Document: 515 U.S. 200115 S.Ct. 2097132 L.Ed.2d 158 ADARAND CONSTRUCTORS, INC., Petitionerv.Federico PENA, Secretary of Transportation, et al. No. 93-1841. Supreme Court the United States Argued Jan. 17, 1995. Decided June 12, Syllabus * Most federal agency contracts must contain a subcontractor compensation clause, which gives prime contractor financial incentive to hire subcontractors certified as small businesses controlled by socially and economically disadvantaged individuals, requires presume that such individuals include minorities or any other found be Small Business Administration (SBA). The under highway construction contract containing clause awarded subcontract company was business. record does not reveal how obtained its certification, but it could have been one three routes: two SBA programs—known 8(a) 8(d) programs —or state relevant Department Transportation regulations. Petitioner Adarand Constructors, Inc., submitted low bid on business, filed suit against respondent officials, claiming race-based presumptions used in clauses violate equal protection component Fifth Amendment's Due Process Clause. District granted respondents summary judgment. In affirming, Appeals assessed constitutionality action lenient standard, resembling intermediate scrutiny, determined required Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 448, 100 2758, 65 902, Metro Broadcasting, Inc. FCC, 497 547, 110 2997, 111 445. Held: judgment is vacated, case remanded. 16 F.3d 1537 (CA10 1994), vacated Justice O'CONNOR delivered an opinion with respect Parts I, II, III-A, III-B, III-D, IV, for except insofar might inconsistent views expressed SCALIA's concurrence, concluding that: 1 1. has standing seek forward-looking relief. It met requirements necessary maintain claim alleging invasion legally protected interest particularized manner, showing very likely bid, relatively near future, another Government offering incentives hiring subcontractors. See Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 560, 112 2130, 2136, 119 351. Pp. ----. 2 2. All racial classifications, imposed whatever federal, state, local governmental actor, analyzed reviewing court strict scrutiny. ____. 3 (a) Richmond J.A. Croson Co., 488 469, 109 706, 102 854, majority held Fourteenth Amendment scrutiny all governments. While did consider what standard review taken Federal Government, Court's cases through had established general propositions classifications. First, skepticism: " '[a]ny preference based ethnic criteria necessarily receive most searching examination,' Wygant Jackson Board Ed., 476 267, 273-274, 106 1842, 1847, 90 260. Second, consistency: "the Equal Protection Clause dependent race those burdened benefited particular classification," Croson, supra, at 494, S.Ct., 722. And third, congruence: "[e]qual analysis area same Amendment," Buckley Valeo, 424 1, 93, 96 612, 670, 46 659. Taken together, these lead conclusion person, race, right demand actor subject Constitution justify classification subjecting person unequal treatment strictest judicial 4 (b) However, year after Court, upheld policies challenge. repudiated long-held notion "it would unthinkable impose lesser duty Government" than State afford laws, Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 500, 74 693, 694, 98 L.Ed. 884, holding congressionally mandated "benign" classifications need only satisfy By adopting Broadcasting departed from prior significant respects. turned back Croson's explanation classifi- cations essential because may always clear so-called fact benign. squarely rejected this earlier cases, namely, congruence between standards applicable action, doing so also undermined two. 5 (c) derive basic principle Amendments protect persons, groups. follows race—a group long recognized circumstances irrelevant therefore prohibited—should subjected detailed inquiry ensure personal infringed. Thus, proper whether actor. To extent holding, overruled. 6 (d) decision here makes explicit like State, serve compelling interest, narrowly tailored further interest. less rigorous no longer controlling. Requiring best way courts will consistently give examination, both ends means. true theory, fatal fact. disqualified acting response unhappy persistence practice lingering effects discrimination minority groups country. When within constitutional constraints if satisfies "narrow tailoring" test set out previous cases. 7 3. Because alters playing field some important respects, remanded lower consideration. decide interests served use are properly described "compelling." Nor address question narrow tailoring terms Unresolved questions remain concerning details complex regulatory regimes implicated clauses. P. 8 SCALIA agreed applied actors, concluded government can never "compelling interest" discriminating basis order "make up" past opposite direction. Under there thing either creditor debtor race. We just eyes government. 9 O'CONNOR, J., announced concurrence SCALIA, Part III-C. IV were joined REHNQUIST, C.J., KENNEDY THOMAS, JJ., heretofore indicated; III-C KENNEDY, J. opinions concurring part STEVENS, dissenting opinion, GINSBURG, joined. SOUTER, GINSBURG BREYER, 10 William Perry Pendley, Denver, CO, petitioner. 11 Drew S. Days, III, New Haven, CT, respondents. 12 joins. 13 claims Government's giving contractors projects "socially individuals," particular, identifying violates Adarand's claim. conclude, however, should analyze kind different applied. vacate Appeals' remand proceedings. 14 1989, Central Lands Highway Division (CFLHD), (DOT), project Colorado Mountain Gravel & Construction Company. then solicited bids guardrail portion contract. Adarand, Colorado-based specializing work, bid. Gonzales Company 15 contract's provide additional hired App. 24. business; not. Gonzales, despite Gravel's Chief Estimator affidavit stating accepted payment received instead. Id., 28-31. law subcontracting similar appear contracts, "[t]he shall Black Americans, Hispanic Native Asian Pacific minorities, individual [Small Business] pursuant section Act." U.S.C. §§ 637(d)(2), (3). presumption forth statute discriminates violation obligation deny anyone laws. These fairly straightforward facts implicate scheme statutes regulations, we now turn. Act, 72 Stat. 384, amended, § 631 seq. (Act), declares policy business concerns, [and] concerns owned . maximum practicable opportunity participate performance let agency." 8(d)(1), 637(d)(1). Act defines individuals" "those who prejudice cultural bias their identity member without regard qualities," 8(a)(5), 637(a)(5), "economically whose ability compete free enterprise system impaired due diminished capital credit opportunities compared others disadvantaged." 8(a)(6)(A), 637(a)(6)(A). 17 furtherance stated establishes Government-wide goal participation "not percent total value awards each fiscal year." 644(g)(1). head agency-specific goals individuals. Ibid. 18 (SBA) implemented statutory directives variety ways, here. One "8(a) program," available defined terms. program confers wide range benefits participating businesses, see, e.g., CFR 124.303-124.311, 124.403 (1994); 48 subpt. 19.8 (1994), automatic eligibility provisions issue case, 637(d)(3)(C) (conferring presumptive "found Act"). program, "small," 124.102 51% qualify disadvantaged," 124.103. presumes Black, Hispanic, Pacific, Subcontinent Asian, well "members designated time SBA," 124.105(b)(1). allows listed prove social disadvantage "on convincing evidence," 124.105(c). Social enough establish eligibility, however; participant "economic disadvantage" according 124.106(a). 19 "8(d) unlike limited determining membership certain groups, again appears require individualized, although "less restrictive," economic disadvantage, 124.106(b). A says members wishing entitled disadvantage. 19.001, 19.703(a)(2) (1994). left uncertainty individualized event, programs, rebuttable third party comes forward evidence suggesting not, fact, disadvantaged. 124.111(c)-(d), 124.601-124.609 20 rise dispute came about result Surface Uniform Relocation Assistance 1987, Pub.L. 100-17, 101 132 (STURAA), DOT appropriations measure. Section 106(c)(1) STURAA provides percent" appropriated funds "shall expended individuals." 145. adopts Act's definition individual," including presumptions, adds "women presumed purposes subsection." 106(c)(2)(B), 146. "minimum uniform governments certifying concern qualifies 106(c)(4), done 49 pt. 23, D Those regulations say authority (i.e., participate) applicant belongs woman. 23.62 D, C As parties come effort rebut 23.69 21 operative reads follows: 22 "Subcontracting. This subsection supplemented Disadvantaged Enterprise (DBE) Development Subcontracting Provision 23 "Monetary offered awarding subcontracts 24 "A considered DBE Agency. Certification agencies, counties, cities acceptable provided Contracting Officer viable certification program. If Contractor requests provision, furnish engineer subcontractor(s) copy executed subcontract(s). 25 26 "The paid amount computed 27 "1. DBE, final approved subcontract, exceed 1.5 original amount. 28 "2. more DBEs, subcontracts, amount." 24-26. benefit SBA, agency, Officer. Any routes above—SBA's regulations—would meet requirement. 29 After losing various officials Colorado, involved protection. motion Skinner, 790 F.Supp. 240 (1992). Tenth Circuit affirmed. understood our 902 (1980), adopted "a assessing" action. F.3d, 1544. Applying "lenient standard," developed 445 (1990), 1547. certiorari. 512 ----, 115 41, 129 936 II 30 addition prayer "such relief seems equitable," specifically seeks declaratory injunctive future 22-23 (complaint). Before reaching merits challenge, allegation lost course entitles damages loss (we express view, sovereign immunity bar facts). But explained Los Angeles Lyons, 461 95, 103 1660, 75 675 (1983), injury, "while presumably affording [the plaintiff] ., nothing real immediate threat he again" suffer injury future. 105, 1667. 31 relief, allege constitutes "an concrete particularized, actual imminent, conjectural hypothetical." 351 (1992) (footnote, citations, internal quotation marks omitted). denies laws alleges manner "particularized" Adarand. note that, contrary respondents' suggestion, see Brief Respondents 29-30, demonstrate been, be, bidder "discriminatory prevent[s] plaintiff competing footing." General Contractors Jacksonville, 508 113 2297, 2304, 124 586 (1993). aggrieved "need barrier standing." 2303. 32 clear, cause "immi- nent" injury. said "[a]lthough 'imminence' concededly somewhat elastic concept, cannot stretched beyond purpose, insure alleged too speculative Article III purposes—that 'certainly impending.' Lujan, 565, n. 2, 2138, ask made adequate sometime offers 33 conclude satisfied manager deposition his every Colorado. Reply 5-A. According documents produced discovery, CFLHD fourteen included work 1983 1990. Plaintiff's Motion Summary Judgment 90-C-1413, Exh. Attachment (D.Colo.). Two do present one, work; another, itself generally clause. Ibid.; id., Supplemental Exhibits, Deposition Craig Actis (testimony employee clauses). statistics years 1990 indicate lets average half per injure Nothing suggests altered frequency work. indicates often companies businesses. F, Attachments 1-3. involving least once contract, bring lawsuit. 34 urges Compensation race," thus relaxed scrutiny." 26. neutral, agree. concedes, determinations Clause" heightened level 27. disagree be. (We note, incidentally, explicitly presents none difficulties posed facially racially disproportionate impact motivated discriminatory purpose. Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Corp., 429 252, 97 50 450 (1977); Washington Davis, 426 229, 2040, 597 (1976).) 35 arises Constitution, "No deprived life, liberty, property, process law." Although measure arbitrary guarantee Amendment, jurisdiction laws" (emphasis added). Our accorded varying degrees significance difference language Clauses. think revisit A. 36 Through 1940s, routinely view non-race-related "[u]nlike contains guaranty legislation Congress." Detroit Bank States, 317 329, 337, 63 297, 301, 87 304 (1943); also, Helvering Lerner Stores 314 463, 468, 62 341, 343, 86 482 (1941); LaBelle Iron Works 256 377, 392, 41 528, 532, 998 (1921) ("Reference decided .; clearly they point. clause"). first faced challenge classification, approach, unfortunate results. Hirabayashi 320 81, 1375, 1774 (1943), curfew persons Japanese ancestry. observed—correctly —that "[d]istinctions citizens solely ancestry nature odious people institutions founded upon doctrine equality," "racial discriminations prohibited." 100, 1385. cited proposition "restrains Congress amounts denial process," ibid., "circumstances knowledge charged responsibility maintaining national defense afforded rational made." 102, 1386. 37 Eighteen months later, wartime measures directed Korematsu 323 214, 193, 89 194 (1944), concerned completely excluded areas. Bank, differs significantly States. Instead, began noting "all legal restrictions curtail civil rights single immediately suspect them rigid U.S., 216, 194. That promising dictum read undermine avoid injurious Cf. 234-235, 202 (Murphy, dissenting) ("[T]he deprives scope guaranteed Amendment"). spite "most scrutiny" forth, inexplicably relied principles case," 217, 194, "exclusion one's home located far greater deprivation constant confinement p.m. a.m.," 218, 195, nonetheless power.* 38 884 (1954), questioned existence obligations 'equal laws' safeguard prohibited unfairness 'due law,' 499, 694. "[i]n [the] prohibits states segregated public schools, Government." 695. 39 Bolling's school desegregation, reasoning limited. observations odious," Hirabayashi, 1385, suspect," Korematsu, carry force context States—indeed, appeared Government. observations, 3, reiterated 'that form, forbids, political concerned, citizen race,' 694 (quoting Gibson Mississippi, 162 591, 904, 910, 40 1075 (1896)) application before it, resulting imposition equivalent followed matter course. Later contexts desegregation distinguish duties Consider, example, following passage McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 85 283, 222, 1964 struck down law: "[W]e deal participants, viewed light historical central purpose eliminate emanating official sources strong renders 'constitutionally suspect,' 499 [74 694]; 'most scrutiny,' 216 [65 194]; 'in irrelevant' constitutionally legislative [63 1385]." 191-192, 288. 42 McLaughlin's reliance same. 43 Cases continued treat indistinguishable; commentator observed fifth amendment problems discussed assumption fourteenth precedents controlling." Karst, Guarantee Protection, 55 N.C.L.Rev. 541, 554 (1977). Loving Virginia, race- law, demands scrutiny.' 388 11, 1817, 1823, 1010 (1967). Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 93 1764, 583 (1973), sex took Reed Reed, 404 71, 92 251, 225 (1971), invalidated mentioning possibility Frontiero, 682-684, 1768-1769 (plurality Brennan, J.); 691, 1772 (Stewart, judgment); 692, 1773 (Powell, judgment). 1975, "[t]his approach precisely Amendment." Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 638, 95 1225, 1228, 514 (1975); 659 (1976) ("Equal Amendment"); Paradise, 480 149, 166, 16, 107 1053, 1064, 94 203 (1987) J.) reach coextensive Fourteenth"). understand few suggestions appearing special deference branches appropriate, Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 88, 101-102, 21, 1895, 1903, 1904-1905, 495 (federal power over immigration), detract rule. B 44 above burdening suffered society. 1978, confronted designed Regents Univ. California Bakke, 438 265, 2733, 57 750, state-run medical school's reserving number spaces entering class students. petitioners argued "strict apply "classifications 'discrete insular minorities.' 287-288, 2747 (opinion Powell, (citing Carolene Products 144, 152, 4, 58 778, 784, 82 1234 (1938)). Bakke produce Powell's announcing argument. White, Powell wrote mean when something else color." 289-290, 2748. He "[r]acial distinctions sort inherently call exacting examination." 291, On hand, four Justices stringent "designed remedial purposes," 359, 2783 (Brennan, Marshall, Blackmun, part). thought grounds. 411-412, 421, 2809-2810, 2815 (STEVENS, Burger, Stewart, 45 undertaken Congress' inclusion 10% set-aside minority-owned Public Employment 1977. Court. White "[a]ny examination make sure conflict guarantees." 491, 2781. "d[id] adopt, expressly implicitly, formulas articulated [Bakke ]." 492, employed instead two-part asked, first, "whether objectives th[e] Congress," second, criteria, presented, permissible means achieving congressional objectives." 473, 2772. test, adding end "would survive 'test' several opinions." separately plurality essentially opinion—i.e., advancing interest"—and correctly. 496, 2783-2784 (concurring opinion). Stewart (joined then-Justice REHNQUIST) dissented, arguing enacting 523, 2797, failed standard. STEVENS simply pernicious permit exact connection justification 537, 2805, characterized "as 'narrowly tailored' measure." 2807. Marshall Brennan Blackmun) concurred judgment, reiterating "remed[y] discrimination" "substantially related" achievement "important objective"—i.e., "intermediate 518-519, 2795. 260 (1986), form classification. board adopt preferences teachers lay off. change merely challenged operates historically discrimination," 273, 1846, layoff provision supported chosen accomplish tailored." 274, 1847. words, 'strict 285, 1852 (O'CONNOR, board's "providing role models students, attempt alleviate societal added "[s]ocietal discrimination, more, amorphous imposing classified remedy," 276, 1848, insisted employer embarks affirmative-action warranted. is, sufficient 277, 1848-1849. asserted "singly policy." 295, 1858. Four whom 301-302, 1861-1862 (Marshall, dissenting). 47 failure Fullilove, unresolved ,S.Ct., 1063 ("[A]lthough elevated distinction purposes, yet consensus appropriate analysis"); Sheet Metal Workers EEOC, 478 480, 3019, 3052, 344 (1986) J.). Lower lack guidance unsettling. See, Kromnick School Dist. Philadelphia, 739 F.2d 894, 901 (CA3 1984) ("The absence Opinion concomitant articulate analytic framework supporting judgments position considering affirmative vulnerable"), cert. denied, 469 1107, 105 782, 83 777 (1985); Williams Orleans, 729 1554, 1567 (CA5 (en banc) (Higginbotham, specially); South Florida Chapter Associated America, Dade County, Fla., 723 846, 851 (CA11), 871, 220, 150 (1984). resolved issue, part, 1989. 854 (1989), city's determination 30% contract- ing go 493-494, 722 JJ.); 520, 735 (SCALIA, judgment) ("I agree O'CONNOR's race"). subdivision eradicate private own jurisdiction," 491-492, 720-721, city acted 'strong necessary,' 725 (majority opinion) Wygant, 1849 opinion)). "obvious remedy discrimination." 508, 729-730. With finally occasion declare "treatment exercise dispositive here," broad Amendment. 720 opinion); 522, 737 ("[W]ithout revisiting I believe controls us here"). subsequently indicated bearing upholding consideration Croson. H.K. Porter Co. 489 1062, 1333, 804 (1989); Shurberg Hartford, 876 915, (CADC 1989) Silberman, (noting Co.), rev'd sub nom. (1990). persisted Mann City Albany, Ga., 883 999, 1006 (CA11 (Croson "may Congress"); Shurberg, 910 difficulty extracting fractured opinions); 959 (Wald, rehearing en ("Croson certainly resolve substantial mandate preferences"); Winter Park Communications, 873 347, 366 (Williams, part) ambiguity leaves impossible firm needed sustain preferences"), aff'd supra. Despite details, 1847 2781 C.J.); 2798 ("[A]ny treats differently account origin suspect"); McLaughlin, 192, 288 ("[R]acial [are] suspect' "); 1385 ("Distinctions people"). 2747-2748 J.), i.e., reviewable strictly scrutinized. 670; 2; bears repeating here: 51 "If background impinge rights, rather group, consistently. Political regarding necessity weighed balance, [Korematsu ], constant. since product rough compro- mise contending democratic process. touch individual's background, burden asked bear guarantees regardless background. Shelley Kraemer, 334 [1, 22, 68 836, 1161 (1948) 299, 2753 (footnote 52 surprising Communications Commission. Bolling, even though recently enacted "[B]enign" said, "—even 'remedial' sense being compensate victims discrimination—are substantially related 564-565, 3008-3009 explain tell deemed "benign," "confiden[ce] 'examination history' separate benign types classifications." 564, 3009, (citation 53 noted FCC discrimination. 566, 3009. Proceeding objective" "enhancing broadcast diversity," 566-567, 3009-3010, objective, 569, 3011. policies. 54 why essential: "Absent into measures, 'benign' illegitimate notions inferiority simple politics. Indeed, 'smoke out' uses assuring body pursuing warrant highly tool. ensures 'fit' closely little motive stereotype." 493, 721 56 adhere today, surface appeal benign," 298, 2752 "[M]ore good motives allocate resources system." Yale L.J. 453, 485 (1987). two—skepticism consistency irrespective group. ("benign" ones Government) treated skeptically others; critical apply. departure much it. "in prohibited," 1385—should ideas understanding protection, square them. "[A] tolerate retreat reasons. Accordingly, hold today interests. 59 dissent, criticizes "deliver[ing] disconcerting lecture evils classifications," post, respect, criticisms reflect serious misunderstanding opinion. 60 concurs take skeptical Post, "[n]othing wrong applying fundamentally situations, takes differences account." What fails recognize "relevant differences" account—indeed, fundamental point carefully examining support show needed, legitimate decisionmaking. concedes "some difficult classify," ____, 4; reason, examine carefully. Strict "trea[t] dissimilar decisions equally objectionable," ____; contrary, evaluates objectionable requiring "so seldom provide[s] disparate treatment," 534, 2803 dissenting), legitimate, permitting proceed. 61 chides "supposed inability differentiate 'invidious' "people intentions bad." But, explained, "differentiate between" impermissible himself already dissent "good intentions" alone supposedly classification: "[E]ven predicate legislation, inevitably perceived many resting qualified identified purely perception especially fostered States—can exacerbate reduce prejudice, delay become truly irrelevant, insignificant, factor. Unless articulates tailors justification, uphold statute." 545, 2809 (dissenting added; footnote omitted); 2805 ("Racial classification"); 516-517, 734 ("Although issue] stigmatizes unproven charge actually imposes stigma supposed beneficiaries"); cf. ____ passages persuasive Perhaps itself, concepts "consistency" "congruence" conjunction leads dissent. "equate[s] invidious ignores engine oppression" "to foster equality society," or, colorfully, "between 'No Trespassing' sign welcome mat," kind. whenever unequally her falls spirit Constitution's ultimate validity law; job explains occurs. turn, determines justifies infliction Consistency suffers she 721-722 520-521, 735-736 Shaw Reno, 509 2816, 2824, 125 511 (1993); Powers Ohio, 400, 410, 1364, 1370, (1991). line right. 64 ignored legislatures. Congress, enact contravene co-equal Branch Members problem defer authority. 605-606, 3030-3031 dissenting); 486-493, 717-722 734-735 (KENNEDY, 521-524, 736-738 472-473, 2771-2772 500-502, nn. 2-3, 515, 14, 2786-2787, 2793, concurring); 526-527, 2799-2800 today. For now, observe STEVENS' suggestion Member previously subject, incorrect. "Although adherence precedent rigidly stare decisis justification." Arizona Rumsey, 467 203, 212, 104 2305, 2311, 81 164 deciding recall Frankfurter's admonition "stare mechanical formula latest decision, however recent questionable, involves collision embracing scope, intrinsically sounder, verified experience." Hallock, 309 106, 119, 444, 451, 84 604 (1940). Remaining "intrinsically sounder" better serves values it; latter compound error unjustified break complete. situation, "special justification" exists depart case. 66 jurisprudence, stretching fifty years, together stood "embracing" soun[d]" "verified experience," actors situation Frankfurter Helvering: colliding doctrine. Broadcasting's criticized commentators. Fried, FCC: Concepts Equality, Harv.L.Rev. 107, 113-117 (1990) (arguing adoption placed "unstable condition," advocating across board); Devins, Requiem Heavyweight, 69 Texas L.Rev. 125, 145-146 (same); Linder, Review Affirmative Action Solution Almost Nobody Wanted, UMKC 293, 316-317 (1991) (criticizing "anomalous results exemplified review"); Katz, Amendment: Fragmentation Theory Commission, T. 317, 319, 354-355, 357 current fragmentation seen dangerous seriously flawed interpretation," board). 67 situations supports Dixon, 2849, 556 (1993), overruled Grady Corbin, 2084, 548 "lack[ed] roots" "wholly precedent." 2852, 2860. Solorio 483 435, 2924, 364 (1987), O'Callahan Parker, 395 258, 1683, 291 (1969), caused "confusion" unbroken 1866 1960." Solorio, 439-441, 450-451, 2926-2928, 2932-2933. Continental T.V., GTE Sylvania 433 36, 2549, 568 (1977), Arnold, Schwinn 365, 1856, 1249 (1967), abrupt largely unexplained departure" precedent, great weight scholarly ha[d] critical." 47-48, 58, 2556, 2561. Payne Tennessee, 501 808, 830, 2597, 2611, (overruling Booth Maryland, 2529, 440 Carolina Gathers, 490 805, 2207, (1989)); Monell York Dept. Services, 436 658, 695-701, 2018, 2038-2041, 611 (1978) (partially overruling Monroe Pape, 365 167, 492 (1961), "departure practice" engendered reliance); Swift Wickham, 382 111, 128-129, 267-268, (1965) Kesler Safety Utah, 369 153, 807, 641 (1962), reaffirm "pre-Kesler precedent" restore "view traditionally taken" older cases). worth pointing applications Planned Parenthood Southeastern Pa. Casey, 505 2791, 120 674 Casey considerations inform overrule long-established integrated fabric law. Overruling naturally consequences ideal rule law," 2797. addition, reliance, ("[F]or decades developments, organized intimate relationships choices define themselves places society, availability abortion event contraception fail"). face kind, cases—and quite recently. refusing follow then, minimal, particularly where, here, unlikely affect primary conduct event. Allied-Bruce Terminix Cos. Dobson, 513 834, 838-839, 130 753 (1995) (declining Southland Corp. Keating, 465 852, 79 (1984), where "private written relying authority" ten decided). task perceives erroneous decisis. again, misunderstands position. acknowledged "merely restor[e] status quo ante well-settled pointed toward reached entirely open reached," Stewart's "novelty" argument, 13. "[u]nder presumptively invalid," '[e]qual Amendment.' 2798, hostility manifested Court," "our wholly neutral forbidding victims." 524, 2798. gave indication addressing "novel" proposition, Rather, text extends "persons," Buckley, Loving, 524-526, 2798-2800, There new 70 problem," "is prevail later misapplications." Helvering, 122, 453. untenable lacks undermines "its misapplications," prevail. 71 implicit opinion: 2783-84 (Recall C.J.).) Of course, (if any) Some importance debating legislation. 514-515, 5, 733, 610, 3033 ("This strike lawyers' quibble words"). "[b]ecause characteristics treatment, potentially harmful entire politic, reasons unquestionably legitimate," classification." 533-535, 2803-2804, (footnotes demonstrates vividly sometimes fail detect compare 223, 197 ("To cast outlines reference military dangers confuses issue. Military Area him race"), 100-383, 2(a), 903-904 ("[T]hese actions [of relocating interning civilians ancestry] carried security hysteria, leadership"). increase risk occurring 73 Finally, wish dispel fact." 519, 2795 country reality, Alabama Safety's "pervasive, systematic, obstinate conduct" justified remedy. 1064 190, 1076 196, 1079-1080 announced. Appeals, "narrowly achieve [their] providing enterprises." 1547 asking, "any race-neutral participation" contracting, 507, 729, appropriately "will last eliminate," 513, 2792-2793 concurring). Moreover, SBA's individual- ized participant, 124.106(a) whereas DOT's implementing 106(c) authorities inquiries, seem unclear showings, applies 124.106(b) (apparently participants showing), (1994) allowing invoke disadvantage). apparent discrepancy definitions programs; former individuals' 124.106(a)(1)(i) added), while business," 124.106(b)(1). ways relevance question, addressed instance courts. 76 proceedings consistent 77 ordered. 78 join III-C, following: my 735-736, (1989) Individuals wronged unlawful whole; concept alien focus individual, Amdt. ("[N]or person" laws) rejection dispositions 15, (prohibiting abridgment vote race") blood, Art. ("[N]o Attainder Treason Corruption Blood"); ("No Title Nobility States"). pursue entitlement—even admirable purposes—is reinforce preserve mischief thinking slavery, privilege hatred. government, American. 80 unlikely, impossible, am content leave remand. majority's write separately, disagreement premise underlying GINSBURG's dissents: paternalism exception "moral equivalence," subjugate distribute equality. equal; recognize, motivated, refuge government's drawn oppress sincere desire help doubt lie heart war inherent underlies infuses Constitution. Declaration Independence ("We truths self-evident, men created equal, endowed Creator unalienable Rights, among Life, Liberty, pursuit Happiness"). raise grave questions, moral principle. Purchased price immeasurable human suffering, reflects Nation's ultimately destructive Unquestionably, "[i]nvidious [racial] oppression," "[r]emedial" ibid. unintended poisonous So-called teaches chronic apparently immutable handicaps, patronizing indulgence. Inevitably, engender attitudes superiority alternatively, provoke resentment stamp badge develop dependencies attitude "entitled" preferences. harms stemming seemingly 2809, (1980) "remedial" mind, government-sponsored noxious inspired malicious prejudice.* instance, plain simple. joins, dissenting. Instead accordance controlling delivers selected propositions, represented bywords "skepticism," "consistency," "congruence." ante, comment add words decisis, affirm Appeals. 88 skepticism principle, statement common sense. Undoubtedly, wary relies "Because politic," "clearly legitimate." 2804, Burger's 2775-2776; 2783-2784; 533-534, 2803-2804. renewed endorsement demonstrate, agreement resolved. anything uniform, evaluate comments "congruence," type advocates assumes notwithstanding incidental majority. untenable. equivalence perpetuate caste subordination. Invidious oppression, subjugating disfavored enhance Remedial impulse: No sensible conception "govern impartially," (1976), ignore distinction.1 illustrate point, Americans during World War (1944). burdens—a exclusion areas West Coast2—on characteristics. exhibited exceptional heroism service War. Now suppose reward Japanese-American veterans extraordinary employment. Personnel Administrator Mass. Feeney, 442 256, 99 2282, 870 (1979). so, burdens preferred veterans. Nevertheless, surely describe everyone "odious" "invidious" reject National 18343 comparable African prevalent history. 91 espouses disregard Trespassing" mat. Dixiecrat Senator's Thurgood Marshall's confirmation keep off par President Johnson's evaluation nominee's positive equate black ineligible aimed recruiting soldiers. An exclude regulated market subsidy enables newcomers enter market. treating similarities. Ante, term "affirmative action" understood. Its presence everyday parlance shows bad. classify,4 jurisprudence of" adverse many. 279, 2296. turn "intentional," whether, contrast, "effect." (1976). Surely subtle, apply, 253-254, 2054 opinion), usually obvious intended inclined subvert easily hide bad guise "effects"; intending hegemony casting plausibly minorities. account. insist differential favored classes still recognizing all, Cleburne Living Center, 473 432, 451-455, 3249, 3260-3262, 313 (1985) San Antonio Independent Rodriguez, 98-110, 1278, 1329-1336, (1973) subsidies taxes invalid. purports defended name "equal protection." find insistence categories currently stands, gender ones. remains today's anomalous women Americans—even slaves. Cal., Francisco, 813 922 (CA9 1987) (striking scrutiny). becomes preoccupied abstract standards, risks sacrificing altar formal consistency. representatives discriminate representatives' costs constituents minority.5 argued, virtually repugnant circumstances, 316-317, 1869-70, dissenting).6 insisting doctrinaire "con- sistency" actions, obscures dichotomy. municipality. practical decisionmakers. repeatedly authored diversity broadcasting, "institutional competence" Legislature. 563, 3008. "It overriding cases," careful emphasize, "that FCC's ownership approved—indeed, —by recalled admonished 'approach branch "provide Welfare States" enforce, legislation," [Fullilove, U.S.], 472 [100 2771]; 491 2781]; 510, 515-516, 2794, 14] 517-520 2794-2796] (MARSHALL, judgment)." Burger "explained institutional competence Legislature, powers Commerce Clause, Spending Civil Amendments." (citations programs. 520-524, 735-738, distinction. Government—whose matters enhanced Const., 5—and precise entities directed, 1." 521-522, 736. Continuing, "sound (or local) rests substance Amendments, reality theory." 737. "What shows, finds ready expression level. children Founding Fathers, surprise. acute awareness danger oppression factions small, large, units dates beginning G. Wood, Creation American Republic, 1776-1787, pp. 499-506 (1969). James Madison proposed enhancement powers: 'The smaller fewer probably distinct composing interests, frequently party; majority, compass placed, concert execute plan oppression. Extend sphere you interests; probable whole invade citizens; exists, feel discover strength act unison other.' Federalist 10, 82-84 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961)." 523 emphasized responded City's argument She wrote: appellant subdivision, specific enforce dictates 'enforce' times threaten prophylactic rules situations. worked dramatic balance race." 490, O'Connor, Rehnquist, reason Legislature law-making represent elected representatives, nonresident played context, unable race-conscious recalls 8, cl. permits legislate denying fear undue out-of-state residents. Southern ex rel. Sullivan, 325 761, 767-768, 1515, 1519-1520, 1915 (1945) ("[T]o regulation outside alleviated operation restraints normally exerted affected"). Ironically, time, effort, paper differentiating word direct sudden enormous Such silence, erase overcome historic subjugation States' so. Presumably, theory substantive disposes objection divided powers. (as dispute) encompasses contained enacts legislature.7 proposition; and, foregoing discussion demonstrates, repeatedly.8 owe acts themselves.9 this, draws directly Four- teenth Amendment.10 reads: article." "provisions article" empowered abridge privileges immunities States; nor deprive laws." empowers limits States.11 accident. represents consensus, achieved hard experience throughout sorry history relations, defender purposeful "incongruity" unacceptable. 108 novel misguided. Congressional deliberations explaining holdings. occasions, 1980, second 1990, 445, Today overrules (at part), recasting rested calling explanation, advises agencies countless "we it." observer pronouncement faithful decisis.12 brief ailing answer. (1989). decisive ordinance. drew predated distinguished grounds federal-state dichotomy discredits. trumpeted suggest restores reached. Today's settled believed labels notwithstanding, cases—including fashions distinguishes distinctive seeking diversity. Reliance endorsed 311-319, 2759-2763, 750 (1978). Later, decisionmaking, 314-315, 2760-61 response, correctly "should confused promoting faculty." 288, n., 1854, diversity, "necessary discuss magnitude applicability case." mentioned opinions, perfectly answered affirmative. "inconsistent holding" promulgated fostering indeed, remotely presented case—and diminish aspect Broadcasting. 114 disingenuous endorses acknowledges well, valid tests Powell's. 2781-82. case's vitality accuses departing continue incorrectly decided, 532-554, 2802-2814 dissent- ing), neither 522-532, 2797-2803, resolving before.13 important, novel, question. Providing answer "restoring" V governs 1977 (1977 Act), 116, respects portions (SBA), seq., 1987 132, Each assistance enterprises (DBE's) categorical grant $400 million exchange investors characteristics." meaningful Act. constitutional, STURAA. prevailed, valid. 116 Unlike sole criterion Race which, STURAA,14 disadvantaged, receives presumptions. 124.105(c), 124.106 (1995); 19.703 D., Appendixes inclusive qualification. 117 More importantly, Whereas millionaire successes, numerous clubs trade associations, American, 537-538, 540, 543-544, 546, 2805-2806, 2806-2807, 2808-2809, 2809-2810 creates anomaly. excludes races disadvantaged.15 124.106(a)(1)(ii) irrational prejudice—along effects—still survives.16 embodies recognition success sector economy attributable, skills relationships. set-asides, disadvantages associated If, present, rebutted. 124.601-124.610 allow play decisional assuming relevance. connection, targets negotiation firms. award supervision contracting officers preclude bidders barriers parties—specifically, embody handicap firms leaders industry golfing partners. obstacles direct, intentional prejudice: know Given difficulties, reasonably favors entrenched businesspersons whom—or friends—they existing relationship. importantly 118 set-asides share. periodic DBE's, 637(a)(1)(B)-(C) (1988 ed., Supp. V); 124.602(a) (1995),17 competitor certification. 124.603 prevents taking ownership, successful. emphasis Administration's anticipation overcome, "graduate" able basis. 124.208 (1995). phases encouraging formation growth enterprises, facilitate entry competition Significantly, set-aside, requirement—numerical otherwise—that federally funded enterprises. quota. monetary subcontractors, lose (who offer lowest bid) underestimated; rigid, tailored, 319-320, 2763-2764 (distinguishing numerical factor). contrast sparse preceded 549-550, 2811-2812 extensive hearings conducted Congresses developed.18 However costs—both —of demanding Fullilove. dictated vision Constitution—a today—it night day crafted VI 121 My me difference, idea assistance. system, binding precedent. 122 BREYER join, 123 certiorari brought petitioner raised claim: findings surpassing objective. 1537, 1544 1994) gravamen SCC fashioned specified 240, 242 (Colo.1992) ("Plaintiff's permanent injunction DOT, FHA until defendants allegedly Complaint ¶ 28, Fifteenth financed contracts"). petition antecedent challenging use, below judge acted, entertained applied, identify factual premises having disappeared decided. detail, originals, reenactments) remedies continuing 465-466, 2768 describing remedial); S.Rep. 100-4, p. U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 66, (Committee Report persons"), 33. Since claimed obsolescence statute, up render inapposite. ("Adarand stipulated 502 evidentiary Memorandum Points Authorities Support 90-C-1413 (D.Colo.), (Fullilove "[f]irst foremost, stands race-base[d] remedy"). 126 STEVENS's compels doctrinal consistency, shared attack: acquiescence, preferential falling Amendment.1 477-478, 2774-2775 503, 2787 2796-2797 Once points out, (which harm remedied dissenting)) pass muster 127 incumbent anew judged justification: remedy, suitability scheme. could, issues plurality, trying proof changed rendered Fullilove's obsolete plurality's Be may, fair fate decreed. interpretive forks road clear. 128 spoke label 3008, comporting 495-496, concurring) place CHIEF JUSTICE conventional terms, accord views"). noncategorical reflecting conviction treble-tiered structure embroidered reasonableness balancing harm. 3260, concurring, C.J.). compatible survival reviewed enjoy elasticity suggest. ("we fact.' 519 2795-2796] judgment)"); Missouri Jenkins, --- ---- ("But fact' "). assessing degree portends practice, implies Congress's plurality. notes observation 'treatment here,' power, affecting "broad," "unique," 2786 concurring), "unlike [that of] subdivision," ("Congress enjoys ' "discretion secure Katzenbach Morgan, 384 651 [86 1723] )"). exactly source sufficiently corresponding requirement test. effect resolution pertinent unlabeled forbid continuation, eliminating otherwise persist skew systems intent Albemarle Paper Moody, 422 405, 418, 2362, 2372, 280 (1975) ("Where 'the [district] decree possible future,' ") quoting Louisiana 380 145, 154, 817, 822, 709 (1965). exercised court, ibid.; Green Kent 391 430, 437, 1689, 1693-1694, 716 (1968), 502, legislature, 720-721 reiterates remedying (GINSBURG, unconstitutional legislatures redressing discrimination"). 131 extirpation catch-up mechanism, inducement hurt innocent conduct. reasonable, temporarily; recede past, becoming attenuated disappearing. "temporary eliminate." 2792-2793; Court). transition (in joined) it) signal reasonable given time. press statutes,2 decade examined burden, fared 133 134 attention intervention area, large owed Judiciary "Congress' subjugation." ____.1 underscore display, considerable agreement—the understandings —revealed speak 135 indicates, "unfortunate reality": country." (lead because, history, judgment), embraced. generations, lawmakers judges unprepared land superior inferior other. Plessy Ferguson, 163 1138, (1896), endorse oppressive segregation, Harlan, advocate "color-blind" stated: 136 white deems dominant prestige, achievements, education, wealth power. So, heritage holds fast liberty." 559, 1146 (Harlan, 137 Not Virginia's ban interracial marriages, Constitu- tion abide Supremacy." 1823.2 138 divisions obscure inequality acknowledgement affirmatively, counteract discrimination's effects. (SOUTER, effects, reflective ended, evident workplaces, markets, neighborhoods. Job applicants identical resumes, qualifications, interview styles receptions, depending race.3 African-American consumers encounter deals.4 People color looking housing landlords, estate agents, mortgage lenders.5 Minority entrepreneurs gain bidders, refused winning contracts.6 Bias conscious unconscious, traditional unexamined habits thought,7 keeps nondiscrimination ever genuinely country's practice. 139 consequences, realize, finally, promised 1868.8 140 term, scrutiny," opinion's elaboration strongly indeed "fatal" me, believe, enduring lesson draw (1944); rigid," yielded odious, gravely Korematsu—type scrutiny: instruct, ranks prohibited. 141 hasten dispelled 'fatal 2795-2796, judgment)). Properly, calls searching, ferret malign, masquerading lax sex-based suspicion. Hoyt 368 57, 60, 159, 161-162, (1961) (upholding women's "privilege" exemption jury service); Goesaert Cleary, 335 464, 198, Michigan barring employment bartenders); Johnston Knapp, Sex Discrimination Law: Study Judicial Perspective, N.Y.U.L.Rev. (1971). usefully decisionmaking," 'differentiate between' 'between mat.' 142 Close reason. SOUTER mechanisms cope subjugation. trammel unduly interfere harshly expectations once-preferred Bridgeport Guardians, Service Comm'n, 1341 (CA2 1973). 143 disturb improvement branches, evolve, informed responsive changing conditions. syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Lumber 200 321, 282, 287, 499. Roberts, Murphy, vigorous dissents; Murphy "falls ugly abyss racism." 233, 202. dissenters' position, attempted amends. 903 recognizes injustice resident aliens evacuation, relocation, internment II"). helps, sense, hurts others. benefitted, called "benign." taxonomy "malign," (addressing discrimination), turns 'whose ox gored,' 295 35, 2751 (quoting, Bickel, Morality Consent (1975)), eye beholder. observes, "flexible" accommodate 'relevant differences,' ----; constitutionality. ("[T]ime ample possess combat injustice. Even insists spell death different—something —when deserve well-crafted unnecessary risk. were, shameful They Korematsu. ("Regardless assembly relocation centers dealing order"). Morton Mancari, 417 535, 2474, 2478, 290 (1974). eligible 1974, 'be fourth Indian blood Federally-recognized tribe.' 553, 24, 2484, BIAM 335, 3.1 (1972). "racial" encompass Americans. 553-554, 2484-2485. plenary behalf tribes. 551-552, 2483-2484. relies, preference, 14th council beneficiaries. THOMAS argues cost stigmatic white-owned advance. beneficiaries attack constitutionality—perhaps stigmatizing, perhaps opt need. stigmatizing THOMAS' extreme redress ____—at persuasive. wisdom programs: responsible arguments them, stigma, decides retain altogether well-meaning intelligent constituents—whether races—who segregationists bigots. potential (a odds element 252-256, 2053-2055 256-270, 2055-2062 (BRENNAN, dissenting)), persuaded psychological damage severe That, trusted make. legislature intends remove unfairly qualifications competitive 521, wise unwise, deserves paternalism," benefit, expect problem. Wygant: "There skin faculty exclusionary false person's skin, share blessings noted, 'utterly irrational,' 452, 3261, (1985), do, colored belief persons. educational tends illusion tend inclusionary accords Amendment; consciousness plainly Board's assumptions inequality." 1869 stand specifies suspect." quoted cases) "curtail group"; indirect well. 1903-1904, held: sovereign, govern impartially. justice process, analysis, [ protections coextensive. differ, selective unacceptable State. territory, Columbia, possession, involved, construed Clause." funding commitment "DBE's." contracting. Approximately 98% STURAA's allocated 38, 34. certify "disadvantaged" receiving contracts. sued policy; rationale conceivably 603-604, 3029-3030 intertwines elements conditions grants sustain. STURAA, 5's pure punish violations, expand 641, 1717, 828 (1966). Katzenbach, meant non-English-speaking vote, independent 648-651, 1722-1724. coverage exercising here; granting notice KENNEDY. Three whatsoever unwillingness disapproving precedents. citing 523-526, 2797-2799. engage dissents disagrees result; believes departs ought next opportunity. Much bind authorize disagrees. 124.105(b) demonstrating 124.106. ambiguous shown. 637(d)(3) 124.601 seriously. Autek Systems 835 (DC 1993) owner's income program), aff'd, 712 1994). "Our discriminated led disadvantagement society groups." Cong.Rec. 34097 institute DBE's review. derivative history: H.R. 5612, amend Pilot Program: Hearing 5612 Senate Select Committee Business, 96th Cong., 2d Sess. (1980); Decade 1980's (Part 1): Hearings House 97th 1st (1981); Contribution Economy: (1982); Opportunities Women-Owned Businesses Examination 98th (1983); Women Entrepreneurs—Their Success Problems: (1984); America: Subcommittee SBIC Authority, Enterprise, Problems 99th (1986); Set-Asides Projects: Procurement, Innovation, 100th (1988); Barriers Full Participation Federally Funded Operations, Surety Bonds Contractors: Commerce, Consumer Competitiveness Energy 9-10, 9. enforceable funnels money states. 6, implicates "press challenge," petitioner's duration scheme; durational aware, elsewhere, complaint. Heart Atlanta Motel, 241, 286, 348, 373, 258 (1964) (Douglas, (recognizing authority, "pu[t] obstructionist strategies allo[w] person—whatever creed, color—to patronize accommodation travels interstate intrastate."); 375, 377 (Goldberg, ("primary Rights vindication dignity"; "Congress law); Gunther, Constitutional Law 147-151 (12th 1991). 1955 1956, antimiscegenation laws; twice declined accept appeals Virginia Loving. Naim Naim, Va. 80, S.E.2d 749, remanded, 350 891, 151, 784 (1955), reinstated 734, 849, app. dism'd, 985, 472, 852 (1956). court's integrity [Virginia's] citizens"; prevent corruption blood," mongrel breed citizens," obliteration pride." Va., 90, S.E.2d, 756. H. Cross, al., Employer Hiring Practices: Differential Treatment Anglo Seekers (Urban Institute 90-4, 1990) (e.g., sent investigators 52% matched Hispanics); M. Turner, Denied, Diminished: Racial xi 91-9, 1991) ("In five audits, advance farther counterpart. eight partner auditors advanced counterparts partners audits."). Ayres, Fair Driving: Gender Retail Car Negotiations, 821-822, 819, ("blacks buy car using bargaining strategies"; female testers reflected higher markups male testers; high, high testers). Common Destiny: Blacks Society (G. Jaynes R. eds., ("[I]n metropolitan one-quarter one-half [housing] inquiries blacks responses."); Urban Development, Study: Synthesis i-vii (1989 audit study searches areas; rent experienced unfavorable paired testers); Leahy, Are Factors Important Allocation Mortgage Money?, Am.J.Econ. Soc. 185, 193 (controlling socioeconomic factors, "even neighborhoods major mortgage-lending outcomes unequal"). Coalition Economic Equity, 950 1401, 1415 (detailing examples Francisco). Bd. 318, 1870, Califano Goldfarb, 430 199, 222-223, 1021, 1034-1035, 270 (1977) Carter, Victims Happen 420, 433-434 (1988) ("[W]hatever racism, count racialism, centuries struggle mostly freedom categorization trivialize lives deaths racism. pretend Brown happened doesn't exist.").

Category: 1