Document: 485 U.S. 439 108 S.Ct. 1319 99 L.Ed.2d 534 Richard E. LYNG, Secretary of Agriculture, et al., Petitionersv.NORTHWEST INDIAN CEMETERY PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION al. No. 86-1013. Argued Nov. 30, 1987. Decided April 19, 1988. Syllabus In 1982, the United States Forest Service prepared a final environmental impact statement for constructing paved road through federal land, including Chimney Rock area Six Rivers National Forest. This area, as reported in study commissioned by Service, has historically been used certain American Indians religious rituals that depend upon privacy, silence, and an undisturbed natural setting. Rejecting study's recommendation not be completed because it would irreparably damage sacred areas, also rejecting alternative routes outside Forest, selected route avoided archeological sites was removed far possible from specific spiritual activities. At about same time, adopted management plan allowing timber harvesting but providing protective zones around all identified study. After exhausting administrative remedies, respondents—an Indian organization, individual Indians, nature organizations members thereof, State California—filed suit Federal District Court challenging both road-building timber-harvesting decisions. The court issued permanent injunction prohibited Government section or putting into effect, holding, inter alia, such actions violate respondent Indians' rights under Free Exercise Clause First Amendment statutes. Appeals affirmed pertinent part. Held: 1. courts below did clearly explain whether—in keeping with principle requiring reach constitutional questions only when necessary—they determined decision on issue necessary might entitle respondents to relief beyond which they were entitled their statutory claims. structure wording Court's injunction, however, suggest holding have supported granted, Appeals' silence necessity reaching may reflected its understanding necessarily rested part grounds. Because appears reasonably likely decisions below, is confident can cure defects inadvisable this vacate remand without addressing question merits. Pp. 445-447. 2. does prohibit permitting proposed road. 447-458. (a) Bowen v. Roy, 476 693, 106 2147, 90 735—which held statute use Social Security numbers administering welfare programs Clause—this rejected kind challenge assert. Just affected individuals here coerced Government's action violating beliefs; nor governmental penalize exercise denying adherents equal share rights, benefits, privileges enjoyed other citizens. Incidental effects government programs, interfere practice religions, no tendency coerce acting contrary beliefs, do require bring forward compelling justification otherwise lawful actions. written terms what cannot individual, exact government. Even assuming will virtually destroy ability religion, Constitution simply provide could justify upholding respondents' legal 447-453. (b) right own lands need should discourage accommodating practices like those engaged respondents. taken numerous steps minimize construction activities—such choosing best protects adverse audible intrusions, planning reduce visual surrounding country. Such solicitude accords policy requirements Religious Freedom Act. Contrary contention, Act create any enforceable authorize injunction. 453-455. 795 F.2d 688 (CA9 86) reversed remanded. O'CONNOR, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, STEVENS, SCALIA, JJ., joined. BRENNAN, filed dissenting opinion, MARSHALL BLACKMUN, joined, post, p. 458. KENNEDY, took consideration case. Andrew J. Pincus, petitioners. Marilyn B. Miles, Justice O'CONNOR Court. 1 case requires us consider whether Amendment's prohibits in, through, portion traditionally purposes three tribes northwestern California. We conclude not. 2 * As project 75-mile linking two California towns, Gasquet Orleans, upgraded 49 miles previously unpaved roads land. order complete (the G-O road), must build 6-mile segment That forest situated between portions are already complete. 3 1977, draft discussed proposals upgrading existing runs area. response comments statement, cultural Hoopa Valley Reservation adjoins Yurok, Karok, Tolowa Indians. study, 1979, found entire "is significant integral indispensible conceptualization practice." App. 181. Specific rituals, "successful [area] dependent facilitated qualities physical environment, most important setting." Ibid. (footnote omitted). concluded along available "would cause serious irreparable areas belief systems lifeway Northwest peoples." Id., at 182. Accordingly, report recommended completed. 4 decided adopt recommendation, Regional Forester contemporary Alternative altogether required acquisition private had soil stability problems, event traversed having ritualistic value See id., 217-218. amounts forest. provided one-half mile connection 5 organizations, California—challenged Northern Respondents claimed Service's violated Clause, Water Pollution Control (FWPCA), 86 Stat. 896, amended, 33 U.S.C. § 1251 seq., Environmental Policy 1969 (NEPA), 83 852, 42 4321 several statutes, trust responsibilities living Reservation. 6 trial, prohibiting effect. Cemetery Protective Assn. Peterson, 565 F.Supp. 586 (1983). seriously salient visual, aural, high country." 594-595. FWPCA, statements deficient NEPA. Finally, projects breach protect water fishing reserved 7 While appeal pending before Ninth Circuit, Congress enacted Wilderness 1984, Pub.L. 98-425, 98 1619. Under statute, much property covered now designated wilderness means commercial activities forbidden. exempts narrow strip coinciding remaining road, designation. legislative history indicates exemption "to enable completion Gasquet-Orleans Road if responsible authorities so decide." S.Rep. 98-582, 29 (1984). lies within therefore closed general traffic. 8 A panel Circuit (1986). unanimously conclusion vacated extent rendered moot Act, prevents order. decision, grounds, affirmed. 9 By divided ruling Relying primarily majority significant, though largely indirect, practices. failed demonstrate interest abandoned thereby creating "a preserve single group violation establishment clause." 694. apparently applied analysis logging operations carried out 692-693 ("Because country becomes less although disappear"). 10 judge argued eliminated drastic measures than ban building actual suggested pose threat He against needed reconsidered light Act: "It clear district based development small parcels. I allow reevaluate Act." 704. II 11 begin noting articulate bases perfect clarity. fundamental longstanding judicial restraint avoid advance deciding them. Three Affiliated Tribes Ft. Berthold Wold Engineering, P.C., 467 138, 157-158, 104 2267, 2279, 81 113 (1984); see also, e.g., Jean Nelson, 472 846, 854, 105 2992, 2997-2998, 664 (1985); Gulf Oil Co. Bernard, 452 89, 99, 101 2193, 2199, 68 693 (1981); Ashwander TVA, 297 288, 346-348, 56 466, 482-483, 80 L.Ed. (1936) (Brandeis, concurring). determine, issue, If additional warranted, unnecessary inappropriate. 12 Neither explained expressly articulated holdings. Were we persuaded holdings unnecessary, relevant judgment discussing merits issue. injunctive order, granted. four sections. Two sections deal 31,100-acre tract referred Blue Creek Roadless Area. engaging anywhere "unless until" compliance NEPA FWPCA demonstrated. F.Supp., 606-607. dealing smaller (i.e., challenge) worded differently. permanently enjoined, qualifying language, "and/or " area; similarly, forbids pursuant "or land plan." 606 (emphasis added). These differences suggest, absolutely implying, covering some way conditional, narrower scope, did. Similarly, 13 believe strengthened considerations economy. Government, petitioned certiorari alone, informed believes intends so, rulings. Tr. Oral Arg. 9-10. circumstance, difficult vindicated sending almost certainly brief round trip below. III A. 14 provides "Congress shall make law . free [of religion]." It undisputed beliefs sincere severe religion. Those contend burden heavy enough unless engage disagree. 15 735 (1986), considered programs. applicants benefits these contended prevented them acceding number 2-year-old daughter numerical identifier 'rob spirit' [their] prevent her attaining greater power." 696, S.Ct., 2150. case, said disruption environment caused diminish sacredness distractions "training ongoing experience using [sites within] personal medicine growth integrated parts system correlates ascending degrees power geographic hierarchy Cf. 178 ("Scarred hills mountains, disturbed rocks purity [Indian] consultants repeatedly stressed training doctor undistracted disturbance"). Roy: 16 "The understood conduct internal affairs ways comport particular insist [the Roys] set form observance, [they] demand join chosen refraining identify daughter. 17 ". affords protection forms compulsion; afford dictate procedures." U.S., 699-700, 2152. 18 publicly owned meaningfully distinguished Roy. cases, challenged significantly persons' pursue fulfillment according beliefs. neither either activity person 19 asked distinguish Roy ground infringement liberty "significantly greater," "purely mechanical" whereas involves case-by-case substantive determination how unit managed." Brief 33-34. told "the physically location where places restriction practitioner do." Respondent 18. suggests "could characterized interfering Roy's tenets subjective point view, government's 'its affairs' known him secondhand his religion." omitted; citation "physically destro[y] conditions privacy [religious] conducted." 20 efforts unavailing. determine truth underlying led objections Hobbie Unemployment Comm'n Fla., 480 136, 144, n. 9, 107 1046, 1051, 94 190 (1987), accordingly weigh appellees compare Without comparisons, say one incidental interference individual's subjected different other. 21 insist, nonetheless, properly relied factual inquiry degree become ineffectual built. They rely cases sustained challenges interfered individuals' Wisconsin Yoder, 406 205, 92 1526, 32 (1972) (compulsory school-attendance law); Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 1790, 965 (1963) (denial unemployment applicant who refused accept work Sabbath); Thomas Review Board, Indiana Employment Div., 450 707, 1425, 67 624 (1981) whose religion forbade fabricate weapons); Hobbie, supra convert resigned position Sabbath). 22 apart inconsistency reading interpretation withstand analysis. true indirect coercion penalties just outright prohibitions, subject scrutiny Amendment. Thus, example, ineligibility solely refusal Sabbath, analogized fine imposed Sabbath worship. Sherbert, supra, 404, 1794. imply more religions crucial word text "prohibit": "For government." 412, 1798 (Douglas, 23 Whatever line unconstitutional prohibitions legitimate affairs, measuring objector's development. dispute, reason doubt, devastating traditional intimately inextricably bound up unique features "high Individual practitioners development; believed critically advancing Tribe, indeed, mankind itself. very long wide variety aim accomplish goals. According efficacious conducted ones used, too disturbance area's state render meaningful continuation impossible. To sure, themselves unanimous opposing 180, seems disruptive doom Nevertheless, assume efficacy least extremely grave. 24 Circuit's prediction, "virtually religion," F.2d, (opinion below), However wish otherwise, operate satisfy every citizen's needs desires. broad range activities—from social foreign aid conservation projects—will always essential well-being citizens, often basis sincerely Others find deeply offensive, perhaps incompatible search apply citizens alike, give none veto over public not, cannot, offer reconcile various competing demands government, many rooted belief, inevitably arise diverse society ours. task, feasible, legislatures institutions. Federalist (suggesting factionalism restrained competition among multiplicity sects). 25 One look present why extension progeny, offers sound Constitution. attempt stress limits servitude seeking impose defending object being recreational visitors, rangers. Nothing contend, another lawsuit (or similarly objectors) seek exclude human lands. "[p]rivacy during quests maintain successful journey." added; record Similarly: entail intense meditation achieve profound awareness environment. Prayer seats oriented there unobstructed surrounded naturalness." 8, citations No disrespect implied notes easily de facto beneficial ownership rather spacious tracts property. anticipating future diminution concomitant subsidy trivial: harvesting, two-lane full 27 (i.e. 17,000 acres) 26 permit discriminate treat sacred, visiting raise questions. divest is, after all, 724-727, 2165-2166 (O'CONNOR, concurring part) (distinguishing information possession information). B our read encourage insensitivity citizen. 422-423, 1803-1804 (Harlan, dissenting). worth emphasizing, therefore, First, comprehensive resulting 423-page sympathetic interests constituted principal piece evidence throughout litigation. 28 Although end report's abandoned, ameliorative planned. take place disturbed. fact, major factor relation sites: he noted, farthest sites; thus, intrusions associated alternatives." 102. Nor concerns limited "audible intrusions." observed, planned 703 (Beezer, part). Except abandoning entirely, leaving segments dead-end middle solicitous. inherent freedom believe, express, access sites, objects, worship ceremonials rites." (AIRFA), 95-341, 469, 1996. 30 Respondents, AIRFA goes further effect enacts law. contention defend arguing authorizes argument merit. reciting findings, "resolves" quoted above. second 470, evaluation policies procedures, consultation native leaders, changes question. released 1979. Reply Petitioners 2, 3. Nowhere hint intent judicially rights. 31 What obvious face confirmed indications history. sponsor bill became AIRFA, Representative Udall, called sense joint resolution," aimed ensuring basic people infringed administrators yield higher consideration." 124 Cong.Rec. 21444 (1978). Udall emphasized "confer special Indians," "not change law," fact "has teeth it." 21444-21445. C dissent proposes approach fundamentally inconsistent principles rests. Notwithstanding sympathy feel plight respondents, plain On contrary, path towards points Constitution, precedents institutional role. begins asserting "constitutional guarantee interpret today directed frustrates inhibits Post, 459 says thing. Rather, states: Const., Amdt. 34 above, objectors ' "rob spirit" power.' 448 (quoting 2150). saying "in purely manner," land-use "are substantial external effects." 470. source meaning dissent's distinction, Robbing spirit child, preventing power, "substantial effect" remarkably similar injury today. effectively overrule doing so. 35 misreads (1972). Amish parents, pain criminal prosecution, children education 207-209, 223, 1529-1530, 1537. directly compelled send schools "contrary life." 209, 1530. acknowledged constitutional, despite coercive nature, show sufficient "particularity admittedly strong compulsory adversely granting Amish." 236, 1543 (citation out-of-context quotations notwithstanding, nothing whatsoever Yoder support proposition "impact" constitutionally problematic nature. 466. 36 Perceiving "stress conflict disparate cultures," attacks declining "balanc[e] potentially irreconcilable interests, instead turn task Legislature." 473. Seeing arbiter, test decide "central" "indispensable" implication "dispensable" "peripheral," then "compelling" "infringement practices." 475. threatened program. Unless "showing 'centrality,' 474, assertion centrality, 475, thus prospect Courts protestations brought lawsuit. words, rule misunderstand think squared precedents, cast Judiciary role never intended play. IV 37 precludes completing reversed. events intervened since issued, remanded proceedings consistent opinion. 38 ordered. 39 KENNEDY 40 whom BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 41 '[T]he Clause,' explains today, 'is government.' Ante, 451 1798, concurring)). Pledging fidelity unremarkable principle, nevertheless concludes even uses manner threatens existence Native "doing anything faith. Instead, Americans request refrain destroying astonishing conclusions follow naturally given impossible cognizable activity. draws distinctions types restraints exercise, practice. refuses acknowledge suffer, essentially leaves gravest practices, dissent. For 200 years probably longer, approximately 25-square-mile Unit readily concedes, regular visits country," played continue play "critical" Tribes. briefly described proper 43 Theodoratus Report, explains, discrete sphere separate others, isolate aspects life reality forces concepts non-Indian categories." 110; D. Theodoratus, Cultural Resources Section, Road, (1979). Americans, "[t]he delineated social, political, cultur[al], o[f] lifestyle." Freedom, Hearings S.J.Res. 102 Before Senate Select Committee Affairs, 95th Cong., 2d Sess., (1978) (statement Barney Old Coyote, Crow Tribe). pervasive feature lifestyle relationship world; relationship, accurately somewhat incompletely stewardship, core called, want better nomenclature, experience. Western view creation deity "who institutes laws govern operation nature," tribal regard on-going process morally religiously obligated participate. Agencies Task Force, Report (1979) (Task Force Report). fulfill duty ceremonies designed stabilize earth humankind disease catastrophes. Failure specified, result great harm depends it. 10. 44 marked contrast doctrines, creeds, dogmas. Established universal truths—the mainstay religions—play Ceremonies communal undertaken accordance instructions handed down generation generation. Commentaries interpretations deemed absolute violations ceremonies, world enlighten believers protectors enhancers existence. Where dogma heart faith site-specific derives perception itself being. Suagee, Management: Protecting Mother Earth's Caretakers, Am.Ind.L.Rev. 1, (1982). Rituals performed prescribed locations merely matter orthodoxy, things, unique, possess properties significance. Within system, fungible; time Spanish colonization Southwest, "all indissoluble bond settlements located." Spicer, Cycles Conquest: Impact Spain, Mexico, 1533-1960, 576 (1962). 45 where, prehuman spirits moved coming humans Earth. seen "medicine," tribes' frequent journeys leaders preparing complex underlie Tribes' World Renewal travel attain renewal. tribe curative powers healing sick, good luck singing, hunting, love. period preparation generally precedes visits, select trails abilities, gradually moving increasingly powerful typically located altitudes. Among Rock, Doctor Peak elevated rock outcroppings. 46 "of aesthetic perspective, attributes, [each] site." 148. act making akin meditation: integrate physical, mental, vocal communicate spirits. result, few Tribe actually Tribe's hinges success practitioners. 47 Beginning 1972, began multiple-use Unit. plan's included 733 million board feet Douglas fir year six-mile running northern Orleans road). road's primary purpose hauling harvested plan; addition, enhance national forests, efficient maintenance fire control mid-1970's, circulated evaluating circumnavigated altogether. Ultimately, settled Corridor, traverses 48 enjoin implementation plan, alleging impermissibly Amendment.1 Following granted requested relief. "use [respondents'] 'World Renewal' constitute system," '[i]ntrusions sanctity destructive practices.' 586, 594-595 (ND Cal.1983) 420). Concluding burdens trigger protections served insufficient burdens. particular, improve resources indeed timber; administration Forest; increase marginally, expense pristine makes suitable primitive first place. 595-596. unconnected independent utility,2 timber-hauling costs, generate new jobs shift region another. 596. enjoining activities, Unit's fraction local industry suffer foreclosed. passed Pub. L. 1619, designates plan. Thereafter, Recognizing lives 5,000 reside 688, 692 "that added).3 Like lower court, harvesting—interests course considerably undermined passage Act—did destruction 695. 50 moment compelling, outweigh embraces prerogative landowner precedence claim infringes Attempting rule, argues bars coercion, All "incidental programs," concludes, "which beliefs," rise concerns. ante, 450. Since recognition nearly half century ago implicate Prince Massachusetts, 321 158, 64 438, 88 645 (1944), restrain practicing surely completely struck past, define away nonconstitutional unjustified ultimately unpersuasive. 51 ostensibly finds formulation Comm'n, Bd., Division, (1981), (1963). forced choose adhering forfeiting hand, accepting repugnant involved, lent espouses proscribed munitions (Thomas ) working Saturdays (Sherbert, compelled. sustaining laws, nowhere compulsion exhausted recognized Clause. 52 Indeed, (1972), school attendance grounds affirmative exerted practitioners, continued survival communities." 1530 here, pervasively dictates lifestyle. 210, Detailed rules are, parents argue eighth grade; rather, objected values modern secondary sharp mode mandated 217, 1534 exposing 'worldly' influence removing "from community, emotionally, formative adolescent life" inculcated, 211, 1531, posed real undermining community 218, 1534. Admittedly, arose itself, impact, invalidate 53 premise practice, controls demonstrated frustrate found, force cited None Thomas, denial impossible; most, made expensive. Here, stark contrast, claimed—and proved—that desecration indispensable ceremonies. "undermin[e] practice," "abandon migrate tolerant region." 1534-1535. Here indisputably direct raised exposed alien system. And option, however unattractive be, migrating hospitable locales; renders nontransportable. 54 turns distinction compel belief. my text, acknowledges, "prohibit," 451, term conduct.4 animating guarantee: one's pressure attempts "cannot development," ibid., ours, help offend "religious desires" 452. agree offends sensibilities affect impeding integration increasing adherence principles—in short, inhibit practice—trigger guarantee. Both common prior teach us, penalizes tends regardless restrains expression, fear "effects" "offensive" justifies recognize showing, entitles 55 foreclosed There, daughter's application contending [child's] challenge, stated citizens." 699, 2152 added); 716-717, 2161 (STEVENS, ("[T]he method recordkeeping"). "no prevail objection size color filing cabinets. 700, 57 Today professes inability differentiate suggesting number." 449. remarkable. "internal" issue: widespread security governments computer systems," 697, 2151 quotation marks emphasis added), likened recordkeeping concerning purchase office equipment. When processes information, course, acts manner, seeks conducts affairs. 58 decisions, furniture storage obviously correspondingly host equipment purchases not.5 1996, frequently directs agencies consult taking impair 455, absence undermines statute's significance express congressional "procedures," potential limitations, hardly come surprise. 59 ignores there, construes wholly untenable, cruelly surreal produces here: "burden" Moreover, explicitly "policies regulations" "intrud[e] [and] interfer[e] with" Act—"with protecting identifies mission itself." that, offended sensibilities, 'freedom exercise' 700-701, 1996) distinguishes "remarkably similar" Roy's, 456, uncontroverted showing greatest imaginable, "accurately identifie[d]" injuries falling scope endorsement—in case—of determination. More important, lends promise 60 analysis, dimension stems concern acceptance manage vast 452-453. raises specter suits areas. concededly lie represents yet cultures—the dominant culture, views use, alien, holds sacred. Rather address fashion, disclaims responsibility balancing Legislature. abdication indefensible matter: defining "nonconstitutional," bestowed party unilateral authority resolve disputes favor, toothless exhortation "sensitive" religions. deserve—and demands—more this. 61 Prior today's attempted fashion accommodates "demands" placed cultures. normally enjoys plenary lands, involved See, 1986) (case below); Wilson Block, 228 U.S.App.D.C. 166, 708 735, cert. denied, 464 956, 371, 78 330 (1983); Badoni Higginson, 638 172 (CA10 1980), 954, 3099, 69 Sequoyah 620 1159 (CA6), 449 953, 357, 66 216 (1980); Gullet, 541 785 (SD 1982), aff'd, 706 856 (CA8), 977, 413, 351 requirement claims forestalls possibility ensnared Lilliputian lawsuits, criticized inherently ethnocentric, incorrectly assumes ascribe hierarchical manner. Michaelsen, Litigation: Promise Perils, J.Law & Rel. Pepper, Conundrum Clause—Some Reflections Recent Cases, N.Ky.L.Rev. 265, 283-284 litigation, balance translated rough equivalents. absolute, assert incompatible, tempered compromise, mutual accommodation remain 62 appropriate, "centrality" forego "Centrality," equated extinction treated adolescents impossible, "undermine" perceptions world, reveals related others. while demonstrate, assuredly eradicate faith, allege poses realistic frustrating Once made, 63 untenable invites judges advising "misunderstand beliefs." undertake inquiries: adherents, arbiters central normal genuine sincere. courts, then, claimants understand discharged demonstrating, respect Ironically, apparent integrity desire forestall second-guess leads inequities postulates: sacrifices old Nation marginal speculative utility, lumber conceivably servitudes" here. true, notes, solitude. remains, others Should parties, Establishment well. action. 65 Today, promises Having stripped age-old life, assures "should citizen." 453. difficult, imagine insensitive marginally useful uncontradicted derive solace knowledge "more difficult" actions, Given ruling, destroyed. safeguarding hollow mockery 'policy the[ir] religions,' 454 AIRFA), fails utterly accord joined well groups. sake simplicity, "respondents" refer exclusively overlooks finding measure "abandoning Forest." 454. Far option economic past investments segment. Remarkably, treats assumption "prediction," "less speculation flies appellate review, Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 52(a) ("Findings aside erroneous"), odds well-settled disturb findings facts agreed error. Ceccolini, 435 268, 273, 1054, 1058-1059, 268 review governed rules, mere handful effected oppose casts doubt validity courts' amply particularly minority indicate lack assessment country, apathy matters generally. "prohibit" somehow possibly 'any practice.' 456 459) added majority). dictionary noteworthy Webster's includes, accepted definitions something." New Collegiate Dictionary 940 fits comfortably definition test. proposing comply notice, consultation, Historic Preservation §§ 470f, 470h-2(f); Archaeological Protection 470aa seq.; 1969, 1131 seq. Concededly, statutes addition afforded enactments. stand evidence, needed, management, difference magnitude.

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