Document: 539 U.S. 244 GRATZ ET AL.v.BOLLINGER AL. No. 02-516. Supreme Court of United States. Argued April 1, 2003. Decided June 23, Petitioners Gratz and Hamacher, both whom are Michigan residents Caucasian, applied for admission to the University Michigan's (University) College Literature, Science, Arts (LSA) in 1995 1997, respectively. Although LSA considered be well qualified Hamacher within range, were denied early ultimately admission. In order promote consistency review many applications received, University's Office Undergraduate Admissions (OUA) uses written guidelines each academic year. The have changed a number times during period relevant this litigation. OUA considers factors making admissions decisions, including high school grades, standardized test scores, quality, curriculum strength, geography, alumni relationships, leadership, race. During all periods, has African-Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans "underrepresented minorities," it is undisputed that admits virtually every applicant from these groups. current use selection method under which an underrepresented racial or ethnic minority group automatically awarded 20 points 100 needed guarantee filed class action alleging preferences undergraduate violated Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment, Title VI Civil Rights Act 1964, 42 U. S. C. § 1981. They sought compensatory punitive damages past violations, declaratory relief finding respondents their rights nondiscriminatory treatment, injunction prohibiting continuing discriminate on basis race, requiring offer as transfer student. District granted petitioners' motion certify consisting individuals who year forward members groups treated less favorably whose claim was found challenge discrimination classwide basis, designated representative. On cross-motions summary judgment, relied Justice Powell's principal opinion Regents Univ. Cal. v. Bakke, 438 265, 317, expressed view consideration race factor might some cases serve compelling government interest. Respondents contended just such interest educational benefits result having racially ethnically diverse student body its program narrowly tailored court agreed with LSA's them judgment respect. However, also through 1998 operated functional equivalent quota running afoul Bakke opinion, thus petitioners respect respondents' programs those years. While interlocutory appeals pending Sixth Circuit, issued Grutter Bollinger, post, p. 306, upholding used by Law School. This certiorari cases, even though Circuit had not yet rendered one. Held: 1. standing seek injunctive relief. rejects Stevens' contention that, because did actually apply student, his future injury at best conjectural hypothetical rather than real immediate. "injury fact" necessary establish type case denial equal treatment resulting imposition barrier, ultimate inability obtain benefit. Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors America Jacksonville, 508 656, 666. face standing, party need only demonstrate able ready perform discriminatory policy prevents doing so basis. Ibid. bringing protection against admissions, alleged him opportunity compete freshman qualifications would been admitted. After being admission, demonstrated he "able ready" should cease admissions. He therefore prospective continued Also rejected differs lacks represent absent challenging latter. Each produces document setting forth seeking LSA, applicants. specifically cross-reference assessing fact, criteria determine whether will contribute diversity identical evaluate difference applicants receive "virtually" minimally admitted, while "generally" admitted outright. narrow tailoring analysis, clearly no effect assertion state justifying See General Telephone Co. Southwest Falcon, 457 147, 159; Blum Yaretsky, 991, distinguished. Court's carefully decision correct. Cf. Coopers & Lybrand Livesay, 437 463, 469. Hamacher's personal stake, potential faced time certification, demonstrates may maintain action. Pp. 260-268. 2. Because achieve asserted diversity, violates Clause. For reasons set 327-333, today argument cannot constitute finds policy, distributes points, one-fifth single minority" solely diversity. Powell explained permissible university employ "race background deemed `plus' particular applicant's file." S., 317. emphasized, however, importance considering individual, qualities individual possesses, turn, evaluating individual's ability unique higher education. described contemplate any characteristic ensured specific identifiable contribution university's id., 315. does provide individualized contemplated. accompanies 20-point automatic distribution minorities factual member one Moreover, unlike example, where "particular black applicant" could without decisive, see "the race... decisive" applicant, ibid. fact created possibility file flagged emphasizes flaws system whole when compared Powell. record reveal precisely how flagged, but exception rule program. Also, provided after counselors distribute version "plus" makes decisive applicant. volume presentation information make impractical upheld Grutter. implementation capable providing present administrative challenges render constitutional otherwise problematic system. See, e. g., Richmond J. A. Croson Co., 488 469, 508. Nothing signaled whatever means desires regard limits imposed strict scrutiny. 268-275. 3. Clause, Alexander Sandoval, 532 275, 281; Building Assn. Pennsylvania, 458 375, 389-390. Accordingly, reverses portion granting liability. 275-276. Reversed part remanded. REHNQUIST, J., delivered Court, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. concurring BREYER, joined part, 276. 281. Stevens, dissenting SOUTER, joined, 282. GINSBURG, Part II, 291. I, 298. 1 CERTIORARI BEFORE JUDGMENT TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR SIXTH CIRCUIT 2 Kirk O. Kolbo argued cause petitioners. With briefs David F. Herr, R. Lawrence Purdy, Michael McCarthy, E. Rosman, Hans Bader, Kerry L. Morgan. 3 Solicitor Olson States amicus curiae urging reversal. brief Assistant Attorney Boyd Deputy Clement. 4 John Payton respondents. respondent Bollinger et al. H. Pickering, Brigida Benitez, Craig Goldblatt, Terry Maroney, Maureen Mahoney, Marvin Krislov, Jonathan Alger, Jeffrey Lehman, Evan Caminker, Philip Kessler, Leonard M. Niehoff. Theodore Shaw, Norman Chachkin, James Cott, Melissa Woods, Christopher Hansen, Brent Simmons, Steinberg, Antonia Hernandez, Patricia Mendoza, Godfrey Dillard, Milton Henry Patterson al.* 5 CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST Court. 6 We decide violate[s] 1964 (42 2000d), 1981." Brief i. we find manner statutory provisions, reverse guidelines. 7 * A 8 Jennifer Patrick State Michigan. Both Caucasian. Gratz, fall 1995, notified January final regarding her delayed until April. delay based upon determination although "`well qualified,'" she "`less competitive students ha[d] first review.'" App. Pet. Cert. 109a. unable She enrolled Dearborn, graduated spring 1999. 9 1997. application postponed because, "`academic credentials [were] they level admission.'" subsequently University.1 10 October lawsuit Eastern University, LSA,2 Duderstadt, Lee Bollinger.3 Petitioners' complaint class-action suit "violations threatened violations plaintiffs laws Amendment . ., violation §§ 1981, 1983 2000d seq." 33. sought, inter alia, "rights treatment," "continuing Amendment," student.4 Id., 40. 11 certification determining appropriate pursuant Federal Rule Procedure 23(b)(2). certified consisted "those Science years groups, defendants treat[ed] admission." 70-71. And "`practice pervasively basis,'" 67, 70. bifurcate proceedings into liability phase. 71. phase "whether [respondents'] decisions Constitution." 70.5 B 12 litigation, summarize most significant changes briefly. oversees process.6 large accordance 13 leadership. periods "virtually 111a. 14 1996, evaluated according grade point average combined what referred "SCUGA" factors. These included quality (S), strength (C), unusual circumstances (U), geographical residence (G), relationships (A). scores produce "GPA 2" score, reviewing referenced "Guidelines" tables, listed GPA ranges vertical axis, American Test/Scholastic Aptitude Test (ACT/SAT) horizontal axis. table divided cells more courses taken, admit, reject, additional information, postpone reconsideration. 15 years, same score ACT/SAT subject different outcomes status.7 Caucasian in-state Gratz's ACT placed cell calling application. An out-of-state fallen 16 modified procedure. Specifically, formula calculating restructured include values "U" category SCUGA Under new system, status, socioeconomic disadvantage, attendance predominantly population, underrepresentation unit applying (for men pursue career nursing). 1997 procedures, postponement decision. generally 17 Beginning year, dispensed Guidelines tables favor "selection index," maximum 150 points. index linearly dispositions follows: 100-150 (admit); 95-99 (admit postpone); 90-94 (postpone admit); 75-89 (delay 74 below reject). 18 received average, school, weakness curriculum, residency, relationship, essay, achievement Of significance here, "miscellaneous" category, entitled membership group. "`development mechanics, substance, ethnicity admissions.'" 116a. 19 1998, soon possible light belief likely enroll if promptly managed rolling permit certain submitted later "protected seats." Specific groups—including athletes, foreign students, ROTC candidates, minorities—were categories" eligible seats. committee called Enrollment Working Group (EWG) projected protected categories given date then paced full expected If space filled candidates toward end season, admit remaining pool, waiting list. 1999 2000, index, Starting 1999, established Review Committee (ARC), applications. may, discretion, "flag" ARC (1) academically prepared succeed University,8 (2) achieved minimum (3) possesses important composition class, rank, life experiences, challenges, circumstances, interests talents, ethnicity, geography. "flagged" applications, determines defer, deny C 21 parties 78 Stat. 252, 2000d, Amendment. 265 (1978), respond arguments. As discussed greater detail 323-325, Powell, Respondent-intervenors remedying minorities.9 22 began analysis Bakke. 122 Supp. 2d 811, 817 (ED Mich. 2000). acknowledged since explicitly accepted rationale 2d, 820-821, concluded not, ruled out justification 820-821. amici presented "solid evidence" achieving constitutes governmental 822-824. 23 next 824. Again relying determined using flow body. 827. emphasized utilize rigid quotas predetermined students. award group, view, insulated virtue 828. Likewise, operates like two-track objectionable grounds competing 828-829. dismissed nothing balancing. 831. proportion let alone represents community. 24 problematic. court's prior practice "protecting" "reserving" seats effectively kept nonprotected slots. 832. concluded, ran Bakke.10 25 Based findings, existence 2000. 833. request 814. 26 consistent rulings two questions appeal 28 1292(b). appealed aspects rulings, Appeals heard en banc day Bollinger. Grutter, School, petitioner writ asked grant well, despite address constitutionality wider range circumstances. so. 537 1044 (2002). II 27 throughout course contend Amendment,11 VI,12 1981.13 consider relief, and, do, merits claims. raised issue, Stevens argues lack Article III contends "actually appl[y] student[,] [h]is `conjectural hypothetical' `real immediate.'" Post, 285 (dissenting opinion). But applied" determinative case. rejected, still allege intent again transfer, must never really intended do so, conclusion directly conflicts entered "intends preference." 67.14 29 It challenge. Clements Fashing, 957 (1982), provision Texas Constitution immediate resignation officeholders announcement candidacy another office. plaintiff announced other offices "automatic resignation" challenging. 962; accord, Turner Fouche, 396 346, 361-362, n. (1970) (plaintiff own property ownership requirement board there evidence rejected); Quinn Millsap, 491 95, 103, (1989) (plaintiffs lacked "as applied"). 656 (1993), association ordinance gave preferential minority-owned businesses city contracts show contract standing. showing necessary, "[t]he `injury fact' variety context set-aside program, footing bidding process, loss contract." "[t]o Jacksonville's bid basis." 30 When 115a. 31 STEVENS raises second 286-287 initial matter, question relevance variation, any, matter goes propriety 23(a). briefed versus adequacy, resolve today: Regardless adequacy satisfied case.15 32 From original consistently challenged promoting "diversity." 38; 13. Consistent challenge, requested "from race." either forward. 35-36. proposed requirements Rules Procedure, numerosity, commonality, typicality. Fed. Civ. Proc. 23(a); further adequate representative pursuit purposes 23(a)(4), 61-69, utterly devoid presence antagonism between [he] seek[s] represent," 61. Finally, basis.'" 67. 23(b)(2), 33 cites 991 arguing erred. 289. Blum, brought Medicaid beneficiaries. named representatives State's Utilization (URC) lower levels care without, sufficient procedural safeguards. certified, obtained expanding URC patients well. transfers transfers. agreed. noted "[n]othing suggests transferred intensive transfers." 1001. involved fundamentally concerns ones. 1001-1002 (noting, implicated beneficiaries' concomitant decrease benefits, not). 34 case, implicate significantly stage, involves Respondents' failure simply exists. "COLLEGE LITERATURE, SCIENCE AND ARTS GUIDELINES ALL TERMS," sets applicants, international like. 01-1333 etc. (CA6), pp. 507-542. stated goal contained separate section "CONTRIBUTION DIVERSE STUDENT BODY." 531. "contribut[e] body" "generally admitted" substantially required (emphasis added). To "contribut[ing] body," instructed met "criteria defined Section IV `U' [the] SCUGA" assess "Contribution Diverse Class," committed rich experience diverse, opposed homogenous, population enhances insure weight process indicators class." 432. indicators, alike, list establishing 1133-1134, 1153-1154. Indeed, justifies applicants.16 35 Particularly instructive here our statement 147 "[i]f [defendant-employer] biased testing procedure employment incumbent employees, behalf employee prejudiced satisfy 23(a)." 159, Here, sole race-based body." 8a. argue "diversity" ever 11-13. sum, guidelines.17 agree 67 ("`It singular policy... basis'"); cf. 469 (1978) ("[T]he considerations enmeshed legal issues comprising plaintiff's action" (internal quotation marks omitted)). particularly claims run risk becoming moot" vehicle provides mechanism ensuring justiciable before Court." 69. Thus, think clear 36 argue, foremost, sanctioned classifications remedy identified discrimination, relied. 15-16. "diversity employing too open-ended, ill-defined, indefinite supporting narrowly-tailored means." 17-18, 40-41. arguments 37 alternatively can interest, erroneously "remotely resemble kind endorsed Bakke." 18. reply avoids problems Medical School California Davis (U. Davis) Powell.18 "hews closely" Harvard endorsed. Respondent 32. "Justice hallmark constitutionally program." 35. below, agree. 38 now "all reviewable strictly scrutinized." Adarand Constructors, Inc. Peña, 515 200, 224 (1995). "`standard review. .. dependent burdened benefited classification.' " (quoting 494 (plurality opinion)). "any person, right demand actor justify classification subjecting person unequal strictest judicial scrutiny." Adarand, 224. 39 withstand scrutiny employs "narrowly measures interests." 227. "[r]acial pernicious exact connection classification," Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, (1980) (Stevens, dissenting), entail "`a searching examination.' supra, 223 Wygant Jackson Bd. Ed., 476 267, 273 (1986) J.)). 40 reiterated "[p]referring reason origin sake." 307. explained, allow [to] examined compared, Italian-American latter thought exhibit beneficial pluralism." Such "flexible enough pertinent elements applicant." 41 described, Metro Broadcasting, FCC, 497 547, 618 (1990) (O'Connor, dissenting) (concluding Communications Commission's "embodie[d] related notions alone, valued [the is] `likely [a] distinct perspective,'" "impermissibly value[d] individuals" presumption "persons associated race"). Instead, approach entire consideration. University. race.. Ibid.19 43 example description Program, in, attached to, "illustrate race" 324. 44 "The Committee, few places left fill, itself forced choose A, child successful physician community promise superior performance, B, grew up inner-city ghetto semi-literate parents energy leadership apparently-abiding power. good much already prefer B; vice versa. C, white extraordinary artistic talent, places, give edge over B. critical often sometimes it." 45 nature Even C's "extraordinary talent" rivaled Monet Picasso, receive, most, five 234-235. At time, submitting Clearly, Harvard's example. Instead differing backgrounds, characteristics benefit indicate African-American, talent."20 46 emphasize ARC. flagging Again, illustrate point. First, flagged. conceded, awarding Student "with performance," certainly fit description. A's background, "potential diversity," 47 individuals. assumes distribution, muster least 70 "review look individually ignore points," once Tr. Oral Arg. 42, little comfort analysis. consideration, operation 117a ("The reviews bulk executed parameters EWG").21 Additionally, 48 [LSA] system" 6, 8. (citing Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 690 (1973) Brennan, J.) (rejecting "`administrative convenience' determinant suspect classification)). 49 conclude, therefore, Amendment.22 1981.23 remand opinion. 50 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici reversal Florida Charlie Crist, Florida, Kise, General, Louis Hubener, Daniel Woodring; Cato Institute Robert Levy, Timothy Lynch, Swanson, Samuel Estreicher; Center Opportunity Roger Clegg Mark Pickrell; Individual Freedom Renee Giachino; New Black Leadership Clint Bolick, William Mellor, Richard D. Komer; Advancement Capitalism Reed Burton; Claremont Constitutional Jurisprudence Edwin Meese III; Association Scholars Mohrman; National Allen, Oscar Garibaldi, Keith Noreika; Pacific Legal Foundation Findley; Reason Martin Kaufman. affirmance Members Congress Leslie T. Thornton Steven Schneebaum; Maryland Joseph Curran, Jr., Maryland, Andrew Baida, Brockman, Attorneys Eliot Spitzer, York, Caitlin Halligan, Michelle Aronowitz, Julie Mathy Sheridan Sachin Pandya, Solicitors respective jurisdictions Goddard Arizona, Bill Lockyer California, Ken Salazar Colorado, Blumenthal Connecticut, Lisa Madigan Illinois, Thomas Miller Iowa, G. Rowe Maine, Reilly Massachusetts, Mike Hatch Minnesota, McGrath Montana, Madrid Mexico, Roy Cooper North Carolina, W. Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Hardy Myers Oregon, Lynch Rhode Island, Sorrell Vermont, Iver Stridiron Virgin Islands, Christine Gregoire Washington, Darrell V. McGraw, West Virginia, Peggy Lautenschlager Wisconsin; Jersey Samson, Burstein, Donna Arons Anne Marie Kelly, General; York City Council Speaker Gifford Jack Greenberg Saul Shapiro; Philadelphia, Victor Bolden Nelson Diaz; Educational Research Angelo N. Ancheta; Jewish Stewart Aaron, Jancik, P. Sinensky, Kara Stein, Foltin; Psychological Paul Friedman, Sheehan, Nathalie Gilfoyle; Amherst Charles Sims; Authors Ten Percent Plan Rolando Rios; Bay Mills Indian Community Vanya Hogen; Board Janet Pitterle Holt; Columbia Floyd Abrams, Susan Buckley, Mingle; Laurence Tribe, Massey, Beverly Ledbetter, Donin, Wendy White; Howard Janell Byrd; Lawyers' Skilton, Barbara Arnwine, Henderson, Dennis Hayes, Marcia Greenberger, Judith Lichtman, Jocelyn Frye; Conference Weiner Taylor; Coalition Blacks Reparations Kevin Outterson; Education Chanin, West, Elliot Mincberg, Larry Weinberg, Dempsey; Urban League Norris Small; Alliance Julin Wallace; Daryl Lapp Sinclair; NOW Defense Fund Weiser Martha Davis; Negro Days Beth Brinkmann; Pittsburgh Frederick Sean Lev; Lieutenant Julius Becton, Virginia Seitz, Reeder, Charrow, Stern; Senator Daschle Goldberg Penny Shane; Hayden Family Howell; Glenn Loury Liss Halpert. Governor Granholm Pirich Goldsmith; Federation Labor Industrial Organizations Harold Becker, Strom, Hiatt, Sherrick; Asian Girard Gordon Fauth, Jr.; Anti-Defamation Karlinsky Freeman; Banks Inc., Elizabeth Women Lawyers Greater Chicago, Sharon Jones; Carnegie Mellon McGough, Kathy Banke, Gary Kaplan, Edward Stoner II; Employment Advisory Ann Reesman; Exxon Mobil Corp. Brann; Motors Kenneth Geller, Eileen Penner, Gottschalk; Human Advocates Constance de la Vega; Massachusetts Technology Donald Ayer, Rees, Debra Zumwalt, Stacey Mobley; Consortium Packman, Cohen, Karen K. Narasaki, Vincent Eng, Trang Q. Tran; La Raza Vilma Martinez Bleich; Boards Underwood Naomi Gittins; 3M DeBruin, Deanne Maynard, Mach, Russell Porter, Wall, Barrington, Deval Patrick, Parker, O'Brien, Van Graafeiland, Kathryn Oberly, Randall Mehrberg, Remy, Ben Heineman, Brackett Denniston III, Elpidio Villarreal, Wayne Budd, Smith, Hudnut, Shutkin, Banks, Frazier, Andrews, Kindler, Teresa Holland, Gerdts Sander, Klein, Stephen Sawyer; Representative Conyers, Anthony Miles; Duane Ellison, Mr. pro se, Carl Angelis; Gephardt Sandler Mary Smith. indicated "intend[ed] ifthe [LSA's] [is] eliminated," proper defendant place LSA. Seeid., 17. Duderstadt president sued capacity. originally official capacities, longer UniversityId., African-American Latino for, Citizens Affirmative Action's Preservation, nonprofit organization Michigan, intervene 24. 13-14. request, seeid., 14-15, reversed 188 3d 394 (1999). decided proceedings. 71 Our "Joint Proposed Summary Undisputed Facts Regarding Process" 108a-117a four applicants: in-state, nonminority applicants; out-of-state, (4) used, accumulate 80 75 257 respondent-intervenors' supplemental order. 135 790 2001). respondent-intervenors "failed them, effects race-conscious programs."Id., 795. agree, extent reassert justification, affirm disposition issue. capacities Rev. 1979, 1983, doctrine immunity. 833-834. aspect Regents' Eleventh immunity grounds. 834-836. explains "[n]o shall. jurisdiction laws." shall, ground color, national origin, excluded participation of, subjected activity receiving financial assistance." 1981(a) provides: "All persons shall Territory enforce contracts, ... security enjoyed citizens." corroborated "[r]equir[e] [him] student." inquiry appropriately addressed rubric note tension regard. See,e. Burns, Standing Mootness Class Actions: Search Consistency, 1239, 1240-1241 (1989); 149 (1982) (Mexican-American passed promotion "maintain Mexican-American applicants" hired employer); (class medical care). concededly challengedany very raise counsel repeatedly policy. [transfer]policy isessentially race"); (same); [freshman] way discriminatory"); 7-8 purpose believe compelling, struck down rationale, [result] Your Honor"). litigation history demonstrates, device save[d] resources courts permitting issue potentially affecting [class member] litigated economical fashion."Califano Yamasaki, 442 682, 701 (1979). quite representative, promotion, instance. "evidentiary approaches entirely different. attempted sustain proving intentional discrimination. tried prove statistical disparate impact. maintenance respondent's advance `the efficiency economy procedure.' 159 Pipe Constr. Utah, 414 538, 553 (1974)). U.C. aside seatsavailable "economically and/or educationally disadvantaged" "minority groups" university. "To existed pool fill special seats, 84 entering ratherthan open applicants."Regents Univ.ofCal. 274, 289 (principal employed impermissible "disregard[ed] guaranteed Amendment." 320. reached reservation specified preferred effective serving diversity." misunderstood compelling. Souter recognizes practice, attempts avoid unsupported speculation about self-selection pool. Seepost, 296 wrong "applicants college [not] consideration."Post, 295. O'Connor concurrence, "ensures contributions assessed." 279. mistaken "take[s] newly-formulated standard undeveloped record."Post, 297, ignores told us above, concede reviewed "bulk decisions" readily apparent availability review, comes far limited "large middle plan 316 omitted). Ginsburg dissent observes "[o]ne reasonably anticipate colleges universities tomaintain enrollment. candor adoption affirmative plans issue."Post, 304. say honesty surely accurately fully disclosed preferable similar numbers winks, nods, disguises." 305. observations remarkable reasons. suggest universities—to 328, defer— affirmative-action violate Constitution. Second, recommend dealt with, obey Constitution, changing conforms conduct universities. institution accepts federal funds VI. SeeAlexander 281 (2001); Fordice, 505 717, 732, (1992); Choate, 287, 293 (1985). "meant, broad terms, proscribe enforcement against, McDonald Santa Fe Trail Transp. 427 273, 295-296 (1976). Furthermore, services "contract" Runyon McCrary, 160, 172 purposeful Assn., 389-390 (1982). 51 concurring.* 52 Unlike law upholds procedures meaningful J.). various case-by-case 337-339. By contrast, relies assign same, bonus ante, 271-272, 273. mechanized large, precludes conducting 334, requires: qualifications, identity body, taking account among 272-273 324). 53 held instituted continues muster. 827 facts, jointly stipulated policy's mechanics. 116a-118a. receives incoming counselor turns Selection Index Worksheet calculate points—a 1998. 256. Applicants admitted; 95 99 categorized "admit postpone"; postponed; fewer rejected. extends offers acts periodic "[m]ass [a]ction[s]." 54 numerical factors, variables assembling Up 110 assigned other, nonacademic residents, children 4. Counselors outstanding essay achievement, public service. Most importantly following factors: group; disadvantaged school; recruitment athletics. 55 added layer process. tabulated composed Provost. 117a. meets periodically discuss files parameters. 275. discussing application, decides 56 flag prepared, non-Michigan residents) residents), several "high under-represented geography." discretion if, notwithstanding something suitable 274. "rare circumstances," reading reflect true promise. 57 "soft" available contributions, service, geographic capped levels. leader accomplishments—a mere quarter course, made "necessarily accor[d]" weight," "weight attributed vary depending `mix' class," 317-318. automatic, allocations soft variables, ensures assessed. stands sharp contrast school's plan, enables officers nuanced judgments class. 337 School's adequately meaningfully alongside decisions"). 58 source appears Committee. record, reveals functions. indicates afterthought, integral component out, "`[committee] [Enrollment Group].' Ante, 274 117a). necessarily Admissions' general reliance index. send pointed demonstrating percentage discretionary addition, eligibility cutoff reference scores. made—what used. Given addition offset absence practices. 59 reasons, support Arts—to race—provides remains free modify 306. I understand it, nonindividualized, mechanical result, join reversing Breyer joins except last sentence concurring. correctly applies precedents, today's my 349 (opinion part), hold education categorically prohibited observation. invalidates suffer defect allowing "discriminat[ion] definition minorities, 336 Court); 374 (THOMAS, awards preference. falls, sufficiently non-racial distinctions constituting mass. 374-375; 329-330 Court) (stating "racial balancing patently unconstitutional"). nonracial sides permitted classification. 276-277 (O'CONNOR, concurring). judgment. concur O'CONNOR'S insofar GINSBURG'S GINSBURG implementing Constitution's equality instruction, decisionmakers properly distinguish policies inclusion exclusion, 301, former basic obligation equally, Const., Amdt. 14. STEVENS, SOUTER joins, dissenting. forward-looking enjoining raceconscious Yet 306,1 schools Neither reapplying filed, neither done since. There total lawyer. unidentified does. precedents require dismissal Petitioner 1994 1995-1996 name extended list, attend Dearborn instead; 1997-1998 attended graduating 2001. 14, "[h]e intends [to Michigan] herein eliminated." 23(b)(2).2 71, response, "Hamacher relief." 63. suffered "`no threat imminent injury' institution.3 64. contention, concluding ("To reapplies `harm' continue admissions"). accordingly, subsequent proceedings, 1995-1998 denied, unlawful 1999-2000 lawful. cross-petition concerning 1996 5, 7. compensation wrongful old Los Angeles Lyons, 461 (1983), recover caused "chokeholds" administered police preventing chokeholds, injuries protect third harms. 102 ("`[P]ast exposure illegal controversy unaccompanied continuing, adverse effects'" O'Shea Littleton, 488, 495-496 (1974))). forward-looking, injury. 210-211 impending policy.4 scintilla impact nonetheless stake occurred.5 34; 4-5. attempt base fails His "conjectural hypothetical" "real immediate." omitted); Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 560 (1992). conceded oral argument, 4-5 (admitting you—the Court"). detailed great length Joint Appendix specifics conspicuously missing anywhere parties' briefs. Nor Dec. 13, Nonetheless, differ significance, 2000 271. policy; socioeconomically "will possess 2.5 (GPA), sophomore 3.0 GPA. Record (Exh. C). differences, complain wholly deficiency conferred deficiencies, citizen aggrieved bring structure administration review." Lewis Casey, 518 343, 358-359, (1996) original); 999 ("[A] injurious [does not] litigating kind, similar").6 Third, differences extremely unlikely, best, Allen Wright, 468 737, 751 (1984) ("[R]elief `likely' follow favorable decision"); Schlesinger Reservists Comm. Stop War, 418 208, 222 (1974) discrete concrete occurred insures framing broader precise facts ruling especially unequivocal disavowal equitable totally preclude processing 14-15. majority asserts "have admissions" —freshman alike. 266, original). questioned private universities, stated: "Your Honor, want we're today. suggesting absolute forbidding What amorphous, unlimited interest." took position lawyer "I go far. [T]here rare...." 15. statements, attack acknowledge remedial 16-17. 286, know defend grounds, try incorrect asserting "struck [freshman admissions] policy." 7-8. likewise assuming admissions." 265. suit, bottom, obtaining younger comparable unemancipated minor litigate older women Matheson, 450 398, 406-407 (1981), objecting facilities elementary implicated. presently effect. "a adds `must personally injured, belong purport represent.'" Simon Ky. Welfare Organization, 426 26, 40, (1976) Warth Seldin, 422 490, 502 (1975)); Conte Newberg, Actions 2:5 (4th ed. 2002) ("[O]ne acquire action").7 squarely sought. wanted hearing care. representatives, facilities. explaining why sue "Respondents [utilization committee] decisions. Respondents, represent.' (1975). Unless `can requisite themselves [petitioners], "none himself (1974).' Ibid." 1001, Much Hamacher— case—cannot meet III's threshold personal-stake requirement. us, leave alternative dismiss jurisdiction. outcome themselves. respectfully dissent. "has school" "still become lawyer." 02-241, "would Michigan."Id., 64, "Hamacher's grades time." responding alluded continually change details 9. Rather, "`real threat' institutionsAdarand (1995) 105 (1983)). Their elsewhere distinguishes Allan Bakke's single-minded Davis. (1978); DeFunis Odegaard, 416 312 (per curiam). fatal instant recognized initiated, actions proceed instances mootness representative's claim. Sosna 419 393, 402 (1975) (holding "case controversy" exist "between represented plaintiff, moot"); Franks Bowman 424 747 problem nor assert initiated. majority's programs. thetransfer gives presumably enable harm members, harm. write separately gloss reach chosen merits, add word reachable, rests propositions: first, college's "use race,"ante, 261-263, 265-269, second, "compelling interest" decision, 269. concludes successful, seal fate policies, allows ("[P]etitioners policy"); ("`[T]he Honor' 7-8)). STEVENS'S critique principle him. 286-287, opinion).1 indulgent theory, beyond recognition 268 327-333). Since, says, "petitioners policy," 16, failed, spent. legally irrelevant await hurt it.2 contain pointers line valid unconstitutional schemes. reaffirms permissibility preordained value cases. hand, rules set-aside, closer approves condemns, record. describe "insulate[d]" non-minority competition 317 J.); 496 opinion) invalidated completely eliminated nonminorities opportunities"). "focused diversity" strong quantitative extracurricular, afforded chance [set-aside] 315, 319 lets offering study, residence, character, athletic ability, essay. 255. highly garner exceeding gets bonus. Johnson Transportation Agency, Clara Cty., 480 616, 638 (1987) (upholding gender "was numerous [taken] arriving decision" consideration; weighed deleted)). Subject qualification taken scheme considering, thinks fits acceptable program: element "on weight." words, "each application." unsuccessful "simply color"; "his outweigh 318 150-point scale. things, assignment apart weighted considerations. Nonminority Provost's discretion; county, on. fault "automatically" groups." 271-272. objection quantify compare characteristics, due mistaken. increases applicants' chances Since inarticulate intuition, hard inappropriate assigning characteristic, reasoning writing style, speed, plus values. numbered scale accomplishes "holistic review," 337; distinction imply fair disclose. convert reserving conceive extreme rank 319, convincing way. obviously shows totals owing applicant," 111a, likelihood apply, 39, results suffices me, Bakke-like set-asides spectrum giving disadvantage. Any "tailoring" amounts then, boils observers suspicious, not. suspicion carry burden persuasion 287-288 J.),and warrant condemning (correctly, view) troubling, findings 829-830 indicates, actual role committee. [by committee]"); 279-280 concurring) functions"). operate facto committee, standards. quiet, silent, work defensible vacating remanding committee's determinations.3 Without knowing functions, seems unfair treat Achilles' heel. forthrightness saying minority, worth character thrown preferable, supposedly Drawing systems Texas, get satisfaction guaranteeing fixed top Amicus Curiae 18; 2002, 13-17. suffers serious disadvantage.4 disadvantage deliberate obfuscation. "percentage plans" conscious (and fairly so), it. states doubtful tempted extra frankness. exercise winners ones hide ball. college. is, vacate jurisdiction, holding arguably exposes ofBlum (1982),that unnamed duly invited reconsider approaching assumption settled law. suggests, outcomesAnte, 266. decisionmaking understandably thin, importantly, points-based index" "`contribution body.'" 531 (capitalization glimpse permits inference engages review" 337. surmises applicationsAnte, 273-274. take newly formulated examine applicants," 830 2000), development "source consideration" rule, 279 J.,concurring). Determination instance job admittedly lacking. pointless smaller fraction Texas. 48-49 dissenting.* institutions, acknowledges, barred decisionsAnte, 268; 326-333. maintains controls inspection classifications. 270 (1995); insistence "consistency," 224, fitting Nation vestiges long reinforced law, 274-276, (GINSBURG, dissenting). distant overtly past, centuries law-sanctioned inequality remain painfully evident communities schools. wake "of caste recently ended," disparities endure. Unemployment,1 poverty,2 access health care3 disproportionately Neighborhoods divided.4 Hispanic educated poverty-stricken underperforming institutions.5 Adult African-Americans Hispanics earn whites education.6 Equally credentialed receptions race.7 Irrational prejudice encountered estate markets8 consumer transactions.9 "Bias unconscious, reflecting traditional unexamined habits thought, keeps barriers come nondiscrimination genuinely country's practice." dissenting); Krieger, Perestroika: Intergroup Relations Action, 86 Calif. 1251, 1276-1291 (1998). instructs act "deny exclusion inclusion. (STEVENS, designed citizenship stature sensibly ranked hasten entrenched aftereffects extirpated. Carter, Victims Happen Be Black, 97 Yale 420, 433-434 (1988) ("[T]o struggle civil mostly freedom categorization oppressio[n] trivialize lives deaths racism. pretend [Regents (1978)] [Brown Education, 347 483 (1954)] happened doesn't exist."). jurisprudence ranks "suspect" "not [race] inevitably classification, usually, shame, drawn maintaining inequality." Norwalk Core Redevelopment 395 920, 931-932 (CA2 1968) (footnote "for equality," 932, proscription For, insightfully explained: color blind conscious. conflict clause, denies benefit, causes harm, imposes sense, blind. prevent perpetuated undo discrimination." Jefferson County 372 836, 876 (CA5 1966) (Wisdom, Wechsler, Nationalization Liberties Rights, Tex. 10, (1968) (Brown seen disallowing "impl[y] invidious assessment" implication" advanced "correct inequalities"). Contemporary human documents draw line; oppression accelerate equality. 344 Nations-initiated Conventions Elimination All Forms Racial Discrimination Women). laudable purpose, immunize measure careful inspection. County, criterion relevancy legitimate purpose."). Close "to ferret reality malign, masquerading benign," 275 "ensure trammel unduly opportunities others interfere harshly expectations once-preferred groups," Examining (College), infirmity. 293-298 Like topranking accommodate 108a. Every dispute, College. accords (African-Americans, Native-Americans) historically relegated inferior status social practice; class-based day, 298-301. suggestion adopted limit enrollment reserved 10; 41-42 (in points). demonstration College's constricts Liu, Causation Fallacy: Basic Arithmetic Selective Admissions, 1045, 1049 (2002) ("In greatly outnumber admittees, substantial diminish odds facing applicants.").10 stain generations visible society, Rev., 1253, removal vital. One anticipate, enrollment—and networks thereby opened graduates—whether recourse plans, institutions resort camouflage. encourage cultural traditions essays submit, English language. Seeking improve highlight associations belong, surnames mothers grandparents. teachers' recommendations accomplished. Using Synonyms Race, Strives Diversity, Y. Times, 8, col. (describing Rice University); 14-15 (suggesting consider, overcoming disadvantage," "reputation location school," "individual outlook reflected essays"). disguises.11 stated, BREYER Dept. Commerce, Bureau Census, Statistical Abstract States: 368 (Table 562) (hereinafter Abstract) (unemployment rate 3.7% 3.5% 4.2% 2001; unemployment 8.0%, 7.6%, 8.7%, respectively; 6.4%, 5.7%, 6.6%). Dept Poverty 291 (2001) A) (In 7.5% non-Hispanic whites, 22.1% 10.8% Asian-Americans, 21.2% living poverty.); Staveteig Wigton, Ethnic Disparities: Key Findings Survey America's Families (Urban Report B-5, Feb. 2000) ("Blacks, poverty rates almost twice Asians three whites."). Health Insurance Coverage: p.391 9.7% insurance, 18.5% 18.0% 32.0% Hispanics.); Waidmann Rajan, Race Disparities Care Access Utilization: Examination Variation, Med. Res. 55, (2000) ("On Latinos African worse ."). Residential Segregation 1980-2000 (documenting residential segregation); Frankenberg, Lee, Orfield, Multiracial Society Segregated Schools: Are Losing Dream? (Jan. 2003), http://www.civilrightsproject.harvard.edu/research/reseg03/ AreWeLosingtheDream.pdf (all Internet materials visited 2, 2003, Clerk file) ("[W]hites segregated nation's schools; schools, eighty percent white."); ("[A]lmost three-fourths minority. More six 99-100% nine schools."). Ryan, Schools, Money, 109 249, 273-274 (1999) ("Urban primarily students"; poor, poorly tests, drop nonurban schools.). 140 211). g.,Holzer, Career Prospects Strategies Low-Wage Minority Workers, Workers Economy 228 (R. Kazis eds. 2001) ("[I]n studies sent matched pairs apparently jobs, routinely interviews applicants."); Bertrand Mullainathan, Emily Brendan Employable Lakisha Jamal?: Field Experiment Market (Nov. 18, 2002), http:// gsb.uchicago.edu/pdf/bertrand.pdf; Mincy, Audit Studies: Policy Context, Clear Convincing Evidence: Measurement 165-186 (M. Fix Struyk 1993). g.,M. al.,Discrimination Metropolitan Housing Markets: Results Phase HDS i, iii http://www.huduser.org/Publications/pdf/Phase1_Report.pdf (paired "two individuals—one white—pose homeseekers, visit rental agents inquire advertised housing units" revealed "discrimination persists sales markets metropolitan areas nationwide"); Skidmore, Mortgage Lending Discrimination: Existing Evidence (existing research homebuyers "face mortgage lending institutions."). Ayres, Further Car Negotiations Estimates Cause, 94 109, 109-110 (study testers negotiated purchase 400 automobiles confirmed earlier "that dealers systematically prices males tester types"). "race-neutral alternativ[e]" asAmicus 14; Commission Beyond Percentage Plans: Challenge Higher http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/ percent2/percent2.pdf (percentage State). Calling 10% 20% "race-neutral" me disingenuous, "unquestionably increasing representation system." 44; Horn Flores, Plans Admissions: Comparative Analysis Three States' Experiences 14-19 (2003), http://www.civilrightsproject.harvard.edu/research/affirmativeaction/ tristate.pdf. depend effectiveness segregation secondary level: ensure majority-minority minorities. link criterion—high rank—they create perverse incentives. keep low-performing discourage classes averages. Selingo, Aren't Saying About `X-Percent Solution,' Chronicle A31. boost sheer enrollees level, touch graduate professional Contrary "changing universities."Ante, 22. interpreted, officials openly 301-302. Among options, candidly disclose seem conceal

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