Document: 472 U.S. 479 105 S.Ct. 2787 86 L.Ed.2d 384 Robert McDONALD, Petitioner,v.David I. SMITH. No. 84-476. Argued March 20, 1985. Decided June 19, Syllabus Respondent filed a libel action against petitioner in North Carolina state court under the common law of that State, alleging while respondent was being considered for position United States Attorney, wrote two letters to President Reagan (and sent copies other Government officials) containing "false, slanderous, libelous, inflammatory and derogatory statements" concerning respondent, knew statements were false maliciously intended injure by undermining his prospect appointed Attorney. Seeking compensatory punitive damages, also alleged, inter alia, had their effect, resulting not appointed, reputation career as an attorney injured. Petitioner removed case Federal District Court on basis diversity citizenship then moved judgment pleadings ground Petition Clause First Amendment—which guarantees "the right people . petition redress grievances"—provided absolute immunity from liability. The held does grant immunity, Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. provide defendants charged with expressing libelous damaging falsehoods petitions officials. Although value important aspect self-government is beyond question, it follow Framers Amendment believed provided damages libel. In 1845 this Court, after reviewing law, White v. Nicholls, 3 How. 266, 11 L.Ed. 591, official actionable if prompted "express malice," which defined "falsehood absence probable cause," nothing has been presented suggest holding should be altered. Nor do Court's decisions interpreting contexts than defamation indicate absolute. inspired same ideals liberty democracy resulted freedoms speak, publish, assemble, there no sound granting greater constitutional protection made expressions. Pp. 482-485. 2. Under may recovered only shown have acted "malice," terms consistent New York Times Co. Sullivan, 376 254, 84 710, 686. require State expand privilege into one. P. 485. 737 F.2d 427 (CA 4 1984), Bruce James Ennis, Jr., Washington, D.C., petitioner. William A. Eagles, respondent. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 We granted certiorari decide whether provides defendant States. 2 * July 1981, commenced Carolina. alleged he Reagan.1 complaint alleges these "contained false, App. 4-5. particular, states falsely accused "violating civil rights various individuals Superior Judge," "fraud conspiracy commit fraud," "extortion or blackmail," "violations professional ethics." Id., at 5-6. accusations mailed Presidential Adviser Edwin Meese, Senator Jesse Helms, Representative W.E. Johnston, three officials Executive Legislative Branches.2 It further petitioner's effect: injured, "suffered humiliation, embarrassment, anxiety mental anguish." 6. sought $1 million. citizenship. He immunity. agreed communications fell "within general afforded clause," 562 F.Supp. 829, 838-839 (MDNC 1983), but liability Fourth Circuit, relying decision 591 (1845), affirmed.3 (1984). 5 certiorari, 469 1032, 502, 83 394 (1984), we affirm. II 6 grievances." cut cloth Amendment, assurance particular freedom expression. Cruikshank, Otto 542, 92 23 588 (1876), declared implicit "[t]he very idea government, republican form." 552. And Madison clear congressional debate proposed amendment "may communicate will" through direct legislature government Annals Cong. 738 (1789). 7 historical roots long antedate Constitution. 1689, Bill Rights exacted Mary stated: "[I]t Right Subjects King." Wm. & Mary, Sess. 2, ch. This reappeared Colonies when Stamp Act Congress 1765 included King Parliament its Declaration Grievances. See B. Schwartz, Rights—A Documentary History 198 (1971). Declarations enacted many conventions contained grievances. See, e.g., Pennsylvania (1776). 8 values are Early cases courts evidence nature existed time adopted; reveal conflicting views expressions 9 plaintiff Vermont Harris Huntington, Tyler 129 (1802), brought complaining defendant's reappointed justice peace. court, based understanding petitioning supreme power," request "absolute unqualified all responsibility." 139-140. reflected early English view,4 followed Commonwealth Clapp, Mass. 163, 169 (1808). Indeed, Yeates Supreme stated Gray Pentland, Serg. R. (1815), 10 "an individual, who maliciously, wantonly, without cause, asperses character public officer written printed paper, those invested power removing him office, responsible party injured although such paper masked specious cover investigating conduct good. Public policy demands sacrifice persons capacity, nor will endure mockery justice." 25 (emphasis original). supra, dealt proper common-law Government. Nicholls urging remove office customs inspector. concluded cause." 291. Nothing us suggests recognize altered; prepared conclude, 140 years later, understood include express exercise right.5 12 For example, filing form activity; "baseless litigation immunized petition." Johnson's Restaurants, Inc. NLRB, 461 731, 743, 103 2161, 2170, 76 277 (1983); accord, California Motor Transport Trucking Unlimited, 404 508, 513, 609, 613, 30 642 (1972). Similarly, contain intentional reckless "do enjoy protection," Garrison Louisiana, 379 64, 75, 85 209, 216, 13 125 (1964), may, reached To accept claim would elevate special status. Clause, however, gave assemble. Mine Workers Illinois Bar Assn., 389 217, 222, 88 353, 356, 19 426 (1967). These inseparable, Thomas Collins, 323 516, 530, 65 315, 322, 89 430 (1945), III 14 malice; "malice" Carolina, 686 "knowledge words cause checking truth means hand." Dellinger Belk, 34 N.C.App. 488, 490, 238 S.E.2d 788, 789 (1977). hold guaranteed; impunity not. therefore 15 Affirmed. 16 POWELL took part case. 17 BRENNAN, whom MARSHALL BLACKMUN join, concurring. 18 279-280, 725-726, recover statement where "made 'actual malice'—that is, knowledge disregard not." standard, explicitly directed toward "freedom speech press," id., 264, S.Ct., 717, reflects our "profound national commitment principle issues uninhibited, robust, wide-open," 270, 721. McDonald contends citizen communicates directly about matters importance—here qualifications candidate Attorney—the Amendment's requires actions accord rather qualified Times. I fully agree imposes privilege. 20 correctly notes stringent protection. "The form, implies citizens meet peaceably consultation respect affairs 552, (1876). "among most precious liberties guaranteed Rights," (1967), except extreme circumstances cannot punished exercising "without violating fundamental principles lie base political institutions," De Jonge Oregon, 299 364, 57 255, 260, 81 278 (1937). As press, well vehement, caustic, sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks officials," occasionally "erroneous inevitable." U.S., 270-271, 720-721. extend substantial " 'breathing space' expression, because rule imposing whenever accidently negligently incorrect intolerably chill "would-be critics voicing criticism." 272, 279, 721, 725.1 21 interpreted requiring 22 "Although honest utterance, even inaccurate, fruitful free speech, lie, knowingly deliberately published official, like At adopted, today, unscrupulous enough skillful use deliberate falsehood effective tool unseat servant topple administration. That used ends automatically bring protective mantle known once odds premises democratic orderly manner economic, social, change effected. Calculated falls class utterances 'are essential any exposition ideas, slight social step benefit derived them clearly outweighed interest order morality. .' Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 572, 62 766, 769, 1031. Hence truth, protection." (1964). argues that, reasons, qualification vigorously criticize apply expression falling within scope Clause.2 First, historically accorded understanding. 17th- 18th-century British colonial practice reveals, most, "conflicting ante, 483, persuasively demonstrate Framers' intent petitioning. 24 Second, criticism functionally different from, entitled than, Speech Press Clauses. Specifically, "[u]nlike more Constitution necessary self-governing people," "when speaking large, petition, [he] thus performing self-governmental function." Brief 7, added). Such distinction untenable. Clauses, every bit much ensure growth preservation self-governance. A criticizes shielded Clauses "[i]t duty official's administer." 282, 727 "[S]peech self-expression; essence self-government." 74-75, 216.3 envisioned assembly, interrelated components public's sovereign authority. observed during House Representatives' consideration Amendment: 26 secured; press expressly reach Government; publicly address representatives, privately advise them, declare sentiments whole body; ways they will." (1789) 27 previously emphasized unity guarantees: 28 "It accident coincidence coupled single guaranty assemble All these, though identical, inseparable. They cognate rights, united Article's assurance." 323, (1945). 29 addressed precise issue before recurrently treated similarly to, frequently overlapping with, NAACP Claiborne Hardware Co., 458 886, 909-912, 915, 102 3409, 3423-3425, 3426, 73 1215 (1982); 221-222, 355-356; Adderley Florida, 385 39, 40-42, 87 242, 243-244, 149 (1966); Edwards South 372 229, 234-235, 680, 682-683, 697 (1963); Button, 371 415, 429-431, 328, 335-337, 405 (1963). There persuasive reason according lesser importance depending consists neighbors across backyard fence, publishing editorial local newspaper, sending letter necessarily follows protected actual-malice standard set forth join opinion. first letter, dated December 1, 1980, Ronald "President-Elect States." 8. second February 13, Reagan. 14. described himself "politically active American" owned operated child-care centers since 1970. Copies purportedly Representatives Jack Kemp Barry Goldwater, Jr. Director Bureau Investigation, Webster, allegedly received copy 1981. Because raised "serious unsettled question" F.2d, 428, accepted jurisdiction "collateral order" doctrine. Nixon Fitzgerald, 457 742-743, 2690, 2697, 349 (1982). Given preliminary attorney's fees ultimately prevail. Lake King, Wms. Saund. 131, Eng.Rep. 137 (K.B.1680). 289, "seemingly anomalous decision." Basic aspects attack England 1790's. response assembly 150,000 reforms, outlawed meetings 50 "except presence magistrate authority arrest everybody present." Brant, 245 (1965). safeguard values, "defeasance privilege" "is conditioned, mere negligence, truth." 79, 218, purposes applying context, need consider "touc[h] on" "relevant to" servants, private federal [have] take responsive actions." n. 7. ago concluded, embraces broader range executive, legislature, courts, administrative agencies. 741, 2169, 510, 611, includes activities peaceful protest demonstrations. 235, 683, Expression assembly. 49-51, 248-249, (1966) (Douglas, J., dissenting). Thus advertisement Times, here, "communicated information, expressed opinion, recited grievances, [and] protested claimed abuses"—expression 'to end changes obtained lawful means.' 269, 718, 720.

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