Document: 475 U.S. 106 S.Ct. 960 89 L.Ed.2d 81 NEW YORK, Petitioner,v.Benigno CLASS. No. 84-1181. Argued Nov. 4, 1985. Decided Feb. 25, 1986. Syllabus When two New York City police officers observed respondent driving above the speed limit in a car with cracked windshield, both traffic violations under law, they stopped him. He then emerged from and approached one of officers. The other officer opened door to look for Vehicle Identification Number (VIN), which is located on left doorjamb pre-1969 automobiles. did not find VIN doorjamb, he reached into car's interior move some papers obscuring area dashboard where later model In doing so, saw handle gun protruding underneath driver's seat seized gun. Respondent was arrested. After state trial court denied motion suppress as evidence, convicted criminal possession weapon. Appellate Division Supreme Court upheld conviction, but Appeals reversed, holding that absence any justification search respondent's besides violations, prohibited must accordingly be excluded evidence. Held: 1. Appeals' decision rest an adequate independent ground so deprive this jurisdiction. opinion, mentions Constitution only once direct conjunction Federal makes use federal cases its analysis, lacks requisite "plain statement" it rests grounds. Moreover, determining question prohibited, looked statute authorizes demand drivers reveal their VIN, merely provided no search. Pp. 109-110. 2. officer's action searching violate Fourth Amendment. 111-119. (a) Because important role played by pervasive governmental regulation automobiles efforts Government through regulations assure placed plain view, had reasonable expectation privacy VIN. placement insufficient create interest 111-114. (b) sufficiently unintrusive constitutionally permissible light lack fact commit concerns officers' safety. 114-119. 63 N.Y.2d 491, 483 N.Y.S.2d 181, 472 N.E.2d 1009, reversed remanded. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion Court, BURGER, C.J., BLACKMUN, POWELL, REHNQUIST, JJ., joined, Part II BRENNAN, MARSHALL, STEVENS, joined. filed concurring post, p. 120. part dissenting part, MARSHALL 122. WHITE, 131. Steven R. Kartagener, Staten Island, N.Y., petitioner. Mark C. Cogan, City, respondent, pro hac vice, special leave Court. Justice O'CONNOR 1 case, we decide whether, order observe (VIN) generally visible outside automobile, may reach passenger compartment vehicle after driver has been violation exited car. We hold that, these circumstances, does 2 * On afternoon May 11, 1981, Lawrence Meyer William McNamee Benigno Class windshield. Both windshield speeding are law. See N.Y.Veh. & Traf.Law §§ 375(22), 1180(d) (McKinney 1970). followed ensuing directive pull over. his Officer Meyer. went directly vehicle. registration certificate proof insurance, stated license. 3 Meanwhile, manufactured before 1969. about inch seat. gun, promptly also issued summonses violations. 4 It undisputed reason suspect stolen, contained contraband, or committed offense than Nor disputed charged, day arrest, valid 5 weapon third degree. N.Y. Penal Law § 265.02(4) 1980). conviction without opinion. 97 App.Div.2d 741, 468 892 (1983). reversed. reasoned "intrusion . undertaken obtain information exposed hidden areas" car, "therefore constituted search." 495, 183, 1011 (1984). Although recognized involves minimal intrusion because limited potential locations, agreed there compelling law enforcement positively identifying vehicles involved accidents automobile thefts, thought decisive facts case "reveal activity [besides infractions] act protect own safety." Id., at 495-496, 184, N.E.2d, 1012. statutory provision "provided entry [respondent's] car." 497, 185, 1013. If taken advantage asked see could have moved away himself would occurred. infractions, ruled 6 granted certiorari, 471 1003, 105 1863, 85 157 (1985), now reverse. 7 asserts jurisdiction hear ground. disagree. 8 once, United States Constitution. N.Y.2d, 493, N.Y.S.2d, 182, 1010. Cf. Michigan v. Long, 463 1032, 1043, 103 3469, 3477, 77 1201 below citing same proposition. See, e.g., 494, 1011. supra, 1042, 1044, S.Ct., 3478. Accordingly, our Long applicable here: 9 "[W]hen fairly appears primarily interwoven when adequacy independence possible clear face will accept most explanation decided way believed required do so." U.S., 1040-1041, 3475-3476. 10 California Carney, 386, 389, n. 1, 2066, 2068, 406 (1985). 11 Respondent's claim rested grounds merit. 401 York's Traffic issue here, but, rejecting assertion petitioner, held " 1013 (emphasis added). Constitution, State's statute. adheres general rule construction can resolve courts should constitutional issues. Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 346-347, 56 466, 482-483, 80 L.Ed. 688 (1936) (Brandeis, concurring); re Peters Housing Authority, 307 519, 527, 121 529, 531 (1954). Since discussed grounds, infer case. discussion therefore III A. 12 observing exit attempted determine automobile. reaching remove intruded 13 consists more dozen digits, unique each all cars trucks. 49 CFR 571.115 roughly analogous serial number, deciphered place manufacturer's production run, make, model, engine type, manufacture 565.4. 14 significant thread web 43 Fed.Reg. 2189 (1978). ease allows identification particular assists various levels government many ways. For Government, improves efficacy recall campaigns, researchers risks models combination insurance laws, reduces number those injured who go uncompensated insurance. requirements safety inspections, helps ensure operators safe vehicles. By making theft difficult, safeguards property life limb. 33 10207 (1968) (noting stolen disproportionately likely accidents). 15 To facilitate VIN's usefulness laudable purposes, requires view someone automobile: "The [manufactured 1969] shall inside compartment. readable, moving vehicle, glazing daylight lighting conditions observer having 20/20 vision (Snellen) whose eye point adjacent pillar. Each character subject paragraph minimum height mm." (S4.6) (1984) 16 Delaware Prouse, 440 648, 658, 99 1391, 1398, 59 660 (1979), "vital interest" highway programs contribute interest. interests served State Governments amply justified surrounds requiring ordinarily B 17 A citizen surrender protections Amendment entering 663, 1401; Almeida-Sanchez States, 413 266, 269, 93 2535, 2537, 37 596 (1973). Nonetheless, area, whether elsewhere, cannot result unless "constitutionally protected privacy." Katz 389 347, 360, 88 507, 516, 19 576 (1967) (Harlan, concurring). Oliver 466 170, 177-180, 104 1735, 1740-1742, 214 (1984); Maryland Macon, 463, 469, 2778, 2782, 86 370 18 physical characteristics lessened therein: "One lesser motor function transportation seldom serves one's residence repository personal effects. little capacity escaping public scrutiny. travels thoroughfares occupants contents view." Cardwell Lewis, 417 583, 590, 94 2464, 2469, 41 325 (1974) (plurality opinion). 20 justifiably State. Every operator expect State, enforcing regulations, intrude extent upon operator's privacy: 21 "Automobiles, unlike homes, continuing controls, including periodic inspection licensing requirements. As everyday occurrence, stop examine license plates stickers expired, if such exhaust fumes excessive noise, noted, headlights equipment proper working order." South Dakota Opperman, 428 364, 368, 96 3092, 3096, 1000 (1976). 22 Cady Dombrowski, 433, 441-442, 2523, 2528, 706 (1973); 392, 2069-2070. 23 factors diminish fortiori above, plays motorist surely occasion require her individual's thereby diminished. This especially true violation. 659, 1399 ("The foremost method acting stops occur countless times day; occasions, licenses them ascertained addition, unreasonable object exterior mandated visibility similar trunk glove course, thrust eye, thus constitute "search." 588-589, 2468. sum, 24 think difference obscured officer. recently emphasized restrict access generate none otherwise exist. 182-184, 1743-1744 (placement "No Trespassing" signs secluded "legitimate marihuana fields). Here, behind transparent driven roads, believe mere viewing formerly not, therefore, C 25 evidence sought suppressed however, while covered While expectations exist respect home, whole nonetheless protection intrusions police. agree space 653, 1395 ("[S]topping detaining 'seizure' even though purpose resulting detention quite brief"). decide, permissible. 26 remained asking him 496-497, 184-185, 1012-1013, were explicit difficulty concluding inspect like papers, within scope authority pursuant stop. 1399. stayed acceded request officer, needed chose, removing VIN; chose conduct return acted bounds conducting did. 27 Keeping during routine probably typical practice. D. Schultz Hunt, Investigation Enforcement out concern police, may, consistent Amendment, exercise discretion commits particularized believing possesses Pennsylvania Mimms, 434 106, 108-111, 98 330, 332-33, 54 331 (1977) (per curiam ). impute propensity violence, conscious here voluntarily used illustrate principal justifications given Mimms: seat, loaded pistol hand. Mimms guard against possibility briefly. Clearly, allowed detain briefly completed investigation. 28 remains, effect seizure necessary detention. beneath disappear closed returned immediately situation avoid—permitting individual being detained dangerous benefit partial concealment exterior. 110, 333. danger presented returning 29 terms prohibits "unreasonable" searches seizures. noted: 30 "[T]here 'no ready test reasonableness balancing need [or seize] invasion seizure] entails.' Camara Municipal 387 523, 534-535, 536-537 [87 1727, 1734-35, 930] (1967). And justifying able specific articulable which, together rational inferences facts, warrant intrusion." Terry Ohio, 392 21, 1868, 1879-1880, 889 (footnote omitted) (brackets 31 means conducted backed probable cause. Ventresca, 380 102, 105-109, 744-46, 684 (1965); Karo, 705, 714-715, 3296, 3302-3303, 82 530 immediate weapon, struck balance allow weighty justify warrantless based suspicion activity. supra; Adams Williams, 407 143, 92 1921, 32 612 (1972). Such despite substantial intrusiveness. 24-25, 1881-1882 (search "a severe, brief, cherished security, [have] b[een] annoying, frightening, perhaps humiliating experience"). less detention, something objectively justifiable tip favor legality intrusion. 107, 331, personally commission requesting Summers, 452 692, 693, 101 2587, 2589, 69 340 (1981), obtained house person leaving came Summers differ respects similarities strong enough appropriate here. All three present case: intrusion; minimal; stemmed cause focusing affected Indeed, undertake "the nature quality importance alleged intrusion," Place, 462 696, 703, 2637, 2642, 110 (1983), conclusion follows. obtaining first order, "critical" intrusiveness government's action, 722, 2652 (BLACKMUN, judgment), weighs allowing focused objective intrusive fulfill objective. far formal 155 Supp.1986); N.Y.Crim.Proc.Law 140.10(1) 1981), eyes officers—move himself. initial locations—either atop Neither locations privacy. checked locations. root proceeding compartments open containers. until intrude, simply unprotected offending papers. Any expose potentially grave significantly reducing ultimate conduct—viewing VIN—which, said, entitled undoubtedly 34 note today authorize enter dashboard-mounted it.* 35 judgment remanded further proceedings inconsistent 36 ordered. whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, concurring. I join Court's write emphasize lawful right duty Where disclosed driver, read 38 explains, essentially certain features affixed, provides effective reliable positive occupies central position elaborate automobiles, frequently depends identification. manufacturers location standing 39 answered correctly applying conventional analysis. believe, subjected scrutiny properly apply arrest crime. lawfully infraction, documents. (1979); Unquestionably, record implicating concerns. contend, nor reasonably contended, violates raised offended incremental stopped. 109, 332. 40 problem just sequence events transpired well Suffice say talk officers, what required. entered covering handgun front unlawful agreeing occurred, sustains reasoning familiar principles my reasonable. There finding vehicle—opening hand dashboard—was achieve purpose. observes, requested obstructing compliance request, lawful. People Ellis, 62 393, 477 465 826 (on stop, arrested failure produce identification). 42 purposes system obstruction preventing inspection, either unwilling unable cooperate.* STEVENS join, part. 44 ground, (VIN). Ante, 114-115. However, disagree permissible, respectfully dissent. 45 bear repetition. Officers pulled over minor door, joined rear gave examining documents, unaware license, and, there, dashboard. arrested, eventually convicted, 46 "[i]t violations." 108. 47 guarantees "right people secure persons, houses, effects, seizures." "This fundamental preserved requirement judicial officer." 390, 2068-2069, found cars, see, Carroll 267 132, 280, 543 (1925), narrow exception "applies supported cause." Ross, 456 798, 809, 102 2157, 2164, 72 572 (1982). 48 McNamee's clearly patently unconstitutional. contrary logic grounded jurisprudence, rather strained irrelevant substitute cause, struggles VIN" "concern safety" "nature quality" took place. 118. Once again, "takes long step toward 'balancing' oblivion affords." 1065, 3489 (BRENNAN, dissenting). whatever, let alone amount "balancing" make constitutional. says much "important automobile," holds "reasonable VIN." 114. aspect analysis particularly baffling. Of schemes regulating install VINs assuming why relevant decide? searched consent locate search—the VIN—the misses decide: discover Regardless retained police—the interior. "[t]he kept, nature, automatically sanction private it." cf. id., 1012-1013 furnish 50 mobile regulation, home. supra. sometimes "[a]n operating traveling lose regulation." 662, 1400, 87 (1973) ("[T]he doctrine declare field automobiles"). constrains guise "regulation," uses scheme retrieve information. Rather, search, 2537 ("Automobile search"). "[T]o eliminate explain reasons actions leaves utterly limits." 122, 339, (STEVENS, lacked 51 suggests infractions "probable mockery offenses form 1401. Too, sort gives opportunity But evaporate supplies Plainly unnecessary since supplied certificate, suggestion inadequate.1 52 iota support content conclude promoting safety, fail how advanced Despite lengthy exposition variety safety-related VIN,2 identified interests. intended identify considered "unsafe" done Thus, utilizes designed promote give every time law.3 Absent admittedly validate 53 relying next attempts "[i]n [that be] [to uncover VIN,] Amendment." 116. cited supports argument. occupant home warrant. several interests, basis engaged detained. 702-704, 2594-2595. contrast, knew provide it. 55 ordered emerged, noticed large bulge jacket, frisking him, discovered revolver. legitimately made Unlike case—the vehicle—did serve Nevertheless, finds "[t]o VIN] avoid." Again, forgets interior, protecting threat authorized weapons. 1051, 3481. neither ever suggested posed danger, specifically officer[s] [their] 496, slightest IV 57 Finally, 'critical' Government's effort minimize intrusion, ante, 118-119, won't wash. opening Even engage full-scale excavation, areas [Terry (1968), progeny] judged principle seizures 'long-prevailing standards' fell short kind associated arrest." Dunaway York, 442 200, 212, 2248, 2256, 60 824 (1979). That substantially ordinary starkly exposes impropriety illegal approach. 721, 2652, BLACKMUN too noted "emerging tendency convert statement reasonable." 718, 2650 result); Kolender Lawson, 461 352, 363, 1855, 1862, 75 903 (1983) Florida Royer, 460 509, 1319, 1330, 229 result).4 58 event, allegedly served, legalize situations approved very always 1879, (1968); U .S., 1049, 3480 (police belief gain control weapons hidden); 1401 unlicensed, unregistered, seizure, driver); Brignoni-Ponce, 422 873, 881-882, 95 2574, 2580, 607 (1975) contains aliens citizenship). offered still another steps road evisceration willingness highlights trend. disturbing relies upon—the shielding place—gave again disregards admonition Jackson: "[Fourth rights] second-class rights belong catalog indispensable freedoms. Among deprivations rights, cowing population, crushing spirit putting terror heart. Uncontrolled arsenal arbitrary government." Brinegar 338 160, 180, 1302, 1313, 1879 (1949) (dissenting opinion).5 61 dissenting. precondition existed solely prevented seen sufficient outweigh owner's am unprepared, least gives, is. Had refused (1) turn (2) article cases, sanctioned refusal never permit did, different all, certificate. kind: nothing nonconsensual emergent circumstances. 64 Otherwise, carried prominent whenever legal consent. 65 unlicensed citation continue. Arguably, legally process gun; towed inspected station; entire searched. eschews alternative rationales accept. Petitioner invites us status deprived away, impounded inventory thereof. (1976) multiple parking violations); Nix 467 431, 2501, 377 (discussing "inevitable discovery" exclusionary rule). argues Belton, 453 454, 2860, 768 impounding questions suggest, inapplicable context. An pretext contraband extensive belie wait started compare notes ways." 111. examples, explains campaigns," "assists automobiles," "reduc[e] insurance," ensures "that vehicles," "[b]y difficult limb." Ibid. analogy, play roles "There inquiries except circumstances." result). "[T]he Framers easily consideration multifarious circumstances cases." 213, 2257, rule, [Fourth] balanced 2653 judgment). JUSTICE, "[w]here standard, disclose location.

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