Document: 523 U.S. 224118 S.Ct. 1219140 L.Ed.2d 350 Hugo Roman ALMENDAREZ-TORRES, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. No. 96-6839. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Oct. 14, 1997. Decided March 24, 1998. Syllabus * Title 8 U.S.C. §1326(a) makes it a crime for deported alien to return without special permission and authorizes maximum prison term two years. In 1988, Congress added subsection (b)(2), which 20 years "any described'' in (a), if initial "deportation was subsequent conviction commission an aggravated felony.'' Petitioner pleaded guilty violating §1326, admitting that he had been deported, unlawfully returned, earlier deportation taken place pursuant three convictions felonies. The District sentenced him under applicable Sentencing Guideline range 85 months' imprisonment, rejecting his argument that, since indictment failed mention felony convictions, court could not sentence more than imprisonment authorized by §1326(a). Fifth Circuit also rejected argument, holding (b)(2) is penalty provision simply permits imposition higher when returning has record prior convictions. Held: Subsection provision, enhanced sentence. Since does create separate crime, Government required charge fact indictment. Pp. ____-____. (a) An must set forth each element charges, Hamling v. States, 418 87, 117, 94 2887, 2907-2908, 41 590, but need factors relevant only sentencing offender found charged crime. Within limits, see McMillan Pennsylvania, 477 79, 84-91, 106 2411, 2415-2419, 91 67, question are normally matter Congress. See Staples 511 600, 604, 114 1793, 1796, 128 608. (b) That intended factor reasonably clear from number considerations. Its subject typical factor, lower courts have almost uniformly interpreted statutes authorize sentences recidivists as setting factors, creating crimes. addition, words "subject (b)'' at beginning " [n]otwithstanding (a)'' meaning neither obscure nor pointless provide additional penalties, substantive Moreover, circumstances (b)'s adoption support this reading statutory text. title 1988 amendment-"Criminal penalties reentry certain aliens,'' 102 Stat. 4471 (emphasis added)-also signals deals with reinforced legislative history speaks about creation new penalties. Finally, interpreting offense risks unfairness, introduction trial evidence defendant's crimes significant prejudice. See, e.g., Spencer Texas, 385 554, 560, 87 648, 651-652, 17 606. (c) Additional arguments supporting contrary interpretation-that magnitude increase shows congressional intent language after petitioner's offers guidance on how interpret doctrine constitutional doubt requires crime-are rejected. (d) There sufficient support, Court's precedents or elsewhere, claim Constitution treat recidivism irrespective Congress' intent. At most, re Winship, 397 358, 364, 90 1068, 1072-1073, 25 368; Mullaney Wilbur, 421 684, 704, 95 1881, 1892, 44 508; Patterson New York, 432 197, 97 2319, 53 281; Specht Patterson, 386 605, 1209, 18 326, together, yield broad proposition sometimes require (though require) State they offer no position. And legislature's decision recidivism, particular, rather exceed limits power define elements offense. supra, distinguished. Petitioner's arguments-that tradition treating related should adopt rule any would trigger "elements'' requirement-are (e) expresses view whether some heightened standard proof might apply determinations bearing significantly severity Cf. Watts, 519 ----, n. 2, 117 633, 637-638, 136 554 (per curiam). P. ____. 113 F.3d 515, affirmed. BREYER, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C. O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. SCALIA, filed dissenting opinion, STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, Peter M. Fleury, Fort Worth, TX, petitioner. Beth S. Brinkmann, Washington, DC, respondent. Justice BREYER Court. 1 §1326 defines It forbids who once permission, up to, than, same section §1326(b)(2). before us latter penalty. If former, i.e., constitutes then write mentions element, namely conviction. latter, conviction, fact, present 2 We conclude recidivist. Consequently, statute mentions, 3 September 1995, federal grand jury returned charging petitioner, Almendarez-Torres, having "found . being deported'' "permission consent Attorney General'' "violation Section 1326.'' App. 3. December Almendarez-Torres entered plea guilty. hearing, accepted plea, admitted later "pursuant to'' "convictions'' Id., 10-14. 4 1996, held hearing. pointed out all 590 (1974). He mentioned argued consequently, argument. 77 96 months, Commission, Guidelines Manual §2L1.2; ch. 5, pt. A (sentencing table) (Nov. 1995) (USSG), imposed imprisonment. 17. 5 On appeal 515 (1996). Like seven other Circuits, judge impose Vasquez-Olvera, 999 F.2d 943, 945-947 (C.A.5 1993); Forbes, 16 1294, 1297-1300 (C.A.1 1994); DeLeon-Rodriguez, 70 764, 765-767 (C.A.3 1995); Crawford, 1173, 1176-1178 (C.A.4 Munoz-Cerna, 47 207, 210, 6 (C.A.7 Haggerty, 403, 404-405 (C.A.8 1996); Valdez, 103 95, 97-98 (C.A.10 Palacios-Casquete, 55 557, 559-560 (C.A.11 cf. Cole, 32 16, 18-19 (C.A.2 1994) (reaching result respect §1326(b)(1)). Ninth Circuit, however, reached opposite conclusion. Gonzalez-Medina, 976 570, 572 (1992) (subsection crime). granted certiorari resolve difference among Circuits. II charges. S.Ct., 2907-2908. But 67 (1986), 608 (1994) (definition criminal entrusted legislature, ""particularly case crimes, solely creatures statute''') (quoting Liparota 471 419, 424, 105 2084, 2087, 434 (1985)). therefore look ask what intended. Did intend help crime? Or did presence use punishment? answering question, we statute's language, structure, matter, context, history-factors typically determine objectives thereby illuminate its Wells, 921, ---, 137 107 (1997); Garrett 773, 779, 2407, 2411-2412, 764 (1985). 7 directly portions existed time included enacted 1952, (b), 1988. (1952 ed.) (as June 27, §276, 66 229); (1988 (reflecting amendments made §7345(a), 4471). print those text below: §1326. Reentry alien; aliens. 9 Subject section, who- 10 (1) , thereafter 11 (2) enters in, [without General's legal equivalent], 12 "shall be fined 18, imprisoned years, both. 13 Notwithstanding described such subsection- 14 whose [certain misdemeanors], (other felony), shall both; 15 felony, title, both.'' Although forces close text, well consideration interpretive circumstances, believe answer presented-whether crime-is clear. outset, note recidivism. matter-prior serious one imagine. USSG §§4A1.1, 4A1.2 1997) (requiring consider offender's every case); 28 §994(h) (instructing Commission dramatically recidivists); §924(e) (Armed Career Criminal Act 1984) (imposing felon-in-possession violation 21 §§841(b)(1)(A)-(D) (same drug distribution); 1996 Sourcebook Federal Statistics 35, 49 (for year ending Sept. 30, 20.3% cases involved offenders substantial records (criminal categories IV-VI); 44.2% convictions). Perhaps reflecting (that recidivists) (at least where conduct, absence independently unlawful). E.g., McGatha, 891 1520, 1525 1990) (18 §924(e)); Arango-Montoya, 61 1331, 1339 (21 §841(b)); Jackson, 824 21, 25, (C.A.D.C.1987). clearly circumstances. §922(g)(1) (prior conduct otherwise With mind, turn language. essence, says alien'' "deported,'' reappears appropriate "imprisoned years.'' in'' "whose conviction'' minor, major, may much longer term. 19 includes (b). lesser offense, Blockburger 284 299, 304, 52 180, 182, 76 L.Ed. 306 (1932), doing there? dissent believes mean defined "subsection inapplicable covered (b),'' post, __, hence represent effort say defendant cannot punished both say. Nor ever (to our knowledge) used these similar anywhere else code purpose. §113 (aggravated simple assault); §§1111, 1112 (murder manslaughter); §2113 (bank robbery incidental crimes); §§2241, 2242 sexual abuse). come surprise since, 60 presumed cumulatively other. Whalen 445 691-693, 100 1432, 1437-1438, 63 715 (1980); Blockburger, supra. If, mystery disappears. subsection(b)'' pointless. They say, obscurity, sets penalty, different (where felon felon). violates "notwithstanding'' committed specify punishments, (a)'s punishment, whenever commits manner examined here issue. original read follows (with amendment underscored): 22 "§1326.Reentry 23 24 26 upon thereof, fine $1,000, 27 29 added). 30 Thus, amendment, operative ordinary reentering-alien said re-entering §1,000.'' way contrast, referred punishment-an increased punishment felon, whom "described.'' [subsection (a)],'' standing alone, importing into offenses seems unusual awkward reasons just given. Linguistically speaking, likely meant "describe'' who, statute, "guilty felony'' "convict[ed] thereof.'' 31 As points out, post struck quoted, their words, Immigration 1990 (1990 Act), §543(b)(3), 104 5059. series updated simplified phrasing various, disparate civil provisions Naturalization Act. Act, §543(b)(1) (amending §1282(c)); §543(b)(2)(C) §1325); §543(b)(4) §1327); §543(b)(5) §1328). contained titled "Increase Fine Levels; Authority INS Collect Fines,'' subsection, "Criminal Levels.'' §543(b), 5057, effect making (which remained unchanged 1952) parallel counterparts later-enacted amendment's suggests housekeeping measure, change, clarify, fundamental relationship between subsections. "the heading section'' "tools available resolution doubt'' statute. Trainmen Baltimore & Ohio R. Co., 331 519, 528-529, 1387, 1391-1392, 1646 (1947); National Center Immigrants' Rights, Inc., 502 183, 189, 112 551, 555-556, 116 546 (1991). aliens.'' §7345, contains word "penalties'' often, certainly always, __-__, 33 instance reflect careless, mistaken, drafting, about, 973, 100th Cong., 1st Sess. (1987), 133 Cong. Rec. 8771 (1987) (original bill titled, "A aliens reenter purposes''); 134 27429 (1988) (section-by-section analysis referring Senate increasing unlawful reentry); id., 27445 (remarks Sen. D'Amato) (law "increas[e] current illegal deportation''); 27462 Chiles) "impose stiff penalties'' against previously convicted offenses); 28840-28841 Rep. Smith) (corresponding House creates three-tier structure). history, knowledge, indicates 34 interpretation-a offense-risks unfairness. prove "subsequent long recognized, 606 (1967) (evidence "is generally recognized potentiality prejudice''). Even stipulation were keep name details previous jury, Old Chief 644, 574 (1997) jurors still learn, indictment, judge, prosecutor, felony. And, last Term, "there can nature offense,'' here, "aggravated'' serious, "carries risk unfair prejudice defendant.'' 652 several courts, do believe, things equal, wanted kind unfairness facts never contested. F.3d, 1298-1300; Rumney, 867 714, 718-719 1989); Brewer, 853 1319, 1324-1325 (C.A.6 1988) (en banc); F.2d, 25-26; Virgin Islands Castillo, 550 850, 854 1977). 35 sum, B 36 interpretation First, try derive establish change proves little. change-from 2-year 5- 15-year maximums-is within providing enhancements. Compare §§841(b)(1)(B) (D) (distributing less 50 kilograms marijuana, years; distributing 40 years), §§841(b)(1)(A) (C) grams heroin, kilogram life imprisonment), §841(b)(1)(B) 500 cocaine, same, life); §962 (doubling second violations importation laws); §844 (using carrying explosive device during years); §2241(c) (sexual abuse children, life; mandatory §2320(a) (trafficking counterfeit goods, years). amended maximums respectively. Violent Crime Control Law Enforcement 1994, §§130001(b)(1)(B) 108 2023. nothing so, transform basic nature. suggested regardless. 37 Second, petitioner point, part, exist 1995. Petitioner, example, subsections, (b)(3) (b)(4), says, created Antiterrorism Effective Death Penalty §401(c), 110 1267 (adding (b)(3)); Illegal Reform Immigrant Responsibility (IIRIRA), §305(b), 3009-606 3009-607 (b)(4)). Both refer another "offense'' now us. IIRIRA, §334, 3009-635. 38 These laws, beside point. declare law. Housing Administration Darlington, 358 84, 90, 79 141, 145-146, 132 (1958). seek clarify general Red Lion Broadcasting Co. FCC, 395 367, 380-381, 89 1794, 1801-1802, 371 (1969). depend effectiveness clarification, Seatrain Shipbuilding Corp. Shell Oil 444 572, 595-596, 800, 813-814, (1980). direct focus provisions. ibid.; 86, 143-144. find them forward looking mandate, guidance, suggestion 39 Regardless, obvious subsections (a express view) nor, adding them, leave issue it. technical, crime-suggesting word-"offense''-eight different, nothing-not because offset suggest greater force exact opposite, namely, precise relation adopt. §321(c), 3009-628 (stating definition "aggravated applies "under'' "only violations'' (a)). argue "constitutional Holmes ago, [a] construed, fairly possible, so avoid conclusion unconstitutional grave doubts score.'' Jin Fuey Moy, 241 394, 401, 658, 659, 1061 (1916) (citing ex rel. General Delaware Hudson 213 366, 408, 527, 535-536, 836 (1909)); Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 348, 56 466, 483-484, 80 688 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring). "This canon followed Congress, assume legislates light limitations.'' Rust Sullivan, 173, 191, 111 1759, 1771, 233 (1991); FTC American Tobacco 264 298, 305-307, 336, 337-338, 68 696 (1924). seeks part minimize disagreement Branches preserving enactments founder objections. designed aggravate friction (through precedent) foreign intended, through fear difficulty analysis, will evaporate. invoke alternative likelihood unconstitutional. Only serve democratic function maintaining reflect, distort, policy choices elected representatives made. For reasons, genuinely susceptible constructions after, before, complexities unraveled. construction avoids "fair'' one. Unlike dissent, conditions met case. somewhat complex. considering interpretative point direction. More important, even "fairly possible,'' questions raises, while requiring discussion, lead gravely commit particular we, unlike constitutionality crucial mechanically there arises obvious. precedent always applied) here-where lacking answer, majority constitutional. Rust, U.S., 190-191, 1770-1771 (declining although claims "without force''); 204-207, 1778-1780 (Blackmun, dissenting); Monsanto, 491 611, 109 2657, 2664, 512 (1989); 636, 2668 Locke, 1785, 1792-1793, 64 (1985); 120, 1806 (STEVENS, dissenting). III 42 Invoking precedents, offense-irrespective requirement carries subsidiary requirements mandates ordinary, legislatively state "element.'' "element'' jury. Duncan Louisiana, 391 145, 149, 88 1444, 1447, (1968). beyond reasonable doubt. 2327, 281 (1977). claim. 43 This explicitly Constitution's Due Process Clause "protects accused except necessary constitute charged.'' 1073, 368 (1970). law, decide entitles juveniles, like adults, benefit whether, when, "fact crime,'' crime-defining so. 508 (1975), provides stronger support. down homicide homicides "malice,'' punishable unless proved acted heat passion. 688, 1884. wrote "if Winship limited undermine many interests sought protect'' redefining constitut[ed] characterizing bear extent punishment.'' 698, 1889. simultaneously prosecution "beyond nonexistence "heat passion''-the State's scheme, distinguished 1892. Read literally, concede, permit judges 45 case, absolutely wrong. critical fact-the passion''-not potential "malice aforethought,'' itself "part of'' "homicide,'' question. 215-216, 2329-2330. (The Maine defining "malice'' "presumed'' "rebutted'' showing passion.'' 216, 2330.) circumstance extremely important. considered (and "impermissible'') shifting burden "with deems important either presumed. '' 215, 2329 burden-shifting permissible York's homicide-related "extreme emotional disturbance.'' 205-206, 2324-2325. deemed "so important'' "proved presumed.'' 2324-2325, 2329. 46 upshot Mullaney's all, treated elements. scarcely way. cases, involves factor-the felony-that present, "proved'' order (defining elements). Indeed, said, most frequently effects sentencing-recidivism. 326 (1967), cites, help, decided (indeed Winship); issue; and, noted, Colorado "confronted "a radically situation' usual proceeding.'' 89, 2417. element. that. 48 primarily rely, Pennsylvania factor-"visibly possessing firearm''-the minimum five holding, "link[ing] "severity punishment' identified fact''' automatically make 2415 214, 2329). citing usually dispositive.'' 85, 2415. "define precisely limits'' 2416. whatever be, exceeded them. Ibid. concede "firearm possession'' (in sentence) violate limits. nonetheless, "recidivism'' maximum) assessing claim, various features arguably turned. out: plainly "does transgress expressly 2416; (unlike defendant) face ""a differential ranging nominal sentence,''' 2417 Mullaney, 700, 1890); (3) "alte[r] crime'' "operates limit court's discretion selecting already it,'' 87-88, 2417; (4) "creat[e] calling penalty,'' 88, (5) gave "no impression tailored visible possession finding tail wags dog but, contrary, "simply took dictated weight given factor,'' 89-90, 2417, 2418. resembles factors. third wider punishments McMillan. nonetheless differences outcome reasons. 51 here-recidivism-is traditional, basis Parke Raley, 506 20, 26, 517, 521-522, 121 (Recidivism laws "have country dates back colonial times'' currently States); Dept. Justice, Office Programs, Statutes Requiring Use History Record Information 17-41 (June 1991) (50-state survey); case). Consistent tradition, ago allege information alleges underlying though "necessary bring statute.'' Graham West Virginia, 224 616, 624, 583, 585-86, 917 (1912). followed, distinct issue, relate goes only, subsequently decided.'' 629, 588 deviated view. Oyler Boles, 448, 452, 82 501, 503-504, 446 (1962) (due process advance notice accusation habitual offender); Parke, 522 (" [A] only''). infra, never, proscribed unlawful. (C.A.D.C.1987) (R. Ginsburg, J.) (referring few, any, "prior jury''). foreclose (because, provided determination disputed convictions), hold mark abrupt departure longstanding "go[ing] only.'' Graham, 587-588. major consists (the conviction) triggers permissive sentence, triggered Yet difference-between minimum-does systematically, normally, work disadvantage defendant. To binds judge; not. can, STEVENS "mandate twice severe imposed.'' McMillan, 2421. eliminate judge's entirety. (authorizing children; mandating offense). produce unfairly disproportionate impacts kinds offenders. Mandatory Minimum Penalties System 26-34 (Aug. (discussing "tariff'' "cliff'' minimums). less, greater, minimums maximums, neither, "rested judgment'' difference, "rejected'' above contends, __. Rather, petitioners' "more superficial appeal'' "exposed given, case-recidivism-we take McMillan's statement determinative here. 54 Third, Judges parole boards) exercised ranges. 1226 (statutory examples); Institute 1985) (survey L. Friedman, Punishment 159-163 (1993) (history indeterminate sentencing). recently channel using "sentencing factors'' remaining feature us-prior felony-as (illegal entry deportation). pre-existing well-established reason think "evade'' Constitution, "presuming'' guilt "restructuring'' 86-87, 2416-2417, 2417-2418. legislature gun possession) 57 response. calls "tradition''-that Massey F. 293, 297-298 1922); Singer 278 415, 420 People Sickles, 156 N.Y. 541, N.E. 289 (N.Y.1898); __-__ authority). convincing, uniform. 566, 654-55 ("The method determining varies jurisdictions affording leaving court''); Note, Recidivist Procedures, N.Y.U.L.Rev. 332, 347 (1965) 1965, eight States' jury). appear modern. Thorne, 129 Wash.2d 736, 776-784, 921 P.2d 514, 533-538 (1996) (upholding law challenge) Furth, 1, 11-19, 925, 930-933 (1940). nowhere rested guarantee. (applying noting applied "unless designates mode procedure''). 58 argues, Constitutional requirement. explained why add seem anomalous existing existence eligible death far faced Walton Arizona, 497 639, 647, 3047, 3053-3054, (1990) (rejecting capital jury); Hildwin Florida, 490 638, 640-641, 2055, 2056-2057, 728 (1989) curiam) (judge based aggravating determined Spaziano 468 447, 465, 3154, 3164-3165, 340 (1984) (same). difficult reconcile sentencing-related double jeopardy purposes. 623-624, 585-586. 59 reject IV final separate, subsidiary, sentencing, perhaps show Accordingly, ---- 637-638 (acknowledging, resolving, "divergence Circuits'' proper "relevant conduct'' sentence). judgment Appeals Affirmed. 62 GINSBURG join, dissenting. Because illegally re-entered possible Had today holds §1326(b)(2) merely enhancement causes confront substantially increases crime-to Until no; considerably doubtful. confronted state-court ruling unambiguously relieved proving ""visibl[e] possess[ion][of] firearm''' ""shall crime[,]''' ""[t]he preponderance evidence,''' 81, 2413, Pa. Cons.Stat. §9712 (1982)). (1970), action juvenile ""must 360, 1070 Family §744(b)). (1977), extreme disturbance ""is affirmative defense,''' 198, 2321, Penal §125.25 (McKinney 1975)). Maine's highest murder malice aforethought negated defendant, 689, 1884-1885 Lafferty, 309 A.2d 647 (1973)). 65 contrast not, face, us: enhancement. supports, indeed demand, adds I reach adopt, require, problem. re-entry simpliciter (§1326(a)) (§1326(b)(2)) offenses. Prior aside. [W]here constructions, doubtful arise avoided, duty latter.'' 536. "cardinal principle,'' "has debate,'' Edward J. DeBartolo Florida Gulf Coast Building Constr. Trades Council, 485 568, 575, 1392, 1397, 99 645 (1988), doubt, unconstitutionality. course, "mea[n] first proceed unnecessary meaning, repugnant Constitution.'' 535. contends application here: doubtful, address former first.1 (rather jury) mere doubt) subject, enough resolving margins invalidated York delinquency proceeding reduced evidence. protects charged,'' protection extends act adult,'' 359, 1070. Five later, unanimously extended Winship's protections went innocence, length intentional murders (and, such, rebut presumption passion manslaughter acknowledged "under [were] felonious homicide[, but] [i]nstead, [bore] category.'' 699, 1889-1890. Nonetheless, distinction punishment. "If "were protect effecting redefine 697-698, 69 cut broader implications Mullaney. contained, acknowledged, "some ha[d] understood construing affecting degree culpability,''' denied "intend[ed] far-reaching effect.'' 214-215, 15, 2329, 15. upheld casting "affirmative defense'' second-degree ""acted influence explanation excuse,''' 198-199, 2320-2321, defense reduce manslaughter. [p]roof defenses constitutionally required,'' "prove willing recognize exculpatory mitigating culpability 2325. cautioned, "seem legislatures reallocate burdens labeling statutes[,] [t]here obviously go regard.'' 2327. recently, 2415, Pennsylvania's prescribed "visibly possessed firearm'' enumerated carried observed "we [had] attempted noted due reallocation reduction cases,'' 2416, "neither alter[ed] create[d] penalty; operate[d] firearm,'' 71 feebleness contention evidenced ignore distort described, emphasized-and emphasized repeatedly-that Beyond specifically (i.e., unconstitutional) affected: 72 "Petitioners' "really' punished-that upgraded felonies-would exposed §2113(d) (providing bank robberies accomplished "use dangerous weapon device'), not.'' 73 own very ground, Sex Offenders sex 10-year indefinite including 74 Despite alteration sentence-which acknowledges ante, -militates favor of, against, constitutionality, disadvantageous arguable position (it argued, temerity note, McMillan). rejected, converse judgment. 75 addition inverting consequence (between prescribe importance relied asserting four same. Ante, five-factor test; selectively recruits "factors'' parts discussion. ""the [statute] ''' quoting U. S, 2416--viz., "discar[d] innocence'' "relieve guilt[,]'' 2416--merely narrows giving clue solving problem observation facto unreasonable search seizure. second, fourth, fifth subparts absent here), culled discussion discretion. whereas sentence''' "second'' factor), [the "third'' factor] "fourth'' factor]; firearm gives [part "fifth'' factor].'' 2416-2417. recruitment is, selective. Omitted, "petitioners contend [by statute] historically "in Anglo-American tradition' doubt.'' 2418, 226, 2335. assertion case-correctly, discuss. selective harvesting, incorrect "most'' recites, __ implication them) well. contrasted assumed (extension little (no extension "limit[ation of] available,'' 2417). regard, tenfold. "factor''-that ""dictated statutory] factor,''' 2418-is likewise similarity. parsing really No pre-McMillan especially (whose adverted described) entertaining latest perceiving validation available, that: learning open (such "at appeal,'' enough, Courts concluded constitutions, see, McClay, 146 Me. 104, 112, 78 347, 352 (1951); Tuttle Commonwealth, Mass. 505, (1854) indictment); (1940); Lockmiller Mayo, Fla. 96, 98-99, 101 So. 228, 229 (1924); Roberson State, 362 1115, 1118-1119 (Okla.Crim.App.1961), common Cosgriff Craig, 195 190, 194-195, 38, (1909); McDonald, Mich. 98, 102, 105, 206 N.W. 516, 518, (1925); Smith, Iowa 709, 710-715, 187, 188-189 (1906) ("By uniform authority, instantly charged, authorizing punishment''); Pennye, Ariz. 208-209, 427 525, 526-527 (1967); Waterhouse, 209 Or. 428-433, 307 327, 329-331 (1957); Robbins 219 Ark. 376, 242 S.W.2d 640, 643 Eichler, 248 1267, 1270-1273, 83 N.W.2d 576, 577-579 (1957).2 end, credibly easy That, perhaps, stresses, stresses repeatedly, §1326(b) addresses-recidivism. tries, utter lack logic, rejection fair cases. "For given,'' "and [regarding "superficial sentence] here.'' impossible understand thing something One exception -but forthright characterization display event, rational exception. discuss, common-law tradition) ""goes only.''' relies 585-586; objections tried notes, offense; "information'' importantly, preserved right 622-623, 585; 453, 504, true, Graham's accepted, essence reasoning "was 585-586, only,''' ibid., McDonald Massachusetts, 180 311, 312, 389, 390, 542 (1901). dispensing findings accorded "not [but bore] category,'' Whatever stands for, line demarcation purposes "goes punishment'') So narrowing penalty'' end inquiry. correct distinctive treatment takes explaining; explaining me. assuredly (what apparently suggests) violence jurisprudence, traditional practice explain normal bars Our English practice, Dixon, 509 2849, 2860, 125 556 (1993); Wilson, 339-344, 1013, 1019-1022, 232 allowed separately, 566-567, 655-656, 623, 625-626, 631, 585, 586-587, 588; 312-313, 390. 81 While endorse necessarily correct. defeat my whole purpose, honor deciding unnecessarily. What establish-and establish-is jurisprudence date, burden, hand, shines sustained. was, until today's "serious exposure tenfold wishes abandon forthrightly, declaring certainty clouded problem-i.e., whereby begins examining demonstrating [of statute]-prior imagine.'' eminently demonstrable, sounds powerfully good, all. true (whether bound Guidelines) nearer permitted repeat offender. many, "typically'' allows firearm, course felony; armed enhancements felons, latter. near-uniform recent study am aware of. 333-334 (1965); Pleading Proof Convictions Habitual Prosecutions, 215-216 submitted along 654-655, 545, (1898). altered procedure late 1965 retained N.Y.U.L.Rev., 333-334, 347. loss element'' such.3 84 interesting drags red herring opinion-the "statutory interpretation'' alike. discussed, logic demonstrates "typical'' factor) means. discussed earlier, distinguishes, saying exempt acknowledgment taking away questionable. wonders supposed mysterious utterances. Are pursue ambiguous accompanying principal enhancements, illogically give recidivism? deem superseded remain involving trial? brought area confusion clarification. Passing over herring, let me issue- stood convicted. author agreed "language structure'' enactment "are plausible readings,'' 1298 (opinion Coffin, joined Breyer, J.).4 surely satisfy expressed Holmes, (1916), approved constitutional-doubt-avoiding possible.'' Today, relegates structure "help text,'' 86 reads, follows: "Reentry [has reenters States] misdemeanors drugs, person, both, §1326(b). 92 Neither individual describes felony,'' individuals describe [2, 10, 20] suffices agree does), hard paragraph Compare, §841, entitled "Unlawful acts,'' "Penalties.'' 93 opening phrase indicate supplements enhances (a); spite prevention obstruction by'' (a). Webster's International Dictionary 1669 (2d ed. 1949). next ("in [(a)]'') imports reference acts attributed hypothetical (deportation unauthorized reentry) Significantly, "convicted under'' (a)-which expect Davis, 801 754, 755-756 1986) (noting "predicat[ing] "common indicia sentence-enhancement provisions''). Instead, "described (a)-one reentered illegally. finally, [s]ubject means (a).5 version form. legitimate tool construction, undermines, interpretation. (b)), not) formulation, easier connoted, elimination here) achieve? strongly inexplicable (a)- offenses.6 After considers arriving (b)(2): Certain Deported Aliens.'' 4471, cited Of pertains which, convicted, preceding disregarding Reentry'' suggestive good enactment, adjusts aiding abetting alien, Aiding Assisting Aliens Enter States.'' §7346, 4471. Evidently, penalized Penalties'' kept ("Reentry Alien'') intact, supra; 229. fourth leading construed establishing history. again, stripped parallel. stray statements culls Congressional thought reentry. dispute that! additional, severely punished, technical alluded remarks recites. unfairness,'' bringing attention "unfair,'' deprive beyond-a-reasonable-doubt proof) assessment disadvantages relevance insofar presume perception shared enacting presume, judgments, disposition 507 529, 534, 1631, 1634-1635, 123 245 Astoria Fed. Sav. Loan Assn. Solimino, 501 108, 2166, 2169-2170, 115 Norfolk Redevelopment Chesapeake Potomac Telephone Va., 464 307, (1983); Morissette 342 246, 263, 240, 249-250, 288 (1952). hostility quite odds country. 98 free according views fair, avoiding "infection'' verdict (beyond sound. correct, begin with, "almost contested,'' particularly unlawful-entry Senator Chiles "identifying prosecuting felons complex process'' [i]t uncommon pay bond walk, apprehended county identification.'' 8771. specific aliens, police "seized passports issued names, drivers licenses, immigration cards numerous firearms stolen property,'' officials "5 files aliases, birth social security cards.'' 8772. "these exceptions amongst 100,000 Representative Smith stated arrested felonies "often able expensive bonds disappear identity often reappear native lands names papers committing crimes.'' 28840. side ledger, knowledge Spencer, 561, defendants' [in keeping prejudicial jury] protected limiting instructions residing forbid admission admissible evidence'') (citation omitted); Rule Evidence 403 disallow offense); Brief Association Defense Lawyers Amicus Curiae ("In 98.2% 1326 defendants guilty''). problem, judicial dealing it, short does: (describing commonly procedures invoked [i]f [he] denies mute''); 567, 655 rule, convicts none nontextual ("typicality'' factor; titles; history; unfairness) persuasive. significant, introduced refers "offenses.'' 3009-635 amend guidelines "for 1326(b)''). cause meant, said. Congress's understanding possible'' way.7 emphasize discussion) needs established. problem-avoiding preferable one-the event. Such function. "Adopt one'' produces "adopt interpretation.'' comes play "susceptible interpretation, 535-536-when reasonable, best. maintain regards *** foregoing resolved, interpretable achieved. begs resolved. apply, lenity, preserve destroy N.Y., N.E., ("It great Special Sessions conflicting provisions, best rights person law''). Whichever sound principle altering intention establishes reverse below. syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. asserts declined constitutional.'' contention. (1991), believed [was] prohibition constitutional,'' 192, 1772 (1985), "avoid question,'' 1793-1794. Similarly, (1989), was] plain unambiguous,'' 606, 2662. claims, "anomalous'' (1990); curiam); (1984). cited, death, left one, ought imposed-even constrained "aggravating exist. actions expose absolute entitlement charge. sort, §1264(a), §924(c), §2114(a). recited list sentence-increasing aggravators include, defraud mislead (15 §1264(a)), machine gun, destructive device, equipped silencer §924(c)), wounding threatening (§2114(a)). offenses, are. Forbes respects identical less; 1994 §130001(b), Stat.2023. renders redundant, included-offense prevent Redundancy, annoying twice, sensible once, clarity conciseness, provides. [t]he logical indicating 1994). redundancy, redundancy cure-unless Immediately stressing significance §1326(a), dismisses eliminated relies, "housekeeping measure'' "Congress [did not] inten[d] between'' confident characterization, mistaken assumption changes clarifications unconfirmed inoperative. "Suffice confirm effected natural meaning.'' Morales Trans World Airlines, 504 374, 385, 2031, 2038, 119 157 (1992). effective-date reflects understanding. states "apply (b)] occurring date enactment. 3009-628. dispute, quoted clearest simplest occurred applicable.

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