Document: 536 U.S. 765 REPUBLICAN PARTY OF MINNESOTA ET AL.v.WHITE, CHAIRPERSON, BOARD JUDICIAL STANDARDS, AL. No. 01-521. Supreme Court of the United States. Argued March 26, 2002. Decided June 27, CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT APPEALS FOR EIGHTH CIRCUIT The Minnesota has adopted a canon judicial conduct that prohibits "candidate for office" from "announc[ing] his or her views on disputed legal political issues" (hereinafter announce clause). While running associate justice court, petitioner Gregory Wersal (and others) filed this suit seeking declaration clause violates First Amendment and an injunction against its enforcement. District granted respondent officials summary judgment, Eighth Circuit affirmed. Held: Amendment. Pp. 770-788. (a) record demonstrates candidate stating any specific nonfanciful question within province court which he is running, except in context discussing past decisions — latter as well, if expresses view not bound by stare decisis. 770-774. (b) both speech based content burdens category at core freedoms about qualifications candidates public office. concluded, parties do dispute, proper test to be applied determine constitutionality such restriction strict scrutiny, under respondents have burden prove (1) narrowly tailored, serve (2) compelling state interest. E. g., Eu v. San Francisco County Democratic Central Comm., 489 U. S. 214, 222. That found had established two interests sufficiently justify clause: preserving judiciary's impartiality appearance impartiality. 774-775. (c) Under definition "impartiality," fails scrutiny. First, it plain tailored (or appearance) traditional sense word, i. e., lack bias either party proceeding. Indeed, barely interest all, inasmuch does restrict particular parties, but rather issues. Second, although "impartiality" preconception favor may well served clause, pursuing objective interest, since virtually impossible, hardly desirable, find judge who preconceptions law, see Laird Tatum, 409 824, 835. Third, need decide whether achieving openmindedness because, means so woefully underinclusive believe was purpose. See, e. City Ladue Gilleo, 512 43, 52-53. Respondents carried imposed scrutiny establishing statements made during election campaign are uniquely destructive openmindedness. Landmark Communications, Inc. Virginia, 435 829, 841. 775-784. (d) A universal long-established tradition prohibiting certain creates strong presumption prohibition constitutional, McIntyre Ohio Elections Comm'n, 514 334, 375-377. However, practice neither ancient nor universal. knows no prohibitions throughout 19th first quarter 20th century, they still universally adopted. This compare with traditions deemed worthy attention in, Burson Freeman, 504 191, 205-206. 785-787. (e) There obvious tension between Minnesota's Constitution, requires elections, places most subjects voters off limits. permit leave principle elections place while preventing what about. Renne Geary, 501 312, 349. 787-788. 247 F. 3d 854, reversed remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C. O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. post, p. 788, 792, concurring opinions. STEVENS, dissenting opinion, SOUTER, GINSBURG, BREYER, joined, 797. 803. James Bopp, Jr., argued cause petitioners Republican Party et al. With him briefs were Thomas J. Marzen, Richard Coleson, Ronald D. Rotunda. William Mohrman Erick G. Kaardal Alan I. Gilbert, Chief Deputy Solicitor General Minnesota, respondents. brief Mike Hatch, Attorney General, Kristine L. Eiden, Julie Ralston Aoki, Mark B. Levinger, Vasaly, Assistant Attorneys General.* JUSTICE SCALIA Court. 1 presented case permits prohibit State announcing their 2 * Since admission Union 1858, State's Constitution provided selection all judges popular election. Minn. Const., Art. VI, § 7. 1912, those been nonpartisan. Act 19, ch. 2, 1912 Laws Special Sess., pp. 4-6. 1974, subject states office, including incumbent judge," shall "announce issues." Code Judicial Conduct, Canon 5(A)(3)(d)(i) (2000). prohibition, promulgated 7(B) 1972 American Bar Association (ABA) Model known clause." Incumbent violate discipline, removal, censure, civil penalties, suspension without pay. Rules Board Standards 4(a)(6), 11(d) (2002). Lawyers run office also must comply clause. Rule Professional Conduct 8.2(b) (2002) ("A lawyer applicable provisions Conduct"). Those to, inter alia, disbarment, suspension, probation. 8.4(a); Responsibility 8-14, 15(a) 3 In 1996, one petitioners, Wersal, ran course campaign, distributed literature criticizing several issues crime, welfare, abortion. complaint challenging, among other things, propriety Office Responsibility, agency which, direction Board,1 investigates prosecutes ethical violations dismissed complaint; regard charges materials violated expressed doubt could constitutionally enforced. Nonetheless, fearing further complaints would jeopardize ability withdrew 1998, again same Early race, sought advisory planned enforce responded equivocally, that, significant doubts provision, unable answer because submitted list announcements wished make.2 4 Shortly thereafter, lawsuit Federal respondents,3 seeking, alleged forced refrain 1998 point where declined response questions put press public, out concern might afoul Other plaintiffs suit, Party, kept views, learn support oppose candidacy accordingly. cross-motions respondents, holding did 63 Supp. 2d 967 (Minn. 1999). Over dissent Judge Beam, States Appeals Kelly, 854 (2001). We certiorari. 534 1054 II 5 Before considering we clear meaning. Its text says 6 know ... views" issue covers much more than promising way. extends candidate's mere statement current position, even bind himself maintain position after All agree case, contains so-called "pledges promises" separately making promises faithful impartial performance duties office," ibid. challenged here express view. 7 are, however, some limitations placed upon scope (to politely) immediately apparent text. formed basis 1996 included criticism One piece stated "[t]he issued marked disregard Legislature common sense." App. 37. It went criticize decision excluding evidence confessions criminal defendants tape-recorded, asking "[s]hould conclude trust police, allows confessed criminals go free?" Ibid. criticized striking down law restricting welfare benefits, asserting "[i]t's should set our spending policies." And requiring financing abortions poor women "unprecedented" "pro-abortion stance." Id., 38. Although think these touched issues, least now) fall decisions, refused discipline foregoing part, thought relied Board's upholding 3d, 882, recently embraced Circuit's interpretation, re 639 N. W. 55 8 yet meaning light constitutional concerns, construed reach only likely come before elected judge. 2d, 986. accepted limiting interpretation addition allow general discussions philosophy. 881-882. interpretations when ordered enforcement accordance opinion. supra. 9 seems us, like itself appear be. acknowledged oral argument critical permissible Tr. Oral Arg. 33-34.4 Thus, choose opposition Or, look concretely, prior erroneous assert they, elected, power eliminate decisions. limitation all. expect "disputed raised include matters Government end embargo Cuba. Quite obviously, will disputes improper) business courts. relevant category, "[t]here almost unlikely federal, jurisdiction." Buckley Illinois Inquiry Bd., 997 224, 229 (CA7 1993). construing "general" philosophy turns little help campaign. At argument, gave, example exception, free "`strict constructionist.'" 29. But philosophical generalities, meaningful electorate unless exemplified application construction example, statute runs provision Constitution. conceded exemplifying fashion. 43. Without real-life can claim "strict constructionists" equal unhelpful) plausibility. 10 event, decisis.5 11 contend leaves plenty topics discussion trail. These "character," "education," "work habits," "how [he] handle administrative elected." Brief 35-36. printed preapproved allowed answer. how feels cameras courtroom, reducing caseload, costs administration reduced, proposes ensure minorities treated fairly system. Task Force Report & Recommendations, C (June 1997), reprinted 97-103. Whether subjects, prohibited adequately fulfill Amendment's guarantee freedom now turn. III 12 As recognized, "at freedoms" 861, 863. concluded cases called id., 864; dispute correct. strict-scrutiny test, 222 (1989). order show demonstrate "unnecessarily circumscrib[e] protected expression." Brown Hartlage, 456 45, 54 (1982). 13 judiciary judiciary. 867. reassert arguing protects due process rights litigants, second preserves confidence judiciary.6 vague, mean "impartiality." term used briefs, ABA Codes none sources bothers define it. Clarity essential indeed and, so, achieve 14 root Impartiality assures law. is, guarantees hears apply way applies party. used. See Webster's New International Dictionary 1247 (2d ed. 1950) (defining "impartial" "[n]ot partial; esp., favoring another; treating alike; unbiased; equitable; fair; just"). cited amici proposition process. Tumey Ohio, 273 510, 523, 531-534 (1927) (judge sitting financial parties); Aetna Life Ins. Co. Lavoie, 475 813, 822-825 (1986) (same); Ward Monroeville, 57, 58-62 (1972) Johnson Mississippi, 403 212, 215-216 (1971) (per curiam) previously successful litigant him); Bracy Gramley, 520 899, 905 (1997) (would disposed rule bribe cover up fact regularly ruled Murchison, 349 133, 137-139 (1955) trial defendant whom indicted). 15 impartiality) sense. To sure, arises (as candidate) taken stand, taking opposite stand lose. party, favoritism toward Any just applying sees it) evenhandedly.7 B 16 perhaps possible use (though certainly usage) sort concerned, guaranteeing litigants them chance persuade points case. requires. judge's predisposition regarding never necessary component justice, good reason. For thing, impossible then-JUSTICE REHNQUIST observed own Court: "Since Justices bench earlier middle years, unusual time formulated tentative notions influence sweeping clauses interaction another. merely unusual, extraordinary, given opinions previous careers." 835 (memorandum opinion). select preconceived desirable so. "Proof Justice's mind joined complete tabula rasa area adjudication qualification, bias." positively forbids courts jurisdiction having ("Judges supreme appeals district learned law"). avoiding pretending otherwise attempting preserve "appearance" type either. 17 third (again one) described quality demands, willing consider preconceptions, remain open persuasion, arise pending seeks each litigant, win doing sense, it, judiciary, pursue inquiry, 18 argue serves openmindedness, relieves pressure consistency made. problem campaigns infinitesimal portion commitments positions judges-to-be) undertake, object implausible. arrive (whether otherwise) often committed themselves later upon. Laird, supra, 831-833 (describing Justice Black's participation deciding Fair Labor Act, though Senator principal authors; Hughes's authorship overruling Adkins Children's Hospital C., 261 525 (1923), book written appointment Court). More confronting bench. Most frequently, course, expression occurred ruling outside classes conduct, books speeches. Like encourages this. 4(B) write, lecture, teach, speak participate extra-judicial activities concerning ..."); 4(B), Comment. ("To extent permits, encouraged ..."). quite incompatible notion openmindedness) lies behind here. 19 short matter this: say "I legislature same-sex marriages." He very until day declares candidate, repeatedly (until litigation pending) elected. articulate, render belief purpose challenge credulous. 52-53 (1994) (noting underinclusiveness "diminish[es] credibility government's rationale speech"); Florida Star F., 491 524, 541-542 (1989) (SCALIA, judgment) ("[A] cannot regarded protecting highest order, thus justifying truthful speech, appreciable damage supposedly vital unprohibited" (internal quotation marks citation omitted)). 20 STEVENS asserts pose special threat judge, reluctance contradict them. Post, 801. plausible, perhaps, promises. "If I vote uphold legislature's marriages" breaking word (although naive recognize long democratic binding form human commitment). But, noted earlier, separate promises," feel significantly greater compulsion, nonpromissory self-evidently true. us likely, fact, many doubt, enunciated pendency disfavor reconsidered carefully considered forth denying individual's justice. suffices establish (that validity rests. 841 (1978) (rejecting "offered assertion conjecture sanctions objectives statutory scheme seriously undermined"); Playboy Entertainment Group, Inc., 529 803, 816-825 (2000) (same).8 21 Moreover, electioneering justifies abridgment right sets jurisprudence head. "[D]ebate candidates" electoral freedoms," edges. Eu, S., 222-223 omitted). "The role play society makes imperative freely importance." Wood Georgia, 370 375, 395 (1962). "It simply function government worth debating campaign." Brown, 60 communicating information 22 GINSBURG confirms refutes conclusion undermining elections. She contends denied sat involving announced 816, 819. reaches she says, "direct, personal, substantial, pecuniary interest" consistently view, reduce risk "voted thereby lose [his] salary emoluments," 816 alterations regardless beforehand always face disagree rulings therefore Surely frees Timothy McVeigh job (horror horrors!) reconsiders issue. So if, claims, sit another increases prospects reelection, then electing violation difficult understand approve election-nullifying effect clause.9 They not, reflected Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment, coexisted ever adopted, infra, 785-786. 23 devotes rest attacking arguments make. despite number pages dedicates disproving proposition, 805-809, imply sound legislative office.10 What assert, ignores, regulation campaigns, underinclusive, would-be judges) times forms. rely 781-782, make explained resort provides less protection times.11 24 greatly exaggerates difference "the underlying unconstrained representative depends public's agents act behest carry over bench." 806. separation enterprise "representative government" truth countries aside laws enacted legislature. true picture Not state-court possess "make" immense shape States' constitutions well. Baker State, 170 Vt. 194, 744 A. 864 (1999). Which precisely why became popular.12 IV 25 sustain heavily pervasive developed last half century. 879-880. "universal long-established" "a presumption" constitutional: "Principles liberty fundamental enough embodied readily erased Nation's consciousness." 375-377 (1995) dissenting). 26 founding, Vermont (before State) selected Starting Georgia 1812, began provide election, development rapidly accelerated Jacksonian democracy. By Civil War, great majority judges. Haynes, Selection Tenure Judges 99-135 (1944); Berkson, States: Report, 64 Judicature 176 (1980). restrictions (including generally partisan period, movement nonpartisan beginning 1870's. 176-177; M. Comisky P. Patterson, Judiciary Selection, Compensation, Ethics, Discipline 4, (1987). trail, touting affiliations angling nominations while. 27 code regulating 1924. 48 Reports 74 (1923) (report Taft); McFadden, Electing Justice: Law Ethics Election Campaigns 86 (1990). contained akin "A advance conclusions secure class ...." 30 (1924). slow adopt canons, however. "By World War II, canons bar associations eleven states." MacKenzie, Appearance 191 (1974). Even today, 1990 successor, adoption unanimous. Of 31 appellate general-jurisdiction Society, Appellate Jurisdiction Courts (Apr. 2002), candidate-speech comparable clause,13 "pending litigation."14 practice, relatively new cases. 205-206 (1992) (crediting around polling secret ballot late every participated); 214-216 McIntyre, dissenting) anonymous literature, 1890 adopted). 28 29 article popularly approved Court's (The product fiat.15) disparity unsurprising, ABA, originated opponent 5(C)(2), Comment ("[M]erit preferable manner judiciary"); An Independent Judiciary: Commission Separation Powers Independence 96 ("The strongly endorses merit judges, opposed .... Five August 1984 House Delegates recommendations preference encouraging jurisdictions work retention"). (it Founders Government), goal leaving "[T]he dispense altogether lesser conditions state-imposed voter ignorance. If chooses tap energy legitimizing process, accord participants attach roles." (1991) (Marshall, dissenting); accord, Meyer Grant, 486 414, 424-425 (1988) initiatives includes paid petition-circulators). Accordingly, reverse grant judgment remand proceedings consistent ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici curiae urging reversal Center Jay Sekulow, H. Henderson, Sr., Colby May, Walter Weber; Liberties David Isbell, Remes, Steven R. Shapiro; Chamber Commerce Jan Witold Baran Stephen Bokat; Representative Philip Krinkie Raymond Ortman, Jr.; Public Citizen Allison Zieve, Vladeck, Scott Nelson; Erik Jaffe. affirmance California Bill Lockyer, California, Manuel Medeiros, Solicitor, respective follows: Janet Napolitano Arizona, Jeremiah (Jay) Nixon Missouri, McGrath Montana, Drew Edmondson Oklahoma, Hardy Myers Oregon, John Cornyn Texas, Christine O. Gregoire Washington; Ad hoc Committee Former Friends Dedicated Shawn Stephens Andy Taylor; Robert Hirshon, Reagan Wm. Simpson, Warren Huang; Wayne Struble; Brennan NYU School Bales Deborah Goldberg; Conference Roy Schotland, George T. Patton, Sarah Steele Riordan, Bauer; Missouri Joseph Blanton, Pennsylvanians Modern Edmund Spaeth, Brett Sweitzer. Idaho Conservation League Echeverria; National Criminal Defense Ogden, Jonathan Frankel, Neil Richards, Lisa Kemler. parse functions entities hand, referring collectively "Lawyers Board." take approach Nor success receiving answers "concrete examples,"post, 799, n. (STEVENS, dissenting), request month later: "As you aware, there portions 5. You plaintiff action sued, others, me Director Charles Lundberg Chair Responsibility. litigation, answering your time." 153. officers (Judicial Board), enforces rules argues ignore concession inconsistent clausePost, 810 (dissenting appears acknowledge, silent question. Silence argument. 1990, concerns Milord, Development 50 (1992), replaced "statements commit respect cases, controversies court." 5(A)(3)(d)(ii) constructions Circuit, broader ABA's canon. somewhat curious motivated urged replace language, but, unlike jurisdictions, declined. Final Advisory Review 5-6 29, 1994), 367-368. agrees respondents' asAmicus Curiae interpreted authorities) same. No aspect analysis referred "independent" 864-868, term, involved interchangeable "impartial." Seeid., independence "ability neutrally"); 20, ("[J]udicial linked independence"). "serves maintaining actuality."Post, disagree. Some exhibit STEVENS' stressing unbroken affirming convictions rape, ante, 800-801. careful "barely interest," 776 (emphasis added). not. STEVENS's broad "to [statements issues] seek enhance popularity indicating evidencea fitness office." 798 real-world "indicate" speaker "in cases." (of honestly held views) hope enhancing one's chances displayed similarly honest confirmation Senate, President. made, think, hearing, contemplate federal filled unfit. nullifying decided soPost, 811-812. explained, additionally follow lucky. Supra, 772-773. predicament reflects robust communication ideas voter." 812. becompelled GINSBURG's repeated invocation instances nominees Senate hearings pointless. 807-808, 1, 818-819, 4. voluntarily demurring legitimacy compulsion demur amply demonstrated unredacted sentence quotes 819, 836, (1972): "In terms propriety, disqualification, distinguish sharply nomination bench, nominee (Emphasis added.) premise completely separated government,post, ("[E]very fully aware distinction personal view"), eventually concede hold resort, 799 ("If obligation precedent polls"); 2. policymaking capacity limited "[I]f be" ibid., lower high-and low-court alike. inferior "make law," situation, reviewed. settled binds court. Reves Ernst Young, 494 56, (1990) (concurring opinion); McNally States, 483 350, 376-377 (1987) (2001); Mich. (2002); Ore. 4-102 save pledges Ala. 7(B)(1)(c) codes Curiae. state, promulgates authorization, grant, inherent power." Texas: Per Curiam Opinion Concerning Amendments Canons 61 Tex. 64, 66 (1998) (collecting provisions). 32 concurring. 33 join write my generally. Announce protect governmental interes[t] actual perceived judiciary." 8. am concerned campaigning, undermines 34 want impartial, being stake outcome assigned. regular publicized Elected satisfied hurt reelection prospects. Eule, Crocodiles Bathtub: Courts, Voter Initiatives Threat Electoral Reprisal, 65 Colo. Rev. 733, 739 (quoting former Otto Kaus' ignoring consequences visible "`like crocodile bathtub'"); Bright Keenan, Politics Death: Deciding Between Rights Next Capital Cases, 75 759, 793-794 (citing statistics far override jury sentences life parole impose death penalty election). able suppress awareness potential acting undermined possibility 35 contested entail campaigning. campaigning post today require substantial funds. Financing Elections, 2000: Change Challenge, 2001 Detroit College 849, 866 (reporting 2000, seats Alabama spent average $1,092,076 campaigns); Association, Recommendations Lawyers' Political Contributions, pt. (July 1998) 1995, Pennsylvania $1,848,142 funds, 1986, $2,700,000 race Unless pool wealthy independently fund unrelated skill, cost engage fund-raising. Yet relying donations feeling indebted groups. Thomas, Mar. 16, A8, col. study group Texans 40 percent $9,200,000 contributions $100 seven Texas' nine justices 1994 "came lawyers contributors closely parties"). donors, judges' desire repay undermine Greenberg Quinlan Rosner Research, Viewpoint, Survey Frequency Questionnaire (2001) (available http://www.justiceatstake. org/files/JASNationalSurveyResults.pdf) survey results 76 registered decisions); two-thirds individuals groups give money receive favorable treatment); Barnhizer, "On Make": Campaign Funding Corrupting Judiciary, Cath. 361, 379 (relating anecdotes felt affected court). 36 Despite problems, 39 currently employ courts, both. 2002). prevalent. methods selecting involve Croley, Majoritarian Difficulty: Elective Judiciaries Law, 62 Chi. 689, 716 (1995). explains, adopting systems 785. From 1830's 1850's, part control trend accelerated, Goldschmidt, Merit Selection: Current Status, Procedures, Issues, 49 Miami (1994), judiciaries increasingly came viewed incompetent corrupt, mounted. 723. 1906, Roscoe Pound gave claimed "compelling become politicians, destroyed Causes Popular Dissatisfaction Administration Justice, Baylor (1956) (reprinting Pound's speech). 37 modified system Plan (because posts). Rev., 724. Plan, appointed high official, together nominating commission, subsequently unopposed retention asked recalled. recalled, vacancy through appointment. obviously reduces threats impartiality, Grodin, Developing Consensus Constraint: Judge's Perspective Retention Cal. 1969, 1980 (admitting sure votes "critical cases" 1986 influenced subconsciously outcomes affect conducted year). fill offices 725-726; 38 Thirty-one and/or thereafter periodically. these, slightly executive confirmation. 725. chosen instead combined along lines Plan. risks above. result, needs particularly troubling. largely brought continuing 41 candidates' unconstitutional speech. authority resolve see, Simon Schuster, Members Y. Crime Victims 502 105 (1991), explains forceful regulatory test. 42 adhere content-based exception invalidated inquiry into narrow tailoring interests. exceptions recognized "Here, directed alone obscene, defamatory, words tantamount criminal, impairment right, incitement lawless action, calculated bring imminent harm substantive prevent. reject upheld." 124 (KENNEDY, judgment). heart direct beyond impose. 43 Here, integrity Nothing read cast importance system, elaborate principles resolving disputes. prerogative perform rest, end, accorded judgments. citizen's judgments turn issuing court's absolute probity. consequence, order. 44 Articulated standards Shepard, Speech: Restraint Liberty Geo. Legal 1059 (1996). comprehend, codify, essence hard task, goes hundreds land. suppose, easy describe followed thousand more. farther truth." Cardozo, Nature (1921). Much said explicit integrity. strive lifetime. dissuade profession. difficulty undertaking attempt. Explicit guidance discharge honorable bodies, committees, professional promulgate service. Administrative abridge aspiring 45 characteristics exemplify excellence. enshrine definitions conduct. recusal rigorous requires, censure standards. do, censor people hear undertake exemplary officer. relevance voters, State. contradicts unabridged foundation freedom. 46 citizens thoughtful commentators age frenetic fundraising mass media foster disrespect believed rough-and-tumble politics institutions ill repute. cure tendency Sedition 1798, 74, Stat. 596. Cooler heads measures insufficiently compelling, "`expressly forbidden by'" York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 274 (1964) Virginia Resolutions 1798). opt democracy, desired, compels 47 believes sorts disclose flaws credentials, democracy correctives. profession, academy, press, voluntary groups, civic leaders, interested protest neutrality promise, uninterested uninformed blinded partisanship, urge higher better understanding stronger commitment finest traditions. Free powerful combination: Together precepts. consensus design lifetime tenure confirmation, preserved Judiciary. choice persons mechanism than, say, condemning across board, implicitly condemn countless warrant. Many them, difficulties discovered enlightenment, instruction, inspiration independent-minded jurists real inadvertence, "impute firmness, wisdom, honor." Bridges 314 252, (1941). considerations reinforce flawed. abridging content, impeaches regulate speakers candidates. present conduct; regulates Pickering Ed. Township High Dist. 205, Will Cty., 391 563, 568 (1968), Connick Myers, 461 138 (1983), extended promote efficient Petitioner challenger; entered employment relationship surrendered rights. His controlled abridged manner. undoubted excellence restrain reason content. attempt impermissible. 51 BREYER join, dissenting. 52 cogently unsound. reservation. add comments emphasize force explain reasoning troubling holding. limits evident: (Board) sanction him, surely advise speaker's unfitness solution harmful reasoning, unfortunately endure next cycle. obscuring branches, failing articles defies sensible context. 53 disposition rests flawed premises inaccurate appraisal assumption "`to importance'" officials. Ante, 781-782. occupy fundamentally different occupied tenured lessen duty attributes embedded Anglo-American centuries. policy properly vote; legislators executives popular. determined indifferent unpopularity. Sir Matthew Hale pointedly attribute retained centuries: "`11. applause distaste anything distribution 56 "`12. solicitous men keep myself exactly according justice.'"1 57 Consistent routinely unpopular disliked equally unwise, contrary predilections. reason, becoming disqualify anyone service clear, expressions nominated shed little, any, 58 faces retains Nevertheless, appointee, constituency dictates polls.2 judged merits individual mandate voters. 59 recognizing conflict demands distinct nothing abandoning goes. practical matter, expediency. absence reliable other, reasonably presume aspirations announces effectively telling electorate: "Vote X, accordingly." Once statements, 780-781, change him. sanctioning statements. "general observation obtain consideration" candidacy, motion recusal), distinction, clearly hearing conclude: "[S]ince `appearance' either," 778. defined narrowest embrace proceeding," 775, Expressions stress rape,3 (the prosecutor) (defendants rape cases). Contrary 775-776, actuality. When evaluates broadest describes openmindedness," 778, concludes "so credulous," 780. careers. discussed career significant. Rather, reevaluate adversarial presentation, governing characterize boldly failed demonstrating "that 781. convey message writes advocating harsher penalties polluters degree "vote deserve penalties." least, obscure importantly, create false impression office.4 forgotten evaluation "disinterestedness" Commenting danger assignment erode confidence, wrote: "While usually cured recusal, overcome institutional partiality involvement policy. Branch ultimately reputation nonpartisanship. borrowed Branches cloak neutral colors action." Mistretta 488 407 Conversely, compromised emphasizes predilections noted: "Informed rulings, important accountability. wrong facts maligns basic tenets intellectual honesty dedication sentiment. Dedication rise above moment solely disagreement evidences misguided branch operate constituency-driven arm government. `political constituencies.' fidelity will." De Muniz, Politicizing Elections: Independence, Willamette 367, 387 67 criteria mirror profoundly misguided. respectfully dissent. Campbell, Lives England 208 (1873) Hale's Guidance, Things Necessary Continually Had Remembrance) ignores races permissible, appropriate intermediate judgeship. Such display misunderstanding role, mislead giving entire hypothetical stems, sanctioned violating Board. 16-21. evaluate "not specified disputed, issue." 32. examples make, advised "unless listed section written, enforceable." Consequently, left petitioner's question, neglected supply concrete concerns. SeeBuckley 226 KENNEDY contentbased permitted AmendmentAnte, 793 explicitly, extreme preclude promise conviction," formally candidate. unwisdom proposal illustrates 68 69 appointed, people's representatives. Legislative behalf office; "judge[s] represen[t] Law." Chisom Roemer, 380, 411 Unlike counterparts expected catering constituencies committing controversial presentation. Their mission "individual controversies" records, Plaut Spendthrift Farm, 211, 266 neutrally principles, necessary, "stand[ing] democracy: will," Scalia, Rules, 1175, 1180 70 capable performing function, owing person "longstanding tradition," Will, 449 200, 217 (1980), bulwark government, constant guardian independent, enables "withdraw vicissitudes controversy, majorities courts." West Bd. Barnette, 319 624, 638 (1943). "Without this, reservations privileges amount nothing." Federalist 78, 466 (C. Rossiter 1961). 71 unique large selected. Framers structural protections Article III, President advice consent terms. Through directly periodic opted install corps actors bench; rather, endeavored means. Recognizing designated Peterson Stafford, 490 418, 425 1992). Clause, designed prevent "publicly judges." 881-882 (CA8 2001). 72 presents stops furthering targeted restriction. 73 fail, stake; opts elect asserts, rein say. 781 (notion "right "sets head"); 787-788 (power curtail place); 897 (Beam, ("[W]hen replete association."); 903 (same). unilocular, "an election," approach. Instead, differentiate offices, holds full sway, whose administer persons. persuaded, installing geared capacities. people; primary constituencies. Candidates keeping inform Armed information, equipped intelligently, approves. sides contentious elections; process," Williams Rhodes, 393 23, "enhance accountability represent," Judges, actors. representatives persons, communities, parties; faction constituency. "[I]t popularity." Chisom, 401, legally home crowd" wants."so result Rehnquist, Dedicatory Address: Well Your Part: Therein Honor Lies, Pepperdine 227, 229-300 develop text, depend public. ("One's life, liberty, property, worship assembly, elections."). 77 aiming seat unrelenting reliance contests posts manifestly place. 781-782 (1962) added.))). O`Neil, Courts: Recent Rulings, Ind. 701, 717 (reliance nonjudicial "grievously misplaced"; "[h]ow derive baffling"). magisterial removes fray, limit impermissible 228 1993) ("Mode factor distinctions kinds official. officials, ways bear strength state's speech."). 78 conclusion, embraces tension," 787: vote, "subjects voters," particular, told supposed tension, departing model necessarily departed exercise choice.1 79 otherwise: 80 initially retain varied, implicit enabling legislation same: independent political, economic social influences." Peterson, 420. 81 convincingly did. 82 trappings races. providing participation, fit character (Minnesota's "keep[s] ultimate while, time, nature function."). balance allowing safeguarding encounter shoal. 715-723. 83 Proper resolution correction distorted review. According "prohibits "he decisis." 773. key respects, misrepresents (2002), final Hortonville Joint Assn., 426 482, (1976) ("We accept [the State's] State."). 84 important, crucial below. "stating [her] questions, 773; prevents [she] decide" wide range highly informative construction, include, historical ("As prosecutor, obtained drunk driving convictions"); qualified sparingly discretion lenient drivers"); framed sufficient level generality ("Drunk drivers safety driver"). remains essentially issue, maximum law." (candidate "`I'm going future'"). 85 misportrays Citing 33-34, decisis," 772 deleted). draws attributed Circuit. line Standards, qualification "does decisions." 882 Informal Opinion, Oct. 10, ("In contests, discuss courts.")). controlling spot fast-paced Moose Lodge 107 Irvis, 163, loath conclusive weight spontaneous responses counsel questioning argument."). tightly bounded, robust, acknowledges. themselves, 774, conception 97-103; Amicus 22-23 (e. depart sentencing guidelines, remedies racial gender bias, "free [and] [hate crimes]" Further, discuss, criticize, defend sophistication remove constraints characteristic declare presented, sans benefit colleagues` analyses. Properly construed, discrete subcategory misinterpretation encompasses. 87 characterization "election-nullifying," 782, "plac[ing] limits," 787, belied bid three unrecorded suppressed asked, "Should invalidating stated: deferred Legislature. It's abortion rights, charged "directly Court," "unprecedented," 88 12-15, warranted, 20-21. when, outset avoid future pursued option, available candidates, 12-13, requesting Clause. 24-26. request, indicated anticipate adverse 31-33.2 On sum, stifled voter. 89 significance integrated developed. Coupled "mak[ing] correct 770, errs overlooking interdependence us. resolved examination serves. 90 whatever pledging results. Petitioners 36-37; 14-16 (petitioners' acknowledgment barred "pledge outcome"); 11; Amici ("All manner."). 91 reasons agreement apparent. Pledges however commonplace "with role." 16; ("[B]ecause [judges] prohibited, promises."). prejudgment corresponds litigant's disinterested tribunal cases," Marshall Jerrico, 446 238, 242 proscription represents accommodation "constitutionally [that] lie equation." Shrink PAC, 528 377, 400 (BREYER, concurring). Balanced "powerful fair adjudicative procedure." Marshall, 243; Buckley, 227 ("Two must, possible, reconciled.... roots deep heritage."). 92 guaranteed adheres principle: "[N]o man try outcome." 136 (1955). Our "jealously guarded" concept, "ensur[es] deprived proceeding assurance arbiter predisposed him." 242. 93 Applying 510 (1927), received fines collected guilty. arrangement, said, substantial[, and] reaching arbiter. 523. (1972), Tumey's guilty constituted village's finances, village mayor, responsible. mayor personally share fines, "perforce occupie[d] practically positions, judicial." 94 813 (1986). dispositive "had immediate status settlement value" suit. 824. Tumey, held, unsuited judgment. mattered actually interest; Clause," observed, "may sometimes best weigh scales contending parties." 825 95 propositions dispute. pecuniary" 824 alteration compensated conviction obtained; stem, Ward, knowledge outcomes. test," "is situation `which offer temptation lead nice, true.'" 532). third, showing biased self-interest. "always probability unfairness." 136. requirement procedure honor greatest self-sacrifice injustice." 532.3 justification follows principles. grave manifest. resist pleas promises, abandonment supporters professed views; "ris[k] assailed dissembler," 878, thing once 97 voted emoluments honors pledge secured 1059, 1083-1092 (1996); 1088 [may characterized as] offered return continued judge."); 79, 472 1961) nature, man's subsistence amounts deleted)). 98 Given justified barring commitments, typify "situatio[n] experience teaches too tolerable." Withrow Larkin, 421 35, (1975). removing source "possible temptation" self-interest, 532, furthers "compellin[g] performing" Ashcroft, 452, (1991): "judging [each] controversy circumstances," Morgan, 313 409, 723 ("What fairness, lives fortunes vagaries politics."). 99 litigants' agree, advances interest: fosters "public perception judiciary"). Cox Louisiana, 559, 565 (1965) misjudged minds public."); ("[T]o way[,] `justice satisfy justice.'" Offutt 348 11, (1954))). Because purse sword, faith don robe. nonpartisanship."). method "can accepts abides Complaint Winton, 350 337, 340 (1984). 100 Prohibiting promotes perceive garnering votes. decides next. unseemly quid pro quo electorate's polls inevitably diminishes self-interest.4 Then-JUSTICE REHNQUIST's observations elective judiciary: Regarding integrity, 101 "[one must] suggest consideration nomination, deliberately advance, oath, judge." 102 supported; reinforces promoting ends, feeble, arid form, importance. 103 Uncoupled ban easily circumvented. prefacing caveat, "although anything," language altogether, impunity Semantic sanitizing diminish pernicious effects saying, marriages," 780, scarcely stands podium tells throng cheering supporters: 779. Made Both "bind candidate] election." 770. prejudging assertion, "nonpromissory" averts dangers posed "promissory" one. 780-781 104 targeting technically constitute nevertheless mak[e] 881-882, letter spirit companion provision.5 itself, indispensable effort health reasons. 106 past, O`CONNOR 788-790 opinion), "fundamental ideal world politics," 400. warrant forcing pole other. politicians vote. command wish abandon people, sovereign prerogatives, devised. three-quarters endeavored, experiment tested experience, setting (1990); borne effort, "comes bearing weighty title respect," Teamsters Hanke, 339 470, (1950). complex competing sensitive area. affirm prospective "of powers, "interest" longstanding norm, Member furnish presumably 17-42 hearings). perceives here; drew preconfirmation questioning, reticence dishonors deprives aid nominate confirm. "practice demurring" "establish[es] demur,"ante, 783-784, norm suggestion, inherently incongruous depriving choosing responding "doubts Canon." 20;id., doubts, applied, provision's scope. import dissects concept "impartiality,"ante, 775-779, concluding variant prejudice 775-777. focus inquire broadly surrounding circumstances incentives compromise faithfully assigned duties. 815. "enmeshed matters" 215 suits losing that"). arise, countenance self-interested "will party] [would apply] party" advancing 776. author grounds tell overrule case: "Let assume somebody representation hearings, condition confirmed, that. bad adjudicate accused matter." Mersky Jacobstein, Hearings Successful Unsuccessful Nominations Committee, 1916-1986, 131 (hearings then-Judge Scalia). components unravel. "attend gatherings" speeches organization," Judical 5(A)(1)(c), elsewhere, counting faithful. "seek[ing], accept[ing,] us[ing] endorsements 5(A)(1)(d), unsolicited Cfante, 770 (Minnesota Wersal's candidacy). endorsements, turn, ineffective "identify[ing] members 5(A)(1)(a). "Indeed, fabric non[p]artisan hangs thread." 20.

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