Document: 492 U.S. 361 109 S.Ct. 2969 106 L.Ed.2d 306 Kevin N. STANFORD, Petitionerv.KENTUCKY. Heath A. WILKINS, Petitioner v. MISSOURI. Nos. 87-5765, 87-6026. Argued March 27, 1989. Decided June 26, Rehearings Denied Aug. 30, See 937, 110 23. Syllabus in No. 87-5765 was approximately 17 years and 4 months old at the time he committed murder Kentucky. A juvenile court, after conducting hearings, transferred him for trial as an adult under a state statute permitting such action to offenders who are either charged with Class felony or capital crime over age of 16 felony. convicted sentenced death. The State Supreme Court affirmed death sentence, rejecting petitioner's contention that had constitutional right treatment justice system, declaring his possibility might be rehabilitated were mitigating factors properly left jury. 87-6026, 6 when Missouri, certified against individuals between 14 have felonies. He pleaded guilty affirmed, sentence violated Eighth Amendment. Held: judgments affirmed. 734 S.W.2d 781 (Ky.1987), affirmed; 736 409 (Mo.1987), Justice SCALIA delivered opinion respect Parts I, II, III, IV-A, concluding imposition punishment on individual 7 does not constitute cruel unusual Pp. 365-374. (a) Whether particular violates Amendment depends whether it constitutes one "those modes acts . considered Bill Rights adopted," Ford Wainwright, 477 399, 405, 2595, 2599, 91 335, is contrary "evolving standards decency mark progress maturing society," Trop Dulles, 356 86, 101, 78 590, 598, 2 630. Petitioners alleged their sentences would been 18th century, could support contention, since, time, common law set rebuttable presumption incapacity commit felonies (which punishable by death) 14. In accordance this common-law tradition, least 281 18, 126 17, executed country. 368-370. (b) determining evolving decency, looks its own subjective conceptions, but, rather, conceptions modern American society reflected objective evidence. E.g., Coker Georgia, 433 584, 592, 97 2861, 2866, 53 982. primary most reliable evidence national consensus—the pattern federal laws—fails meet petitioners' heavy burden proving settled consensus execution 16- 17-year-old offenders. Of 37 States permit punishment, 15 decline impose 16-year-olds 12 17-year-olds. This establish degree agreement has previously thought sufficient label unusual. Tison Arizona, 481 137, 154, 107 1676, 1686, 95 127. 370-373. (c) Nor there argument demonstrable reluctance juries impose, prosecutors seek, 17-year-olds establishes societal inappropriate. Statistics showing far smaller number 18 than reflect part fact percentage crimes persons younger group. Beyond that, likely very considerations induce petitioners believe should never imposed young cause rarely imposed, so statistics no proof categorical aversion. 373-374. SCALIA, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, KENNEDY, concluded IV-B V that: 1. There relevance laws cited which more legal engaging various activities, ranging from driving drinking alcoholic beverages voting. Those operate gross, do conduct individualized maturity tests each driver, drinker, voter; appropriate vast majority cases must therefore selected. realm however, consideration requirement. Twenty-nine States, including Kentucky codified requirement specifically designating factor sentencers permitted consider. Moreover, determinations required transfer statutes Kentucky's Missouri's certify ensure moral responsibility before they even held stand adults. It those particularized laws, rather generalized driving, drinking, voting display society's views youthful offender responsible. 374-377. 2. indicia offered other behavior cannot standards. Public polls, interest groups, positions professional associations too uncertain foundation law. Also insufficient socioscientific ethicoscientific tending show fails deter because less highly developed fear death, exact just retribution juveniles, being mature responsible, morally blameworthy. audience arguments but citizenry. Although several Court's engaged so-called "proportionality" analysis—which examines disproportion defendant's blameworthiness, makes any measurable contribution acceptable goals punishment—those decisions invalidated basis alone, done only also jury establishing penalty. 377-380. O'CONNOR, although agreeing presently forbids murderers, obligation proportionality analysis, see, e.g., Penry Lynaugh, 302, 2934, 256, consider age-based statutory classifications relevant analysis. 380-382. J., announced judgment REHNQUIST, C.J., JJ., joined, V, WHITE joined. filed concurring judgment, post, p. 380. BRENNAN, dissenting opinion, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN STEVENS, 382. Frank W. Heft, Jr., Louisville, Ky., petitioner. Frederic J. Cowan, respondent. KENNEDY join. 1 These two consolidated require us decide * first case, involves shooting 20-year-old Barbel Poore Jefferson County, Stanford January 7, 1981, age. accomplice repeatedly raped sodomized during commission robbery gas station where she worked attendant. They then drove her secluded area near station, shot pointblank face back head. proceeds roughly 300 cartons cigarettes, gallons fuel, small amount cash. corrections officer testified petitioner explained follows: " '[H]e said, I shoot her, [she] lived next door me recognize me. guess we tied up something beat [her up] tell if tells, kill her. Then said started laughing.' 781, 788 (Ky.1987). 3 After Stanford's arrest, court conducted hearings determine Ky.Rev.Stat.Ann. § 208.170 (Michie 1982). That provided jurisdiction waived tried crime, Stressing seriousness offenses unsuccessful attempts system treat numerous instances past delinquency, found certification best community. murder, first-degree sodomy, robbery, receiving stolen property, 45 prison. "deman[d] treatment." S.W.2d, 792. Finding record clearly demonstrated "there program appellant system," did err certifying adult. stated "age appropriately him." Ibid. 5 second case today, stabbing Nancy Allen, 26-year-old mother working behind sales counter convenience store David Allen owned operated Avondale, Missouri. Wilkins July 1985, reflects Wilkins' plan rob "whoever counter" "a dead person can't talk." While accomplice, Patrick Stevens, stabbed causing fall floor. When Stevens trouble operating cash register, spoke assist him, leading stab three times chest. Two these wounds penetrated victim's heart. began beg life, four neck, opening carotid artery. helping themselves liquor, rolling papers, $450 checks, die Because six short purposes criminal prosecution, Mo.Rev.Stat. 211.021(1) (1986), automatically Missouri Before happen, terminate 211.071, permits Relying "viciousness, force violence" maturity, failure rehabilitate previous delinquent acts, made necessary certification. armed action, carrying concealed weapon. competent, entered pleas all charges. hearing held, both himself urged sentence. Evidence revealed out facilities since eight burglary, theft, arson, attempted putting insecticide into Tylenol capsules, killed animals neighborhood. psychiatric testimony indicated "personality disorders," witnesses agreed aware actions distinguish wrong. 8 Determining penalty appropriate, e tered following order: 9 "[T]he finds beyond reasonable doubt aggravating circumstances exist: 10 "1. while defendant perpetration 11 "2. involved depravity mind result thereof, outrageously wantonly vile, horrible inhuman." App. 77. On mandatory review (1987). 13 We granted certiorari cases, 488 887, 217, 102 208 (1988) 487 1233, 108 2896, 101 930 (1988), precludes II thrust juveniles falls within Amendment's prohibition "cruel punishments." define under; draw line 17. Neither asserts adopted." 335 (1986). contention. At 14, theoretically anyone 7. Blackstone, Commentaries *23-*24; M. Hale, Pleas Crown 24-29 (1800). re Gault, 387 1, 16, 87 1428, 1437, 527 (1967); Streib, Death Penalty Children: Experience Capital Punishment Crimes Committed Under Age Eighteen, 36 Okla.L.Rev. 613, 614-615 (1983); Kean, History Criminal Liability Children, L.Q.Rev. 364, 369-370 (1937). country, V. Juveniles 57 Thus argue 630 (1958) (plurality opinion). correct asserting "not confined embodied 'barbarous' methods generally outlawed century," instead interpreted "in flexible dynamic manner." Gregg 428 153, 171, 96 2909, 2924, 49 859 (1976) (opinion Stewart, Powell, JJ.). what "evolved," looked our whole.1 As "Eighth be, appear merely Justices; informed maximum possible extent." 982 (1977) 331, S.Ct., 2953; supra, U.S., 406, 2600; Enmund Florida, 458 782, 788-789, 3368, 787-788, 73 1140 (1982); Furman 408 238, 277-279, 92 2726, 2746-2747, 33 346 (1972) (BRENNAN, concurring). approach dict ted language Amendment—which proscribes punishments "—and "deference owe legislatures 176, 2926. III "[F]irst" among 'objective public attitude toward given sanction' passed elected representatives. McCleskey Kemp, 279, 300, 1756, 1771, 262 (1987), quoting 173, 2925. whose upon 16-year-old offenders.2 invalidating rape woman, stressed Georgia sole authorized punishment. 595-596, 2867-2868. striking down participation takes emphasized jurisdictions similar 792, 3374. finding insane thus requires adequate issue sanity, relied (in addition rule) "no Union" 408, 2601. And life without parole recidivist statute, "[i]t appears [petitioner] treated severely State." Solem Helm, 463 277, 103 3001, 3015, 77 637 (1983). Since authorize above,3 analogous 127 Coker, Enmund, Ford, Solem. Tison, upheld Arizona's major reckless indifference human noted imposing rejected use circumstances. Id., 1686. earlier, here 18. think same conclusion cases. 19 make much recently enacted providing certain drug-related offenses, limiting over. Anti-Drug Abuse Act 1988, Pub.L. 100-690, Stat. 4390, 7001(l), 21 U.S.C. 848(l) (1988 ed.). reliance entirely misplaced. To begin with, question embody Federal Legislature heinous enough warrant offender, narrow class offense defines not. congressional broader question, apparent all, (after findings) punished adults bearing limited 18-year-olds.4 5032 (1982 ed., Supp. V). true remotely establish—in substantial contrary—a inhumane, absence lottery lotteries socially harmful. sure, (if existed) favor nationa approving citizens voted do; "heavy burden" petitioners, 175, 2926, it. indication concerned—the laws—petitioners failed carry burden. IV 20 argue, consensus, application does. contemporary inappropriate demonstrated, say, sentences. quite From 1982 through example, 2,106 total sentences, crimes, 30 crime. Imposition Sentences For Juvenile Offenses, 1982, Through April 1989, (paper Cleveland-Marshall College Law, 5, 1989). actual executions accounted about percent occurred 1642 1986. Juveniles, 55, 57. points out, last 1959. statistics, little significance. Given undisputed discrepancy seem. Granted, exists, requisite proposition categorically unacceptable juries. contrary, possible, overwhelmingly probable, supporters imposed. B point suggests why amici is, absurd drive carefully, drink responsibly, vote intelligently, order understand murdering another i profoundly wrong, conform one's minimal civilized But degrees comparable, still relevant. represent social designated ages responsible drive, drink, vote, operation voter. provide testing. particular, "individualized [is] requirement," Lockett Ohio, 438 586, 605, 98 2954, 2965, 973 (1978) Burger, C.J.) (footnote omitted); see Zant Stephens, 462 862, 879, 2733, 2743, 235 (1983) (collecting cases), age, Eddings Oklahoma, 455 104, 115-116, 869, 877-878, 71 (1982). cases.5 adults.6 can declared constitutionally inadequate persons, almost achieve fully murder; reasonably What displays latter forth amici, systems applied.7 22 Having juries, seek demonstrate indicia, adopted associations. invitation rest foundations. revised broad, clear, enduring justify permanent units democratic government operative (laws laws) people approved. 23 reject invalidate ground serve legitimate penology. According possessing cognitive skills adults, death; claims, supporting marshal array concerning ps chological emotional development 24 If conclusively entire lack deterrent effect responsibility, resort Cruel Unusual Punishments Clause unnecessary; Equal Protection Fourteenth rational basis. Dallas Stanglin, 490 19, 1591, 104 (1989). adjective "socioscientific" (and insofar evaluation concerned perhaps "ethicoscientific" apt), "adequately responsible" significantly deterred. rational, mistaken, contrary. battle fought, then, field Amendment; struggle socioscientific, ethicoscientific, purely scientific available unusual" (i.e., it) arguments, words, citizenry United States. they, we, persuaded. job identify decency"; determine, are. power substitute belief skepticism. short, emphatically suggestion issues apply "own judgment," Brief 23, regarding desirability 25 dissent's approach, "largely return[ing] task defining contours protection political majorities," leaves '[c]onstitutional doctrine [to] formulated institutions Constitution supposed limit,' 391, 392 (citation omitted). cast loose historical moorings consisting original Amendment, embark rudderless wide-open sea. Rather, extension practices society." 598 opinion) (emphasis added). shorthand reference preferences Court. By reaching decision supported neither text nor current citizens, dissent appreciate limit" include itself. says, 'it ultimately judge penalty,' 391 added), 797, 3377 mean means it, i.e., judge, perceive originally prohibited, processes now disapproves, "proportionate" "measurably contributory punishment"—to say replace judges committee philosopher-kings. 26 examining 'between blameworthiness,' "measurable punishment," 393, alone. All condemning mode analysis indicators evidenced 299-300, 3014-3015; 789-796, 3372-3376; 593-597, 2866-2869 fact, methodologies blend another, itself society; alternative, once again, personal preferences. 27 28 discern forbidding murders Accordingly, conclude offend 29 Affirmed. 31 judgment. 32 Last Term, Thompson 815, 857-858, 2687, 2710-2711, 702 judgment), expressed view law, granting petition waiving jurisdiction, may State's specifies minimum lead offender's reached committed. threshold matter, specificity avoid problems clear Id. 857, 2710-2711. Applying two-part standard Thompson, Oklahoma's aside. respectively aside sufficiently murderers. "[t]he salient statistic bears every single legislature expressly above." 849, 2706. difference other, convinces older. ante, 370-372. indicates, above. ." Ante, 371. Three Kentucky, Ind.Code 35-50-2-3(b) (1988); 640.040(1) (Baldwin 1987); Nev.Rev.Stat. 176.025 fourth, contemplates Fla.Stat. 39.02(5)(c) circumstances, unlike "peculiar circumstances" work specify offender. hat today "the implicit nature [Missouri] Legislature's problematic." 2711. true, fortiori, specified day come general legislative rejection murderers developed. yet arrived, concur IV-A 34 am unable, join remainder plurality's reasons Thompson. Part "emphatically reject[s]," 378, assessment specific enactments legislatures, remains 'nexus blameworthiness' proportional. 853, 2708, 825, 3391, (1982) (O'CONNOR, dissenting). rejects irrelevant variety purposes. my view, 335-340, 2955-2958; 155-158, 1686-1688, (1987); 797-801, 3376-3379; id., 825-826, 3391-3392 identified "relevant analysis." 854, 2709 judgment). Thus, resolved 853-854, 2708-2709, improper matter jurisprudence. SCALIA's opinion. 35 whom BLACKMUN, STEVENS join, dissenting. take below hence prohibited method assesses claim unconstitutional established precedents, resemblance Members case. deciding reviewing sentencing relating Nation extent offends decency." undertakes plurality point, 374-380, inquiry complete investigation. agree 382, searching mandated precedents interpreting Clause. go classification matters cf. ibid. encompass calls, evident misplaced disdain, Only position require, unconstitutionally excessive, disproportionate culpability serves penal goal. 38 Our constitutionality informed, though determined, infra, examination attitudes organizations expertise fields choices governments elsewhere world merit attention society. 39 discussion sentencing, 370-372, gives distorted provide. Currently, mandate n. adds (including District Columbia) all,1 further explicitly refuse 370, 2, making tolerate Wilkins. Congress' recent enactment excludes 40 penalty, statute. 826-827, 2694-2695, supra. notion consciously derives congruence courts hand hand, and, cou t 867-868, 3, 2716-2717 (SCALIA, assume, considering how underlies presented, conscious choice juveniles. 24, 2694 moment explicit implicit, "earmarks careful kinds penalty," 2711 count little. suggest, course, cut penalty—only accuracy demands baseline deliberations execution; squarely faced question; few remaining 41 indicator agrees occasion minor shows, adolescents 374. This, true; far. Just insisted unanimously unusual, extraordinary challenge sometimes handed See, 3374, (holding commits third nontriggerman executed, others rows); 596-597, 2868-2869 72 country 1955, 795, 3375, 1973 1977). amply "requisite" violation "categorically juries," 374, evidently, test 42 Both absolute relative terms, distinctly Adolescent proportion death-row population: 2,186 inmates, 1.37 percent. NAACP Legal Defense Educational Fund, Inc. (LDF), Row, U.S.A. (Mar. 1989).2 Eleven minors 1982; nine 1983; 1984; five 1985; seven 1986; 1987. N Office Collateral Representative Florida Amicus Curiae (hereafter OCCR Brief). Forty-one, 2.3 percent, 1,813 crimes. 15, App.R. receive During period, 97,086 arrests homicide, 1,772 1.8 percent; 8,911 compared 0.5 Ibid., Apps. Q R.3 43 speculates indicates youth reserved rare nevertheless appropriate. equally conjectural Coker—that "as practical simply reserve extreme sanction rape, experience prove jurors conceivable instance rape." 597, 2868. Court, summarily claim, noting rape. certainly seems perfectly proper "unusual." C 44 Further inform opinions respected organizations. 830, 2696 Where punishment's appropriateness, reason entitled dearth groups state-sanctioned killing unjustified. number, indeed, briefs amicus curiae petitioners.4 Bar Association resolution opposing 18,5 National Council Family Judges.6 Law Institute's Model Penal Code similarly includes lower limit sentence.7 Commission Reform Laws recommended age.8 form legislation countries 830-831, 2696-2697; 796, 22, 3376, 22; 596, 10, 2868, 10; 102, 35, 599, 35. Many countries, course 50, nearly Western Europe—have formally abolished exceptional treason. Amnesty International Curiae. Twenty-seven practice nations retain majority—65—prohibit Sixty-one provision exempting some ratifiers international treaties prohibit 1979, recorded throughout world, carried Pakistan, Bangladesh, Rwanda, Barbados.9 rights ratified signed penalties.10 Within community, disapproved. D 46 Together, rarity comparative unacceptable, strong grounding tolerable persist authorizing adolescent unnecessary, prohibits solely meaning attached values outlined above, satisfy well-established independent requirements disproportionate, 47 forthrightly states end verdicts analyzed values. revisionist 833-838, 2697-2700 opinion); 2708-2709 J.), again 256. need range determinative excessive. 48 wholly determine" controversy arising 2868 will brought bear [constitutional] acceptability of" 603-604, 2871-2872, (Powell, judgment) ("[T]he ultimate appropriateness decided light Court"); 3376 ("Although weigh heavily balance, penalty" cases). largely return majorities. 50 purpose withdraw subjects vicissitudes controversy, place them reach majorities officials principles applied courts. One's liberty, free speech, press, freedom worship assembly, fundamental submitted vote; depend outcome elections." West Virginia Board Education Barnette, 319 624, 638, 63 1178, 1185, L.Ed. 1628 (1943). 51 Compare 375-377, Whitley Albers, 475 312, 318, 1078, 1083, 89 251 (1986) ("The manifests 'an intention entrusted criminal-law function government' "). promise goes unfulfilled leave "[c]onstitutional ulated limit," Radin, Jurisprudence Death, U.Pa.L.Rev. 989, 1036 (1978), positivist definition citizens' rights. abandons proven role hands Framers distrusted precise scope afforded Rights, bringing 52 Despite "our perceptions sanctions conclusive. accord 'the dignity man,' 'basic concept underlying Amendment.' means, least, 'excessive.' [T]he 'excessiveness' aspects. First, involve unnecessary wanton infliction pain. Second, grossly severity crime." 2925, 54 asking shows "society it," asks 'excessive' unconstitutional" "between blameworthiness," 382 "makes nothing purposeless needless pain suffering," 2866 Penry, 2955 J.); 342-343, 2959-2960 part). 55 history blameworthiness "The principle recognized century." 286, 3007, Usually "disproportionate committed," 284, 3006; Weems 217 349, 544, 793 (1910); O'Neil Vermont, 144 323, 339-340, 693, 699-700, 450 (1892) (Field, dissenting), account "injury public" caused "moral depravity" 2869. acts—"the 3386 dissenting); 798, Court)—is central importance Indeed, focus runs jurisprudence sentencing. Booth Maryland, 482 496, 502, 2529, 2532, 440 (1987) (striking requiring sentencer characteristics "bearing 'personal guilt' "); California Brown, 479 538, 545, 837, 841, 93 934 (an "emphasis ulpability long Anglo-American directly related defendant") 56 Proportionality compare gravity offense," understood injury caused, culpability, harshness penalty." Solem, 292, 3011. predicate Legislative distinguishing abound. reveal regards class, beliefs levels responsibility. 823-825, 2692-2693 58 activities open barred completely restricted legislation. uniform majority, Brief, No lowered C; 839, 2701, B; 840, B. ever marry parental consent. D; 843, 2703, D. Thirty-seven patient attained validly consent medical treatment. E. Thirty-four motor car. F; 842, 2702-2703, C. Legislation purchasing pornographic materials. G; 845, 2704, gambling legal, participate forms. H; 847, 2705, F. host ways, differently simple truth derived communal level maturation presume desirable full duties life. 59 trusted privileges responsibilities explain irresponsible reprehensible adult." 835, 2699 Adolescents "are vulnerable, impulsive, self-disciplined adults," "capacity control long-range terms." Twentieth Century Fund Task Force Sentencing Policy Toward Young Offenders, Confronting Youth Crime Force). particularly impressionable subject peer pressure, 115, 877, (1982), prone "experiment, risk-taking bravado," 3. "experience, perspective, judgment." Bellotti Baird, 443 622, 635, 99 3035, 3044, 61 797 (1979). 835-836, 43, 2699, 43; Society Psychiatry et al. Amici (reviewing evid nce). paternalism youths dependency forces choices: "youth exclusively fault; family, school, share America's youth." 60 reasoning abilities empathy, acquisition capacity sound value depends, process self-directed actions, occur degrees. G. Manaster, Development Life Tasks (1977). discussed above indicate dividing drawn, assume ability make, duty for, judgments. Insofar necessarily arbitrary acknowledge person's different developmental rates individuals, conservative estimate adolescence adulthood. psychological changes experiences actually until early 20s." (citing studies). quickly peers, prior despite depends.11 accommodate facts youth's taken trial, instructed factors. lacks associated adulthood Hence along outweigh want 62 Immaturity bar guarantee system. important offense, response Institute Delinquency, Dept. Justice, Major Issues Information Training, Adult Courts: Between Worlds 211 Psychological, intellectual, stage, d fferences remain Solway, Hays, Schreiner, & Cansler, Clinical Study Youths Petitioned Certification Adults, Psychological Rep. 1067 (1980). adolescent's isolated stage determinatively bars heinousness factors—and, weightier, immature 17-year olds killed. stretch imagination, designed isolate exceptionally peers class. unsurprising ensured lacking adult's die. Quite row typically battery psychological, emotional, going blameworthiness. diagnostic rows instructive. Lewis al., Neuropsychiatric, Psychoeducational, Characteristics Condemned 145 Am.J. 584 (1988). Seven psychotic evaluated, diagnosed earlier childhood; histories consistent diagnoses severe mood disorders; experienced periodic paranoid episodes, assault perceived enemies. 585, Table Eight suffered head injuries childhood, neurological abnormalities, Psychoeducational testing showed inmates IQ scores 90 (that normal range)—and disorders—while impaired abstract tests. 585-586, Tables 4. physically abused, sexually abused. 586-587, 5. families children, violence, alcoholism, drug abuse, disorders commonplace. 587, 64 suggest blameworthy adult, Transferring Circuit Division Jefferson, Stanford, 65 "has low internalization morals skills. possess institutionalized personality has, effect, chaotic family treatment, become socialized behavior. emotionally amenable term psychotherap[eu]tic intervention reality based therapy socialization residential facility." 9. 66 phase relatives, used drugs 13, Record pp. 1383-1392, 1432. placed facilities, witness assessed admission employment project lacked e-appropriate interaction skills; abuse; wanted supervision. 1408; 1440-1442. 67 intends him. ordering focused viciousness system's inability confinement available, protect public, mentioned was, "an person, appearance habits." competent trial.12 42. counsel, avowed pleading seeking 42, accepted waiver, 84, later plea, 144-145. represented counsel 188-190. Presenting evidence, told prefer prison, 186-187—"[o]ne fear, don't," 295—and State, took steps appeal objected amicus' efforts behalf. ordered waive appellate counsel. Concluding incompetent rights,13 state-appointed forensic psychiatrist "suffers mental disorder" affects "reasoning impairs behavior." 74. incredible suppose, psychiatrist's summary past, margin,14 schemes 16-year culpable years. 68 prerequisite principle. singled peers. circumstance, assumption insufficiently regarded many areas subjected 2693, ironic assumptions readily suddenly unavailable hold 69 strand excessive unconstitutional, ask 833, 2697-2698; 3377; 2866; "principal purposes" "retribution deterrence prospective offenders." Gregg, 183, 2929; 3377. Unless measurably contributes goals, 70 "[R]etribution justification executing [offenders] [their] culpability." 800, 3378. warrant, according penalty; exempt persuade "does contribute retributive ensuring gets deserts." 801, 836-837, 2699-2700. justly deserved. goal deterrence. Excluding eligible potential 18: insignificant. valu rests "on beings always act, base calculation gains losses involved." Gardiner, Purposes Punishment, Mod.L.Rev. 117, 122 (1958). 2700, likelihood teenage kind cost-benefit attaches weight remote virtually nonexistent." "have terms weighing distant, uncertain, indeed unlikely consequence improbable.15 addition, profound conviction omnipotence immortality." Miller, Suicide: Etiology Treatment, 327, 329 (S. Feinstein, Looney, Schwartzberg, Sorosky eds. 1981). also, Gordon, Tattered Cloak Immortality, Adolescence (C. Corr McNeil 1986) (noting prevalence risk taking); 5-6 research). deterrence, "nothing unconstitutional. indications decency: it; regard confirm dissent. emphasize dispositive, (accepted dissent, 389-390) nations, democracies, accident, 'implicit liberty' occupies mores, permitting, well," 868-869, 4, 2716-2717, Palko Connecticut, 302 319, 325, 149, 152, 82 288 (1937) (Cardozo, prerequisite, people. preclude (Cal.Penal Ann. 190.5 (West 1988)); Colorado (Colo.Rev.Stat. 16-11-103(1)(a) (1986)); Connecticut (Conn.Gen.Stat. 53a-46a(g)(1) (1989)); Illinois (Ill.Rev.Stat., ch. 38, ¶ 9-1(b) (1987)); Maryland (Md.Ann., Code, Art. 412(f) (Supp.1988)); Nebraska (Neb.Rev.Stat. 28-105.01 (1985)); New Hampshire (N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 630:5(XIII) Jersey (N.J.Stat.Ann. 2A:4A-22(a) 1987) 2C:11-3(g) Supp.1988)); Mexico (N.M.Stat.Ann. §§ 28-6-1(A), 31-18-14(A) Ohio (Ohio Rev.Code 2929.02(A) Oregon (Ore.Rev.Stat. 161.620 419.476(1) Tennessee (Tenn.Code 37-1-102(3), 37-1-102(4), 37-1-103, 37-1-134(a)(1) (1984 Supp.1988)). 17: (Ga.Code 17-9-3 (1982)); North Carolina (N.C.Gen.Stat. 14-17 Texas (Tex.Penal 8.07(d) (Supp.1989)). include, evidencing offenders, Columbia Post, 384-385. us, altogether, case: punishing concerned. like discerning wagering cockfights inhumane counting wagering. present specially With inquiry, logical capital-punishment address age) position, age-of-adult-criminal-responsibility punishment) position. works statistical magic refusing 385. describing response. 906a V) (peacetime espionage); 918 (murder Uniform Military Justice); 32, 33, ed. (destruction aircraft, vehicles, resulting death); 115(b)(3) (retaliatory member immediate enforcement officials) (by cross 1111 V)); 351 Member Congress, high-ranking executive official, Justice) 1111); 794 (espionage); 844(f) Government property (first-degree jurisdiction); 1716 (mailing injurious articles 1751 (assassination kidnaping President Vice President); 1992 (willful wrecking train 2113 (bank robbery-related kidnaping); 2381 (treason); U.S.C.App. 1472 1473 (death aircraft hijacking). Ala.Code 13A-5-51(7) Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-703(G)(5) (Supp.1988); Ark.Code 5-4-605(4) Cal.Penal 190.3(i) 1988); Colo.Rev.Stat. 16-11-103(5)(a) (1986); Conn.Gen.Stat. (1989); 921.141(6)(g) 35-50-2-9(c)(7) 532.025(2)(b)(8) La.Code Crim.Proc.Ann., 905.5(f) 1984); Md.Ann.Code, 413(g)(5) Miss.Code 99-19-101(6)(g) 565.032.3(7) Mont.Code 46-18-304(7) Neb.Rev.Stat. 29-2523(2)(d) (1985); 200.035(6) N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 630:5(II)(b)(5) N.J.Stat.Ann. 2C:11-3(c)(5)(c) Supp.1988); N.M.Stat.Ann. 31-20A-6(I) N.C.Gen.Stat. 15A-2000(f)(7) 2929.04(B)(4) Ore.Rev.Stat. 163.150(1)(b)(B) Pa.Cons.Stat. 9711(e)(4) S.C.Code 16-3-20(C)(b)(9) Tenn.Code 39-2-203(j)(7) Utah 76-3-207(2)(e) Va.Code 19.2-264.4(B)(v) Wash.Rev.Code 10.95.070(7) (Supp.1989); Wyo.Stat. 6-2-102(j)(vii) provides part: "(3) determines probable exists [to older offense], shall th child community offense; greater persons; determined environment; child's record; prospects rehabilitation procedures, services, currently system." 1982) (repealed effective 1984). consider: "(1) jurisdiction; "(2) viciousness, violence; especially resulted; "(4) repetitive code; "(5) child, courts, supervision, commitments placements; "(6) sophistication home environmental situation, condition living; "(7) disposition; "(8) benefit rehabilitative programs court." 211.071(6) believes solution, death," assured responsibility." 397. absolutely assure immunity non happens immature. inadequate, everyone 826, 25, 2694, listing 15th altogether Vermont. Vermont repealed allowed murders. Vt.Stat.Ann., Tit. 2303 (1974 Supp.1988). intent extort money. 2403. 2403 rendered (1972), Vermont's scheme guide discretion, 7101-7107 (1974). amend allowing progeny, combination repeal leads South Dakota, statutorily Furman, arguably 28th abandoned One presumably drawn section society, excluding oppose Lockhart McCree, 476 162, 1758, 137 (1986)—a renders weighted measure Briefs Association; Child Welfare League America, Parents Teachers Association, Children's Social Workers, Black Institute, Network Runaway Services, Advocate Program, Work Center; Orthopsychiatric Children International-USA; Aid Defender Lawyers; Florida; Human Group, Baptist Churches, Friends Service Committee, Jewish Christian Church (Disciples Christ), Mennonite Central General Conference Church, Assembly Presbyterian Southern Leadership Conference, Union Hebrew Congregations, Christ Racial Methodist Society, Catholic Conference; Churches; Summary Action House Delegates (1983 Annual Meeting). Judges, Newsletter, Vol. (Oct.1988). 210.6(1)(d) (Proposed Official Draft 1962); 210.6, Commentary, 133 (1980) ("[C]ivilized societies spectacle children"). Laws, Final Report Proposed 3603 (1971). O.T.1987, 86-6169, 6. Article 6(5) Covenant Civil Political Annex G.A.Res. 2200, U.N.GAOR Res.Supp. (No. 16) 53, U.N.Doc. A/6316 (1966) (signed States), reprinted Material 368, 370 4(5) Convention O.A.S. Records, OEA/Ser. K/XVI/1.1, Doc. 65, Rev. Corr. (1970) (same), 673, 676 (1970); Geneva Relative Civilian Persons Time War, August 12, 1949, U.S.T. 3516, T.I.A.S. 3365 (ratified States). Resolutions Decisions Nations Economic Council, Res.1984/50, U.N.ESCOR 1), E/1984/84 (1984) (adopting "safeguards guaranteeing facing safeguard "[p]ersons death"), endorsed Assembly, Res. 39/118, A/39/51, 211, &Par; , (1985), Seventh Congress Prevention Treatment 83, A/Conf. 121/22, U.N. Sales E.86.IV.1 Delinquent few. Instead, generous. Scharf, Child's Evolving Conscience, Advances (R. Sprague (discussing study delinquents aged suggesting group's average middle-class 10- 12-year-olds). reports prepared competency arose. intellectual functioning "within range," "[h]igher processes," approximate 11. concluded: "[Wilkins'] manage affect tenuous inconsistent, leaving impulsive well capricious thinking skirt details, systematic thought. intolerant intense anxiety, depression, anger, feelings overwhelming, interfere clearly, rise action. vulnerable massive infusions rage spasms destructive His co-mingles depressive generated excruciating sense lonely alienation whereby lifeless empty. "He barely ties emp[athe]tic attunement. 22. "Conduct Disorder, Undersocialized-Aggressive Type," borderline disorder "difficulty predictable stressful situations vacillating aggression towards self-destructive activity." 67-68. "exhibiting bizarre behavior, ideation, idiosyncratic thinking" 1982. 68. summarized report: "Mr. raised poor socioeconomic environment [a d] reportedly extremely upbringing childhood. abused mother, beatings hours. robbing houses knives money loved fires. Mr. night slept day, children alone themselves. claims uncle [at six; 67]. Apparently BB guns passing cars. mother's boyfriend quick temper hated disliking [him], stood unkind [him]. poison placing rat capsules. brother situation. secretly emptied capsules eat them. afraid vomiting [his] fingers throat. ended getting beating boyfriend. ten, evaluated Tri-County Mental Health Center Center. stayed period months. sent Butterfield Youth's Home East Range, facility boys. using heavily. hard liquor. "At Butterfield, angry teachers 'dumb.' strange there. became depressed dance net wrist claimed frequent thoughts suicide. Prior jumped off bridge car swerved hit. overdose alcohol antipsychotic medication, Mellaril. Mellaril 'too active.' half 131/2. Crittenton closer residence. kicked out. gave permission probation. seeing apparently liked continued usage break stealing money, jewelry, knives, stole spend arcade. ran away California. introduced amphetamines spent [home, he] knife [a] Detention Northwest Regional Services Kansas City. There, attempt prescribing Thorazine (major tranquilizer) made. this, foster home. Beginning May 1985 streets. "Records natural father institution Arkansas, considerable physical abuse existed family. educational testing, responses. asked policemen, replied, 'To get rid me.' plans blow large building City [and] derogatory sexual comments women visits mother. episodes hyperventilation fainting chest squeezing. September put gasoline toilet fire explosion. suffering schizophrenia admitted often noticed fantasizing outer space supernatural powers. [the psychiatrist] placement 'disoriented high anxiety.' 1983, deteriorating. final November 1983 discharged Borderline Personality Passive-Aggressive Personality. functioning." 57-61. Kastenbaum, Adolescence, Meaning 99, (H. Feifel 1959). Among conclusions Kastenbaum drew lives present; 'now' real future seem pallid comparison. Everything valuable lies situation close future."

Category: 0