Document: 365 U.S. 570 81 S.Ct. 756 5 L.Ed.2d 783 Billy FERGUSON, Appellant,v.STATE OF GEORGIA. No. 44. Argued Nov. 14, 15, 1960. Decided March 27, 1961. Mr. Paul James Maxwell, Atlanta, Ga., for appellant. Dan Winn, Cedartown, appellee. Justice BRENNAN delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The State Georgia is only State—indeed, apparently jurisdiction in common-law world—to retain rule that a person charged with criminal offense incompetent to testify under oath his own behalf at trial. 1866 abolished by statute rules incompetency most other persons. However, statute, now Code § 38 416, expressly retained as persons 'charged any proceeding commission indictable or punishable on summary conviction * *.' Two years later, 1868, allowed defendant make an unsworn statement. enacted purpose, amended, Code, 38—415, and provides: 'In all trials, prisoner shall have right court jury such statement case he may deem proper defense. It not be oath, force think give it. They believe it preference sworn testimony case. compelled answer questions cross-examination, should decline answer.' 2 In this Superior Court, Douglas County, Georgia, convicted appellant murder, sentence death. After rested its trial, appellant's counsel called him stand, but trial judge sustained State's objection counsel's attempt question him. To argument deny 'right ask stand violates (Amendment) VI (and) Fourteenth Amendment Constitution United States (because) deprives benefit asking important period *,' answered '* you do anything more than instruct your client rights, no direct examination.' affirming sustaining ruling, Supreme Court said: 3 'The constitutional provisions granting crime assistance confer perform those duties take actions are permitted law; require conform practice procedure, denial counsel. has been repeatedly held accused cannot, matter right, suggestions when making jury.' 215 Ga. 117, 119, 109 S.E.2d 44, 46—47. 4 On appeal brought here 28 U.S.C. 1257(2), U.S.C.A. we noted probable jurisdiction. 362 901, 80 616, 553. which properly brings before us whether application courts 38—415 denied 'the guiding hand every step proceedings against him,' Powell v. Alabama, 287 45, 69, 53 55; 64, 77 L.Ed. 158, within requirements due process regard imposed upon Amendment. See also Chandler Fretag, 348 3, 75 1, 99 4. 6 Appellant raises validity 38—416, statute.1 decision raised necessarily involves consideration both statutes. Historically these intertwined. For 38—416 statutory declaration disqualifying defendants from testifying, 415, roots common law, was mitigate rigors incompetency. 7 disqualification parties witnesses characterized law centuries. Wigmore traces remote origins contest judicial hegemony between developing older modes notably compurgation wager law. Wigmore, Evidence, pp. 674—683. Under old forms, itself means decision. Thayer, Preliminary Treatise 24—34. Jury replaced jurors based evidence witnesses; change '(T)he party naturally deemed incapable being witness.' p. 682. Incompetency civil cases seems established end sixteenth century. 9 Holdsworth, History English Law, 194. time principal rationale became possible untrustworthiness party's testimony; same reason applied seventeenth century interested nonparty witnesses.2 8 Its firm establishment come somewhat later. necessary conduct defense, since neither call nor Stephen, Criminal Law England, 350. described 'a long Crown, they questioned each grappled other's arguments utmost eagerness closeness reasoning.' supra, 326. could offer way explanation material would later testimony. 684. century, however, behalf; them accorded treason 1695 felony 1701. Will. III, c. 3; Anne, St. 2, 9. 157—161, n. 4; 685—686. A distinction drawn witnesses—they gave did not. 684—685, 42; 195—196. general acceptance interest basis reinforced distinction, was, course, par excellence witness. shuddered idea testifying who had least interest.' Barrows, 76 Me. 401, 409. Benson States, 146 325, 336—337, 13 60, 63—64, 36 991. Disqualification thus extensive Nation formed. Bl.Comm. 369.3 Here, were witnesses. Rex Lukens, Dall. 5, 6, 13, decided 1762, Pennsylvania refused swear witness, holding issue there 'must proved indifferent witnesses.' adopted England 1784, belonging (were) Doe ex dem. Patterson Pet. 233, 241, 108. therefore followed given form Act 1866. Jones State, 610; Roberts 189 36, 40—41, 340, 343.4 10 Broadside assaults entire structure disqualifications, particularly interest, launched early nineteenth America. Bentham led movement reform contending always exclude let truth. Rationale Judicial bk. IX, pt. III (Bowring ed.), 393—406. basic ground attack Macaulay said, '(A)ll taken what worth, tendency produce rational mind excluded tribunals.' Lord Macaulay's Legislative Minutes, 1835, 127—128. qualification despite came first. Denman's 1843, & Vict., 85. first exception County Courts 1846, 95, although earlier grants capacity certain courts. Best Evidence (Lely ed. 1893), 158—159. Brougham's 1851, 14 15 99, virtually cases.5 11 if wished last. Maine 1859 competent prosecutions few crimes. Acts 1859, 104. This 1864 enactment competency defendants, English-speaking world. largely work John Appleton Maine, American disciple Bentham. Within 20 comprising Union Maine's lead. federal effect 1878, Stat. 30, 18 3481, 3481. Before except disqualification.6 12 Common-law jurisdictions outside ago disqualification. 1898 Act, 61 62 36.7 Various Australia statutes even mother country, Canada New Zealand. Competency extended Northern Ireland 1923, Republic 1924, India 1955.8 lag grant criminally attributable large measure opposition believed threatened erosion privilege self-incrimination presumption innocence. '(I)f hold offering must cause difficult protect rights spite caution, often lay innocent unjust suspicion where honestly silent, embarrassed overwhelmed shame false accusation. (It result in) degradation our jurisprudence converting into inquisitory system, far happily delivered.' People Thomas, Mich. 314, 320 321 (concurring opinion). Ruloff People, 45 N.Y. 213, 221—222; Tyler, Cal. 522, 528—530; Cameron, 40 Vt. 555, 565—566; Am.L.Rev. 443; Maury, Validity Statutes Authorizing Accused Testify, 753.9 position many supported credence fears. Nenther friend self-incrimination.10 While justified protection innocent, served guilty shield disserved public interest. Competency, thought, open cross-examination permit unfavorable inference declined exculpate himself.11 controversy left mark laws competency. majority forbid comment prosecution failure testify, provide guilt arise stand. emphasized importance limitations. See, e.g., Staples 89 Tenn. 231, S.W. 603; Price Commonwealth, Va. 393; Taylor, 57 W.Va. 228, 234—235, 50 S.E. 247, 249—250. Cf. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations (8th 658—661. generally, Reeder, Comment Upon Failure 31 Mich.L.Rev. 40. treatment witness Canada, see Can.Bar Rev. 519, 336; Australia, Res Judicatae 60; Great Britain, (12th ed.) 864—865; 51 L.Q.Rev. 58 369. 16 Experience minds opposed them. seen shutting out positively hurtful accused, inno-] cence fact aided, prejudiced, opportunity oath. An commentator discussing Massachusetts year operation 'We opinion, permitting criminals aid detection guilt; disposed will equally serviceable innocence.' 396. Am.L.Reg. 129. 17 experience made significant impression helped persuade Parliament follow defendants. debates 1898, Chancellor quoted distinguished jurist, Russell Gurney: '(A)fter (in America), entertain doubt about propriety allowing heard their behalf.' 54 Hansard, 1176. Arthur Balfour reported Commons 'precisely doubts difficulties beset legal profession country suggestion felt experiment, gradually fears illusory, profession, divided change, become unanimous favor it, section community, prisoners bar, desire alteration system.' 60 679—680.12 striking authority Sir Stephen. Writing 1863, Stephen extension He argued inherent real witness: '(I)t human nature speak truth pressure bear prisoner, light thing institute system almost enforce perjury occasion.' General View 202. put dangerous discretion hands 'By calling might expose himself imputation tacit confession guilt, man look guilty.' Ibid. Allowing prior convictions 'would indirectly whole past life.' Id., 203. Twenty after years' bench, say: 'I am convinced much questioning, power giving positive assistance, highly one, men, I why need hardship poor ill-advised liable misapprehend true defence, saved consequences ignorance misfortune 442, 444. 19 sum, decades considered consensus world justification prohibiting above others meet prosecution's development unsworn-statement recognition harshness rule. antedated century,13 strong sponsorship judges explained mitigation Baron Alderson never prevent statement, though pleases addresses jury, then part If otherwise, monstrous injustice prisoners.' Reg. Dyer, Cox C.C. 113, 114. Malings, Car. P. 242; Walkling, C. 243; Manzano, F. 64; Williams, 363. Judge Stephen's especially influential. Doherty, 306. Shimmin, 122; 657. so well preserved 1898.14 number received some. Michigan passed 1861; unlike provided subject 314.15 one decisions considering stressed degree amelioration expected realized practice, thereby implicitly acknowledging disadvantages broad liberal purpose legislature intended accomplish. granted modern innovation advancing hitherto unknown narrative accusation jurors, Coxwell 66 309, 316 317.16 21 But recognized everywhere else simply stopgap solution serious created introduced mere makeshift, mitigating intolerable occasionally resulted able 652. custom grew up spirit fairness otherwise disqualified, tell story exculpation.' Louviere, 169 La. 109, 124 So. 188, 192. abolition abolish practice. becomes secondary cannot received.' page because debarred alone. When changed removed.' Krafchenko, (1914) D.L.R. 244, 250 (Man.K.B.).17 Where survives 22 America, little value attached 'If does elect himself, very makes dock. understood among lawyers evidential compared can cross-examined Zware, (1946) S.A.L.R. 7—8. 'How understand told (i.e., proof) facts alleged?' 68 463. 'is seldom value, generally incoherent leaves resolved cross-examination.' 69 22, 25. dock still exists greatly discounted value.' 1933 Scots Times 29. Commentators suggested abrogation right. 94 Irish Times, 1960, 56; 463; McKenna, (1951) Q.S.R. 299, 308. 23 judges, occasion, similarly disparaged 'Really, known instance supposed availed anything. boon relief.' Bird 585, 589. stands peculiar footing. explaining evidence, mitigation; throw happen worth rely substantive acquittal.' Underwood 88 47, 51, 856, 858. 24 anomalous characteristics treated like ordinary explaining, supporting, weakening, overcoming something different confound other, either explicitly implicitly, confusing, misleading. deal plane derive reaching fixes it; blank. stamp belongs it.' Vaughn 731, 739, 66. Because charge strict terms favored Garrett 203 756, 765, 48 377, 383; Emmett 195 517, 541, 25 9, 23, calls attention Moreover, going beyond sustained. Thus instructed while 'allowed' 'they authorized just weight credit entitled receive.' (203 378). 540, instruction 'if place case.' Douberly 184 573, 575, 192 223, 225, 'provided true.' Allen 194 430, 436, 65, 68, was: 'There defendant's No true, true. words, goes without You reject entirely specifically pointing sanction respect statements. failed truth, incurred penalty failure.' Darden 171 160, 161, 155 38, oath; prescribed Klug 734, 736. 'Surely wrong circumstances impair enable entitled.' Poppell 71 276, 278. Grimes 204 854, 797; Thurmond 198 410, 804; Willingham 142, 149 887; Millen 175 283, 165 226. foundation supporting corroborative evidence. Champman 393, 117 321; Medlin 98 551. silent corroborating and, allows testimony, contemplate compete single-handed, advantage weaken strengthening 736, 65. Similarly independent authenticating introducing documents. Sides 213 482, 884; Register Ga.App. 623, 74 429. absence specific request, applicable defense presented Prater 160 138, 143, 127 296, 298; Cofer 96 601; Holleman 200, 154 906; Darby 79 63, 663. contrast sua sponte treat accused's presenting '(i)n guarded undue 858; Fry 645, 26 said substance realize contents circumscribed exclusionary 142—147, 298—300; Richardson 313, 59 916; Birdsong 55 730, 191 277; Tiget 110 34 1023. some relevancy that, matters pertaining get wholly immaterial bolster profert documents, letters, like, which, relevant, proof genuineness.' Nero 126 554, 404. Saunders 172 770, 158 791; Montross 72 261; Theis 364, 164 456; Vincent 153 278, 293—294, 112 120, 127. 27 situations assimilate emphasize admits relevant relieved necessity proving own. prisoner's admission court, facts.' Hargroves 179 722, 725, 177 561, 563. 'It settled judicio binding prove evidence.' Barbour 498, 499, 40, 41; Dumas 58. And admissions door introduction inadmissible. McCoy 218, 52 434. Admissions admissible Cady 110, 38; supra. says Frank 141 243, 277, 1016. Although character issue, Doyle 513, 'A contradicted narrates, effectively purpose.' Jackson 56, 864, 870; Barnes 372, 100 788. introduce rebuttal alleged Johnson 186 324, 197 786; Camp 292, 646; Morris 106, 495. Perhaps adverse resulting overcome assured try organized, complete coherent way. puts obstacles this. deliver finished persuasive attempt, probably supplement Apparently situation unusual exercise refuse supplemental set aside. Sharp 111 176, 633; 133, 1070. Even new rebut case, leave denied. Fairfield 660, 118 395; 120 509, 199; Knox 373, 37 416; Boston 590, Garmon 586, 101 757. supplementary originates defendant, sufficient August 168, 92 956. effective prejudice subjected consent, cross-examination. Boyers 838, 844—845, 33 251, 255—256. Of competence cross-examine. having elicited through examination examine judge. refusal allow rarely reversible error. Corbin 212 91 764; Brown 212. 'This sparingly exercised, controlled manifest abuse.' Whitley 577, 578, 797. Indeed, question, Lindsay 138 818, Nor omission permission court. Echols 508, 1038; Clark 43 384, 159 135. 29 survey supports conclusion commentator: average placed chair nobody questions, sees adrift uncharted sea nothing guide him, good hurtful.' Ga.B.J. 432, 433 (1945).18 30 tensions life liberty stake alone render utterly unfit completely. Left 'guiding counsel,' fail introduce, all, perfect guilty, faces danger know how establish increases peril accused. words J., Annis 511, 519—520, fit predicament. 'But moment counsel, go embarrassment face imperfect unsatisfactory explanation, make, designed trap none cool self- possessed prospect coming unharmed. man, heinous offence, whom given, likely situation, embarrassed, offender, hardened unlearned, unaccustomed assemblies, together thoughts consecutive order where, surprising incoherent, overlooks circumstances.'19 32 We effectuating consistently Amendment, not, context elicit decide Our turn tried capital represented employed command applies noncapital offense, appointed worth.' 10, judgment reversed remanded inconsistent opinion. Reversed remanded. Appendix Opinion 35 Ala.Code, 1940, Tit. 305. Alaska Comp.Laws Ann.1949, 66—13—53. Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann., 1956, 13—163. Ark.Stat.1947, 43—2016. 39 Cal.Pen.Code, 1323.5, West's Ann.Code. 1323, Ann.Code; Cal.Const.Art. I, Colo.Rev.Stat.Ann.1953, 39—7—15. 41 Conn.Gen.Stat.1958, 54—84, C.G.S.A. 42 Del.Code Ann.1953, 11, 3501. Fla.Stat., 1959, 918.09, F.S.A. 44 Hawaii Rev.Laws 1955, 222—15. Idaho Ann.1948, 19—3003. 46 Ill.Rev.Stat., 734. 47 Ind.Ann.Stat.1956, 9—1603. Iowa 1958, 781.12, I.C.A. 781.13, 49 Kan.Gen.Stat.Ann.1949, 62—1420. Ky.Rev.Stat.1960, 455.090. La.Rev.Stat.1950, 15.461, LSA—R.S. La.Rev.Stat. 15.462, Me.Rev.Stat.Ann.1954, 148, 22. Md.Ann.Code 1957, Art. 35, Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., 20. Mich.Comp.Laws 1948, 617.64. 56 Minn.Stat., 611.11, M.S.A. Miss.Code Ann.1942, 1691. Mo.Rev.Stat., 546.260, V.A.M.S. Mo.Rev.Stat. 546.270, Mont.Rev.Codes Ann.1947, 94—8803. Neb.Rev.Stat.1956, 29—2011. Nev.Rev.Stat.1957, 175.170. Nev.Rev.Stat. 175.175. N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann.1955, 516.31. N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 516.32. 63 N.J.Rev.Stat.1951, 2A:81—8, N.J.S.A. 64 N.M.Stat.Ann.1953, 41—12—19. 65 N.Y.Code Crim.Proc. 393. N.C.Gen.Stat.1953, 8—54. 67 N.D.Rev.Code 1943, 29—2111. Ohio Rev.Code 2945.43. Okla.Stat.1951, 701. 70 Ore.Rev.Stat.1953, 139.310. Pa.Stat., 1930, 19, 681. Pa.Stat.Tit. 631. R.I.Gen.Laws Ann.1956, 12—17—9. 73 S.C.Code 1952, 26—405. S.D.Code 1939, 34.3633. Tenn.Code Ann.1955, 40—2402. Ann. 2403. Vernon's Ann.Tex.Code Crim.Proc.1948, 710. Utah 77—44—5. 78 Vt.Stat.Ann.1959, 6601. Va.Code Ann.1950, 19.1—264. Wash.Rev.Code 1951, 10.52.040. W.Va.Code 5731. 82 Wis.Stat.1959, 325.13, W.S.A. 83 Wyo.Stat.1957, 7—244. 84 FRANKFURTER'S separate reversing conviction, CLARK joins. 85 1784 February 25, Prince's Digest (1837). adoption included witnesses, whereby precluded behalf. doubtful extent barred address prevailed fair guess less uniform. 41, 343. alleviated inquiry justice obstructed incapacities present law,'* provision jury. Ga.Laws 24. sum legislative history disqualified say These two aspects sections penal code 1895, Ga.Code §§ 1010, 1011, remained 38—416. 86 (1) seem impossible, essentially meaningless reason, consider impliedly incorporating renders right-to-counsel As correctly stated: counsel.' 46. What adequacy inextricably unified scheme procedure. ameliorate harsh following. Standing alone, 415 difficulty. Only meaning. constitutionally altogether bar establishing innocence duty speech aided Alternatively, unconstitutional—a nullity—a insist constitute additional choose avail himself. If, meaning 38—416's incompetency, surely imprisoned formal governing reviewing parts disseverable, single petitioner asked review halves. formalism run riot find division organically inseparable single, appealable unit. determines scope over state judgment. 87 (2) limitations ruling constitutionality Georgia's law—which creates issue—then mutilation dismissed want substantial question. Considered vacuo, fails, pointed out, reasonable constitutionality, provides purposefully chosen agreed provisions, intentionally limited applied, abstract believe, thought fultile endeavor pursuant discretionary judges. Since assume waive claim concerning incompetency—though asserted claim—I difficulty moving Court's oblique relevance candid determination unconstitutional. CLARK, FRANKFURTER joins, concurring. 90 Because, statements behalf, withholds eliciting perhaps statements, today strikes down section. unconstitutional 'in 38—416' trials. 'context,' rendering doubtful, fails pass constitutionality. hesitancy reach appears tactic, doing, demanding challenging exclusion proven cast line, risen bait exactly anticipated. obvious—as articulate convincing evoke, merely defeat insufficient avoidable. Nevertheless, problem poses historically conceptually intertwisted together, recognizes, fall unitary concept, uncircumscribed accident divisive codification. struck down, intelligible 38—416.* Were latter codified, proscription 38—415's operative premise disability. purported founded disability, hardships nowhere presently imposed, partially relieve. withhold adjudication codification, account procedural dodge resorted Reaching feel must, hesitate my view remnant age gone by, palliative, 38—415. Until legislature, void rejection codified filled recognize, secured silence manner implement local policy insuperable obstacle disposition propose. automatically rendered fatal unless, view, done here, challenge appropriate active concept embodied phases. continue demand compliance standard adhered today, sooner back doorstep. result, predictably, reached today. proves future anticipate, stability interim jeopardized related claims but, perhaps, pressed. So too, reverse side coin, verdicts acquittal returned. administration frustrated unreasonably delayed fragmentation critical niceties solely hope avoiding controlling magnitude. 93 reasons impractical unwise date Disagreeing distorted reverses judgment, join reversal grounds stated Brother join. concurring opinions nevertheless adjudicate Apart incongruity passing refrained attacking, disregarding course disrespectful procedures. entertained Holley Lawrence, 529, 154; express below rests non-federal adequate support namely, tender *' 317 518, 394, concludes principle parties' root general.' 680. Coke's influence utterances, analogy Pp. 682—683. Coke listed disqualifications: 'becometh infamous, Or witnesse infidell, nonsane memory, discretion, partie interested, like.' Littleton, 6.b. There Blackstone then-settled '(a)ll whatever religion use examined, event cause.' By Legislature remain 'so contrary constitution, laws, government State.' (1837), 570. Section 3772 decisional 'Witnesses Who suit.' transition traced Chapter Legal Massachusetts, Harv.L.Rev. 1. removing disability Michigan's Connecticut incapacity 1849. Field reforms York influential leading discard cases. 686—695. preamble legislation expressed aim extending competency: 'Whereas, desirable full information cases, laid them, adduced testimony.' forbade 'by party'; contained 'dead man's statute' proviso. remaining enumerated exceptions competency; intact. 340; Wilson 489, 492, 619, 620; Howard 587, 426. second original stating: herein person, who, proceeding, offence compellable, herself, compellable tending criminate herself; husband wife, wife her husband; attorney client.' Laws 1866, 138—139. Save attorney-client privilege, added during debate Senate, Senate Journal, Dec. 266, verbatim Act. dates are: 1885; Alaska, 1899; Arizona, 1871; Arkansas, California, 1866; Colorado, 1872; Connecticut, 1867; Delaware, 1893; Florida, 1895; Hawaii, 1876; Idaho, 1875; Illinois, 1874; Indiana, 1873; Iowa, 1878; Kansas, Kentucky, 1886; Louisiana, 1864; Maryland, Michigan, 1881; Minnesota, 1868; Mississippi, 1882; Missouri, 1877; Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, Hampshire, 1869; Jersey, Mexico, 1880; York, North Carolina, Dakota, 1879; Ohio, Oklahoma, 1890; Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Tennessee, 1887; Texas, 1889; Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Wisconsin, Wyoming, 1877. current citations collected 596, 770. specialized 1872. About statute. Parliamentary Debates, 4th Series, 977—978. 1885, prosecutions. Most involved offenses regulatory legislation, misdemeanors. Best, 571—572; 862—863. Zealand 1893. Rev.Stat.Can. (1952), 307, 4(1); 398, N.Z.Repr.Stat., 1908, 5. Australian development, 60. (Northern Ireland); (Evidence) Indian Procedure 61, A.I.Rep. (1955), 91. Opposition score marked Britain. Said member debates: '(W)hy law? Revolution three centuries honest innocent. great tribunals peril—for British Constitution—far greater ancient designed.' 1022, 1024. another: '(F)or administered hang somebody else's Bill 1030. particular members, contended oppression there; coverage 721—742. Other members hostile fear laborers 546—547, 574—578. Bentham, IV, 445—468; Appleton, Rules 134. 'That object attitude expected. His punishment.' 131. Cleaves, cf. Bartlett, 215—221. note Appleton's role extend competency, 12. 705. comments impact statutes, Alverstone, Recollections Bar Bench, 176 180; Biron, Without Prejudice; Impressions Life 218; Train, Prisoner Bar, 205—211; Sherman, Some Long Life, 234; 29; Fortnightly L.J. 41. lie defend 759, treason, until act 1836, participation major importance; before, obliged, himself.' 306, 309. developed eighteenth advise cross-examine Crown's 424. continued Chitty, (5th Am. 623; V, 496. Austral.L.J. 166. 1(h). sought curtail statutorily 4, Boucher, 141, Coleridge, addressed Beard, 142; Rider, 539. 535, Byles, both. At hostility lingered Millhouse, 622. addition preservation recognizing E.g., Zealand, Perry, (1920) N.Z.L.R. 21; Kerr Reg., (1953) 75, N.Z.L.J. 305; 299; Ireland, Riordan, (1948) I.R. Feb. 20, 43, 49, Africa, de Wet, (1933) So.Afr.L.J. 374. confined arguing commenting facts. Ford Ark. 649; 232. latitude. Lopez, Edm.Sel.Cases, N.Y., 262. historical Commonwealth Stewart, 255 Mass. 151 N.E. 74, A.L.R. 579; McConnell, 162 107; Burrough, 184; Dascalakis, 246 12, 32, 140 470, 479. considerations 247; Hanoff 178, 184—185 (dissenting opinion); O'Loughlin Colo. 368, 384—385, P.2d 543, 549, 622; 188; Rogers, (1888) B.C.L.R. 119. Alabama 1882. Previously McCall, Ala. 643, construed Blackburn 319; Chappell 322. Wyoming 1869. Anderson Wyo. 345, 196 1047; Florida cross-examined. absolute 1870. Miller Fla. 577. All subsequently fully competent. Georgia. Initially considerable sanction. bill predecessor originally tabled House reconsideration, defeated Senate. Journal Aug. 8, 173; Oct. 492. passed, statement; empowered 1874 1874, 22—23. 1879 1878—1879, 53—54, took form. Clarke 474; Harris 482; Hart 39, 805; Copeland 320, option 1925 reservation removed. 579. 120; 342; 362, 366; Mercer L.Rev. 335; Ga.B.J., 47. Association proposal 1952 Ga.Bar Assn.Rep. 31. Recent study Association's Committee report recommending 'aid Those lives possibly clearly disinterested shrewd prosecutor create, expert cross examination, defendant.' 1957 182. twice recommended prepared draft purpose. 1960 115, 116, adherence contrasts undeviating trend away 1863 indicates disqualifications numerous 3772(5), 3779, 3780, 3781, 3782, 3783, 3785, 4563. Arbitration 1856 arbitration proceedings. Golden Fowler, 451, 458. Lumpkin declared: '(A)s capable exercising functions intelligently, Judges struggling constantly wide calculated affect arriving correct conclusion. Truth, sense, enlightened alike artificial shut however remotely source derived, assist satisfactory verdict.' 55, 61—62. favoring reception Blount Beall, 95 182, 52; Myers Phillips, 536, 700; Manley Combs, 768, 781—782, 485, 493—494; Sisk 182 448, 453, 185 777, 781; Berry Brunson, 166 523, 531—533, 143 761, 765; Polk 437; Watkins 234, 284. removed 1935, breach-of-promise actions. husband. 53, amending 38—1604. Ga.Code, 38—101 sums policy: investigation discovery framed prominent end, seeking pure sources highest jointly tried, codefendant serve acquit believed. Staten 766; 163 878, 137 378. error emphasis supra; Burnsed 832, 595; Roberson 557, 798; O'Berry 880, 113 guilt. Thomas 59, 213. remind omitted excerpt immediately follows observation evidently examination. 138. agree isolated 'what question.'

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