Document: 447 U.S. 10 100 S.Ct. 1999 64 L.Ed.2d 689 F. W. STANDEFER, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. No. 79-383. Argued April 14, 1980. Decided June 9, Syllabus Petition was indicted for, inter alia, aiding and abetting a named Internal Revenue Service agent in accepting unlawful compensation, violation of 26 U.S.C. § 7214(a)(2) 18 2, which provides that whoever commits an offense against the United States or aids, abets, counsels, commands, induces procures its commission, is punishable as principal. Prior to indictment, IRS acquitted certain violations petitioner accused abetting. Petitioner moved dismiss his indictment these on ground since had been such violations, could not be convicted them. The District Court denied motion, after trial convicted. Appeals affirmed. Held : A defendant commission federal may properly despite prior acquittal alleged actual perpetrator offense. Pp. 14-26. (a) Read common-law background, 2 evinces clear congressional intent permit conviction. section gives general effect what always rule for second-degree principals (principals who were actually constructively present at scene crime aided abetted commission) all misdemeanants. legislative history confirms this understanding. With enactment participants conduct violating criminal statute are "principals," they their conduct, fate other being irrelevant. 15-20. (b) Government barred, under doctrine nonmutual collateral estoppel, from relitigating issue whether accepted compensation. Application appropriate here. In case, often without kind "full fair opportunity litigate" prerequisite estoppel. application estoppel cases also complicated by rules evidence exclusion unique law. Finally, case important interest enforcement law outweighs economy concerns undergirding doctrine. 21-25. 3 Cir., 610 F.2d 1076, Harold Gondelman, Pittsburgh, Pa., petitioner. William H. Alsup, Washington, D. C., respondent. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 We granted certiorari decide principal has * 1977, Standefer four counts making gifts public official, 201(f), five revenue official compensation addition authorized law, 2.1 charged petitioner, head Gulf Oil Corp.'s tax department, payments vacation trips Cyril Niederberger, then charge audits Gulf's income returns.2 Specifically, Gulf, petitioner's authorization, paid vacations Niederberger Pompano Beach (July 1971), Miami (January 1973), Absecon (August-September Pebble (April 1974), Las Vegas (June 1974). 201(f) related Miami, Absecon, Beach, vacations; one each vacation.3 filing separately 10-count indictment—two vacations—with 201(g)4 7214(a)(2). February tried charges. He 201(g) connection with two trips. count involving trip three charging him Absecon.5 4 July following Niederberger's before own commenced, vacations. argued because only principal, those vacations, he offenses. motion. 5 Petitioner's proceeded nine counts. At trial, admitted authorizing payment trips, but testified purely social designed influence performance duties. jury returned guilty verdicts counts.6 sentenced concurrent terms six months' imprisonment followed years' probation; fined total $18,000—$2,000 count. 6 appealed convictions Third Circuit claiming, when By divided vote, Appeals, sitting en banc, rejected contention. 1076 (1979). It concluded "the outcome prosecution no [petitioner's] conviction." Id., 1078. 7 Because question presented importance administration justice Courts conflict, we certiorari.7 444 1011, 658, 62 640. affirm. II 8 makes main arguments: first, Congress enacting did intend authorize aider abettor charged; second, that, even if permits prosecution, should barred vacations.8 first contention relies largely common it prevailed 2. second rests contemporary 9 subject accessories riddled "intricate" distinctions. J. Stephen, History Criminal Law England 231 (1883). felony cases, parties into distinct categories: (1) degree perpetrated offense; (2) commission; (3) fact crime, (4) rendered assistance complete. See LaFave & A. Scott, 63 (1972); Blackstone, Commentaries *33; Perkins, Parties Crime, 89 U.Pa.L.Rev. 581 (1941). contrast, misdemeanor "d[id] admit accessaries either fact," v. Hartwell, F.Cas. 15, 318, pp. 196, 199 (CC Mass.1869); instead, misdemeanor, whatever roles, principals. Dotterweich, 320 277, 281, 134, 136, 88 L.Ed. 48 (1943); C. Torcia, Wharton's 33 (14th ed. 1978). early received death penalty, procedural developed tending shield punishment. supra, 499. Among them special relevance case: accessory conviction offender. M. Hale, Pleas Crown *623-*624. Under rule, principal's flight, death, accessory. And pardoned reversed appeal, accessory's stand. every way "an follow [ed], like shadow, principal." J.Bishop, 666 (8th 1892). 11 This bar applied cases. where deemed principals, prevent subsequent person assistance. Queen Humphreys Turner, [1965] All E.R. 689; Burton, 13 Cox 71, 75 (Crim.App.1875). notwithstanding first-degree King Taylor Shaw, 168 Eng.Rep. 283 (1785); Wallis, Salk. 334, 91 294 (K.B.1703); Brown State, 28 Ga. (1859); State Whitt, 113 N. 716, S. E. 715 (1893). Not surprisingly, considerable effort expended defining categories—in determining, instance, "constructively present" so *34. process, too frequently defeated. 12 To overcome judge-made rules, statutes enacted States. 1848 Parliament providing "indicted, tried, convicted, punished respects Principal." Vic. ch. 46, (emphasis added). As interpreted, permitted "although acquitted." Hughes, Bell 242, 248, 169 1245, 1248 (1860). Several state legislatures suit.9 1899, joined growing reform movement penal code Alaska abrogated distinctions provided "all persons concerned directly commit act constituting aid abet though present, such." Act Mar. 3, 186, 30 Stat. 1282. 1901, similar provision Columbia.10 1909 part parcel same movement. language statute, enacted, unmistakably demonstrates point: 14 "Whoever any defined States, induces, 4, 1909, 332, 35 1152 added).11 15 "abolishe[d] distinction between [made] principals." Hammer 271 620, 628, 46 603, 604, 70 1118 (1926). offenses second-decree 16 recommended Commission Revise Codify Penal Laws "[i]n accordance policy recent legislation" "those whose relations would according made Final Report 118-119 (1906). Commission's recommendation adopted change. House Senate Committee Reports, identical language, stated intended effect: 17 "The committee wise make offenders, thereby permitting substantive "At can consent outlawry except together; found refused plea, died conviction, all. change existing renders obstacles impossible." S.Rep. 10, 60th Cong., 1st Sess., pt. 1, p. (1908); H.R.Rep. (1908).12 19 floor Representatives, Representative Moon, Chairman Joint Select Committee, put point simply: "We . have abolished arbitrary felonies misdemeanors." 42 Cong.Rec. 585 (1908). 20 plainly rebuts charged.13 section, "principals." such, conduct; irrelevant.14 B 21 unknown 1909.15 emerged civil 1942, Bernhard Bank America Nat. Trust Savings Assn., Cal.2d 807, 122 P.2d 892. Blonder-Tongue Laboratories, Inc. University Illinois Foundation, 402 313, 1434, 788 (1971). There, held determination patent invalidity infringement action entitled preclusive patentee litigation different defendant. Just past Term again doctrine—this time "offensively"—to hold fair" litigate issues proceeding initiated Securities Exchange estopped brought private plaintiff. Parkline Hosiery Co. Shore, 439 322, 99 645, 58 552 both promoted judicial conserved resources unfairness litigant whom invoked. 22 Here, urges us apply Government; specifically argues guilt Absecon. That issue, notes, element determined adversely trial.16 23 This, however, presenting considerations Parklane Hosiery. First, aspects our so: prosecution's discovery rights limited, court constitutional privileges; prohibited directed verdict obtaining judgment matter how support guilt, cf. Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 50; cannot secure new contrary weight evidence, 59; appellate review acquitted. Ball, 163 662, 671, 1192, 1195, 41 300 (1896). 24 absence remedial procedures juries acquit out compassion compromise " 'their assumption power right exercise, disposed through lenity.' Dunn 284 390, 393, 52 189, 190, 76 356 (1932), quoting Steckler 59, 60 (CA2 1925). generally Kalven Zeisel, American Jury 193-347 (ed. 1976).17 course true induced passion prejudice suits. But post-trial motions provide aggrieved remedy; avenue correct errors. principles factor strongly militates giving effect. Restatement (Second) Judgments 68.1 (Tent. Draft 1976) (denying unreviewable judgment).18 25 existence inadmissible admissible another. exclusionary example, introducing obtained rights. suppression result acquittal. "whose [not] violated." Alderman 394 165, 171-172, 961, 965, 176 (1969). Accord, Rakas Illinois, 128, 421, 425, 387 (1978). circumstances, evidentiary proof unwarranted.19 concern met case-by-case basis conducting pretrial hearing determine ruling deprived fully around. prove protracted burdensome. scheme, presumably seek adverse aspect worked detriment. Nothing short insure fair." If so, "pretrial hearing" fast become substitute review, very purpose promote frustrated. 27 involves ingredient disputes over litigants. significant harm flows enforcing affords full there sound reason burdening courts repetitive litigation. well: 29 "[T]he forum ascertainment Rather vindicate while safeguarding individual accuracy results greater than professed thus inclined reject, least matter, spread erroneous participated particular transaction. plead crowded dockets excuse trying defendants view neither best interests courts, nor public." F.2d, 1093. short, "competing considerations" outweigh undergird 68.1(e) comments thereto 1976); Commissioner Sunnen, 333 591, 68 715, 92 898 (1948). III 31 denying acquittal, do deviate teaching "justice must satisfy appearance justice." Offutt 348 11, 13, (1954). does more manifest simple, discomforting, reality "different reach statute. consequences accept system." Roth 354 476, 492, n. 30, 77 1304, 1313, 1498 (1957). While symmetry intellectually satisfying, required. Hamling 418 87, 101, 94 2887, 2899, 590 (1974). 32 bore burden proving beyond reasonable doubt violated venture. less more. Affirmed. Title provides, relevant part, follows: "Whoever, otherwise proper discharge duty, indirectly gives, offers, promises anything value performed [is offense]." punishes: "Any officer employee acting knowingly demands sums receives fee, reward, prescribed, duty." part: Corp. Joseph Fitzgerald, manager defendants. pleaded Fitzgerald nolo contendere appears limitations run vacation. 201 (g) ., asks, demands, exacts, solicits, seeks, accepts, receives, agrees receive himself him." five-year period probation, $5,000. His affirmed Appeals. 580 (CA3 instructed order render 7214 "received reward prescribed duty" "willfully [him]." App. 53a-54a, 57a. Fifth Circuit, Ninth Columbia reached conclusion Circuit. Musgrave, 483 327, 331-332 (CA5 1973); Azadian, 436 81 (CA9 1971); Perkins 315 120, 1963); Gray 104 App.D.C. 153, 260 (1958). Fourth taken "where potential acquitted, established sustained." Shuford, 454 772, 779 Prince, 430 1324 (CA4 1970). infra. challenges instructions intent. agree correct. legislation aid. Cal.Stat., 99, §§ (1850) (see People Bearss, Cal. 68, (1858)); Del.Rev.Stat., 133, (1893); Iowa Rev.Code Ann. 4314 (1885) Lee, 499, 501-502, N.W. 119, 120 (1894)); Kan.Gen.Stat. 5180 (1889) Bogue, Kan. 79, 86-87, 34 P. 410, 412 (1893)); Ky.Stat. 1128 (1903) Commonwealth Hicks, 118 Ky. 637, 642, 82 S.W. 265, 266 (1904); Miss.Code 1026 (1906) Fleming 142 Miss. 872, 880-881, 108 So. 143, 144-145 (1926)); Mont.Penal Code 1854 (1895); N.Y. (1895) Kief, 126 661, 663-664, N.E. 556, 557 (1891)); N.D.Rev.Code Crim.Proc. 8060 Okla.Stat. 5523 (1890); S.D.Stat.Ann. 8520 (1899); Utah Comp. 4752 (1907); Wash.Code Proc. 1189 (1891) Gifford, Wash. 464, 467-468, 53 709, 710 (1898)). Since then, 1977 Ala. 607, 425; Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-304-1 (1978); Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-304 (1977); Colo.Rev.Stat. 18-1-605 (1973) Roberts People, 103 Colo. 250, 87 251 (1938)); Conn.Gen.Stat. 53a-9 (1979); Fla.Stat. 777.011 (1979) Butts Fla.App., 286 So.2d (1973)); Ga.Code 26-802 Ill.Rev.Stat., 38, 5-3 Ind.Code 35-41-2-4 (Supp.1978); La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:24 (West 1974) McAllister, La., 366 1340 (1978)); Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., Tit. 17-A, 57 Mich.Comp.Laws 767.39 (1970) (People Smith, Mich. 553, 911 (1935)); Mo.Rev.Stat. 562.046 Neb.Rev.Stat. 28-206 (Supp.1978) (State Rice, 188 Neb. 728, N.W.2d 480 (1972)); N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 626:8 (1974); N.J.Stat.Ann. 2C:2-6 Spec.Pamph.1979); N.M.Stat.Ann. 30-1-13 Pa.Cons.Stat., 18, 306 (Supp.1979); S.C.Code 16-1-50 (1976) Massey, 267 S.C. 432, 229 S.E.2d 332 (1976)); Tex.Penal 7.03 (Vernon 1974); Wis.Stat. 939.05 (1977). Eleven modify rule; authoritatively construed prosecuted Haw.Rev.Stat. 702-225 (1976); Idaho 19-1431 Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., 274, 1970); Minn.Stat. 609.05 Nev.Rev.Stat. 195.040 Ohio 2923.03 Ore.Rev.Stat. 161.160 Vt.Stat.Ann., Va.Code 18.2-21 (1975); W.Va.Code 61-11-7 Wyo.Stat. 6-1-114 Only States—Maryland, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Tennessee—clearly retain bar. Ward, Md. 396 A.2d 1041 Jones, 101 N.C. 719, S.E. 147 (1888) (interpreting N.C.Gen.Stat. 14-5 (1969)); R.I.Gen.Laws 11-1-3 (1970); Pierce 130 Tenn. 24, 851 (1914). Model accomplice "though claimed committed 2.06(7) 1955), see 38-39 1953). still effect; "aiding offender, shall accessories, heretofore applicable crimes ." 908, 1337; D.C.Code 22-105 1951, words "is principal" altered read eliminate prohibition members specified classes (e. g. employees) member class nonetheless violate prohibition. 1020, 82d 7-8 (1951). consistent treat abolish Indeed, 1951 re-enactment, addressed authorizes Klass, 166 373, 380 1948); Von Patzoll 216, 219 (CA10 1947); Kelly 258 392, (CA6 1919); Rooney 203 928, 931-932 1913). manifested disturb interpretation. Lorillard Pons, 434 575, 580, 98 866, 869, 55 40 emphasizes fails mention accessory, accordingly "obstacle correctly argument, unwilling "apply canon statutory interpretation expressio unius, exclusio alterius employed report." 1084 1979) agree. argument omission nullify plain meaning abolishes categories treats necessary reports identify "weeds" excised garden. bears attempt version misdemeanor. Rev.Stat. 3169 (1878). Hence, prosecution. accompanied therefore "present" Tr. 1018-1020, 1024-1027, 1034-1036, 1096, designated felony. Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 373 262, 83 1130, 335 (1963), relied contrary. others city trespass ordinance subsequently declared constitutionally invalid. Gober 374, 1311, 419 (1963). Shuttlesworth's merely "there someone innocent act." U.S., S.Ct., 1132. proved 6, supra. 1912, Bigelow Old Dominion Copper Co., 225 111, 127, 641, 56 1009, "a principle elementary mutual." Stone Farmers Kentucky, 174 409, 880, 43 1027 Keokuk Western R. Missouri, 152 301, 317, 592, 598, 38 450 (1894); Litchfield Goodnow, 123 549, 552, 210, 211, (1887). contend Constitution prevents government prosecuting Double Jeopardy Clause Due Process forecloses putting simply another charged. Cf. Ashe Swenson, 397 436, 90 1189, 469 (1970). point. receiving something "because him," 201(g), "any duty," No explanation offered seemingly irreconcilable determinations. inconsistency reason, itself, acquittals 88(4) 1976). 1112 (Gibbons, J., concurring dissenting part); Harary Blumenthal, 555 1113, 1116-1117 1977). suggest availability essential predicate Johnson Wharton, 252, 608, 429 1B Moore T. Currier, Moore's Federal Practice ¶ 0.416[5] (2d doctrine, premised upon underlying confidence achieved initial substantially procedures, unwarranted. observed, give undermine affording benefits suppression. 1094, 51.

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