Document: 453 U.S. 420 101 S.Ct. 2841 69 L.Ed.2d 744 Jeffrey Richard ROBBINS, Petitioner,v.State of CALIFORNIA. No. 80-148. Argued April 27, 1981. Decided July 1, Rehearing Denied Sept. 23, See 950, 102 26. Syllabus When California Highway Patrol officer stopped petitioner's station wagon for proceeding erratically, they smelled marihuana smoke as he opened the car door. In ensuing search car, officers found in luggage compartment two packages wrapped green opaque plastic. They then unwrapped packages, both which contained bricks marihuana. Petitioner was charged with various drug offenses, and, after his pretrial motion to suppress evidence when were denied, convicted. The Court Appeal affirmed, holding that warrantless opening constitutionally permissible since any experienced observer could reasonably have inferred from appearance Held : judgment is reversed. Pp. 423-429; 429-436. 103 Cal.App.3d 34, 162 Cal.Rptr. 780, Justice STEWART, joined by BRENNAN, WHITE, and MARSHALL, concluded without a warrant violated Fourth Fourteenth Amendments. 423-429. 1 (a) A closed piece lawfully searched protected same extent are pieces anywhere else. United States v. Chadwick, 433 97 2476, 53 538; Arkansas Sanders, 442 753, 99 2586, 61 235. 423-425. 2 (b) With respect constitutional protection container lawful an automobile entitled, there no distinction between containers, such suitcases, commonly used transport "personal effects," i. e., property worn on or carried about person having some intimate relation person, flimsier cardboard boxes plastic bags. Such has basis language meaning Amendment, protects people their effects, those effects whether "personal" "impersonal." And objective criteria be made. 425-427. 3 (c) Unless its contents may said plain view, fully Amendment. Here, insufficient justify exception rule ground question outward appearance. To fall within exception, must so clearly announce contents, distinctive configuration, transparency, otherwise, obvious observer. 427-428. 4 POWELL petitioner had reasonable expectation privacy opaquely sealed package question. Amendment requires police obtain before searching customarily serves repository personal when, here, circumstances indicate defendant will not open public scrutiny. 5 Marshall W. Krause, Larkspur, Cal., petitioner. 6 Ronald E. Niver, San Francisco, respondents. 7 Andrew L. Frey, Washington, D. C., U. S., amicus curiae, special leave Court. 8 STEWART announced delivered opinion, MARSHALL joined. 9 * On early morning January 5, 1975, car—a 1966 Chevrolet wagon—because been driving erratically. He got out vehicle walked towards patrol car. one asked him driver's license wagon's registration, fumbled wallet. door get smoke. One patted down petitioner, discovered vial liquid. passenger well equipment using it. 10 After putting tailgate wagon, located handle set flush deck, lifted it up uncover recessed compartment. totebag plastic.1 packages; each 15 pounds 11 jury convicted him. unpublished affirmed all relevant respects. This granted writ certiorari, vacated Appeal's judgment, remanded case further consideration light 443 903, 3093, 870. remand, again permissible, trial court "could [have] conclude[d] appearance, appellant held contents." 40, 783. Because continuing uncertainty containers during themselves warrant, this certiorari. 449 1109, 916, 66 838. II 12 Constitution, made applicable through establishes "[t]he right secure persons, houses, papers, against unreasonable searches seizures." per se unreasonable, thus violates if making first secured neutral magistrate satisfies terms Warrant Clause See, e. g., Katz States, 389 347, 357, 88 507, 514, 19 576; Agnello 269 20, 33, 46 4, 6, 70 L.Ed. 145. Although identified exceptions requirement, emphasized these "few," "specifically established," "well-delineated." supra, at S.Ct., 514. 13 Among so-called "automobile exception." Colorado Bannister, 42, 142. Carroll 267 132, 45 280, 543, unnecessary "where probable cause highway; movable, occupants alerted, car's never obtained." Chambers Maroney, 399 51, 90 1981, 26 419. recent years, we twice confronted suggestion exception" somehow justifies inside automobile. Each time, refused accept suggestion. 14 538, Government argued part analogous motor vehicles purposes, should extended encompass luggage. rejected analogy insisted confined possibly unique occasion genesis. First, "[o]ur treatment automobiles based inherent mobility, often makes obtaining judicial impracticable." Id., 12, 2484. While cars "mobile," itself brought kept under control police. Second, acknowledged "inherent mobility" cannot alone sometimes approved automobile's mobility irrelevant. Cady Dombrowski, 413 433, 441-442, 93 2523, 2528, 37 706; South Dakota Opperman, 428 364, 367, 96 3092, 3096, 49 1000. said, also supported "the diminished surrounds automobile" arises facts transportation residence travel necessarily highly regulated government. U.S., 12-13, No characterizes luggage; contrary, typically hidden generally subject state regulation. 16 235, State allow everything itself. argument much reason Government's Chadwick. Pointing out, first, "[o]nce seized suitcase, did way affected place taken," "is greater need taken than other places." 763-764, 2593. saw believe less elsewhere. 17 present case, once encounters argument—made brief curiae—that But inconsistent Court's decisions Chadwick Sanders. Those cases clear, clear before, 18 respondent, however, proposes nature diminish otherwise would entitled—that only effects." By respondent means person. taking position, relies numerous opinions drawn sturdy luggage, like boxes. Compare, Benson, 631 F.2d 1336 (CA8 1980) (leather totebag); Miller, 608 1089 (CA5 1979) (plastic portfolio); Presler, 610 1206 (CA4 (briefcase); Meier, 602 253 (CA10 (backpack); Johnson, 588 147 (duffel bag); Stevie, 582 1175 1978), Mannino, 635 110 (CA2 bag paper Goshorn, 628 697, 699 (CA1 (" '[t]wo bags, three brown bags' "); Gooch, 603 122 Mackey, 626 684 (CA9 (paper Neumann, 585 355 1978) (cardboard box). respondent's prevail least reasons. That Chadwick's footlocker Sanders' suitcase immune because placed closed, Sanders thereby "manifested remain free examination." 11, 2483. Once container, diary dishpan equally 20 even wished import into difficult impossible perceive task might accomplished. What put another bag. Ross, 210 U.S.App.D.C. 342, 655 1159 (1981) (en banc). disparate results decided indicate, court, constable, citizen, can sensibly distinguish relative "privacy interests" briefcase, portfolio, duffel bag, box. 21 protests footnote opinion says "[n]ot course deserve full Amendment." 764, n. 13, 2593, 13. listed succeeding sentences very model prove rule: "Thus, (for example kit burglar tools gun case) support Similarly, 'plain view,' obviating warrant." 764-765, second obviously refers items closed. likewise little more variation "plain view" since, configuration proclaims fairly removed officer's view. true, course, transparent, revealed contents. short, negative implication that, unless 22 believed fell directly described footnote, "[a]ny marijuana." Cal.App.3d, Cal.Rptr., cited proposition testimony who arrested anything "these blocks attracted your attention," replied, somewhat obscurely: 23 "A. I previous knowledge blocks. Normally contraband way, merely hearsay. seen them before. 24 "Q. You heard packaged way? 25 Yes." 2, 783, 4. vague certainly establish ordinarily "packaged way." Expectations established general social norms, If indeed wrapping reliably indicates contain marihuana, fact shown record case.2 27 container. We affirm today Since does allege presence constitute valid rule,3 Accordingly, 28 It ordered. 29 THE CHIEF JUSTICE concurs judgment. 30 POWELL, concurring 31 justified, though compelled, 235 (1979). join As plurality goes beyond prior new "bright-line" rule, opinion.1 require warrants order examine insubstantial privacy. plurality's approach strains rationales our imposes substantial burdens law enforcement vindicating significant values nevertheless concur manner issue carefully evidenced stressed decisions, central purpose safeguard expectations 32 Having reached decision recognize—as dissenting find easy proclaim—that seizure intolerably confusing. apparently agree what previously, let how decided. Much difficulty comes necessity applying command ever-varying facts; stem unpalatable consequences exclusionary spur reduce analysis simple mechanical rules constable fighting chance blunder. 33 New York Belton, 454, 2860, 768, today, involve different questions arise cases: (A) scope incident arrest (B) particular suspect privacy; (C) potentially includes areas therein. These issues frequently intertwined, similar suggest: stop upon cause, occupants, automobile, Nonetheless, litigated presented us entirely theories. Intelligent proceed addressed separately. Viewing perspectives lead identical results. A. 34 Belton necessary quite there.2 unlike concerns requirement arrest; contrary STEVENS' implication, post, 444, 447-448, 451, courts below presents volatile fluid situation encounter arresting apprehended highway. Chimel California, 395 752, 89 2034, 685 (1969), determines principle arrest, practical thoroughly requiring haste pressure make close calculations danger himself vulnerability evidence. 35 Any costs. trades marginal area destructible balance interests strongly favors rule. enjoy limited interior Almeida-Sanchez 266, 279, 2535, 2542, 596 (1973) (POWELL, J., concurring). interest custodial arrest. Cf. Robinson, 414 218, 237, 94 467, 478, 38 427 Immediately preceding passengers complete over entire weapons pockets approaches. Thus, practically speaking, varying degrees within. considerations do apply trunk either immediately process B 36 Robbins arrested, needed sealed, rear wagon. treats 538 (1977), double-locked respectively. primarily kinds them, where For reasons explained below, share assumption rather generally. "container case," manifesting 2484; 110, 114 1980); 700-701 684, 687-688 356-362, 1159, 1173-1179 banc) (TAMM, dissenting). resembles inquiry undertake determine rights complaining party. Rakas Illinois, 439 128, 421, 58 387 (1978); id., 150-152, 434-435 instance, ultimate . one's claim government intrusion surrounding circumstances." 152, 435; see 576 (1967). departs basic concern privacy, adopts Nothing extreme extension requirement. Indeed, explicitly foreclosed reading: 39 "There difficulties determining parcels not. Our required applies depends automobile." 765, 40 blanket purport protect interest, impose enforcement. Confronted cigarbox Dixie cup probable-cause narcotics, conscientious policeman take object magistrate, fill appropriate forms, await decision, finally warrant. Suspects normally detained while sought. hours, removing normal duties. Expenditure time effort, public's resources detecting preventing crimes, justified individual's interests. my justified. aggregate burden procuring whenever most trivial heavy compensated advancement important values. sole virtue simplicity.3 C 41 dissenters argue, justice, controlling fortuitously it, exigencies every (STEVENS, consistent holdings neither respectively came near 2483; 761, 2591; 766, 2594 (BURGER, C. Adoption dissenters' view require, rejection good deal reasoning latter case. 42 Resolving expanding attractive logical virtue, but provide agreement majority presently fractured give specific guidance recurring led incessant litigation. note, benefit realized fully, deciding ripened, suspicion focused traveled. 43 parties pressed late Term sua sponte reconsideration doctrines. Given constraints, adhere statements irrelevant Some future affording opportunity thorough principles risk offer better, radical, solution confusion infects benighted law.4 44 BLACKMUN, dissenting. dissent stated respective writings 17, 2486, 2595, REHNQUIST says, 439-443, anticipated spawned Nation's appellate illustrated STEWART's listing, ante, 425-426, Federal Courts Appeals 1977. merit "bright line" serve eliminate opaqueness dissipate confusion. 771-772, 2597. today's holding, still forced, despite concededly go far, inevitably issued here. tell "test," 427, package's exterior "announce[s] contents" stream 47 continue think error 772, 2597, "to adopt clear-cut effect seize turn pursuant [v. 543 (1925),] 419 (1970)]." 48 REHNQUIST, previously why "exclusionary rule" created proportion seeks advance seriously impeding efforts national, state, local governments apprehend convict laws. Minjares, 100 9, 892 (1979) (REHNQUIST, BURGER, denial stay). abandoned views, announcing compounds evils engrafting subtleties jurisprudence nor desirable decisions. Harlan Coolidge Hampshire, 403 443, 490-491, 91 2022, 2050, 564 (1971): 50 "State federal prosecutorial authorities intolerable uncertainty, extends everyday enter man's commission crime. 51 "I begin [the] re-evaluation overruling Mapp Ohio, 367 643, 81 1684, 1081 (1961), Ker 374 83 1623, 726 (1963). 52 "Until face mistakes Ker, solid progress setting things straight will, occur." years intervened statement tended confirm correctness. 54 harm caused compounded judicially preference indicating satisfaction reasonableness forgotten nothing conducted warrants. simply mandate seizures, shall cause: "The violated, Warrants issue, Oath affirmation, particularly describing searched, persons seized." 55 Not historical study "suggested emphasizing 'stood fourth amendment head' standpoint." Coolidge, 492, 2051. (Harlan, concurring) (quoting T. Taylor, Two Studies Constitutional Interpretation 23-24 (1969)), failed appreciate impact mandated Courts, including Court, casual substantially frustrated whom gather crime assuming typical quick half mile ride nearest precinct urban Steagald 451 204, 222, 1642, 1652, 68 (1981). fit realities sparsely populated "cow counties" Southern Western apocryphally number cows exceed people, square miles county 10,000 away. great Wolf Colorado, 338 25, 1359, 1782 (1949), allowance vast diversities States; unfortunately true spirit federalism was, observed, (1961). 56 Recent developments cast doubt emphasis opposed search. Shadwick City Tampa, 407 345, 92 2119, 783 (1972), ruled clerks Municipal city Fla., trained law, "neutral detached magistrates" satisfy Franks Delaware, 438 154, 98 2674, 57 667 (1978), behind attack validity suppress. therefore erected edifice foundation substance. Even aside observations decide falls requirement—the exception. 439-440, 2527, 706 (1973), class constitutes "at partial [of warrant] searches. 'effects' 'for purposes difference houses cars.' 52, (1970). 153-154, 285, (1925)." Cady: "[T]he application standards, originally intended restrict Government, involved. contact usually, always, involves detection investigation crimes unrelated operation vehicle. Cases Brinegar 160, 1302, 1879 illustrate situations officials come vehicles. cases, members unit enforcing criminal statute operator violating statute. 59 "As result system government, officers, related themselves. All registered operators licensed. localities enacted extensive detailed codes regulating condition operated streets highways." 441, 2528. 60 draw 1000 (1976), conclusion draws " 'inherent mobility' irrelevant." Ante, 424. Logically, seems me Opperman demonstrate capable being moved, inherently mobile, seeking obtained say broken down, parking lot supervision police, like. expressed BLACKMUN: "If 'contraband goods concealed illegally transported warrant,' 153, (1925), then, transporting mobile. probably significantly locked glove 62 63 "In better Chambers." 769, 2596, (BLACKMUN, 64 proper uphold inasmuch acknowledges 428. 65 plurality, concludes garbage bags unconstitutional. doing, earlier rejects should, minimum noted opinion. There, explained: "Not Harris 390 234, 236, 992, 993, 1067 (1968) (per curiam)." 2593-2594, 67 squarely above examination events prompted place—events conspicuously absent recitation Prior already retrieving paraphernalia front stated: "What you looking back." Only discover wrap testified aware fashion—a watch evening news surely aware. factors, statement, Surely, given circumstances, appearance." aptly illustrates problems adopted past decades. Rather one, attempted limit include certain, all, Apparently, decides distinguishing too accordingly denudes meaning. evidently workable govern seek well, feel long continues direction headed. Instead, return rationale hold abandon another. lines" short Ohio apt illusory. profession hounds foxes. Acceptance arguments thing "functional equivalent" other, example, soon breaks bright line blurry impressionistic pattern. Amendments, suppress, lost "core values" overruled. except States. personnel, wrestling twisting turning decisional forcing widely conditions traditional responsibility prevention serious crime, engage burdensome futile predict "correct" 71 STEVENS, 72 way.1 Both highway, contraband. provided authority vehicle—including compartment, trunk, 73 discursive writing 235.2 Be Chief cogently demonstrated separate Sanders—the actual Chadwick,i, plainly distinguishable truly involved narcotic agents taxicab. driver exactly suspects hailed taxi Sanders.4 officers' duty evaded waiting until 74 precludes authorize Moreover, developed distinctions among containers. BLACKMUN correct forceful demonstration differentiate "an orange crate, lunch bucket, attache duffelbag, box, backpack, totebag, bag." 2597 (dissenting opinion). Except author dictum,5 Members wisely avoid pitfalls approach; unfortunately, instead adhering simultaneously moves far opposite directions cases. InRobbins forbid functional equivalent authorizes found. disagree approaches 75 routine adequate upholding quixotically notwithstanding covering provides mantle protection. Instead repudiating unnecessarily broad dictum employed Sanders—a recognized Term6—the engages unprecedented narrowing 76 419, reaffirmed century upheld cause.7 "exception" Chambers, conducting places just scene; magistrate's authorized suitcase.8 exception.9 here proper, affirmed. 77 relying jacket pocket, takes extraordinary dangerous detour reach adopting admittedly "lawful arrest" occupant 78 careful repeated use term arrest"10 imply arrests ordinary exists. am familiar "stop," see, Terry 392 1868, 889, "arrest," kind is, traffic violations accompany permitted own recognizance licenses form bond. possible regulations prohibit custody violation minor matter pettiest misdemeanor temporarily custody.11 repeatedly held, fashions automobile.12 79 riding stopped, acquired contraband.13 reasonable. occurred, palpably briefcase inspection officer.14 objection justification follow procedure sees interesting violation. predicate broader issuing 80 reasoning, massive broadening unfortunate decision. giant step permitting absence misses shorter search.15 adhered fundamental standard. persuaded result, misconstrues regard respectfully Belton. photograph later follows: visible boxed material covered outer cellophane-type (The color, 'green' all.) wrappings outside strip tape. roughly oversized, extra-long cigar box slightly rounded corners edges. bears legend written indicia supporting interference concerning 44, 785 (Rattigan, Judge Rattigan wrote Appeal: "For books, stationery, canned goods, wholly innocuous weight. fact, remarkable resemblance unlabelled carton emergency highway flares bought store shelf 785. particular, 685. Further, argue consented packages. extend "closed, container," size, shape, common experience suggest owner asserting exempt containers" where, shape characteristic, "contents view." accordance usage "container" boxes, tins, bottles, factual (the "interior") whereas trunk. overestimates party Many "inevitably associated privacy." 762, 2592, others, ubiquitous grocery sack, consistently lack association. middle laundry used, although imperfectly, repositories Coffin: "[W]e mere possibility leads 'inevitably' many varied uses entail militate presumption 700 1980). ambiguous conduct hearing manifested 701. Relevant material, exterior, context discovered, possessor precaution, locking, securely sealing binding desire prevent displayed mischance. prudent err side respecting assertions 435, (1978) concurring), realistic seldom second-guess good-faith field consequently suffer suppression probative evidence, cf. Brown 422 590, 611-612, 95 2254, 2265-2266, 416 (1975) package, casually observe 422, 1. society's confirms expectation. Ex parte Jackson, 727, 733, 877 (1878) (warrant postal inspectors sent mail). Van Leeuwen, 397 249, 1029, 222 institutional stare decisis effort harmonize views application. cases; invalidate Justice, curious citizen enclosed wrapper pocket leather jacket. routinely relied Soriano, 497 147, 149 1974), "And spoke treat different. Soriano companions indisputably contraband, circumstance justifying initial incursion Under circuit elsewhere, encompassed illicit carriage contraband." Anderson, 500 1311, 1315 1974); Evans, 481 990, 993-994 1973). occurred defendants challenging considering challenges Bowman, 487 1229 1973); Garner, 167 (CA6 1971); Chapman, 474 300 1973), cert. 835, 179, 71; Hearn, 340 So.2d 1365 (La.1976); Lee, 113 N.H. 313, 307 A.2d 827 (1973); Warren, 283 740 (La.1973). continued constituted limitation Milhollan, 599 518, 525-527 (CA3 1979), 444 909, 221, 144; Finnegan, 568 637, 641 1977); Ochs, 595 1247 955, 144. (repudiating supra). pointed Sanders: breadth references 'automobile' reader believe—as do—that 762-765, n.14, 2592-2594, n.14. carried, suspected locus relationship purely coincidental, resting more. "This somewhere vehicle, know whether, structure." 767, 2595. Again, Justice: "Because taxicab, (1977). essence legitimate accompanying person; owner's occurs place. Whether hotel lobby, airport, railroad terminal, street, expect not, consent, exposed demand police." 766-767, 2594-2595. p. 429. classified ibid., seem brick nonprivate category. dealers substance comfortable carrying around Compare McDaniel Sanchez, 452 130, 2224, 724, East Parish School Board Marshall, 424 636, 1083, 296, especially McDaniel, 2238; Donovan Dewey, 594, 609, 2534, 2543, 262 (STEWART, dissenting); 606, 2542 indicated recognition exigent circumstances: Amendment's prohibition Constitution. issuance sufficient authorization Carroll, holds obtained. Hence immediate permissible." 51. scene house. house, executing suitcase. Of If, inapplicable exigency Thus able invoking secrete else 770, n.3, 2596-2597, n.3 dissenting), conclude 455, 458, 459, 461, 462, 463, 2861, 2863, 2864, 2865, quotation 2864. believes Amendments impediment "minor offense." Gustafson Florida, 260, 488, 456 J. restrain liberty stops violations, Pennsylvania Mimms, 434 106, 115, 330, 336, 331 considered "there limits 'custodial arrests' relatively offenses involved." LaFave, Search Seizure § 5.2, 290 5.1, pp. 256-260, 281-291. stops, imposed restrictions authority. supra; supra. restriction exist. look sources. Statutory Legislatures permit violators certain violations. Mich.Comp. Laws §§ 257.727-257.728 discretion "custodial law. Iowa Code 321.482, 321.485 (1980); Kan.Stat.Ann. 8-2105 (1975). Tex.Rev.Civ.Stat.Ann., Art. 6701d, 147-153 (Vernon Wallace State, 467 S.W.2d 608, 609-610 (Tex.Crim.App.1971); Tores 518 378 (Tex.Crim.App.1975) (officer offense speeding). Additionally, failure produce satisfactory bond "detention arrest." People Mathis, Ill.App.3d 680, Ill.Dec. 528, 371 N.E.2d 245, 249 Y. Kamisar, & Israel, Modern Criminal Procedure 402, (Supp.4th ed. incomplete afforded statutory drivers persuade supreme interpret constitution's Robbins, assume existence facts. 1229, 1231 Campos, 471 296 1972). permit, back attempts safety, dissenting, 466-469, 2867-2869, forcefully inadequacy rationale. pocket. Nevertheless, admission existed—even judge valid—I theory valid. State's understandable reluctance Rigales, 630 364 MacKay, 606 264 1979); Jenkins, 619 P.2d 108 (Haw.1980).

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