Document: 434 U.S. 106 98 S.Ct. 330 54 L.Ed.2d 331 Commonwealth of PENNSYLVANIAv.Harry MIMMS. No. 76-1830. Dec. 5, 1977. PER CURIAM. 1 Petitioner seeks review a judgment the Supreme Court Pennsylvania reversing respondent's conviction for carrying concealed deadly weapon and firearm without license. That court reversed because it held that "revolver was seized in manner which violated Fourth Amendment to Constitution United States." 471 Pa. 546, 548, 370 A.2d 1157, 1158 (1977). Because we disagree with this conclusion, grant Commonwealth's petition certiorari reverse Pennsylvania. 2 The facts are not dispute. While on routine patrol, two Philadelphia police officers observed respondent Harry Mimms driving an automobile expired license plate. stopped vehicle purpose issuing traffic summons. One approached asked step out car produce his owner's card operator's Respondent alighted, whereupon officer noticed large bulge under sports jacket. Fearing might be weapon, frisked discovered waistband .38-caliber revolver loaded five rounds ammunition. other occupant .32-caliber revolver. immediately arrested subsequently indicted unlawfully His motion suppress denied; and, after trial at introduced into evidence, convicted both counts. 3 As previously indicated, conviction, however, holding should have been suppressed contrary guarantees contained Fourteenth Amendments States Constitution.1 did doubt acted reasonably stopping car. It also willing assume, arguendo, limited search weapons proper once coat. But nonetheless thought constitutionally infirm officer's order get impermissible "seizure." This so could point "objective observable support suspicion criminal activity afoot or occupants posed threat safety."2 Since unconstitutional intrusion led directly observance subsequent "pat down," fruit search, view Pennsylvania, suppressed. 4 We do agree conclusion.3 touchstone our analysis is always "the reasonableness all circumstances particular governmental invasion citizen's personal security." Terry v. Ohio, 392 1, 19, 88 1868, 1878, 20 889 (1968). Reasonableness, course, depends "on balance between public interest individual's right security free from arbitrary interference by law officers." Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 878, 95 2574, 45 607 (1975). 5 In case, unlike there no question about propriety initial restrictions freedom movement. tags violation Motor Vehicle Code.4 Deferring moment legality "frisk" had observed, need presently deal only narrow whether car, issued driver lawfully detained, reasonable thus permissible Amendment. inquiry must therefore focus resulting request stop later but incremental stopped. 6 Placing narrowed frame, look first side bears taking action he did. State freely concedes reason suspect foul play time stop, having nothing unusual suspicious behavior. apparently practice drivers their vehicles as matter course whenever they violation. argues adopted precautionary measure afford degree protection may justified ground. Establishing face-to-face confrontation diminishes possibility, otherwise substantial, can make unobserved movements; this, turn, reduces likelihood will victim assault.5 7 think too plain argument State's proffered justification—the safety officer—is legitimate weighty. "Certainly would unreasonable require take unnecessary risks performance duties." supra, 23, 1881. And specifically recognized inordinate risk confronting approaches person seated automobile. "According one study, approximately 30% shootings occurred when Bristow, Police Officer Shootings—A Tactical Evaluation, J.Crim.L.C. & P.S. 93 (1963)." Adams Williams, 407 143, 148 n. 3, 92 1921, 1924, 32 612 (1972). aware these assaults occur summons, before expressly declined accept violations necessarily involve less danger than types confrontations. Robinson, 414 218, 234, 94 467, 38 427 (1973). Indeed, appears "that significant percentage murders occurs making stops." Id., 476. 8 hazard accidental injury passing standing driver's appreciable some situations. Rather conversing while exposed moving traffic, prudently prefer ask off onto shoulder road where pursued greater both. 9 Against important weigh liberty occasioned vehicle, admittedly justified, additional described de minimis. being expose very little more already exposed. decided shall briefly detained; spend period sitting seat alongside it. Not insistence latter choice "serious upon sanctity person," hardly rises level " 'petty indignity.' 17, 1877. What most mere inconvenience cannot prevail balanced against concerns safety.6 10 There remains second jacket observed. first; answer controlled supra. case conducting concluded whom legitimately armed dangerous. Under standard enunciated case—whether available seizure 'warrant man caution belief' taken appropriate"7—there justified. permitted conclude serious present officer. circumstances, any "reasonable caution" likely conducted down." 11 Respondent's proceed forma pauperis granted. writ granted, reversed, remanded further proceedings inconsistent opinion. 12 ordered. 13 Mr. Justice MARSHALL, dissenting. 14 I join my Brother STEVENS' dissenting opinion, write separately emphasize extent today departs teachings 15 policeman who detained "frisked" petitioner 30 years patrolling area downtown Cleveland incident occurred. experience him watch companion carefully, long time, individually repeatedly looked store window then conferred together. Suspecting men "casing" "stick-up" guns, followed them walked away joined third earlier conferred. At names. When "mumbled something" response, grabbed petitioner, spun around face two, "patted down" clothing. frisk discovery pistol petitioner's conviction. 5-7, S.Ct., 1871-1872. 16 "stop frisk" probability, crime committed, "would use weapons." 28, 1883. confined its situations believes persons dealing dangerous" "fear[s] own others' safety." 30, 1884. Such situation (1972), involved "was reported . weapon." 147, 1924; see id., 146, 148, 1923, 1924. 17 instant even slightest hint, prior ordering gun. notes, ante, 109, play." procedures, issuance summons Yet holds that, made imposing regardless individualized fear respondent. 18 result explained Terry, nature reference stop. [must be] related scope place." U.S., 20, 1879.1 obvious connection, emphasized Court, 28-30, 1883-1884, robbery planned weapons. circumstance place" simply relation 19 institutional aspects Court's decision trouble me much does substantive result. extends Terry's holding, 1884, solely basis papers, process summarily reverses considered Pennsylvania's highest court. disposition engender respect work Court.2 deciding such issue "reach[ing] out" "barely escapes mootness," noted STEVENS, post, 117, 116 4, well resolved remand event,3 reinforces doctrinal damage pursues today. dissent. BRENNAN MARSHALL join, 21 Almost ago 889, "probable cause" required justify every six months deliberation following full unusually elaborate briefing.1 approval lesser certain represented major development jurisprudence. 22 Today, argument, adopts still another— lesser—standard justification category seizures.2 More importantly, abandon central teaching jurisprudence"3 has ordinarily justifying intrusion—in favor general rule covering countless what disturbing fact innovation announced almost casually, explaining summary reversal bother review. 23 served sentence, importance reinstating minimal best.4 Even if afforded Federal Constitution, invalid state law.5 Moreover, construe constitution prohibit "indiscriminate procedure" offenders vehicles. 553, 1161.6 events, whatever error committed affects Its creates conflict requiring resolution national level. cases, considerations cause us deny certiorari. 24 No concern throughout Nation prompts give expeditious treatment. share am acutely rights invaded makes enforcement somewhat difficult hazardous. That, sufficient reach decide new promptly possible. constitutional adjudication, others, paramount benefit differing judicial evaluations finally nationwide basis. 25 illustrates ways haste introduce element confusion complex set rules. First, based legal ruling factual assumption dubious best; second, created entirely intrusions citizen. 26 Without attempt differentiate among multitude varying approach automobile, characterizes "inordinate" statement: 27 'According (1963).' (1972)." Ante, 110. 28 statement fairly characterize study refers. indicate minimize shot cars. reviewed 110 selected 1959, 1960, 1961.7 35 those "officers were attempting investigate, control, pursue suspects automobiles."8 Within group examples "were through windshield body moving"; dismounting approaching suspect[']s vehicle"; apparently, instances passenger vehicle. 7, 93. 29 cases location verified. behind wheel figure seems include shooting opportunity out. nine outside talking These figures tell associated stop;9 lend offender significantly enhances safety. Arguably, actually aggravate desperate remained ticketed. Whatever reason, experts human behavior strongly recommend "never allow violator ."10 31 Obviously, express opinion safest procedure arrests imply arresting faces hazard, situation. submit, how hard try totally eliminate enforcement, adopting rule, consideration infinite variety today's applied. seriously believe universal commuter way home dinner, parent children school, tourist circling Capitol, family Sunday afternoon outing pose same curbed high-speed chase high-crime late night. Nor universally true remaining negligible. A woman night her safety; poor health object cold rain; another left drive spouse school train fully dressed; elderly presents possible violence regard command arrogant display authority. Whether viewed standpoint safety, obey command, perfectly millions stops year fungible. 33 Until applicable seizures each intrusion, comparable guarantee harassment.11 demonstration probable arrest; articulable needed frisk. requirement able explain reasons actions signals abandonment effective supervision kind leaves discretion utterly limits. Some citizens subjected minor indignity others—perhaps expensive cars, different bumper stickers, different-colored skin—may escape entirely. 34 "third-class" imposed reason; class become yet know. Most narrowly, occasion speak convenience passengers logic encompasses passenger. though offense. If identified character treatment rests stop—no trivial offense—the apply driver. truly predicated rationale rather desire permit pretextual searches—it weapons, least directing lean hood legs arms spread For unless measures taken, added safety—if any—in value dangerous happens caught.12 36 persuaded requires adoption lenient Ohio.13 offense gone undetected ordered assume showing provide appropriate protective real concern. exist, violator, authorize indiscriminate citizen violation, petty. 37 error, exercise discretionary power review, novel question. gives rise unacceptable unfortunate impression interested upholding vindicating individual rights." Idaho Dept. Employment Smith, 100, 105, 327, 330, 324 (Stevens, J., dissenting). respectfully dissent merits briefing. Three judges dissented federal issue. Pa., 552, A.2d, 1160. note brief opposition contends moot completed 3-year maximum 11/2- sentence imposed. has, argues, terminated purposes matter. See St. Pierre States, 319 41, 63 910, 87 L.Ed. 1199 (1943). Sibron New York, 40, 53-57, 1889, 1897-1900, 917 (1968); Street 394 576, 89 1354, 572 (1969); Carafas LaVallee, 391 1556, 554 Ginsberg 390 629, 1274, 195 (1968), bear witness since departed Pierre, recent possibility defendant's suffering "collateral consequences" permits claims here merits. prospect visiting collateral consequences defendant burden enable seek affirming inability impose courts likewise obtain here. future respondent, relevant setting bail length availability probation. Pa.Cons.Stat.Ann. §§ 1321, 1322, 1331, 1332 (Purdon Supp. 1977); Pa.Rule Crim.Proc. 4004. incarcerated penitentiary Lewisburg, say unduly speculative determination mootness depended case-by-case analysis. Operating improperly licensed motor covered 1959 Pa.Laws, 32, found Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 75, § 511(a) 1971), repealed 1976 81, July now 75 1301, 1302 1977). not, go far suggest Rather, State, independent basis, search. Contrary suggestion 122, hold "whenever car." violating Amendment's proscription searches seizures. 21-22, 1880. 1878 ("[t]he 'strictly tied by' rendered initiation permissible"); 29-30, 1884-1885. Professor Ernest Brown wrote nearly ago: "[S]ummary papers many raise hearing usually due tribunals. [T]here [is] pay disproportionate price defeats counsel's expectation hearing, exercises jurisdiction problems significance, needs matters warrant merits." 1957 Term—Foreword: Process Law, 72 Harv.L.Rev. 77, 80, 82 (1958). R. Stern E. Gressman, Practice 5.12 (4th ed. 1969). singled ones particularly reluctant summarily. Decisions Pa.Bar Assn.Q. 393, 403 (1960). On open option reaching originally reached, doing counterpart Amendment, Pa.Const., Art. 8, Constitution. adequate ground be, foreclosed today, nor nature. generally Brennan, Constitutions Protection Individual Rights, 90 489 (1977); Project Report: Toward Activist Role Bills Harv.Civ.Rights—Civ.Lib.L.Rev. 271 addition, unrelated prosecutor questioned defense religious affiliation, raised direct examination witness. Two concurring justices contended questioning provided law. 556-557, 1162-1163 (1977) (Nix, O'Brien, concurring). Briefs amici curiae, urging reversal, filed Jack Greenberg, James M. Nabrit III, Michael Meltsner, Melvyn Zarr, Anthony G. Amsterdam NAACP Legal Defense Educational Fund, Inc., Bernard A. Berkman, Melvin L. Wulf, Alan H. Levine American Civil Liberties Union et al. affirmance, Solicitor General Griswold, Assistant Attorney Vinson, Ralph S. Spritzer, Beatrice Rosenberg, Mervyn Hamburg States; Louis J. Lefkowitz, pro se, Samuel Hirshowitz, First General, Maria Marcus Brenda Soloff, Attorneys York; Charles Moylan, Jr., Evelle Younger, Wood National District Attorneys' Assn.; Thompson Americans Effective Law Enforcement. 1871. dispute, I, seizure. "officer, means physical force show authority, restrain[s] ." 16, 1879 16. 612. clear determined case: "[I]n specific which, together rational inferences facts, intrusion." 21, footnote, continued: "This demand specificity information jurisprudence." 18, 1880 (citing list authorities). stated moot. Nevertheless, barely supports conclusion denied. members introducing testimony Mimms' Muslim beliefs prejudicial three others reserved 555 2, 1162-1163. Cf. Opperman, S.D. 25, 228 N.W.2d 152 (1975), rev'd, 428 364, 96 3092, 49 1000, reinstated constitution, --- ---, 247 673 (1976). author pointed out, "[n]o random selection extremely collect." (1963). Ibid. 32% 110, presumably "30%" used statement. text indicates, parked incidents offenses, tag, indicated study. Over past years, 1,000 murdered. FBI, Uniform Crime Reports 289 Approximately 10% killings, year, during "traffic pursuits stops," offenses reckless driving, license, often avoided dismount. "2. Never stand left. avoided, walk rear Quite obviously safer conduct conversation." V. Folley, Patrol Techniques Tactics (1973) (emphasis original). Another authority explicit: "The slightly front door doorpost. prevent suddenly opening striking thoroughly protect himself possible, weak hand push lock button down open. indication remain inside turn head talk advise why intends take, verbal written warning, citation. attempts exit closed, it, 'please stay car!' Then [the] identification desires material stare [should] return backing patrolman backs away, keep eyes occupant(s). patrol unit radio ticket. recommended position unit. Should seat, center Preferably, verbally re-enter vehicle." Yount, Stops Manual, Misdemeanor Felony 2-3 Conflicting advice work, Payton, Procedure 298 1971). worth noting authorities greatly reduced simple unintrusive expedient parking behind, feet of, offender's 93; 301; supra 2. Government particularity few narrowly cabined contexts. Inspections pursuant regulatory scheme border checkpoints best known exceptions requirement. fit within broader rule—that populace never assurance intruding officials acting carefully discretion. Health inspections inspectors warrants, warrants ordinary warrant; wander city, reason. Camara Municipal 387 523, 1727, 930. Similar assurances regularity fairness public, fixed checkpoints: "[C]heckpoint operations appear [than roving patrols]. regularized established operated visible reassuring law-abiding motorists, duly authorized believed serve interest. checkpoint chosen field, responsible overall decisions allocation resources. unlikely locate arbitrarily oppressively motorists class. field cars checkpoint, room abusive harassing individuals roving-patrol Martinez-Fuerte, 543, 559, 3074, 3083, 1116. is, authorizing custodial arrests, adequately justifies situation, one, "strictly circumscribed exigencies initiation." 26, 1882, 889. arrest, (perhaps naively) gave warranted arrest justification. Gustafson Florida, 260, 266-267, 488, 492-493, 456 (Stewart, concurring); 238 494 (Powell, 33, 1886 (Harlan, concurring): "Just lawful justification, rapid routine. officer, rightfully forcibly suspected crime, bullet." foreclose convince correct. My convinced one's frequently final evaluation.

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