Document: 387 U.S. 369 87 S.Ct. 1627 18 L.Ed.2d 830 Neil REITMAN et al., Petitioners,v.Lincoln W. MULKEY al. No. 483. Argued March 20 and 21, 1967. Decided May 29, Samuel O. Pruitt, Jr., Los Angeles, Cal., for petitioners. Herman F. Selvin A. L. Wirin, respondents. Sol. Gen. Thurgood Marshall the United States, as amicus curiae, by special leave of Court. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion 1 The question here is whether Art. I, § 26, California Constitution denies 'to any person * equal protection laws' within meaning Fourteenth Amendment States.1 Section 26 an initiated measure submitted to people Proposition 14 in a statewide ballot 1964, provides part follows: 2 'Neither State nor subdivision or agency thereof shall deny, limit abridge, directly indirectly, right person, who willing desires sell, lease rent all his real property, decline such property persons he, absolute discretion, chooses.' 3 covered limited residential contains exception state-owned estate.2 4 issue arose two separate actions courts, Mulkey v. Reitman Prendergast Snyder. In Reitman, Mulkeys are husband wife respondents here, sued under 51 52 Civil Code3 alleging that petitioners had refused them apartment solely on account their race. An injunction damages were demanded. Petitioners moved summary judgment ground §§ 52, insofar they basis Mulkeys' action, been rendered null void adoption after filing complaint. trial court granted motion took case Supreme 5 case, respondents, wife, filed suit December 1964 seeking enjoin eviction from apartment; alleged was motivated racial prejudice therefore would violate Code. Petitioner Snyder cross-complainedfo r judicial declaration he entitled terminate month-to-month tenancy even if action based considerations. denying petitioner's judgment, found it unnecessary consider validity because concluded enforcement grounds event Equal Protection Clause States Constitution.4 cross-complaint dismissed with prejudice5 petitioner appealed Court which considered along Reitman. That court, reversing held invalid laws guaranteed Amendment. 64 Cal.2d 529, 50 Cal.Rptr. 881, 413 P.2d 825. For similar reasons, affirmed case. 877, 903, 847. We certiorari cases involve important arising 385 967, 500, 17 431. 6 affirm judgments first turn quite properly undertook examine constitutionality terms its 'immediate objective,' 'ultimate effect' 'historical context conditions existing prior enactment.' Judgments these we have frequently undertaken ourselves. Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 30 L.Ed. 220; McCabe Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe R. Co., 235 151, 35 69, 59 169; Lombard Louisiana, 373 267, 83 1122, 10 338; Robinson Florida, 378 153, 84 1693, 12 771; Turner City Memphis, 350, 82 805, 7 762; Anderson Martin, 375 399, 454, 11 430. But has addressed itself matters should give careful consideration views concern purpose, scope, operative effect provision Constitution. First, concerned at private discriminations housing. This involved review past efforts Legislature regulate discriminations. Unruh Act, Civ.Code 51—52, cases, passed 1959.6 Hawkins formerly Health Safety Code 35700—35741, followed prohibited publicly assisted 1961, legislature enacted proscriptions against restrictive covenants. Finally, 1963, came Rumford Fair Housing 35700—35744, superseding Act prohibiting sale rental dwelling containing more than four units. act enforceable Employment Practice Commission. 8 It this background enacted. Its immediate design intent, said, overturn state bore sellers lessors discriminate,' Acts, forestall future might circumscribe right.' aim successfully achieved: 'generally nullifies both Acts apply housing mrk et,' establishes 'a purported constitutional privately discriminate admittedly be unavailable involved.' 9 Second, conceded permitted neutral position respect not bound Federal forbid them. But, significant involvement could amount unconstitutional Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 81 856, 45, deemed necessary determine invalidly market. conclusion did. To reach result, examined certain decisions discriminatory identified. Based 156, 1695, 430; Barrows Jackson, 346 249, 254, 73 1031, 1033, 97 1586; 169, 'even where can charged only encouraging,' rather commanding discrimination. Also particular interest Stewart's concurrence 726, 862, said Delaware courts construed statute 'authorizing' discrimination restaurants invalid. '(t)he instant presents undeniably analogous situation' wherein taken affirmative designed make legally possible. changed situation one restricted encouraged, cited decisions'; legislative 'which authorized discrimination' made 'at least partner *.' 'conceive no other purpose application section aside authorizing perpetration unconstitutionally involves There so sound reason rejecting judgment. contend misconstrued since repeal discrimination, constitutionally permissible, may 'authorize' 'encourage' makes permissible proscribed. understand did posit violation mere Acts. read either our establishing automatic barrier law housing; rule never put statutory form policy neutrality What below reject notion required intent authorize market, create leasing property. Hence, dealt though expressly constitutionalized discriminate. Third t assessed ultimate impact environment encourage significantly contrary very reasonably conclude wider statutes. mentioned neither many words. Instead, announced sell anyone whom desire lease. thereby pro tanto repealed. struck deeply widely. Private now free but also enjoyed far different status true before passage those discriminate, including grounds, embodied State's basic charter, immune legislative, executive, regulation level government. Those practicing need longer rely personal choice. They invoke express authority, censure interference kind official sources. All individuals, partnerships, corporations legal entities, well agents representatives, defined quality, 'irrespective how obtained financed,' seemingly irrespective relationship interests Only excluded owned it.7 13 attempted 'impossible task' formulating infallible test determining 'in manifestations' become 'Only sifting facts weighing circumstances' case-by-case 'nonobvious conduct attributed significance.' 722, 860. Here armed knowledge circumstances concerning potential familiar milieu operate, determined degree. accept holding court. assessment what done appraising statutes contexts. which, Court, carriers provide cars white Negroes. Though dismissal complaint procedural affirmed, clear carrier refusing service Negroes 'acting matter authority law.' nothing less considering permissive authorization sufficient Similarly, Nixon Condon, 286 73, 484, 76 984,8 faced empowering executive committee political party prescribe qualifications members voting participation, directions exercise power. otherwise used bar primary elections. Reposing power insinuate into self-regulatory, decision-making scheme voluntary association; viewed expression 15 operator-lessee restaurant located building operated public purposes, Although commanded encouraged discriminations, 'elected place power, prestige behind admitted 'its inaction refusal *' purely choice operator. 16 Peterson Greenville, 244, 1119, 323, regulations requiring, some respects, segregation facilities services restaurants. These provisions, although obviously unenforceable, themselves disentitle punish, trespassers, proof owner actually ben influenced regulation. 338, interpreted statements New Orleans city officials announcing permit seek desegregated Because much coercive ordinance treated adopted forbidding None squarely controls us. do illustrate range situations exemplify necessity assess invidious dealing does just intended authorize, policies State. believes will presented persuasive considerations indicating overturned. Affirmed. 19 DOUGLAS, concurring. While I join add word indicate dimensions problem. 21 simple man bicycle car stock certificate log cabin asserts whomsoever pleases, excluding others Negro, Chinese, Japanese, Russians, Catholics, Baptists, blue eyes. deal problem realm zoning, Shelley Kraemer, 334 1, 68 836, 92 1161, down 22 covenants device whereby neighborhood kept 'while' 'Caucasian' dominant desire. setting modern another same character. 23 Real estate brokers mortgage lenders largely dedicated maintenance segregated communities.1 Realtors commonly believe unethical Negro predominantly all-white neighborhood,2 throw weight alongside communities, applications minority group try break phalanx save unless process conversion mixed community.3 told Commission Rights: 24 'Property owners' prejudices reflected, magnified, sometimes induced brokers, through most changes hands. Organized have, few exceptions, principle 'homogeneous' assures economic soundness. Their vigorously expressed discourage owners color purchaser's money, skin.4 25 'The financial community, upon financing—and hence bulk home purchasing building—depends, acts large extent premise homge neous offer economically investment. reason, plus fear offending clients, mortgage-lending institutions refuse financing houses 'mixed' neighborhood. persistent stereotypes groups poor credit risks block flow credit, often proved unjustified.' Housing, Rights 2—3 (1961). builders scheme:5 '* adopt expect banks whose own operations depend. short, Race concluded, 'it builders, finance institutions, translate action.' Thus, every market meet mutually reinforcing unbreakable barriers rejection.' 27 sophisticated discrimination6 harness energies indirectly cannot decisions7 allow government do. 28 George McCanse, chairman Texas Estate Association, while giving Title IV proposed 1966 (H.R. 14765), prohibit owners, engaged sale, housing, stated warned spoke 'the grave dangers inherent type legislation erode away rights go ownership property.'8 He pointed out 29 '(E)ach time citizens country lose moving closer centralized ultimately denied.'9 apparently common view. overlooks several things. already denied pigment skin; are, indeed, control colored live nature cities be. agencies zoning lines licensees. 31 Zoning municipal function. See Euclid, Ohio, Ambler Realty 272 365, 389, 47 114, 118, 71 303 seq.; Berman Parker, 348 34—35, 75 98, 103, 99 27. When leaves function licensees practice zone black belts ghettoes, suffers governmental performed auspices way act. present kin Terry Adams, 345 461, 466, 809, 810, 1152, allowed (known Jaybird county elections) perform electoral derogation Fifteenth 32 Leaving licensed constitutes narrowest sense supra, construed. noted Black Bell Maryland, 226, 329 1814, 1870, 822 (dissenting), 'constituted restraint alienation perpetuity, valid, reality equivalent laws, accomplishing instead leaving objective accomplished system contracts, enforced State.' 33 Under 'engage business, capacity of, advertise assume broker salesman without obtaining license.' Calif.Bus. Prof.Code 10130. designated serve public. licenses restricted, effectuate segregation. barred difference, see it, between licensee State, nevertheless launching countenancing operation licensing whole side latter impliedly sanctioning specifically. 34 If domain exclusively private, problems. urban evidenced problems vast schemes Nation extensively recent years. Urban clearly marked interest. like restaurants, inns, (Bell 253—255, 1829—1830, opinion), telephone companies, drugstores, hospitals, affected historic classical sense. 275—278, 1126 1127 (concurring opinion). repeat Holt, C.J., Lane Cotton, Mod. 472, 484 (1701): 36 '(W)herever subject takes himself trust benefit rest fellow-subjects, eo ipso things comprehension office, pain him *. road shoe fall off my horse, come smith on, lie him, profession trade good, exposed vested King's subjects employ trade. innkeeper entertain guest house full, carrier, horses loaded, take packet proper sent carrier.' 37 Since brokerage business state-regulated state-licensed, must dedicated, companies hotels motels requirements discrimination—a standard conditioned demands 38 And say represents California, reply: 39 'Wherever Government lies, there danger oppression. Governments lies majority Community, invasion chiefly apprehended, constituents, instrument major number Constituents. truth great importance, yet sufficiently attendd Writings James Madison (Hunt ed. 1904). 40 HARLAN, BLACK, CLARK, STEWART join, dissenting. 41 decision, cuts processes, supported anything 'found' decided view today's holding, salutary result appear blush, long run handicap progress extremely difficult field concerns. respectfully dissent. 42 undisputed. last decade restricting landowners factors race aroused considerable opposition, causing organize advantage procedures permitting 'proposition' voters amendment. 'Proposition 14' thus electorate election vote 4,526,460 2,395,747. Amendment, Constitution, reads relevant 43 chooses.'1 44 am wholly loss straight-forward effectuation change rendering petitioners' properties race, illegal law. forbids use foster Takahashi Fish Game Comm'n, 410, 1138, 1478; Browken Board Education, 347 483, 74 686, 98 873; Goss 683, 1405, 632, undertake predilections, individuals acting left minded, Cases, 109 3, 18, 835. By token, require preventing course disable enacting wish. 45 hand initiative referendum, remain 'neutral' affecting property; transactions manner previously forbidden happened effected runs afoul California's failure pass antidiscrimination instance. fact accompanied prohibition enactment thought affect, federal standpoint, done. 46 think Court's really fundamental propositions. Rather attempts escape resorting arguments me entirely ill-founded. I. fit coverage characterizing call residents main difficulty viewpoint depends characterization fairly made. face, asserting requirement passive camouflage able conclusion. depicting tantamount active encouragement essentially relies concluded. findings highest weight. agree, course, given weight, proposition hardly aids 48 disagreement whatever meant nullify fair-housing remove state-created impediment freedom disputed issues all, indeed outset '(i)n proceedings allegations factually challenged, evidence introduced, placed sufficiency allegations.' 531—532, 883, 825, 827. finding, example, defendants' product Indeed, forms occurred possible general 26. declares 'held *,' ante, p. 376, supporting record characterization. Moreover, prompt legislators validity. does, voted wanted do, forgotten compel keep about books. discriminating this. 49 A enactment, particularly simply democratic judiciary effect. 'factual' relied adopted, namely, strong opposed led movement popular referendum. circumstances, alone, held, unlawful tis interpreting Clause. This, law, having Accepting suppositions acted, discharge responsibilities. Put way, transform court's finding actively promoting seems manifest decision rested conceived compulsion fact-finding courts. II. repealing former anti-discrimination future, constituted 'state action' impermissibly deprives laws. As starting point, requiring unjustified treatment unconstitutional. E.g., Herndon, 273 536, 446; Brown supra; 323. bars administration fair face. 220. fits categories: inoffensive, provisions sort. third category equal-protection concededly characterize, stands when reaches responsible specific strictures play. class inquiry framed joint participant challenged activity, account, 'purely private' scope Amendment.' 725, 45. Given contours doctrine, troublesome, acknowledges. Ante, pp. 378—379. However, seem approach peripheral gives rise difficulties. See, e.g., Evans Newton, 382 296, 86 486, 373; 338. core offensive effectively encourages focusing 'encouragement' fear, forging slippery unfortunate criterion effect, inoffensive standards area definitely formulated, included compass merely compelled pressures, 'induced' 'authorized' Most however, approached activities, sheriff, supervision over park, venture lessee munci pally building, supra.2 focus positive cooperation partnership affirmatively promoted avoided. Here, contrast, restoring sphere choice, untouched behavior denial emerges reached implementation new neutrality, replacing antidiscrimination, lending wish actual appears truism: want chosen all. Obviously whenever resulted concerted activity change, pursue goals. 53 moment reveal far-reaching possibilities sure intend. Every it. little doubt permissiveness—whether provision, implicit law—to 'encourages' so. theory passively tinge taint encouragement. 54 involvement, evincing illustrated Lombard, Peterson, Burton, obvious fostering bring purposeful, ostensibly 'private' labeled 'official.' showing falls cases. III. 55 unsound, practical potentialities short-sighted. Opponents stat re argue defeated because, enacted, unrepealable. More fundamentally, doctrine underlying hamper, preclude, delicate troublesome relations process. drawn area, fraught human sensibilities frailties creed, ones. drawing requires understanding, patience, compromise, best legislatures unsuccessful wide opportunities amendment, processes inhibit flexibility. overwhelmingly wished overrule check open contriving ill-defined concept interference, powers responsibilities elsewhere 56 misapplied reverse judgments, remand further appropriate proceedings. 'All born naturalized jurisdiction thereof, reside. No enforce abridge privileges immunities States; deprive life, liberty, due law; deny laws.' following full text 26: chooses. "Person' includes entities representatives include "Real property' consists financed, used, designed, constructed, zoned devoted purposes single family families living together independently each other. 'This Article eminent pursuant Sections 1/2 renting providing accommodations lodging hotel, motel furnishing transient guests. 'If Article, circumstance, invalid, remainder continue force end severable.' (Cal. Const., 26.) Cal.Civ.Code equal, color, religion, ancestry, national origin accommodations, advantages, facilities, privileges, establishments whatsoever. 'Whoever denies, aids, incites denial, whoever distinction restriction origin, code, liable offense damages, hundred fifty dollars ($250) addition thereto, suffered provided code.' controlled Abstract Investment Co. Hutchinson, 204 Cal.App.2d 242, 309, reliance 1586. Respondents' declaratory relief requested. n. 2, supra. us, day instructive Hill Miller, 852, 908 rehearing, 757, 415 33, 689, tenant restrain leased, single-family dwelling. notice quit served recited: sole elected conferred premises Caucasian race.' invalidated ruled plaintiff cover dwellings. Thus landlord's superfluous. Peyton Barrington Plaza Corp., 880, 849, 905, physician defendant corporation described 'that received $17,000,000, low rate loan National construct Plaza; sum 90 percent construction costs plaza; development redevelopment program Angeles; largest western 2,500 people; retail shops professional self-contained facilities; fall-out shelter, completely stocked emergency supplies; plaza replaced homes Caucasians non-Caucasians; accommodate development; defendant's securities sold, contracts let, permits issued established local approval, co-operation authority.' pleadings rt . reversed sequel 446, 759, outlawed disqualification U.S.A., Washington, D.C., 12—15 (1962). Id., 12—13. 14—15. Hannah said: 'Area patterns sharply lines. industry unlikely formal agreement, probable maintained tacit understandings.' 15. Freedom Free, Century Emancipation, Report President, 96 (1963). Richmond Deans, 281 704, 407, 1128. Hearings Subcommittee House Committee Judiciary, 80th Cong., 2d Sess., ser. 16, 1639 (1966). Ibid. 'Real Property' 'any other.' appellants 'altogether too vague indefinite,' id., 163, 71. dictum regulated enact comply 'separate equal' doctrine. Whatever implications carriers, compare opinions Goldberg, J., concurring, Black, dissenting, 318, 1847, 1864, 822, relevance us today. Neither 984,

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