Certainly marsh They rather, Commissioner Land Office wrote commissioner 1904, 'in fact, hummocks swamp townships. *' 78 'And act words: 'thence bounded gulf beginning leagues coast,' whole state, formed it.' Naturally common-sense extends formations few many. view court84 textwriters.85 79 Much near Delta consistency PeltoTerrebonne realistically little objective guidance depend factors depth utility intervening shape configuration coast.86 instance—in relev nt criteria he finds helpful consider—whether integrally related parts 'coast' 6. Fringes At places87 fringes chains specifically theories: 7, 4, 'inland' antedate supplement baselines; Government, chosen so. 81 encompass mainland.88 contrast 'islands' throughout apparent governed baselines.89 clearest intent: 82 localities deeply indented cut into, fringe immediate vicinity, employed measured.' 83 drafters predecessors aware circumstances waters.90 Fisheries Case (United Kingdom Norway), (1951) I.C.J. 116, Norway legitimately 'skjaergaard,' literally 'rock rampart' composed hundreds thousands ringed Thereafter, model, attempts concrete treatment fringes, length.91 was, information consensus subjects allow formulation rules.92 agreed, handled Case: each desired.93 problem, did intend beyond scope deliberate differently islands94 decides baselines.95 84 168, 1417, choice use straight-base-line against rests individual States.'96 want could, decision, conclusive matter. perfectly method, employ affairs reconsider holding baselines. precisely area, selection optional establishing branches implementation policy. inappropriate overturn albeit partially motivated concern, borders furthest consonant law.97 7. Historic Delta, 'so-called 'historic' 7(6),98 notwithstanding requirements refusal baselines.99 derives content law.100 indicates, universal exact waters.101 substantial agreement, outlines doctrine type make waters.102 concept still relatively impercise raises questions, Master—as California—the ultimate hastened time, remarks below. 86 obviously arms river containing 87 subjected relied heavily activities Government. lawsuit exercises vis-a -vis '(n)o (that) national government chooses rely action nations.'103 But, asserts, oblige binding one.' brief, then, prevent judicial recognition ripened merely lodging court. 88 noted, pass on, founded endorsed sustained Master's California's title. credited dominion.' noted 'reluctant circumstances, arise doubt.' Ibid. indicated unwillingness block possesses decline 'clear doubt,' 'questionable' conclusive. decide, histor c eye disputes. suggested inequitable adapting controversy, National distort principles, name power relations external affairs, denying events.104 fair way treat being sovereign opposed claim, III. 90 due course appointed preliminary determination, opinion, Mexico. ordered. 91 determination. 92 CHIEF JUSTICE MARSHALL TAI TABLE 93 BLACK, whom DOUGLAS joins, dissenting. 94 1953.1 Although probably astronomical figures, dispute minor segment adjacent Louisiana.2 incorporated treaty approved President Senate.3 making choice, recent standard 296 (1965) (generally second case). conditions different4 standard, certainty cause chaos confusion. justification applying party urges especially convenient unusual litigation.5 dissent. characteristics, urged Louisiana—the put useless, litigation, characterized de minimis practical concerned. 95 1947 bordering Atlantic Pacific Ocean shores.6 'restored' wrongfully away What quitclaim geographic State's (roughly nine miles) Continental Shelf § 2(c) go look crucial all. appears thing about exclusively Nation. nevertheless, purely dispute, Act's words controlling chief reliance arose inlets, sounds, Congress,7 seeking satisfactory perplexing etc., resort mentioned. majority dictated need thus, believed, adding carrying proponents security oil lessees. 96 turns using here, differences coasts. main deep often e smooth regular shape. forces, hard rocky, extremely gradual. ways. shallow readily navigable. marked brief filed earlier '(t)he extraordinarily complicated one.'8 added.) important complexity volatile nature. mighty brings sediment mud build up day destroy next. Parts receding rapid rate, deposits rapidly built up. Recent projects begin building massive grow rate almost mile per year. material, shallow, low, drastically temporary variations winds waves. Offshore sometimes disappear spontaneously major hurricanes Louisiana—unlike California—is occasionally exposed, changes. 97 consequently, correctly plausibility case: 98 'Before today's assurance lay Act; hence tenable today situation changed. Expectations placed define. 'Freezing' terms serves 166—167, 1416. 99 Today's 'definiteness stability' promised California. company having lease ocean gets title: gone tomorrow. suppose, expensive investment developing lease. Stable business fostered way. frustrates expectations desired companies leases exploitation 100 Nothing indicating borrowed mechanically dispute. 'best available' cases. worked directly tending bring interminable litigation. Passed generated abating; now, time-consuming ill come. me succinct written. arrived. How who work, how persons hired help him, predict. Settling identifying surveyor's job; instruments off. Identifying boundary, told briefs takes surveyors, cartographers, photographers, oceanographers, knowledge angles, tides, rolling higher mathematics, etc.9 Shorelines changing, formula painstaking work means time. impose unjudicial job. contentions ago plan agency movable fixed, purchase commercial success. my analysis inconsistent possible interpretations reasons deference precedent absent here. Stare decisis valuable governing predictable, enables private lower courts dispose great bulk unique situation, handful affected rule; settlement practice necessity, cf. U.S.C. 1251(b)(2), brought original blindly holdings, involved law: 101 waters.'10 102 successor outer-sea waters.11 know obey signals State, duty observe warnings. Title Code contains infraction inflict penalties consisting fines ship seizures. navigation. buttress contention, references sporadic Secretaries occasion legi lators helped contending solemnly considering period passing doing kind joke. warnings inform acted obeyed. Here accepting governmental markings located. danger marked, move change. modifications disrupt beneath territory consent.12 Cordon, floor manager said: 103 consent legislatively field, sought measure.'13 104 Acceptance Guard's utilizing stop eternal relieve heavy burden repeatedly decisions none competence make. release things. delay giving desire full coastlines. absolutely essential useful development off-shore resources. 105 dissent holding. Stat. §§ 1301—1315. response 332 19, 1658, 1889; Texas, 339 707, 918, 1221; 699, 914, 1216, paramount lands. commenced invoking Art. III, 2, Constitution, possession 364 502, 503, 258, 259, 247; 1301(c). 504, 259. Court, suit broadened 354 , 1373, 1525. connection decrees Texas motions eliminating lateral formal order, evident entered stage affect 1965 removing accounting distribution funds collected 1956 Interim Agreement 382 288, 419, 331. (1964) U.S.T. (pt. 2) 1607, T.I.A.S. 5639. culmination Established Nations Assembly codify deliberations regime 1952 report submitted rapporteur. eighth session report, convention recommended convocation conference examine recommendation convened First U.N. Geneva. conventions dealing Shalowitz, Shore Boundaries 203—211 (1962). 58, codified R.S. 4233. 1885, 438. 442. August 1890, 320. 328. 152—232 1051—1094. February 1895, 672. successively transferred: (1) Labor (Act 1903, 829), redesignated 'Secretary Commerce' 1913, 736); (2) (Reorganization Plan 1946, 1097); (3) (or Navy operating department 1950, 1280)), (Treasury Order July 31, Fed.Reg. 6521). Section 6(b) Transportation 938, Transportation, effective 1967 (Exec. 11340, 30, 1967, 5453); again (49 CFR 1.4(a)(2), 5606). 8458, 8460 (1947). 7893 (1953). 1954. delineated map appended p. 78. Hearings S.J.Res.No. bills Interior Insular Affairs, 83d Cong., 1st Sess., 276 Congresses, representatives argued Administration error' overlooked fact divided.' S. 155 81st 194 (1949). id., 179—180; H.R. 5991 5992 Subcommittee House Judiciary, 74—75 Also substance subsequent Legislature. parties, '(w)e intimate extend, define, limits consequences vis behalf authority. matter bearing problem.' 705, 917, 1216. sets forth mathematical edge extends. infra, 48; n. 64, 49; 68; 54—55. Paragraph provides, foregoing threefold division see L. Bouchez, Regime Bays, 4—5 (1964); supra, 22—24; M. Strohl, 3—4 (1963). varies country, depending claims state. diverse unable table illustrating 389 (App.J.). 'ships enjoy sea.' High Seas nations, validly purport sovereignty.' (1962) 2313, 5200. has, See, e.g., McDougal & W. Burke, Public Oceans, c. (1962); P. Jessup, Jurisdiction 75—112 (1927); 27. extensions imperative zone exceed littoral 'may to: Prevent infringement customs, fiscal, immigration sanitary sea; Punish committed 24. study conclusions: 'There fairly least acquired area. are: right; continuity authority; attitude First, acquire Secondly, continued considerable time; developed usage. controversial third factor, towards writers assert emergence title; opposition sufficient.' Jurisdical Waters, Including Y.B.Int'l L.Comm'n 13, U.N.Doc. A/CN.4/143 23, 203, 281. obtained 'If claimant Juridical 27, 23. Modern authorities unanimous principle. Jessup states '(i)t transient laid down interests safety police.' cites example surpa, 26, 121, 122, 37. Shalowitz conditioned observance protection interests.' Boggs, Delimitation Sea, Am.J.Int'l 541, 542 (1930); G. Gidel, Le Droit la Mer 633 (1934); 273, 275. Griffin, Collision (1949) contrary. Referring author nationality, question.' Id., 11—12. notes 'cases arising admiralty jurisdiction.' 8. development. meeting Association, Relating adopted. six-mile upon, passage. provided: 'Ships conform decreed Report Seventeenth Association Brussels, October (1896), excerpted H. Crocker, Extent Marginal 178 (1919). identical 1894 Institute Paris. 149. authors Crocker: Bluntschli, Codifie (5th ed. 1895), 10; Calvo, orique Pratique 1896), 33; Fiore, Codified Legal Sanction, Organization Society (1918), 58; Latour, La Territoriale Vue (1889), 237—238; Von Liszt, Das Vo lkerrecht 1907), 293; Nuger, Des Droits l'Etat sur (1887), 304; Perels, Manuel (1884), 352—353; Schu cking, Ku stenmeer im Internationalen Rechte (1897), 436—437. 1930 Hague codification stated: 'Foreign conformity usage regards: '(a) traffic *.' commentary '(i)nternational recognised enact, navigation, territoral Acts Codification Law, 214 (1930). 'if allowed claimed, Cf. 227, 249; 293. Rules: May 1948, 8, 497. 1951, 406; September 24, 1963, 194. Enforcement 25—26 (1943). Manual 3—7 (1954): Commandant, 82, Road, road. denoting Selected Materials effect: dependence places, inshore Road.' Commandant's Mexico, observed Department.' He 'relocation removes Law.' 8763 (1967). Judicial discussing Newark Meadows Imp. Co., 173 F. 426, 428, Judge Hough, Circuit Southern District York, 1909: 'This Act), navigators become applicable. district, Delaware, 161 459, 516, 771, collision Gedney Channel York Harbor. act, entrance.' 463, 519. qualification import Writers authorized. cautions 'physiographic confused Road apply. administrative specific followed.' Similarly, 5, warns '(c)are confuse 'internal (international law) mariners entering operate Road. Waters' understood law.' titles illustrate E.g., S.Ex.Doc.No. 35, 53d 3d (1895). delineation afterthought, added request Philadelphia.' Cong.Rec. 2059 Marine excepted (see 29) preferable insofar practicable, rarely Protocols Proceedings 1889, 53, 51st 21—22, 25, 65—66, 127—128, 579, 730 (1890); H.R.Rep.No. 731, 48th (1884). been, lines. 4401, 10322 (1966); 7127 (1967); 8273 (1968). 1966 date identification navigation.' 4401. '(t)hese needs 2556 finally adopted, comments, data, views promoting safe rejected. shipping.' reason serving informing road positions.' withdrawn after hearings. notice withdrawal comment adduced hearings: 'A number comments address themselves U.S.Code 151, subjects, rights, fishing etc. germane thereto.' 14775 alleged set 20, 1925 (i.e., Prohibition Era), purporting 'Territorial comprising 'All radius nautical limiting official Smuggling (1932). attach position. equated Letter R. Castle, Jr., Charge Lundh, 1929, Hackworth, Digest 645 (1940). evidenced n Acts. Officers Competency Certificates 1049, 224a(12)(a); Coastwise Load Line 888, 88; seagoing 1544, 367. statutes, Consequently One committee perhaps uniform, revealing weight trip subcommittee air informative score. startling difference Florida hand hand. contrasting exactly alike ignore different.' H.R.Res.No. 676 Investigation Study Seaward 2515, 82d 2d study, guidelines delegate commission, rejected '(a)n actual map' 926 enacted. Eleven attention. Moving west, River-Gulf Outlet Breton Chandeleur Sounds, Passes River, (4) Empire Canal, 48), Bastian (5) Waterway (6) Pass, arm Bayou Lafourche Marchand, (7) Houma Navigation canal Terrebonne (8) (9) Freshwater (10) Calcasieu (11) Sabine Pass. member gave explanation: piers (was) installations physical coastline; inconvenient installation advocated Commission.' (1955) Y.B. Int'l 74. (1956) Comm'n 193; (1954) 88—89. reflected Conference: '4. CARMONA (Venezuela) stressed text exhaustive study. vital importance subsist regarding works. Governments economic sacrifices secure port facilities elements text. interference consequences.' Official Records, Vol. III: (Territorial Zone), Summary Records Meetings Annexes, A/CONF. 13/39, 142. comports 'harbour' works.' 292: 'Harborworks.—Structures erected seacoast inlets protective purposes, anchorage shelter.' 60, 65; 71—72. 88. 'Except normal large-scale charts officially State.' proviso '(e)xcept articles,' maintain sai argument, founders Articles methods identifies regard, serve drawn. explained, 270. inappropriateness ends H.R.Rep. 215, (1953): 'Section 2(b) projected contacts ports, estuaries, straits, join Congressional Administrative News, 1388. opposing Cordon 'I realizing hazards thereby excluding seek others.' S.J.Res. 1380. Affairs deletion: 'which reported committee's belief adds underneath behind S.Rep. 133, bill, 4198, 'all describes deepening 11. characterization such. question, record, decided, necessary, Master. concerns artificially spoil bank Tante Phine, north whereas longer. correct assertion, 'naturally-formed area(s).' However, uncovered ignored unauthorized; Refining Co. creation bank. (a express whatever), concerned remove 177, 1422, 'mere bank' 'purposeful useful' 'short-lived.' suffices criteria. supra. 22. line': 448, 449, 607, 517. concedes, case; hence, controls resolution. 22, (1952) 33, A/CN.4/53 (1952). Second (1953) 57, A/CN.4/61 (1953); Addendum 5—6, 75, A/CN.4/61/Add. Third Comm'n, A/CN.4/77 (1954). Covering Work Sixth Session, 156, A/CN.4/88 accordingly allowances jut Drying shoals, own. considers expresses force.' 'was seabed observation Preparatory Conference. 175. article: sea-bed territori base-line 217 observations reporting acceptance concept: tide North 1882 (Norway) permanently land.' 128. statement position: exposed (low-tide elevation) significant Case, Pleadings (1951). statement, fall bays; submissions accurately question: '(W)here land, Norwegian (at tide) elevation.' I.C.J., 120. Commission, infra. 95. Eighth 270, A/CN.4/104 (1956). supported insert line.' Seventh U.N.Doc.A/CN.4/94 (1955). preference British terminology, phrases 283. 42, 187, 243. all, days article, introducing crossings scope. 236. appeared excluded. crossings, spelled done amend before. 186—187. Francois, Rapporteur drafting coincides dealt subject. Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, deputy-leader Kingdom's delegation Conference, gives 11: (Article paragraph 1) permits come reasonable, namely, (off level), generate (as were) extraterritorial theoretically but, bulge rock, situated—not (bulge) 'inner' 'outer' lead situated, 'leap-frogging,' rocks, banks, seawards, unjustified Results Comp.L.Q. 73, 86—87 (1959). 396; 228. argues—in addition test—that 'landlocked accepted, irrelevant 54. instance. oversize miles. 68, procedure 7(5): 'Where twenty-four miles, length.' runs valid objection totaling miles). computing disregarded mandates greatest water. available, smaller beach erosion Grande Isle 36. are. system' jetties. 88, (which form) expressly ports: '(2) Permanent jutting (such works) real works,' protect Isle, shelters des Ilettes. disagree objects headland. selected, Bob Taylor's Pond, Zinzin Riverside area; 'too definitely scrutiny '(T)he surface dimensions Sovereignty Geographic Bulletin (1965). 219: 'In semicircular pockets, coves, (including etc.) compared semicircle.' 220, 28, suggestions: 'One difficulty waterways determined, goes amount waterway. solution waterways: waterway rule.' Boundary Problems Raised Col.L.Rev. 1021, 1033, emphasizing distinguish 7(4) reads marks, 79, Shalowitz' indentation, qualifying 51, 67. seeks strings 65, defeated tests applicable, limitation, aggregate 221. ommentary 'If, 'bay' bay.' 269. depends postpone direct, not. distinction next paragraph. actually optional. Shal witz agrees supports 225, 38. one. islans inward Elsewhere 221, fig. 40. Pearcy, Measurement Dept. Bull. 963, 966, relation Bay-Barataria Despite part, 52—53, argue call reply contested hould intersect one, benefit concerted advocacy sides. militate seemingly requirement line; speaks 'because islands.' difficult impression illuminating attention, feel greatly aided submission neutral 'between low-tide, island. observes 89, 'shall elevations, lighthouses level them.' fortiori, overlooks Straight 'sufficiently domain Low-tide evations land; baselines, fulfil applied.' draft, 268. prohibition 'it sight baselines.' identify basepoints measures mark. Compare broken water-crossing 51. Most 19th 20th century foreshadowed modern concept—embodied Convention—of tying 29; Pie delie vre, Pre cis ou Gens (1894), 389; Testa, (1886), 448. authors, relying 1839 Franco-English regulating fisheries English Channel, 'extreme sand banks.' 257. 357—358. 'sand banks,' banks recognizes construed o themselves. side, nearest mainland; satisfied. arguments, misconstrue island—that aligned Thus viewed, 'mouth' 'Anna,' 165 Eng.Rep. 809 (1805), seized privateer claimant, capture made, seems, contended 'terrae dominium finitur, ubi finitur armorum vis,' introduction fire-arms, usually happens earth trees drifted portico America, sort 'no man's land,' life, uninhabited, resorted to, only, shooting taking birds' nests. Balise, fort former Spanish possessors. am opinion; reckoned islands; appendages border, formed. Their derived immediately alluvium increment, books 814—815. held, 94, 'deemed shore.' 'Anna' rise categorical 'coasts' firmness inhabited fortified Wheaton, Elements 256 (8th 1866). Halleck, (4th 1908), 88—90. ancient lore sedimentation peculiarly integrated itself: embraced occupied. soil itself. commences.' Nys, (1904), 321. suggesting mudlump formation believe, origin resultant tied 'Obviously, size criterion, orientation Areas Jurisdiction, Am.J. 240, 258 'Islands problems. near, identified Geographical Aspects Annals Assn. Geographers Director Geodetic Survey, Commerce, assimilation mainland: depart embrace offshore form.' Memorandum 18, 1961, 161, 125. '(w)ith possible. individually framework principal 162. 76, 18. enumeration illustrative exhaustive. Caillou westernmost Isles Dernie res. Sound northeastern chain. asserting sounds conceded belong concession 97, withdraw ratification bay—which 'Isle Main Delta. fringe. contend it, description. appreciable '3. Baselines taken, partic lar peculiar region concerned, reality '5. State. '6. charts, publicity given.' development, Raestad, (1913), 407. 314—316. 66; 197, 218, 252; 37; 185, 194—195; 43—44, 141, 162—163. thorough studies Whiteman, 274—303. recommend provision: 'With group (archipelago) Sub-Committee ten Owing lack details, idea definite abandoned.' 219. 63, 88—90; 377 386. summarized Reference Guide Concerning Adopted A/C.6/L.378, 45, (1956), rapporteur 'Groups Islands.' 10, "With ten-mile 'He inserted 'not expressing force, wish envisaging progressive subject.' Judgment *: "In connection, groups archipelagoes analogous limitations (distance twelve miles), got proposals.' abbreviated proposal, 'After consulting Experts forward elaborate report. "1. 'group islands,' juridical sense, five length, "2. specified preceding "3. likewise together paragraphs passu.' postponing 1954, 1955 'Straight baselines,' coasts, normally group. confirmed 1956, prevented stating disagreement information. hoped, formulating 10: high-tide. articles.' shared Shalowitz. 227 44. Strohl posits bay,' 72, 60. undermined occasional creati g 'bay.' 211, 233 (both Long Sound); Manchester Massachusetts, 139 559, 159 (referring Buzzard's Bay). assume, discussion, 78, 965. (The chain Keys curving south east. highway mainland.) vein, 'fictitious bay' alone. 1419. results 170, 38, 1418. estopped water' stages 67, 108, 997, 1025. concedes Admission, happen apart affirmative Pollard's Lessee Hagan, How. 212, 565. Furthermore, confirms well. intend, motions, settle imprimatur bound detriment concession, reaching leasing pending ruling ownership. positions: hereof four zones plat annexed hereto Exhibit 'A,' 'Chapman-Line.' 'Chapman-Line' prejudice designates Bay.' 87, firm fringes. posture have, effect, utilized sanctioned stance arguably abandon gain advantage 296; '(A) contraction questionable.' arguing until embodied passes kinds bodies. unlike resembling 7(6) proved. correct. unauthorized citizens 14—15; 238; 303—304, actions governments, repudiated inimical sovereign, nations. actions. Commissioners Alabama Claims Stetson quoted V. Moore, Arbitrations 4332, 4339 (1898); Opinion Randolph seizure 'Grange' Delaware Op.Asst.Gen. (1793). 360—361. take novel, lawsuit. latter, impermissible 1301-1 15. understand why subjecting wasteful lawsuits. undersea had. moment wins instead company. win, bigger price pointed 85, 98—100, 1008, 1014—1015, devote income public education. 609; T.L.A.S. 'History geology. Every encroaches somewhere cities sunken cathedrals ring melancholy bells. Mountains rhythm erosion; swell flood, up, course; valleys deserts, isthmuses straits. geologic fluid form, man moves insecurely Peter walking waves Christ.' Durant, Lessons History 14—15 propriety litigated pleadings; argued. oral Brennan asked Solicitor General, replied control.' contend, her reaches vividly demonstrated colloquy above: 'JUSTICE BRENNAN: Now, forgotten—maybe cover 'Do you all? 'MR. COX: Oh, no. Well, tell (a)(2) section, Santa Barbara Harbor be,' Barbara, light-blue breakwater locate map, upper corner, 'Santa Barbara' your map. don't MR. statutes relate to—had control. road, say. 'Now, Gulf, apparently in. get tiny bit corner right. And, terribly ocean-going harbors. up—if Monterey Bay—that hooks around, comes (demonstrating), Monterey, anchored, dock, harbor. concede. Harbor, San Luis Obispo, Pedro, Crescent City, Isthmus Cove Catalina Avalon these. You that. no.' Reply Brief Opposition Motion Leave File Complaint, pp. 9—10. Case. 772, substituting placing responsibility Guard. 151. 438 (1885); 320 (1890). Fort Leavenworth Lowe, 114 525, 995, 1004, 264 DeGeofroy Riggs, 133 267, 295, 297, 642 2634.

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