Document: 505 U.S. 1003 112 S.Ct. 2886 120 L.Ed.2d 798 David H. LUCAS, Petitioner,v.SOUTH CAROLINA COASTAL COUNCIL. No. 91-453. Argued March 2, 1992. Decided June 29, Syllabus * In 1986, petitioner Lucas bought two residential lots on a South Carolina barrier island, intending to build single-family homes such as those the immediately adjacent parcels. At that time, Lucas's were not subject State's coastal zone building permit requirements. 1988, however, state legislature enacted Beachfront Management Act, which barred from erecting any permanent habitable structures his He filed suit against respondent agency, contending that, even though Act may have been lawful exercise of police power, ban construction deprived him all "economically viable use" property and therefore effected "taking" under Fifth Fourteenth Amendments required payment just compensation. See, e.g., Agins v. Tiburon, 447 255, 261, 100 2138, 2141, 65 106. The trial court agreed, finding rendered parcels "valueless," entered an award exceeding $1.2 million. reversing, State Supreme Court held itself bound, in light failure attack Act's validity, accept legislature's "uncontested . findings" new threatened valuable public resource. ruled Mugler Kansas, 123 623, 8 273, 31 L.Ed. 205, line cases, when regulation is designed prevent "harmful or noxious uses" akin nuisances, no compensation owing Takings Clause regardless regulation's effect property's value. Held: 1. takings claim unripe by fact he yet be able secure special amendment passed after briefing argument before Court, but prior issuance court's opinion. Because it declined rest its judgment ripeness grounds, preferring dispose case merits, latter decision precludes, both practically legally, with respect preamendment deprivation. has properly alleged injury-in-fact this deprivation, would accord sound process these circumstances insist pursue late-created procedure component can considered ripe. Pp. ____. 2. erred applying principle decide case. (a) Regulations deny owner use land" constitute one discrete categories regulatory deprivations require without usual case-specific inquiry into interest advanced support restraint. Although never set forth justification for categorical rule, practical—and economic —equivalence physically appropriating eliminating beneficial land counsels preservation. (b) A review relevant decisions demonstrates was merely Court's early formulation power necessary sustain (without compensation) diminution value; distinction between "prevents harmful "confers benefits" difficult, if impossible, discern objective, value-free basis; therefore, noxious-use logic cannot basis departing rule total must compensated. (c) Rather, question turn, "takings" jurisprudence, citizens' historic understandings regarding content of, over, "bundle rights" they acquire take title property. consistent historical compact embodied real estate subsequent eliminate economically use, having newly decreed, sustained, compensation's being paid owner. However, owed—in setting claims —if affirmative decree simply makes explicit what already inheres itself, restrictions background principles law nuisance place upon ownership. Cf. Scranton Wheeler, 179 141, 163, 21 48, 57, 45 126. 2899-2901. (d) seems unlikely common-law prevented erection productive improvements land, state-law dealt remand. To win case, proffer declaration uses desires are inconsistent interest, conclusory assertion violate maxim sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas, identify prohibit now intends present circumstances. 2901-2902. 304 S.C. 376, 404 S.E.2d 895 (1991), reversed remanded. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, THOMAS, JJ., joined. KENNEDY, concurring judgment. BLACKMUN, STEVENS, dissenting opinions. SOUTER, separate statement. A. Camden Lewis, Columbia, S.C., petitioner. C.C. Harness, III, Charleston, respondent. Justice SCALIA Court. 1 $975,000 Isle Palms Charleston County, Carolina, intended homes. Legislature S.C.Code § 48-39-250 et seq. (Supp.1990) (Act), had direct barring See 48-39-290(A). found prohibition "valueless." App. Pet. Cert. 37. This requires us whether dramatic value accomplished taking private requiring "just compensation." Const., Amdt. 5. 2 3 Carolina's expressed intensively managing development activities so-called "coastal zone" dates 1977 when, aftermath Congress's passage federal Coastal Zone 1972, 86 Stat. 1280, amended, 16 U.S.C. 1451 seq., own. 48-39-10 (1987). original form, owners qualified "critical area" (defined legislation include beaches sand dunes, 48-39-10(J)) obtain created Council (respondent here) committing "use other than critical area devoted [September 28, 1977]." 48-39-130(A). 4 late 1970's, others began extensive Palms, island situated eastward City Charleston. Toward close cycle subdivision known "Beachwood East," 1986 purchased at issue litigation own account. No portion lots, located approximately 300 feet beach, Act; accordingly, time acquired parcels, legally obliged advance activity. His intention do done: erect residences. commissioned architectural drawings purpose. 5 brought plans abrupt end. Under 1988 legislation, directed establish "baseline" connecting landward-most "point[s] erosion during past forty years" region includes lots. 48-39-280(A)(2) (Supp.1988).1 action challenged here, fixed baseline landward That significant, occupiable improvements2 flatly prohibited seaward drawn 20 parallel to, baseline, 48-39-290(A) (Supp.1988). provided exceptions. B 6 promptly Common Pleas, bar did validity contended complete extinguishment entitled acted furtherance legitimate objectives. Following bench trial, agreed. Among factual determinations "at zoned there imposed either County Town Palms." 36. further decreed insofar concerned, "deprive[d] reasonable eliminated unrestricted right render[ed] them valueless." Id., thus concluded properties "taken" operation ordered pay compensation" amount $1,232,387.50. 40. 7 reversed. It dispositive described concession "that [was] validly preserve beaches." 379, 895, 896 (1991). Failing statute such, believed bound zone—such intended—threatened 383, S.E.2d, 898. respecting "to serious harm," id., 899 (citing, inter alia, 205 (1887)), Two justices dissented. They acknowledged our cases recognizes governmental "noxious" property—i.e., "public nuisances"—without But characterized "primary purpose [as] prevention nuisance." 395, 906 (Harwell, dissenting). dissenters, chief purposes among promotion tourism creation "habitat indigenous flora fauna," could fairly compared abatement. 396, 906. As consequence, affirmed conclusion obliteration petitioner's taking. 9 We granted certiorari. 502 ----, 436, 116 455 II 10 threshold matter, we briefly address Council's suggestion inappropriate plenary review. After opinion, amended authorize Council, certain circumstances, "special permits" reconstruction baseline. 48-39-290(D)(1) (Supp.1991). According renders deprivation unripe, permission "[The Court's] cases," reminded, "uniformly reflect insistence knowing nature extent permitted adjudicating constitutionality regulations purport limit it." MacDonald, Sommer & Frates Yolo, 477 340, 351, 106 2561, 2567, 91 285 (1986). also 260, (1980). "has obtained final how [he] will allowed develop [his] property," Williamson Regional Planning Comm'n Johnson Hamilton Bank, 473 172, 190, 105 3108, 3118, 87 126 (1985), argues definitive adjudication 11 think considerations preclude rested (essentially) invited see Brief Respondent 9, n. 3. shrugged off possibility administrative proceedings, merits. Compare, San Diego Gas Electric Co. Diego, 450 621, 631-632, 101 1287, 1293-1294, 67 551 (1981). unusual disposition does 1990 future construction, challenging, denial. preclude, i.e., denied rights period amendment. generally First English Evangelical Lutheran Church Glendale Los Angeles, 482 304, 107 2378, 96 250 (1987) (holding temporary compensable Clause). Without so much commenting consequences respect, insists permitting press appeal improper, since "the issues [Lucas] incurred addressed." 11. Yet reason proceed "temporary taking" theory seek remand submission then read, unconditional permanent. Moreover, given breadth holding judgment, plainly unable (absent intervention now) state-court 1988-1990 period. 12 permit" Article III pre-1990 post-1990 constraints placed Act.3 discretionary regain—for future, least—beneficial goes only prudential "ripeness" challenge, reasons discussed prudent apply requirement here. Esposito 939 F.2d 165, 168 (CA4 1991), cert. pending, 91-941.4 leave remand, course, questions left unaddressed consequence disposition.5 13 Prior Holmes' exposition Pennsylvania Coal Mahon, 260 393, 43 158, 322 (1922), thought reached "direct appropriation" property, Legal Tender Cases, Wall. 457, 551, 287 (1871), functional equivalent "practical ouster [the owner's] possession." Transportation Chicago, 99 635, 642, 25 336 (1879). Gibson United States, 166 269, 275-276, 17 578, 580, 41 996 (1897). Holmes recognized protection physical appropriations meaningfully enforced, government's redefine range interests included ownership necessarily constrained constitutional limits. U.S., 414-415, S.Ct., 160. If, instead, unbridled, uncompensated qualification natural tendency human [would be] extend more until last disappear[ed]." 415, These gave birth oft-cited "while regulated extent, too far taking." Ibid. 14 Nevertheless, Mahon offered little insight seen going "too far" Amendment. 70-odd years succeeding "regulatory takings" eschewed " 'set formula' determining far, "engag[e] essentially ad hoc, inquiries," Penn Central New York City, 438 104, 124, 98 2646, 2659, 57 631 (1978) (quoting Goldblatt Hempstead, 369 590, 594, 82 987, 990, 130 (1962)). Epstein, Takings: Descent Resurrection, 1987 Sup.Ct. Rev. 1, 4. have, least first encompasses compel suffer "invasion" general (at regard invasions), matter minute intrusion, weighty behind it, For example, Loretto Teleprompter Manhattan CATV Corp., 458 419, 102 3164, 73 868 (1982), determined York's landlords allow television cable companies emplace facilities their apartment buildings constituted taking, 435-440, 3175-3178, occupied most 11/2 cubic landlords' 438, 16, 3177. States Causby, 328 256, 265, 10, 66 1062, 1067, 90 1206 (1946) (physical invasions airspace); cf. Kaiser Aetna 444 164, 62 332 (1979) (imposition navigational servitude marina). 15 second situation treatment appropriate where denies land. Agins, 2141; Nollan California Comm'n, 483 825, 834, 3141, 3147, 97 677 (1987); Keystone Bituminous Assn. DeBenedictis, 480 470, 495, 1232, 1247, 94 472 Hodel Virginia Surface Mining Reclamation Assn., Inc., 452 264, 295-296, 2352, 2370, 69 (1981).6 said numerous occasions, Amendment violated land-use "does substantially land." supra, 2141 (citations omitted) (emphasis added).7 rule. Perhaps simply, Brennan suggested, is, landowner's point view, appropriation. 652, 1304 (Brennan, "[F]or profits thereof[?]" E. Coke, Institutes ch. (1st Am. ed. 1812). Surely, least, extraordinary circumstance permitted, less realistic indulge assumption "adjusting benefits burdens life," Co., manner secures "average reciprocity advantage" everyone concerned. And government, regulation, affect values compensation—that "Government hardly go some incident diminished paying every change law," 413, 159—does relatively rare situations government landowner uses. On side balance, affirmatively supporting requirement, options use—typically, state—carry heightened risk pressed form service guise mitigating harm. Annicelli Kingstown, 463 A.2d 133, 140-141 (R.I.1983) (prohibition beach justified twin grounds safety "conservation open space"); Morris Land Improvement Parsippany-Troy Hills Township, 40 N.J. 539, 552-553, 193 232, 240 (1963) filling marshlands order water detention basin create wildlife refuge). explained: "From flowing preservation space through equally great creating refuge formal condemnation increasing electricity production dam project floods property." Elec. many statutes books, federal, provide eminent domain impose servitudes scenic lands preventing developmental uses, altogether, suggest practical equivalence negative 410ff-1(a) (authorizing acquisition "lands, waters, [within Channel Islands National Park] (including limited easements)"); 460aa-2(a) "any lands, lesser therein, including mineral easements" within Sawtooth Recreation Area); §§ 3921-3923 wetlands); N.C. Gen.Stat. 113A-38 (1990) 'scenic easements' North rivers system); Tenn.Code Ann. 11-15-101—11-15-108 "protective historic, architectural, archaeological, cultural resources). 18 think, short, good frequently belief called sacrifice name common good, idle, suffered taking.8 19 beachfront valueless respondent's enforcement coastal-zone ban.9 "no statements, unnecessary means chosen effectuate purposes. otherwise. ordinary enactment, involved "police powers" mitigate harm might occasion. 384, 899. By neglecting dispute findings enumerated Act10 otherwise challenge purposes, "concede[d] beach/dune shores extremely resource; contributes destruction discouraging proximity harm." 382-383, concessions long sustaining Due Process challenges enjoin nuisances. (1887) (law prohibiting manufacture alcoholic beverages); Hadacheck Sebastian, 239 394, 36 143, 60 348 (1915) brick mill area); Miller Schoene, 276 272, 48 246, 72 568 (1928) (order destroy diseased cedar trees infection nearby orchards); (1962) effectively continued quarry area). correct opinions suggested proscribed number reasons, quick conclude decides attempt describe theoretical terms why may, Clause, incurring obligation compensate—a reality nowadays acknowledge explicitly full scope power. 125, 2659 (where "reasonably conclude[s] 'the health, safety, morals, welfare' promoted particular contemplated land," need accompany prohibition); Commission, 834-835, 3147 ("Our elaborated standards constitutes 'legitimate interest[,]' [but] [t]hey made clear broad satisfy requirements"). very where, course City's landmarks program rejected following premised on, by, objective conception "noxiousness": "[T]he Hadacheck, Miller, perfectly themselves. 'blameworthiness, moral wrongdoing conscious act dangerous risk-taking induce[d society] shift cost pa[rt]icular individual.' Sax, Police Power, 74 Yale L.J. 36, 50 (1964). better understood resting supposed 'noxious' quality rather ground reasonably related implementation policy—not unlike expected produce widespread benefit applicable similarly 133-134, 30, 2664, 30. 22 "Harmful analysis was, words, progenitor contemporary statements "land-use 'substantially advance[s] interests'. ." Nollan, 2141); 127, 2660; Euclid Ambler Realty 272 365, 387-388, 47 114, 118, 71 303 (1926). 23 transition focus control understanding realm regulate easy one, "harm-preventing" "benefit-conferring" often eye beholder. quite possible, fashion ecological, economic, aesthetic concerns inspired One say imposing "harming" ecological resources; or, achieve "benefits" preserve.11 Claridge Hampshire Wetlands Board, 125 N.H. 745, 752, 485 287, 292 (1984) (owner compensation, wetlands because landfilling deprive habitats marine fisheries support), with, Bartlett Zoning Old Lyme, 161 Conn. 24, 282 907, 910 (1971) tidal marshland compensated, despite municipality's "laudable" goal "preserv[ing] encroachment destruction"). Whether competing characterizations come one's lips depends primarily evaluation worth estate. Restatement (Second) Torts 822, Comment g, p. ("[p]ractically unless carried wilderness interfere involve interference"). restraint "harm" securing "benefit" them, depending observer's relative importance favors. 49 (1964) ("[T]he problem [in area] noxiousness harm-creating activity all; inconsistency innocent independently desirable uses"). residences should bringing resources principally describer believes nurturing important yield.12 24 When "prevention becomes self-evident serve touchstone distinguish compensation—from fortiori recitation If were, departure virtually always allowed. approach nullify Mahon's affirmation limits noncompensable Our this: None employed allegation wholly claimant's 513-514, 1257 (REHNQUIST, dissenting).13 Where seeks deprives resist logically antecedent owner's shows part begin with.14 accords, traditionally guided citizens expects restricted, various measures powers; "[a]s recognized, enjoyed implied limitation yield power." 159. personal high degree over commercial dealings, ought aware render worthless sale sale), Andrus Allard, 51, 66-67, 318, 327, 210 eagle feathers). notion somehow "implied limitation" subsequently recorded become culture.15 26 "permanent occupation" refused anew compensation), asserted interests" involved, 426, 3171—though assuredly assert easement pre-existing title. Compare (1900) (interests "riparian submerged bordering navigable water" Government's servitude), 178-180, 392-393 marina expense taking). believe similar accorded confiscatory regulations, land: Any severe legislated inhere must, duplicate result achieved courts landowners (or uniquely affected persons) nuisance, complementary abate nuisances generally, otherwise.16 27 analysis, lake bed, requisite engage flooding others' Nor corporate nuclear generating plant, remove discovery plant sits astride earthquake fault. Such well land's proscribe previously permissible principles. expressly unlawful, (subject limitations) make implication explicit. Michelman, Property, Utility, Fairness, Comments Ethical Foundations "Just Compensation" Law, 80 Harv.L.Rev. 1165, 1239-1241 (1967). traditional resort "existing rules stem independent source law" define qualify "property" (and Fourteenth) amendments, Board Regents Colleges Roth, 408 564, 577, 92 2701, 2709, 33 548 (1972); see, Ruckelshaus Monsanto 467 986, 1011-1012, 104 2862, 2877, 81 815 (1984); Hughes Washington, 389 290, 295, 88 441, 530 (1967) (Stewart, concurring), recognition putting understandings" surely unexceptional. When, declares "off-limits" beyond dictate, it.17 28 "total today ordinarily entail (as application entails) things, resources, posed proposed activities, 826, 827, social suitability locality question, 828(a) (b), 831, ease avoided taken claimant landowners) alike, 827(e), 828(c), 830. engaged imports lack (though changed knowledge longer so, Torts, comment g. So landowners, situated, continue claimant. 29 land; rarely "essential Curtin Benson, 222 78, 86, 32 31, 33, 56 (1911). emphasize laedas. said, "State, ipse dixit, transform Webb's Fabulous Pharmacies, Inc. Beckwith, 449 155, 446, 452, 358 Instead, sought restrain presently found. Only showing proscribing nothing.18 30 cause remanded proceedings ordered. comes posture, my colleagues observe. Ante, ____; post, ____ (BLACKMUN, dissenting); (STEVENS, (Statement J.). initiated us, permits variance limitations. Petitioner applied still so. availability alternative, invoked, I read claim, neither foreclose considering alternative available. 34 potential relief disposition, whatever occur undo occurred past. 1988. (Supp.1990). interim amounts duration relief. established protected Constitution ones. 2387, 35 presented ready decision. decided rulings us. There exists jurisdictional militate it. complain arose. uncertainty attributable State, Act. protect ones, frustrated shifting law. framework moreover, ultimate facts determination developed record. matters intent capacity failed him. comply requirements analysis. 37 Pleas regulation. appears presume significant market resale potential. curious finding, share reservations about front lot loses restriction. Post, ____, While consider constraint, below. Oklahoma Tuttle, 471 808, 816, 2427, 2432, 85 791 (1985). Accepting entered, follows invoke discussing 38 reference reasonable, investment-backed expectations. 175, 390, (1979); (1978); W.B. Worthen Kavanaugh, 295 56, 55 555, 79 1298 (1935). while conferring substantial owners, enact limitations 669, 301, (1887). conferred coexist conflict. Property sold, investments made, regulate. value, test contrary 39 inherent towards circularity synthesis, course; expectations shaped proper authority, tends is. Some tolerated matters, spheres. E.g., Katz 347, 507, 576 (Fourth protections defined privacy). definition, circular entirety. based customs parties involved. whole legal tradition. narrow confine complex interdependent society. 593, 989, (1962). enacting initiatives response changing conditions, source. static body law; protects ensure investment. agree accords who face sole authority restrictions. unique fragile system regulating permit. erred, reciting sufficient restriction specific tourism, instance, suffice corresponding duty compensate. Furthermore, ends Here, individual improved, throwing burden remaining measured balance. 416, 160, (1922). 42 With observations, concur dissenting. 44 Today launches missile kill mouse. structure 1990. Relying unreviewed implausible) Lucas' valueless, determine prohibits occasion arisen imagines arise "relatively rarely" "extraordinary circumstances." Almost certainly happen 46 Nonetheless, presses issue, does, ignores limits, remakes review, creates simultaneously exception (neither rooted law, sense). protest decision, each step reach More fundamentally, wisdom issuing sweeping KENNEDY demonstrates, wanted inflicting damage jurisprudence. My fear policies spread confines reason, I, like give greater attention suggests—not intercept missile, save targeted mouse, hope perhaps collateral damage. 1972 Congress money incentives carry out Congress' protecting shoreline hazards. 1980 enhance programs "[p]reventing significantly reducing threats life redevelopment high-hazard areas."1 1456b(a)(2) (1988 ed., Supp. II). implementing congressional directive 1977. designated prohibited. narrow. 51 effort stop loss shoreline. October appointed "Blue Ribbon Committee Management" investigate propose possible solutions. 1987, "critically eroding," Report Blue i, 6-10 (March 1987). response, July areas. enlarged areas encompass distance mean watermark setback best scientific data" available.2 48-39-280 52 contractor, manager, Wild Dune Palms. lived 1978. December four pieces vacant development.3 notoriously unstable. roughly half years, flooded twice daily ebb flow tide. Tr. 84. Between 1957 1963, water. 79, 81-82. 1963 1973 150 onto stable vegetation halfway 80. 1981 1983, issued emergency orders sandbagging development. 99. Determining local imminent danger collapse, rock revetments condominium developments near erosion; extends 102. C 53 premises unassailable—that finds citizens, presumption constitutionality. 54 General Assembly serves "protect[ing] serving storm dissipates wave energy stability economical effective manner." 48-39-250(1)(a). "development unwisely sited [beach/dune] system. type jeopardized system, accelerated erosion, endangered 48-39-250(4); 48-39-250(6) (discussing "afford accrete erode"). prevents harm, then, constitutional. "Long ago country shall injurious community, whenever asserts enforce 491-492, 1245, (internal quotations omitted); 488-489, 18, 1244, 18. consistently upheld arrest threat welfare, 592-593, (1962); (1926); Gorieb Fox, 274 603, 608, 675, 677, 1228 (1927); life. contend sufficiently house location "harmful" findings, motivated anything desire minimize Indeed, objected evidence irrelevant. 68. accordingly contest position "discouraging 898 injury community." 901. "bound uncontested legislative absence of] whatsoever statutory scheme." Nothing record undermines Assembly's assessment prohibitions people storms, tides, erosion. disregarded evidence, Euclid, 388, 118; O'Gorman Young Hartford Fire Ins. 251, 257-258, 130, 132, 75 324 (1931) (Brandeis, J.), correctly 58 disagreement begins ripe permitted. gesture good-will planners. "a authoritative intensity Yolo 348, 2566, (1986), utilization procedures jurisdiction. 633, 1294, (1981); 59 "compelled Just Compensation Clause," factors deciding "simply evaluated agency arrived final, question." Bank 191, 3119, Frates, 2566 ("A gone 'too far' knows goes") (citation omitted). admits amendments allowing asserting permanently taken. ante, agrees denied: determines 25, 1990, justiciable.4 61 From beginning litigation, argued courts: "lac[k] jurisdiction Plaintiff authorization Complaint concerning line." 63 (answer, amended). plea ignored court, undoubtedly correct. 64 rate administrative, followed judicial, proceedings. 48-39-280(E) remedy, finally piece categorized crucial strenuously safe company studies prove 20, correct, alter line, fell initially interpreted excuse process. status. "[W]e mere Riverside Bayview Homes, 474 121, 126, 455, 459, 419 188, 3117 (claim variances notwithstanding Commission's plan zoning ordinance regulations).5 Even agreed barriers try jurisprudence lost value.6 almost erroneous. enjoy attributes ownership, exclude others, "one essential sticks bundle commonly 176, 391, (1979). picnic, swim, camp tent, live movable trailer. residual recreation camping. Turnpike Dedham, 362 Mass. 221, 284 N.E.2d 891 (1972) denied, 409 1108, 93 908, 689 (1973); Turner Del Norte, Cal.App.3d 311, Cal.Rptr. Hall Environmental Protection, 528 453 (Me.1987). retains alienate neighbors prepared ocean house. apparently believing "less value" "valueless" used interchangeably, accepted home, appraiser testified absent residence. 54-55. appraiser's "highest [is] luxury single family detached dwellings." 48. appeared available profitable use. Absent erroneous assumption, Goldblatt, 592, find virtue "total." Record 128 (findings fact). turns premise exist circumstance[s]." 2894. 68 Clearly, eager case.7 eagerness, jurisdiction, must—and been—met willingness dispense precedent haste initial alters long-settled 70 defer judgments comports oldest maxims: existence presumed." Carolene Products 144, 152, 778, 783, 1234 (1938). "well-nigh conclusive." Berman Parker, 26, 32, 98, 102, (1954). Sweet Rechel, 159 380, 392, 43, 45-46, 188 (1895); 118 ("If classification debatable, control"). Accordingly, plaintiffs challenging "some foundation record" contravenes findings. Young, 258, 132. proof, prevail." 257, recently reaffirmed claimants Coal, 485, 1242. 990 (citing constitutionality" applies attacked takings). Rather invoking rules, convince Despite built, justify prohibition. "emphasize[s]" avoid invalidating apparently, offers sudden hostility toward legislators, doubt could. IV reject disbelief distrust takes opportunity scheme principle. rationale category obviates "case-specific advanced," lost. stated contradiction, case" invalid Eureka 357 168, 78 1097, 1104, (1958). although articulated considered, impact owner, "necessarily weighing interests." 2141. unquestionably substantial, outweigh Instead proposition standing alone, 'taking.' Transp. 131, 2663, (1978). repeatedly ability adverse financial be. century ago, welfare compensation: "A declared, valid cannot, sense, deemed appropriation 668-669, basis, brewery, "establishments 664, 298; 668, 300. 76 cases.8 Powell Pennsylvania, 127 678, 992, 253 (1888), oleomargarine, "if continuing therein entirely livelihood." 682, 994. (1915), brickyard, excavations utilized brickyard. 405, 143. (1928), destroyed disease spreading apple orchards. "preferment interest] individual, destruction, distinguishing characteristics affects 280, 247. Again, Omnia Commercial 261 502, 437, 773 (1923), "destruction 'taking' sense." 508, 437. 77 recently, town existing gravel safety. 596, 991. "Although comparison relevant," stated, "it conclusive."9 990. 1978, declared "in instances tribunal 2659. Angeles (1987), floodplain "all 312, 2384. consideration whether, measure.10 313, 2385. summarized precedent: adversely interests."11 489, "our 'harmful uses' compensation," reconcile claiming distorted. none turned use.12 depended activity, cost.13 public. "[S]ince 'taken' nuisance-like activity." 491, 20. sense constitutionally loss.14 418, 161, (1922) dissenting) ("Restriction [harmful] means, profitably put"). Ultimately embrace implications per se rule: eventually disregards asserted. "background law."15 Until today, contention nuisance.16 brewery closed specifically role health 661, 297. upholding "weigh nicety infected cedars according statute." 248. 989; 411, 146. relied past, done harm.17 rejects deems granting 'harm-preventing' 'benefit-conferring' beholder." Since characterization depend "primarily estate," kind desired "objective, basis" fails explain escapes same trap. 83 imposition "deprivation use," objectively. admits, defined. "composition denominator 'deprivation' fraction," 7, inquiry. "objective" way "We 'total' aptly entitlement. Alternatively, 'partial' withdrawal full, unencumbered landholding ."18 Takings, Colum.L.Rev. 1600, 1614 (1988). 84 illustrates perfectly. Keystone, "support estate" "merely entire possessed owner." 501, 1250. Thus, estate's segment dissent, distinct destroyed. 519, 1260. "value-free resolve dispute. perplexing, reliance quest exactly troubling today: harmful. Common-law causes Prosser, Private Action Public Nuisance, Va.L.Rev. 997, 997 (1966) ("Nuisance French word nothing harm"). magical reasoning judges dead. legislatures today. 18th 19th centuries benefit, 20th century, can, legislators? interpretations hoary doctrine particularly "value-free."19 Once abandons level generality searches vain, resembling nuisance. Finally, justifies "long recognized" "understandings citizens." "understandings" "inconsistent Clause." "historical compact" "citizens' understanding" from, appear history. compensate individuals widely America Revolution. "The colonists inherited concept benefit—regulation if, Coke himself 'extends public, hath it.' 89 F. Bosselman, D. Callies J. Banta, Taking Issue 80-81 (1973), quoting Case King's Prerogative Saltpetre, Co.Rep. 12-13 (1606) (hereinafter Bosselman). Treanor, Origins Original Significance Amendment, 694, 697, (1985).20 governments felt free roads projects owners.21 M. Horwitz, Transformation American 1780-1860, pp. 63-64 (1977) Horwitz); L.J., 695. 1802, "were contribute [land], laws country, convenience." M'Clenachan Curwin, Yeates 362, 373 (Pa.1802). obvious movement establishing "there strong current regarded 'bounty State' 'kindness' justice." Horwitz Commonwealth Fisher, Pen. W. 462, 465 (Pa.1830)). Dawson, Hill 100, 103 (S.C.1836)).22 Although, adoption Bill Rights, replete describing forbidden, Bender, Clause: Principles Politics?, Buffalo L.Rev. 735, 751 (1985); L. Friedman, History Law 66-68 Amendment's originally effect.23 Most interpretation "Until end nineteenth jurists constitution possession only, value." Siegel, Understanding Nineteenth Century Contract Role Property-Privilege Distinction "Takings" Jurisprudence, S.Cal.L.Rev. (1986); Bosselman indirect consequential injuries resulting excluded definition 106; Callender Marsh, Pick. 430 (Mass.1823). uphold bans impact, vested injure endanger public.24 Coates interment dead city, lands." York, Cow. 585, 592 (N.Y.1827). Brick Presbyterian 538 (N.Y.1826); Alger, Cush. 53, 59, (Mass.1851); St. Louis Gunning Advertisement Louis, 235 Mo. 99, 145-146, 137 S.W. 929, 942 (1911), dism'd, 231 761, 325, 470 (1913). recent result. Consolidated Rock Cal.2d 515, 638, 370 P.2d 342, 371 145, Nassr Commonwealth, 394 767, 987 Eno Burlington, Vt. 8, 209 499 (1965); (1972). addition, historically likely undeveloped. unimproved providing sanctioned "ancient principles." Lindsay Commissioners, S.C.L. 38, (1796). "Except Massachusetts, colony built state-owned road across Legislatures enclosed improved 695 (footnotes 1800s. 63-65. result, agrarian "natural" century. 32. 44; also, Merritt Coxe 460, (N.J.1795). follow reasoning. Marinette Wis.2d 201 N.W.2d 768 95 history indicate destroying discussions indicates doctrine. themselves understanding. regularly "for interpose, positive enactment public." Tewksbury, Metc., 57.25 Chief Shaw explained wharves, "whether tide not." Cush., 104; Paul, R.I. 185, (1858); Parks, 155 531, 532, N.E. 174 (1892) (Holmes, J.) move way, things nuisances"). "understanding citizens" justifying treat grab-bag principles, adopted theory, not. provides interpreting opposed confiscation, compensable. later compensable, confront prohibited, purchased. What unworkable package incompatible eras peddle fact.26 V and, misguided unsupported changes subset regulation—those land—these benefit. hopes assigns dissent. restricts judge-made expands another. errs counts. Proper judicial premature question. precedents illogical expansion takings." notes, exhausts amendment, merits claim. assume lot, delay caused absolute construction. sure, tell temporarily statute.1 unconstitutional lawsuit. true, rests want clear, wise counsel Brandeis deservedly famous Ashwander Tennessee Valley Authority, 297 288, 341, 466, 480, 688 (1936). explained, governance confessedly series passing large decision." Id. 346, 482. directly "2. 'anticipate necessity Liverpool, N.Y. P.S.S. Emigration 113 [5 352, 355, 899]; [citing five additional cases]. 'It habit absolutely case.' Burton 196 283, [25 243, 245, 482]." 346-347, 483. Cavalierly dismissing restraint, tersely announces "we here." respectfully disagree another day. Since, well. starts "categorical compensated," sets task identifying exceptional relieved obligation. implicit rights. doubly error. establishes unsound unwise addition rigid Categorical Rule 108 recognizes, its—or, indeed, —categorical contrary, ill fit paragraph contains observation thereby wrote: "As degree—and disposed propositions." "already said" factor weighed: "One [of value.] facts." 109 Mahon. dicta sometimes recited "effects [it] (1980), position. frequently—and recently—held nonetheless 2385, 991, Caltex, 344 149, 200, 203, 157 (1952); (1928); (1915); 657, 294, (1887); 1011, Connolly Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation, 475 211, 225, 1018, 1026, 490, 'Although after' 'is relevant, conclusive.' 110 lacking decisions, arbitrary. whose 95% recovers nothing, 100% hand arbitrariness dwellings areas, rebuilding houses "destroyed repair fire." Acts 634, 3; 167 1991).2 hurricane day took effect, rebuild, nor assured recovery. approach, (who build) recovers, homes) recover. palpable. 111 elastic rights, practice. broadly takings. adopts revisionist reading venerable precedents. told that—notwithstanding case—the Mugler, brickyard pit put "other takings.3 13. hand, developers investors specialized estates advantage smaller estate, investor purchase multi-family home allows investor's "valueless."4 effects: Either "denominator" "fraction," rendering meaningless, manipulate interests, giving effect. mind, results appropriate, distortions remarkably thin. mentions three arguments rule; convincing. First, suggests feasible appropriation." proves much. "landowner's view," diminishes lot's 50% equivalent" lot. Yet, 117, (1926) (75% value). perception 114 Second, emphasizes rare" "go on." little. Certainly true defining small class greatly hinder functions—but regulations. begs 115 "regulations service." fully below, infra, Part risks singling central concern correlation "singling out" takings: depriving 837, 3149, J.E.D. Associates, Atkinson, 121 581, 432 out, (1915). specificity expropriating act. third fails. arbitrary practice, theoretically unjustified. supported provided. Nuisance Exception 117 Like bright-line "categorical" page Reports. sooner quickly "previously basic state-wide making beverages enacted. squarely 119 "It defendants erected breweries, forbid intoxicating liquors. assurance, obligation, remain unchanged. [T]he supervision morals 'continuing nature,' 'to exigencies moment require;' 'for purpose, largest discretion allowed, parted itself.' 301. state's lawful. asbestos, cigarettes, concealable firearms, wonder Government on" law." freezes denying revise governing abandoned office remedy defects developed, adapt Munn Illinois, 113, 134, (1877). Marshall observed 122 "If accepted, represent return era Lochner 198 937] (1905), immune revision Federal Government. freeze constructed courts, 19th-century room circumstance. result." PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 74, 93, 2035, 2047, 741 (1980) (concurring opinion). Arresting decisions; profoundly unwise. condition constant learning evolution—both practical. implement learning; doing owners. Nation came understand slavery morally wrong mandated emancipation slaves, redefined "property." scale, ongoing self-education produces owners: appreciation significance species, wetlands, 3801 seq.; vulnerability shapes evolving 124 Of redefinitions compensated—but away world economy environment frequency importance. discretion' deal moment,' imperative govern past.5 will, fear, hamper efforts officials planners increasingly problems environmental case—in exceed $1 million—well hoc unacceptable penalties guess incorrectly law.6 Viewed broadly, conflict character reduced "set formula" "essentially [an] inquir[y]." unavoidable, effects ultimately "fairness justice," Armstrong 364 40, 49, 1563, 1569, 1554 (1960), clash enterprise: justice" disserved rules. "entails [several factors:] action, interference expectations." PruneYard, 83, 2042. focuses factors: addresses "economic impact," brings "expectations." Neglected first, ways, analysis: action. "was forcing alone bear which, fairness justice, borne whole." Armstrong, 1569. "prevent[ing] loading government." Monongahela Navigation 148 622, 626, (1893). looked property.7 129 "developmental exactions," "b[e] singled burden" broader making. 835, 4, 3148, 4; Pennell Jose, 23, 849, 863, Similarly, Kohler ) Subsidence ), function broader. Unlike transferred back surface earlier sold coal companies, owners—including —equally. 486, familiar arises cases. comprehensive plan, conversely, "spot zoning" Central, 28. occupation, slight, entails out."8 Consistent principle, occupations occupations. installation junction box owned party, sprinklers smoke detectors; access marina, (1979), placement buoys marina. 131 analyzing claims, difference targets enforces policy. A.A. Profiles, Ft. Lauderdale, 850 1483, 1488 (CA11 1988); Wheeler Pleasant Grove, 664 (CA5 1981); Trustees Will Pomeroy Westlake, So.2d 1299, (La.App.1978); Burrows Keene, 15, Herman Glick 545 S.W.2d 320, 324-325 (Mo.App.1976); Huttig Richmond Heights, 372 833, 842-843 (Mo.1963). waterfront proprietor several shore, objection formidable." (1851). 132 significant. target regulates coastline State. Code national coastline, 1972. Pub.L. 92-583, codified Pursuant implemented regulations.9 undeveloped destroyed, 634 3,10 repairing devices, seawalls, 48-39-290(B)(2) situations, "renouris[h] yearly one-half times volume due erosion." 3, 5140.11 alike.12 expropriate 133 Admittedly, substantial. anything, costs greater: doubt, renourishing seawalls deteriorate petitioner, differ degree, kind. 134 viewed "protect[ing], preserv[ing], restor[ing] enhanc[ing] system" recreational "protec[t] 48-39-260(1)(a) science side, "beach/dune [acts] buffer surge, [and] hurricanes." demonstrated Hurricane Hugo, 1989, deaths $6 billion alone.13 135 view factors, assuming sort compelling motivating persuade me 136 Statement SOUTER. 138 dismiss writ certiorari improvidently. abundantly unreviewable questionable frustrate rests. 139 petition conclusion, supreme apparent 493-502, 1246-1251, 65-66, 326-327, Corp. 130-131, 2662, (1978), highly questionable. wishes point, 45-50, refuse up presented, received superficial one-sided 140 reviewed, precluded attempting clarify (and, categorically compensable) rests, describes, 6, uncertain fostered pronouncements itself. uncertain, exceptions proceeds recognize. enough show utility 141 imprudence proceeding spite unpromising underscored help something explicating directly. concludes denial (if assume) abatement Amendments. defensible probably fact. enquiry conduct, conduct performed, 821B (public nuisance); 822 (private nuisance), remedies usually Keeton, Dobbs, R. Owen, Prosser Keeton (5th 1984) remedied criminal prosecution abatement), damages, injunction abatement); disturb restrict forbidden prejudicial interests"); 412, 146, extraction clay bricks produced). difficult imagine presuppose occupy seriously 142 upshot addressed indirection, results, defenses claims. deserves attention, relationship skip preliminary instant await squarely. vote writ, preference. Welsh Wisconsin, 466 740, 755, 2091, 2100, 732 (Burger, C.J.); Shannon, 342 281, 285, 321 (1952) (Frankfurter, syllabus Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 499. method Beachwood East "inlet along inlets influenced inlet associated shoals," 48-39-270(7) (Supp.1988)) "not stabilized jetties, terminal groins, structures," 48-39-280(A)(2). unstabilized zones, directs "along crest primary oceanfront dune." 48-39-280(A)(1). nonhabitable improvements, "wooden walkways larger width six feet," "small wooden decks hundred forty-four square feet." 48-39-290(A)(1) (2) BLACKMUN aspect justiciable," fulfilled "submi[t] property" authorities. 187, 3117. pointless, stipulated below application. (stipulations). peculiar posture believes, Given dismissive foreclosure pleading here pleadings alone. complaint, 154 (complaint); 156 (asking "damages date "such resolved"). demanded. 312-313, 2384, "baffling," 5, grant whereas few days Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 2130, --- ---- (1992)," standing. sees repeated imputations "presses" "eager decide" unwilling "be denied," point: indeed grants distinction, chronology. Lujan, establishment summary stage, adduced sworn testimony; generalized unsuccessful. Appeals Fourth Circuit identical established, submission. observed: pendency appeal, provisions plaintiffs, relieve plaintiffs' cured concerns, effect." 1991). states "intense plight prudently vacating remanding amendments" 7. strange suggestion, desirous using narrower then; "prudence" mind. respond BLACKMUN's mistaken citation precedent. Characteristic discuss stand proof defeat facial challenge" "denial consideration." say, unmistakably, '[t]he [a] [takings] straightforward. "denies ' 1247 Hodel, 2370 2141)) added). describes (which invent today) "alter[ing] review" foisting [its] wrong. file lawsuit entitlement; presumes unconstitutionality rule-with-exceptions invalidity violates it—for content-based speech. Simon Schuster, Crime Victims 476 (1991) presumptively imposes speakers speech"). quarrel substantive standard liability long-established repudiate. Regrettably, rhetorical force precision, "property interest" measured. developer 90% rural tract state, unclear analyze burdened tract, whole. (For extreme—and, unsupportable—view calculus, N.Y.2d 324, 333-334, 397 N.Y.S.2d 914, 920, 366 1271, 1276-1277 (1977), aff'd, examined parcel's produced municipal holdings vicinity.) Unsurprisingly, composition "deprivation" fraction 414, restricting subsurface taking), 497-502, 1248-1251, (nearly taking); 515-520, 1257-1260 Rose, Reconstructed: Why Still Muddle, 561, 566-569 (1984). answer lie alleges elimination of) event, difficulty "interest t hat pleaded (a fee simple interest) rich tradition STEVENS criticizes "wholly arbitrary", "[the] nothing," suffers "recovers short formulation, but, again, "[t]he interfered expectations" keenly generally. get recover full. occasional gross disparity highway full) 5% former nothing). "all-or-nothing" situations. misinterprets "developmental" (the Act) betraying "assumption cognizable uses." assumption. Though evince abiding investment in, noneconomic impairment invite exceedingly scrutiny Clause. 3176, (1982) (interest excluding strangers land). Petition Certiorari, Opposition decline entertain brief assumptions Carolina. express following: that: "(1) coast functions: "(a) manner; "(b) industry generates two-thirds annual revenue economy. tourists dry tax revenues; "(c) habitat species plants animals, endangered. Waters species; "(d) spend leisure mental well-being. "(2) Beach/dune vitality "(3) Many miles identified critically eroding. "(4) [D]evelopment "(5) armoring hard devices bulkheads, rip-rap erosion-threatened proven effective. false security reality, structures, instances, increased wind waves contributing deterioration industry. "(6) Erosion man afford erode cycle. encouraging retreat "(8) promote out-of-state residents alike." fact, "[South Carolina] 'findings' purported characterizing "harm-preventing," 385, 900 seem phrased language instead. enhancing "South revenue," 48-39-250(1)(b) (Supp.1991), "provid[ing] endangered," 48-39-250(1)(c), healthy well-being." 48-39-250(1)(d). pointless outcome hang terminology, readily fashion. hinge (exclusively) Legislature's other, characterizations, focusing "prohibitions says "[n]othing [this] assessment," ibid., seeing rebuild repair," 48-39-290(B)), authorizes violation uniform prohibition, harm-preventing formulated stupid staff. artful characterizations. brewery; permitted); Plymouth 232 359, 713 (1914) (requirement "pillar" safeguard mine workers; exploited); Reinman Little Rock, 237 171, 511, (declaration livery nuisance; manufacturing area; excavation; permitted). Drawing Employment Division, Department Human Resources Oregon Smith, 494 872, 878-879, 1595, 876 (1990), "loo[k] owing. general, "regulates state." proposes, inhibits practice religion aimed religion, destroys law—the mind—cannot 655-656, 293-294. acquires immunity plundering religious religions. STEVENS' particularized restatement Equal Protection accusing "launch[ing] mouse," expends throw-weight noncombatant, arguing description "understanding" informs experience. largely practices incorporation Clauses, B. Q.R. 226, 979 (1897)—which, acknowledges, occasionally outright plausible provisions. theorists embraced all, (explicitly, least) renounce text (in contrast Madison, Speech Proposing Rights (June 1789), Papers James Madison (C. Hobson, Rutland, Rachal, Sisson 1979) ("No person relinquish compensation"), principal "otherwise" mind absolving parties) "real actual necessity, fire" forestall grave lives others. Bowditch Boston, 18-19, 980 (1880); Pacific Railroad, 227, 238-239, 495-496, elect rescind Church, 2389. "where [regulation has] worked effective." decries manipulable "harm prevention"/"benefit conferral" dichotomy, leeway permits—but remotely much, crafting stress defended objectively recognize uncontrolled Sierra Club, al. Amici Curiae 2-5. Hugo's September 1989 damage, Zalkin, Shifting Sands Doctrines: Changing Doctrine Statute, Cal.L.Rev. 212-213 storm, "but driven, battering rams, inland homes." dune breaks. calculating ideal rate. rapidly escalating prices them. Lot 1979 $96,660, 1984 $187,500, 1985 $260,000, finally, $475,000. estimated 1991 $650,000. Lucas, purchasers 44-46. reliance, 91-941, misplaced. as-applied challenge. 16. Facial passed; baffling, (1992), allegations definite 153-156. up, hurry" "because appreciating 28-29. '[S]ome day' intentions concrete plans, specification be—do 'actual imminent' require." 2138. circumvents Wildlife resolved," Complaint, demonstrate immediate sell. contested issue. not, overlooks justiciable temporary-taking chastises "so [to] commen[t]" 2-year period, frets period." Whatever explanation intense cautious amendments. courts. fire License How. 504, 589, 256 (1847) (opinion McLean, year, asking "[w]hether ordinances altogether capable Juris. Statement, O.T.1962, 307, dismissed 10.< /SUP> "involves highest interests—the death injury." 1353, 1370, 258 893, 904 (1989), 493 1056, 866, 950 (1990). unanimous discovered, unpersuasive. precise taken" instead interest." 260-262, 2141-2142. cited 2893, repeat sentence, irrelevant indicated 295-297, 2370-2371, cry consideration. proposition. relies prefer rely mention relies. 2141-2142; 489 1243-1244 1245-1246. example. demonstrating red trees, noted "occasional lumber." 279, timber commercially saleable, felling salvage Schoene sustained burning interest: spoke preferment destruction." disavow explaining earliest suggesting harms. Subsequently, expanded interests. cases—that compensation—was repudiated. consciously clarified core overrode interest. "Indeed, construe right' risking death." Cal.App.3d, 1366, Cal.Rptr., 901-902. refers creation, Newark, Boundaries L.Q.Rev. (1949) (attributing 1535), 1800s England, selectively targeted. 999-1000 (1966); J.F. Stephen, View Criminal England 105-107 (2d 1890). references "common-law" "state Also, 654, 293, 246; "[a] power] conditions once obtaining. hold fix city forever primitive conditions." 410, 145 Coal. Holmes, author joined later. exact Court: harmful, repudiate string "noxious recognizing 1244. 1192-1193 (1967); "There impenetrable jungle surrounds 'nuisance.' meant people, indiscriminately everything alarming advertisement cockroach baked pie." 616 "straddles universe, defies taste." Rodgers, 2.4, (1986) "nuisance concepts" "often vague indeterminate." Milwaukee 451 317, 1784, 1792, 56-59. advantages notion] all." 56. Professor Sax contends Blackstone, "remembered champion clause 58-59. 1796, Attorney responded holders' demand instance record, memory living, soil freehold constitutions Vermont Massachusetts use; mentioned constitution, consent legislature. Grant, "Higher Law" Background Eminent Domain, Selected Essays Constitutional 912, 915-916 1868, clauses const itutions. direct, 711 "contemporaneous commentary meaning supply," 58, "few authorities available" "designed action," 58-60. retroactive formerly controlling "Nor previous by-law," "[e]very right, down easement, holden restriction, exercised Though, remote inoffensive, purchaser know, peril, otherwise." 605 538, 542 Metc. (Mass.1846); 185 (1858). agree. Lane Mt. Vernon, 344, 379 798, 800, 571, 573 (1976); Baker, 160 Pa.Super. 640, 829, 830 (1947). experience, 1897 "entirely irrelevant" 15. clearly purchase. compact," regard, noteworthy months ever 48-39-290(B) easily case: uses"—fishing camping, example—or sell buffer. highlights fundamental weakness added), arbitrarily her bird-watching sunbathing circumstances; unfortunate subtle dicta. indicating estates. Today, efficiency, unsound. insurance forms insurance, "moral hazard" inefficiencies: overinvest, adversely, Farber, Economic Analysis Compensation, Int'l Econ. (1992). takings, choice remedies. 17. "invalidat[e the] excessive regulation" "allo[w] orde[r] 335, 2396, 319-21, 2388-2389. impede well-rooted "mischiefs faction." Federalist (G. Wills 1982) (J. Madison). An analogous individual's neutral applicability. 879-880, "[Our] 'valid applicability proscribes prescribes) prescribes proscribes).' Lee, 252, 263, 1051, 1054, judgment). Prince 645 (1944), mother prosecuted child labor children literature streets, motivation notwithstanding. infirmity 'excluding [these children] do.' 444. Braunfeld Brown, 599, 1144, 563 (1961) (plurality opinion), Sunday-closing persons religions compelled refrain work days. Gillette 401 461, 828, 842, (1971), military Selective Service System conscripting war grounds." severely liberty, comparable unreasonably onerous. Levmore, Special Interests, 1333, 1352-1354 216-217, nn. 46-47 (collecting statutes). provision 1990; renourishment shifted governments. 48-39-350(A) closely resembles landmark designation Cal.L.Rev., 212-213.

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