Document: 457 U.S. 202 102 S.Ct. 2382 72 L.Ed.2d 786 James PLYLER, Superintendent of the Tyler Independent School District and Its Board Trustees et al., Appellants,v.J. R. DOE al. TEXAS, Appellants, v. CERTAIN NAMED AND UNNAMED UNDOCUMENTED ALIEN CHILDREN Nos. 80-1538, 80-1934. Argued Dec. 1, 1981. Decided June 15, 1982. Rehearings Denied Sept. 9, See 458 1131, 103 14. Syllabus Held : A Texas statute which withholds from local school districts any state funds for education children who were not "legally admitted" into United States, authorizes to deny enrollment such children, violates Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Pp. 210-230. (a) The illegal aliens are plaintiffs in these cases challenging may claim benefit Clause, provides that no State shall "deny person within its jurisdiction equal protection laws." Whatever his status under immigration laws, an alien is a "person" ordinary sense term. This Court's prior recognizing "persons" protected by Due Process Clauses Fifth Amendments, do include phrase "within jurisdiction," cannot be distinguished on asserted ground persons have entered country illegally jurisdiction" even if they present boundaries subject laws. Nor logic history Amendment support construction. Instead, use confirms understanding Amendment's extends anyone, citizen or stranger, laws State, reaches every corner State's territory. 210-216. (b) discrimination contained considered rational unless it furthers some substantial goal State. Although undocumented resident treated as "suspect class," although "fundamental right," so require justify statutory classification showing serves compelling governmental interest, nevertheless imposes lifetime hardship discrete class accountable their disabling status. These can neither affect parents' conduct nor own deprivation public like other benefit. Public has pivotal role maintaining fabric our society sustaining political cultural heritage: takes inestimable toll social, economic, intellectual, psychological well-being individual, poses obstacle individual achievement. In determining rationality statute, costs Nation innocent properly considered. 216-224. (c) vel non does establish sufficient basis denying them benefits affords residents. It true when faced with challenge respecting differential treatment aliens, courts must attentive congressional policy concerning aliens. But area special constitutional sensitivity presented cases, absence contrary indication fairly discernible legislative record, national perceived might elementary education. 224-226. (d) Texas' sustained furthering interest "preservation state's limited resources lawful residents." While mitigating potentially harsh economic effects influx legal immigrants, offer effective method dealing problem. Even assuming net impact economy negative, charging tuition constitutes ineffectual attempt stem tide immigration, at least compared alternative prohibiting employment there merit suggestion appropriately singled out exclusion because burdens impose ability provide high-quality record show likely improve overall quality Neither unlawful presence States renders less than remain put productive social 2400-2402. No. 5th Cir., 628 F.2d 448, 80-1934, affirmed. Richard L. Arnett, Austin, Tex., Tex. John C. Hardy, Tyler, Plyler Peter A. Schey, Los Angeles, Cal., appellees D. Roos, San Francisco, 80-1538. [Amicus Curiae Information pages 204-205 intentionally omitted] Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 question whether, consistent Amendment, school-age free citizens legally admitted 2 * Since late 19th century, restricted this country. Unsanctioned entry crime, 8 U.S.C. § 1325, those unlawfully deportation, §§ 1251, 1252 (1976 ed. Supp.IV). despite existence restrictions, number succeeded entering now live various including Texas. 3 May 1975, Legislature revised withhold States. 1975 revision also authorized schools Tex.Educ.Code Ann. 21.031 (Vernon Supp.1981).1 involve challenges provisions. 80-1538 Doe 4 action, filed Court Eastern September 1977, behalf certain Mexican origin residing Smith County, could had been action complained plaintiff District.2 members named defendants; intervened party-defendant. After certifying consisting all District, preliminarily enjoined defendants class. December court conducted extensive hearing plaintiffs' motion permanent injunctive relief. 5 considering motion, made findings fact. found implementing "either purpose effect keeping Texas." F.Supp. 569, 575 (1978). Respecting defendants' further was simply financial measure designed avoid drain fisc, recognized increases population resulting nationals created problems exacerbated educational needs immigrant children. noted, however, increase primarily attributable admission Id., 575-576. while "exclusion would eventually result economies level," id., 576, funding both Federal Governments based enrolled. then, barring save money, but "not necessarily" "the education." 577. observed borne very small subclass "entire families migrated and—for practical purposes—permanently States." 578.3 Finally, noted current practices today well tomorrow,"4 without education, "[a]lready disadvantaged poverty, lack English-speaking ability, undeniable racial prejudices, . will become permanently locked lowest socio-economic class." 6 held entitled violated Clause. Suggesting type invidiously motivated suspect doctrine designed," unnecessary decide whether survive "strict scrutiny" analysis because, event, embodied supported basis. 585. concluded Supremacy Clause.5 590-592. 7 Appeals Circuit upheld injunction. 448 (1980). erred finding pre-empted federal law.6 With respect protection, affirmed essential respects Court, 454-458, concluding "constitutionally infirm regardless tested using mere standard more stringent test," 458. We probable jurisdiction. 451 968, 101 2044, 68 347 (1981). 80-1934 re Alien Children Education Litigation During 1978 1979, suits constitutionality undertaken authority provision Courts Southern, Western, Northern Districts Each suit Agency defendants, along officials. November Judicial Panel Multidistrict Litigation, consolidated claims against officials single heard Southern February March 1980. July 1980, order holding 501 544.7 absolute should trigger strict judicial scrutiny, particularly complete inability pay desired benefit." 582. determined concern fiscal integrity 582-583; shown necessary 583; statutorily excluded different excluded, ibid. therefore carefully tailored advance acceptable manner. 583-584. appeal decision pending, rendered Apparently strength opinion, Appeals, 23, 1981, summarily District. jurisdiction, 452 937, 3078, 69 950 (1981), case briefing argument.8 II 9 "[n]o deprive life, liberty, property, due process law; (Emphasis added.) Appellants argue outset status, "persons Texas, right law. reject argument. surely Aliens, whose unlawful, long guaranteed law Amendments. Shaughnessy Mezei, 345 206, 212, 73 625, 629, 97 L.Ed. 956 (1953); Wong Wing 163 228, 238, 16 977, 981, 41 140 (1896); Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 369, 1064, 1070, 30 220 (1886). Indeed, we clearly protects invidious Government. Mathews Diaz, 426 67, 77, 96 1883, 1890, 48 478 (1976).9 10 seek distinguish emphasizing directs afford Amendments contain assertedly limiting phrase. appellants' view, supports constricting construction jurisdiction."10 never suggested avail themselves guarantee coextensive process. To contrary, provisions fashioned protect identical persons, reach exercise authority. 11 "The Constitution confined citizens. says: 'Nor property laws.' universal application, territorial regard differences race, color, nationality; pledge Wo, supra, S.Ct., 1070 (emphasis added). 12 "all territory States," present, invoke Sixth actions Government, reasoned Wing, 981.11 Our applying reflect same theme:12 13 "Manifestly, obligation give performed only where operate, is, equality maintained. That imposed upon severally entities,—each responsible establishing rights duties borders." Missouri ex rel. Gaines Canada, 305 337, 350, 59 232, 236, 83 208 (1938). 14 There "due process" somehow greater stature "equal protection" available larger persons. each aspect reflects limitation power. permit employ identify subclasses whom define beyond thereby relieving itself assure applied equally undermine principal incorporated intended work nothing abolition caste-based class-based legislation. objective fundamentally odds power asserts here classify nonetheless excepted protection. 15 debate limited, broad boundaries, obligations appears debates Congress, "person sought expressly ensure provided population. Representative Bingham reported House draft resolution Joint Committee Fifteen Reconstruction (H.R. 63) Amendment.13 Cong. Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess., 1033 (1866). Two days later, posed following resolution: "Is unity people privileges immunities several States? Is Government strangers, land, Union life liberty property?" 1090. 17 Senator Howard, member Fifteen, floor manager Senate, explicit about objectives intention make applicable "may happen be" State: last two clauses first section amendment disable depriving merely person, whoever he be, law, him abolishes legislation away injustice subjecting one caste code another. will, adopted forever passing trenching fundamental pertain jurisdiction." 2766 18 Use thus detract from, rather confirms, person's initial reason expelled, negate simple fact perimeter. Given presence, full range civil criminal And until leaves jurisdiction—either voluntarily, involuntarily accordance States—he choose establish. 19 conclusion begins inquiry. difficult refusal reimburse boards demonstrate lawful, imposition burden turn. III 20 similarly circumstanced alike." F. S. Royster Guano Co. Virginia, 253 412, 415, 40 560, 561, 64 989 (1920). too, "[t]he things though same." Tigner 310 141, 147, 60 879, 882, 84 1124 (1940). discretion determine what "different" same" resides legislatures legislature latitude classifications roughly approximate nature problem perceived, accommodate competing concerns private, account limitations remedy ill. most forms assurance issue bears fair relationship legitimate purpose. 21 faithful deferential classification. restriction inconsistent elemental premises. Thus presumptively disadvantage class,"14 impinge right."15 classifications, appropriate enforce mandate requiring precisely serve interest. addition, classification, facially invidious, rise recurring difficulties; circumstances judgment ideal inquiring viewed State.16 turn consideration evaluation 21.031. 22 Sheer incapability lax enforcement country, coupled failure bar resulted creation "shadow population" migrants—numbering millions—within borders.17 situation raises specter encouraged source cheap labor, denied makes residents.18 underclass presents prides adherence principles law.19 23 underclass. Persuasive arguments view beneficence product conduct. apply force imposing disabilities minor entrants. At least, elect enter stealth violation prepared bear consequences, including, to, deportation. entrants comparably situated. Their "parents conform societal norms," presumably remove jurisdiction; "can status." Trimble Gordon, 430 762, 770, 1459, 1465, 52 31 (1977). expedient control adults acting directing onus parent's misconduct comport conceptions justice. 24 "[V]isiting condemnation head infant illogical unjust. Moreover, child basic concept system responsibility wrongdoing. Obviously, birth penalizing ineffectual—as unjust—way deterring parent." Weber Aetna Casualty & Surety Co., 406 164, 175, 92 1400, 1406, 768 (1972) (footnote omitted). 25 Of course, irrelevant proper goal. absolutely immutable characteristic since conscious, indeed action. directed discriminatory over little control. conceive justification Yet 26 "right" granted individuals Constitution. Antonio Dist. Rodriguez, 411 35, 93 1278, 1298, 36 (1973). "benefit" indistinguishable welfare Both importance institutions, lasting child, mark distinction. "American always regarded [the] acquisition knowledge matters supreme importance." Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 400, 43 627, 67 1042 (1923). vital civic institution preservation democratic government," Abington Schempp, 374 203, 230, 1560, 1575, 844 (1963) (BRENNAN, J., concurring), primary vehicle transmitting values rests." Ambach Norwick, 441 68, 76, 99 1589, 1594, 49 (1979). "[A]s pointed early history, degree prepare participate effectively intelligently open preserve freedom independence." Wisconsin Yoder, 205, 221, 1526, 1536, 32 (1972). historic "perceptions inculcating maintenance confirmed observations scientists." U.S., 1594. tools lead economically lives us all. sum, society. ignore significant select groups means absorb skills rests. 27 addition heritage, denial isolated group affront goals Clause: barriers presenting unreasonable obstacles advancement merit. Paradoxically, disfavored foreclose raise level esteem majority. directly, "education prepares self-reliant self-sufficient participants society." 1536. Illiteracy enduring disability. read write handicap deprived day life. achievement, reconcile cost principle status-based framework Clause.20 What said 28 years ago Brown Education, 483, 74 686, 98 873 (1954), still holds true: "Today, perhaps important function governments. Compulsory attendance great expenditures recognition required performance responsibilities, service armed forces. foundation good citizenship. Today instrument awakening values, preparing later professional training, helping adjust normally environment. days, doubtful reasonably expected succeed opportunity Such opportunity, it, terms." 493, 691. B 29 well-settled allow deference afforded Undocumented "constitutional irrelevancy." right; need necessity variation manner 28-39, 1293-1300. involved abstract discriminates class, right. Section stigma illiteracy rest lives. By structure realistic possibility contribute smallest way progress Nation. 21.031, take victims. light countervailing costs, hardly IV argument, apparently dissenting Justices, establishes notes "on non-discriminatory laws," Takahashi Fish Game Comm'n, 334 410, 420, 1138, 1143, 1478 (1948), implicit imprimatur.21 Congress' apparent disapproval evasion regulatory program disabilities. Faced agree policy; prerogatives particular unable find scheme statement weigh significantly arriving balance grants Congress "establish uniform Rule Naturalization." Art. I., 8, cl. 4. Drawing power, plenary foreign relations international commerce, inherent sovereign close borders, developed complex governing borders. (1976); Harisiades Shaughnessy, 342 580, 588-589, 512, 518-519, 586 (1952). obvious delicate judgments counseled Branch intrusion field. Mathews, 81, 1892. traditional caution persuade unusual enjoy Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 61 399, 85 581 (1941). "committed branches Government." "a routine part" business 85, 1894, "take character between country," 80, 1891, rarely relevant 84-85, 1893-1894; Nyquist Mauclet, 432 7, n. 2120, 2124, 53 63 As DeCanas Bica, 424 351, 933, 47 (1976), act mirrors DeCanas, reflected except possessing grant permission 361, 939. contrast, disability corresponds identifiable policy. conservation ever restricting immigration. More importantly, operate harmoniously program. 33 sure, unlawfully, deportation deported. An entrant continue reside citizen. See, e.g., 1252, 1253(h), 1254 discretionary relief realistically deported after proceedings completed. course enjoying inchoate remain. 34 reluctant impute through fault own, access contexts, articulable policy, enhance perceive borrow criterion adapted purposes desires it." Oyama California, 332 633, 664-665, 269, 284, 249 (1948) (Murphy, concurring) V 35 residents."22 Brief 26. standing alone used allocating resources. Graham Richardson, 403 365, 374-375, 91 1848, 1853, 534 (1971). concise expression discriminate. Examining Flores de Otero, 572, 605, 2264, 2282, 65 (1976). Apart prerogative solely status—an carries minimal cases—we discern three colorable interests First, appellants appear suggest immigrants. sudden shifts population,23 offers urgent demographic evidence suggesting economy. suggests underutilize services, contributing labor tax money fisc. F.Supp., 578; 570-571. dominant incentive availability employment; few immigrants come education.24 Thus, making assumption think clear "[c]harging ludicrously immigration," F.2d, 461; 579 88. 37 Second, reduce [some arbitrarily chosen of] schools," Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 89 1322, 1330, 600 (1969), State.25 failed "credible supporting proportionately diminution spent [which devoting group] grave 583. And, reviewing financing mechanism, necessarily schools. improvement selection target exclusion. terms need, "basically indistinguishable" 589; 583, 104. 38 legitimate, quantify. not, confines many disabled indefinitely, residents understand hopes achieve promoting perpetuation illiterates adding unemployment, welfare, crime. whatever savings achieved wholly insubstantial VI 39 If justified No here. Accordingly, Affirmed. MARSHALL, concurring. 42 I join retreating my 70-133, 1315-1348, (1973) (dissenting opinion). believe individual's fundamental, amply "by unique accorded society, values." 111, 1336. Furthermore, facts wisdom rejecting rigidified approach analysis, employing allows varying levels scrutiny depending adversely affected invidiousness drawn." 99, 1330. Dandridge Williams, 397 471, 519-521, 90 1153, 1178-1180, 491 (1970) (MARSHALL, dissenting). continues utterly incompatible BLACKMUN, 44 45 Like POWELL, litigation "should left streets uneducated." Post, 238. separately, stake crucial cases. 46 rights" analysis—the now-familiar bearing closely scrutinized—has controversy. Harlan, example, warned "[v]irtually affects rights. [T]o extend 'compelling interest' rule go far toward 'super-legislature.' " 661, 1345, (1969) Others infringing enumerated involved, impinges substantive conferred invalid, law's create classifications." 61, 1311, (Stewart, concurring). 659, 1344 (Harlan, Still others part all, unrelated defined equality.1 considerations, combined doubts judiciary's fine distinctions assessing policies, led Rodriguez articulate firm rule: "explicitly implicitly [are] Constitution." 33-34, 1296-1297. squarely rejected notion "an ad hoc determination importance" given involving 32, 1296, "[i]t province name guaranteeing 33, 1296. joined POWELL's model resolving disputes. Classifications then operation Conversely, nonconstitutional impoverished human beings," 485, 1161, (1970)—generally distinguishable regulations economics welfare." Ibid. said, experience demonstrated formulation settle arising Only pedant insist meaningful among multitude regulated stand quite proposition. acknowledged interests, constitutionally guaranteed, place analysis. decisions vote elections, underpinnings voting process." 34, 74, 1297, 74. vote, per se, 78, 1319, 78. Harper Virginia Elections, 383 663, 665, 86 1079, 1080, 169 (1966); 59, 2, 1310, regulation electoral receives franchise unimpaired preservative rights." Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 562, 1362, 1381, 506 (1964). Dunn Blumstein, 405 330, 336, 995, 999, 274 words, extraordinary terms, right: citizen2 hope inferior participation Those relegated, fiat, second-class 50 arguable, fashion outlined above. one, maintained analogous issue. 658-663, 1344-1346 590-591, 1396 too point, accepting cases—the idea pose risk inherently "equality"—dictates outcome POWELL THE CHIEF JUSTICE observe, inevitably illiterate persons," post, 241 (POWELL, concurring); see 242, 254 (BURGER, C.J., dissenting); differ unconstitutional unwise. 51 denies others, immediately creates purposes, mentioned above, placed insurmountable competitive disadvantage, uneducated achieve. group, group—through action—will converted Other housing assistance, important; immediate desirable educated. unique, strike heart distinctions. Cf. 115, 1338, sense, analogue vote: former relegates status; latter places disadvantage. fully Rodriguez. reserved "occasioned opportunities children," noting "no charge [at Rodriguez] fails acquire skills." 37, 1299. cautioned "involv[ing] persistent questions specialized counsels premature interference informed levels." 42, 1301. held, reaffirms, population." Ante, 223. Similarly, right" guaranteed. Here, contrast advanced predict targeted circumstances, something classification.3 Concededly, seem ironic discuss concerned "whose illegal." 250 pre-eminent regulating monolithic one. factual matter permanently, 544, 558-559 (SD Tex.1980); "documentable," 573; "[m]any deportable. None deportation." 103. alienage demonstrate, citizens, excepting interests. notes, statutes impossible residence, 240-241, 6. administration deportable then—and Government's draw precise classifications—the sweeps fact, fatally imprecise. demonstrates, otherwise 54 Because worded recognizes preemption consider crucial, judgment. 55 56 separately emphasize before us. 57 severely disadvantages victims combination circumstances. Access Mexico across 2,000-mile border, readily virtually uncontrollable. Illegal attracted opportunities, well. serious proportions, Attorney General recently recognized. ante, 218-219, 17. Perhaps intractability problem, Congress—vested protecting borders legislating aliens—has leadership problem.1 and, clear, unknown percentage uneducated. 58 analogy perfect, illegitimates. (1972), said: infant" misdeeds parents illogical, unjust, "contrary wrongdoing." attend They guardians unlawfully. appellee respect. "affect review heightened.2 767, 1463. Craig Boren, 429 190, 451, deprives assigned parents. lifelong penalty stigma. threatens future reconciled "fair relation" interests.3 Lalli Lalli, 439 259, 265, 518, 523, 503 (1978) ("classifications illegitimacy invalid substantially related permissible interests"); 271, 526 ("[a]s substantial, adopted"). relation uncertain discussion Part V, purported demonstrates poorly served relied consequences living indefinitely temporary residency district.4 addressed satisfy bare requirements rationality. One conclude appellees' class5 state-provided punitive impermissible 62 reaching conclusion, am unmindful exasperation government authorities responsibility, any, slight Government.6 So ease remains inviting, deport exercised infrequently additional expense admitting shared Governments. argued rationally anyone National attendant Chief BURGER, WHITE, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR join, dissenting. Were set Nation's hesitation senseless enlightened children—including aliens—of folly—and wrong—to tolerate segment up having command language.1 However, constitute "Platonic Guardians" vest down meet standards "wisdom," "common sense." TVA Hill, 437 153, 194-195, 2278, 2301-2302, trespass separated powers assume policymaking today. disguise "effective leadership" caused uncountable millions borders.2 237-238 decade difficulty sealing vast socioeconomic dilemma. dilemma yet assessed, let addressed. Judiciary fail so. 66 manifests justly criticized tendency speedy wholesale "remedies" failures—or laggard pace—of processes government. employs, abuses, effort omnipotent omniscient solver. motives doing noble compassionate alter distorts amends defaults others. rests confluence theories rationales results extent departs principled adjudication disturbing. quarrel applies who, physically state. concedes, "only inquiry." 215. categories Jefferson Hackney, 535, 549, 1724, 1732, 285 (1972); Reed Reed, 404 71, 75, 251, 253, 225 (1971); 147-148, dispositive put, finite resources, differentiate lawfully there. distinction drawn—based established policies—is unconstitutional. 70 acknowledges that, class" permits "substantial latitude" distinguishing 216-217. expressly—and correctly—rejects 219, 19, right, 221,223. patching together bits pieces termed quasi-suspect-class quasi-fundamental-rights spins theory custom-tailored 71 end, told employed 223-224.3 guilty unabashedly result-oriented approach, prime example. (1) solicitude "control" "responsibility" 220, 223-224. position "irrational" "penalties" "innocent" 2406 concurring).4 preclude legislators classifying factors characteristics "control." generally, particular, ill health, residence. barred considering, mentally healthy ill, counties,5 choice "wrongdoing." arbitrary irrational stemming prejudice hostility; all-encompassing "equalizer" eradicate "responsible." presume culpability prevents being "penalized" "penalty" residents?6 Illegality not—and not—depend amorphous "guilt" "innocence" alien's entry. account. illegitimate children—see 220; 238-239 concurring)—is grossly misleading. thrust "status birth." 176, 1407, Rather, predicated concededly direct obviously valid "broad powers" field naturalization. Const., I, 4; 419, 1142, (1948). country." When "relationship" federally prohibited can, presumption duty recipients benefits.7 (2) 75 second strand premise "neither 'benefit' legislation." 221. meaning relevance opaque observation context,8 issues hand. score. 76 dispute. repeatedly elevate 30-31, 1295, (1973); Lindsey Normet, 56, 73-74, 862, 874, Dist., speaking proposition points context. "fundamental" food, shelter, medical care? 77 guarantees similar situated hierarchy services. 31, stating lowers "judicial according transient majority's affected, "assum[e] lacks competence." 655-661, 1342-1345, 78 central truly Constitution," 1296-1297, classes drawn affecting education—as opposed benefits, health care, housing—cannot difference applied. 79 Once conceded—as does—that inquiry focus Vance Bradley, 440 93, 97, 939, 942, 171 (1979); 485-487, 1161-1162, (1970); 216.9 80 contends prevent undue depletion revenues school-financing ever-increasing flood aliens—aliens continued Member prudent se numerous invariably amount spend programs. 549-551, 1733-1734; 487, 1162. requirement schools—as states, example—is reasonable ends.10 81 Without laboring undoubtedly many, present. definition, here, reasonably, constitutionally, services state.11 357, "fiscal deleterious aliens." preserving bona fide institutions preferential basis." Vlandis Kline, 412 441, 453, 2230, 2237, Elkins Moreno, 435 647, 663-668, 1348-1350, 614 plausible explanation why illegality residence factor legitimately fides entitlement residence.12 82 seen fit exclude programs, food stamp program, 2015(f) Supp.IV) CFR 273.4 old-age aid dependent blind, totally disabled, supplemental security income 233.50 Medicare hospital insurance 1395i-2 405.205(b) Medicaid aged 1395o 405.103(a)(4) exclusions conclusively comparable tend excluding programs 1891; supra. maintains—as issue—that "barring schools." 229. 577 (ED Tex.1978).13 legitimacy depend barrier "improve quality" care Modern enormously expensive, doubt large added fall inclusion tuition-free may, discretion, education" system, residents; ends "legitimate." show, implies, incremental educating send bankruptcy, 'grave education,' 229; "rational basis" scrutiny. imperative "rationally" advantage accrue residents, neighboring States.14 Denying legislator. long-range outweigh them. issue; sound Legislature's render cure judges try 874. 624-625, 1414, (1964) rushes perceives failings processes, function. forced allocated powers, muscles used, atrophy. Today's regret say, another example unwarranted run tends weakening processes.15 "vested aliens," 237 addressing occasioned flooding southern border. assess "social 221; "specter caste" disturbing solve. self-destructive result—that instead allowing course—albeit delay—the seeks job compensating inaction. encourages pass Judiciary. 87 solution seemingly intractable defer unpalatable some. provides, pertinent part: "(a) All age five scholastic year Available Fund year. "(b) Every permitted district parent, guardian, time admission. "(c) board trustees admit either beginning guardian district." Despite enactment enroll 1977-1978 "full fee" enroll. definition alien." offered clarification: "A documentation she securing Immigration Service, Service processed documentation." App. Juris. Statement p. A-38. contrasted earn dependents Mexico, instances remained short period time. 578. Plaintiffs' expert, Dr. Gilbert Cardenas, testified "fifty sixty cent workers formerly defense witness, Rolan Heston, Director Houston Naturalization "undocumented years, marriage resident." took notice proposals "legalize" 577-578. 17, infra. Nationality Act, pertaining mirrored domestic market, underlying discerned express foreclosed implied favoring pre-emptive conflict 451-454. agreements. 584-596. Appellees press argument disposition issue, occasion claim. incongruous hold assigns naturalization affairs, exempting limitation. 84-86, 1893-1894. previously focused phrase, examine sentence "[a]ll born naturalized thereof, ." Gray, writing Kim Ark, 649, 456, 890 (1898), detailed length Citizenship predominantly geographic term "jurisdiction" used. He "impossible construe words 'subject thereof,' opening [of Amendment], comprehensive 'within jurisdiction,' section; jurisdiction' States.' 687, 471. Gray "[e]very domiciled allegiance consequently 693, 473. commentator historical emphasis territoriality, bounded only, sovereignty allegiance, unlawful. Bouve, Exclusion Expulsion Aliens 425-427 (1912). separate Field Amendments: 'person,' enough republic. resident, born, to. owes obedience domiciled, consequence, contention republic pain bar—in face declares 242-243, 982-983 (concurring part). Leng Ma Barber, 357 185, 1072, 1246 (1958), appellants, contrary. construction, paroled pursuant 212(d)(5) 1182(d)(5) (1952 ed.), States" availing herself 243(h), withholding longstanding proceedings, admissibility, proceedings. unlike parolee Ma, removed 1251(a)(2). 1A Gordon H. Rosenfield, Law Procedure 3.16b, 3-161 Bingham's views comments Civil Rights Bill 1866. referred freedmen, stranger," "refugees men." 1292 Several formulations explain "suspect." Some deep-seated pursuit objective. Legislation easily judged individually justice McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 192, 283, 288, 222 (1964); Hirabayashi 320 100, 1375, 1385, 1774 (1943). groups, largely historically "relegated powerlessness majoritarian 28, 1293, 372, 1852, 538 Carolene Products 304 144, 152-153, 4, 778, 783-784, 1234 manifest groups. response virtue kind "class abolish. deserving look infringed source, explicitly implicitly, therein. fundamentality "elections right." suffrage, explained significance Bd. 667, 1081, 370, 1071, technique "intermediate" evaluate reference principles. "In expounding Constitution, 'principles sufficiently roots throughout community continuity periods time, lift above pragmatic place.' University California Regents Bakke, 438 299, 2733, 2752, 750 (opinion J.), quoting Cox, Role Supreme American 114 ascertained choice. estimated million. Senate Representatives Presidential reform laws—including currently creating laws—the composed attachment Nation, unlikely displaced territory: "We capability, motivation uproot become, effect, community. granting law-abiding shadow population, recognize reality devote arrivals." Hearing Subcommittee Immigration, Refugees, International Refugee Policy Judiciary, 97th (1981) (testimony William French Smith, General). policies case, tolerated, welcomed, defenseless abuse, exploitation, callous neglect natural organizations wish them." "illegal aliens" attempted see, 14, Unlike suspect, voluntary intimately manifested independently prescribed believes subclass, follow direction. noncitizens participating activities community, group. below indeterminate decisive, core institutions. "[T]he utilization certainty 581, noncitizen involvement arena, play role—in areas import community." 12, 2126, fruits. socializing institution, imparting stability affirmatively benefit, unanswerable. operates [the State's] II, text assists overcoming concerns. Appellant oral characterize test uphold conceded if, Virginian intending six months, Tr. Oral Arg. 31-32. Tyler's amounts assertion entry, more, becoming enrolling accomplish defining nonresident. criteria, obtaining domicile 340 comply tests limitation, 21.031(b) requires criteria controlling unchecked migration impair service. exclusive deter numbers 354-356, 935-936. ineffectiveness 460-461; 585; 578 ("The immigrate search Virtually benefits. overwhelming unimportance stimulus immigration") direly form "educational triage deemed (assuming permissible) problems. 579-581. Perry, Protection: Conceptualization Appraisal, Colum.L.Rev. 1023, 1075-1983 "citizen" advisedly. scheme, discussed below. concludes invalidated "unless State." 224. probing appropriate. Article provides: Power remain, naturalization, conditions naturalization." 378, 1855, (1971) (regulation entrusted Government"). traditionally alienage. Fiallo Bell, 787, 792, 1473, 1477, (1977) ("it underscore scope legislation"); (1952) ("It observe vitally intricately interwoven contemporaneous relations, war republican exclusively immune interference"). theme pre-emption 1143 (the laws" admission). Compare Sugarman Dougall, 413 634, 2842, 853 (1973), Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 88, 1895, 495 States' regulate peculiarly strong authority, seems evident. exacting "suspect" holds. argues heightened penalized varied tradition Nor, qualify, also—in opinion—would intend temporarily. 227, 22. actually facto residency, uniformly applied, violate certified included district, 553 Tex.1980). so, thought mature minors violating 569 Tex.1978), characterized illegally." represented parent guardian. Similarly "[u]ndocumented unaccompanied parents." 573. event minor, old age, volition. respond area. offense 939 ("there intends aliens"). nonimmigrant work. Procedure, 1.34a, 1.36, 2.6b indicates specified able did deportability. guidance invites regulation; predictions deport, stay, ultimately naturalize. Until ordered assured course. follow, default aliens; Executive. chargeable deporting Surely identified litigation, prompt Department Smith). estimates high Strout, Closing Door Christian Science Monitor, 21, 1982, 22, col. concurrence imply 238-239,and 239. classified parents, siblings, discriminate countless thousands "lack control" reside. declined "heightened discriminated wealthy child's responsibility" claims. counties received treatment. lesser constraints states E.g., "Congress President possess," Hampton, 95, 1901, conflicts alters admission, states." decreed strings quotations diverse learn language, (1923); First prohibition state-mandated religious exercises schools, (1963); impingements religion, utterance retains wrested context made. standard" Appeals. 458-461 function, steps, "deleterious effects" massive 23. maintains "ineffectual" 228-229. correct, dispositive; none 486-487, 1162, (1970). "demographic problem[s]," engendered entire indefinite periodic sojourns leave short-term seasonal employment. blinks maintain plays family's enter, in, country; certainly, bilingual influence bring travel better opportunities. improper "[a]n citizen." 226. once longer obtained, obtaining, Service. 2. taken BLACKMUN's "who 236 opinion), foundation. disingenuous picked "disfavored group" nonresidents. Appellees' status" stems prohibits analogies Virginians ibid., spurious. Virginian's migrate penalty, (1969); likewise Zobel 55, 2309, 672. decrease proportion students border Louisiana nearest Professor Bickel "tendency seriously weaken Bickel, Least Dangerous (1962). reiterated Bradley Thayer's 'the review], unavoidable, attended evil, namely, correction mistakes comes outside, lose experience, moral fighting way, correcting errors. common easy resort lamentably common, dwarf capacity people, deaden responsibility.' (quoting J. Thayer, Marshall 106-107 (1901)).

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