Document: 366 U.S. 36 81 S.Ct. 997 6 L.Ed.2d 105 Raphael KONIGSBERG, Petitioner,v.STATE BAR OF CALIFORNIA and the Committee of Bar Examiners State California. No. 28. Argued Dec. 14, 1960. April 24, 1961. Mr. Edward Mosk, Hollywood, Cal., for petitioner. Frank B. Belcher, Los Angeles, respondents. Justice HARLAN delivered opinion Court. 1 This case, involving California's second rejection petitioner's application admission to state bar, is a sequel Konigsberg v. California, 353 252, 77 722, 810, in which this Court reversed State's initial refusal his application. 2 Under California law Supreme may admit practice any applicant whose qualifications have been certified it by Examiners. Cal.Bus. & Prof.Code § 6064. To qualify certification an must, among other things, be 'good moral character,' id., 6060(c), no person 'who advocates overthrow Government United States or force, violence, unconstitutional means * *.' Id., 6064.1. The empowered required ascertain all candidates. 6046. rules prescribed Board Governors Bar, before has 'the burden proving that he possessed good character, removing reasonable suspicion unfitness, entitled high regard confidence public.' Div. 3, c. 4, Rule X, 101. Any denied Committee's action reviewed 6066. 3 In 1953 petitioner, having successfully passed bar examinations, applied membership. Committee, after interrogating receiving considerable evidence as qualifications, declined certify him on ground had failed meet eligibility under two statutory requirements relating character nonadvocacy violent overthrow. That determination centered largely around Konigsberg's repeated refusals answer questions present past membership Communist Party.1 review without opinion. See 52 Cal.2d 769, 770, 344 P.2d 777, 778. 4 On certiorari Court, reviewing record, held rational support therefore offensive Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment. supra. At same time decide whether could constitutionally afford 'an independent exclusion from Bar,' considering such issue was not it. 259—262, 726—727. case remanded 'for further proceedings inconsistent with opinion.' 274, 734. 5 remand petitioner moved immediate bar. court vacated its previous order denying referred matter consideration. ensuing hearings introduced (none rebutted), reiterated unequivocally disbelief overthrow, stated never knowingly member organization advocated action. He persisted, however, Party. again him, obstructed full investigation into qualifications.2 divided vote, refused review, also motion direct practice.3 777. We brought here. 362 910, 80 661, 618. Petitioner's contentions reversal Court's are reducible three propositions: (1) decision earlier case; (2) assuming inquiries possible Party were permissible, unconstitutionally arbitrary deny because answer; (3) event, justified refusing these questions. I. 7 Consideration effect former requires there kept clearly mind what entailed rule, comparable many States, bears proof character'4—a requirement validity not, nor well be, drawn question here.5 8 rule must initially furnish enough make prima facie case. examining then opportunity rebut showing bad character. Such result own investigation, applicant's responses form, interrogation himself. decisive importance for, familiar know, unworthy candidates frequently depends upon thoroughness questioning, revealing infirmities otherwise satisfactory part. especially so where committee, infrequently conducting qualifications. If at conclusion found even balance, refuse applicant, just ordinary suit plaintiff fail met proof. 9 first concerned solely balance between favorable unfavorable struck accordance due process. It held, first, made out and, second, record aid inferences flowing therefrom, cast doubts justify finding than qualification satisfied.6 assessing significance membership, dealt only fact provide indication meeting standards admission. did consider, but reserved later decision, permissibility treating exclusion, substantive conclusions might drawn, thwarted pages 726—728. now asserts foreclosed anything decided quite different question. 10 equally clear ordering rehearing led manifested disrespect mandate expressly left open 'not with' There basis suggestion proceeding adopted unusual discriminatory procedures avoid normal consequences determination. proceeding, questioning unnecessary when, view, sufficiently rebutted already record. While conclude, undertake preclude agency asking thought necessary known would overturned. recalling testimony, consistently federal administrative tribunals do set aside orders unsupported requisite findings fact. Federal Communications Comm. Pottsville Broadcasting Co., 309 134, 60 437, 84 L.Ed. 656; Fly Heitmeyer, 146, 443, 664. 11 absence slightest purpose part evade prior principles finality protecting parties litigation are, within broad limits fundamental fairness, concern law. criminal see Bryan 338 552, 70 317, 94 335; Hoag New Jersey, 356 464, 78 829, 913; cf. Palko Connecticut, 302 319, 328, 58 149, 153, 82 288. instance they certainly transgressed merely taking essentially type proceeding.7 II. 12 think Amendment's protection against does forbid long refuses unprivileged answers substantial relevance An like civil suit, procedural rules. surely doubtful validly adopt analogous 37(b) Rules Civil Procedure, 28 U.S.C.A., provides refusal, warning, relevant matters regarding asked' being considered purposes answered way party, 'dismissing proceeding' party affirmative relief. 13 involved here less one, said cases where, material gaps presented charged considers should filled appropriate exercise responsibilities, will admitted unless until cooperates agency's efforts fill those gaps. finds source supervisory powers over admissions rather legislation, significant. Nashville, C. St. L.R. Co. Browning, 310 362, 968, 1254. Nor particular applicants questions, instances committee deems materially investigation. Compare Beilan Public Education, 357 399, 1317, 1414, Nelson County 1, 527, 494. 14 context entire proceedings,8 cannot discriminatory. neither somewhat weak uncontradicted Communits 1941, rationally adverse 266—274, 729—734. say, factors, singly together, regarded leaving investigatory sufficient uncertainty permit invoked, provided given warning continuing respond Committeee's Cf. page 261, 727. 15 say precisely posture right examine cross-examine becomes Assuming, we moment, privilege answer, more insist makes improper circumstance introduction forms rebutting evidence. 16 likewise untenable irrelevant either bare, innocent disqualification willingness ultimate himself believed belonged advocating Chairman's contention entirely correct: 17 'If you question, example, during some period since 1951 presently Party, position ask acts engaged carry functions aims were, your knowledge, type. You failing us investigate respect very preliminary.' 18 And explanation counsel another why testimony about facts dispositive sound: 19 'Mr. realize if new area opened up, able perhaps years active who associates enterprise discover advocate government force violence. I am saying that, possibility, don't take witness' precluding trying telling truth. point.' 20 miscellaneous capricious insubstantial.9 21 remains adequately warned answer. outset renewed Chairman stated: 22 'As our two-fold (to reach determinations), particularly function believe you, Konigsberg, obstructed. admission.' 23 After asked: 24 recall advised failure obstruct you. With wish heretofore up answer?' 25 26 'I statement misunderstanding future, feel obstruction frustration word used. obstruction. phases haven't simply stopped point, one proper affiliation.' 27 thus leaves room doubt score 'warning,' indeed contend contrary. III. Finally, argues privileged dealing impinged rights free speech association protected 29 reject view freedom (N.A.A.C.P. Alabama ex rel. Patterson, 449, 460, 1163, 1170, 1488), First Amendments, 'absolutes,' undoubted sense constitutional exists prevail, scope gathered literal reading Amendment.10 Throughout history recognized least ways narrower unlimited license talk. hand, certain speech, contexts, outside protection.11 See, e.g., Schenck 249 47, 39 247, 63 470; Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 62 766, 86 1031; Dennis 341 494, 71 857, 95 1137; Beauharnais People Illinois, 343 250, 72 725, 96 919; Yates 354 298, 1064, 1356; Roth 476, 1304, 1498. general argulatory statutes, intended control content incidentally limiting unfettered exercise, Amendment forbade Congress pass, when subordinating valid governmental interests, prerequisite constitutionality necessarily weighing interest involved. Schneider 308 147, 161, 150, 155; Cox 312 569, 61 762, 85 1049; Prince Commonwealth Massachusetts, 321 158, 64 438, 88 645; Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 69 448, 93 L..ed. 513; American Ass'n Douds, 339 382, 674, 925; Breard City Alexandria, 622, 920, 1233. latter class always placed compelling disclosure incident informed function. Bates Little Rock, 361 516, 524, 412, 417, 480. Whenever, context, protections asserted reconciliation efected, perforce respective interests Watkins 178, 198, 1173, 1184, 1273; N.A.A.C.P. Alabama, supra; Barenblatt 360 109, 126—127, 79 1081, 1092—1093, 1115; Wilkinson 365 567, 633; Braden 431, 584, 653. reference difficult, indeed, imagine automatically consideration extent deterrence function, exclude issues purpose, credibility, intent. considerations judge 30 Petitioner challenge 6064.1 Business Professions Code forbidding government. difficult argue belief, firm carried advocacy, use illegal change form unimportant determining fitness profession hands lies safekeeping country's legal political institutions. Garner Works 716, 909, 1317. insubstantially related claims inquire legitimacy unrelated danger ends limited purposes. 128—129, 1093—1094, 31 As regards public employees relative subjecting subsequent outweighed ascertaining employee post holds, hence infringe protections. 1414; lawyers devoted broadest sense, including provisions, orderly change, outweigh minimal occasioned compulsory circumstances presented. 32 likelihood foreseeable private action, supra, 462, 1171, interrogations conducted private. 58, Section Practice Procedure S.H.A. ch. 110, 101.58, 10; Prof.Code, 8; Anonymous Nos. Baker, 287, 291—292, 1157, 1159—1160, 1234. possibility afforded imposing undetectable association, Shelton Tucker, 364 479, 486, 251, 231, reason subject judicial appear rested factors comport Constitution. 810; Schware Mexico, 232, 752, 796; Wieman Updegraff, 183, 73 215, 97 216. perceive solid claim intrusion assured 33 controlling. is, aspect matter. Speiser Randall, 513, 1332, 1460, obtain exemption taxpayer bear proof, both burdens establishing persuasion, (357 526, 1342): 34 'The vice procedure falls close line separating lawful unlawful, mistaken factfinding—inherent litigation—will create legitimate utterance penalized. man knows bring forth persuade lawfulness conduct steer far wider unlawful zone burdens. feared complexity proofs generality applied, shifting sands litigant maintain position. How can claimant declaration rejected possibly sustain negative complex factual elements? practical operation, therefore, device produce command directly. Constitution free.' 35 applicability holding observe explicitly here, intent penalize beliefs. Distinguishing 1317; Gerende Supervisors Elections Baltimore City, 56, 565, 745, 925, 1343): 'In attempt directly protect, evil shown grave, sphere concern. Each persons aspiring positions virtue could, evilly motivated, serious safety. principal aim statutes beliefs supposed dangerous misused detriment But additional making rationale inapplicable us. unequivocal distinguished character.'12 All cooperation search forbidden advocacy. obstructing performance examination cross-examination, ruling presupposes producing advocacy Committee. Requiring defendant testify submit discovery shift him. Moreover, allowed comment defendant's careful note placing innocence. Adamson 332 46, 67 1672, 1679, 91 1903. 37 contrast knowledge know law, rest persuasion Only distinction penalizing access unfitness lead abuse state-given privileges. 38 Thus stand, nothing contrary reasoning Speiser, despite compelled prospective need 'steer zone' 1342) fear judgment declaring notwithstanding duty testify, loss resulting may, still fall State. production, expected 'sustain negative' elements amount assumed elements, prevented attempting discharge affirmed. 40 Affirmed. 41 BLACK, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE DOUGLAS concur, dissenting. 42 When before, barring forcible Government. doing so, 'no record' conclusion.1 Upon remand, back hearings, produced whatever tended degree reflect patriotism established. adjudication possesses unimpaired. 43 What repeat identical suspected Communists twenty ago asked series hearings. fit subsequently majority State.2 44 Thus, purports put observed: 'There decisions, called attention, suggests Examiner's inquiry ipso facto, excluding irrespective how overwhelming loyalty flimsy suspicions Examiners.'3 pointed rules, regulations decisions require lawyer's questions.4 situation, seems me supported authoritatively declared California.5 alone vote reverse judgment. reasons, however. 45 objection answering has, beginning, based guarantees controlling correct. apparently attempted actual had, assume contended took place passed. For would, think, violation facto provision Constitution, constitute bill attainder squarely holdings Cummings Missouri6 Ex parte Garland.7 yet shows, beyond shadow doubt, suspects Party.8 agree implication adequate defended.9 46 avoids unavoidable necessity reversing below look rejection. way, reaches growing conjectured though happened affirmative. goes hold power Government, fact, sworn oath though, concedes, associations 'speech disclosure.' holding. 47 recognition subjected disclosure' Amendment, itself render subscribes doctrine permits 'balanced' away whenever thinks abridgment freedoms. indicated times before,10 subscribe shall assembly shows men drafted Bill Rights 'balancing' done field. too repeating except object adopting provisions Rights, freedoms completely congressional through used 'balance' existence.11 Of course, originally apply States. true governments wants overrule large number States.12 48 attempts plain so-called 'clear test' forcefully Holmes Brandeis, narrow broaden prevailing interpretation freedoms.13 little ever 'balancing use. Indeed, idea appears wholly strongly espoused Justices best test truth get accepted competition market.14 urged consistent imminent discussion.15 test,' rests notion ideas restrict arguments opposing them ample so. semblance danger,' combat discussion involved, measures calculated suppress views affairs. 49 recognize, great advance toward individual liberty notions Amendment,16 go my accorded primary insure enter 'competition market.' creation 'tests' unprotected standing invitation abridge nowhere sudden transformation Judge Learned Hand's 'restatement' test': each (courts) gravity 'evil,' discounted improbability, justifies invasion danger.'17 diluted weakened recast terms formula, much Brandeis their test. reliance 'test' find 'clear' 'present' danger, persuasive rejecting enforcing according terms. 50 'literal Amendment' totally unreasonable invalidate widely laws. true. believe, laws resting premise integral going time, illustrate, emphasize establish conduct.18 people discuss religious interest, meaning terms, desire protect Some argued, guaranteed areas those.19 Nation's security tranquility served giving construction deserve.20 51 construe manner dramatically illustrated Illinois,21 relied today. upheld conviction 'crime' circulation petition Council Chicago urging body follow policy racial segregation language Illinois chose 'libelous' Negroes. Holding 'libelous utterances' included 'speech' Amendment,22 concluded circulated fell exception charges Negro population country. simultaneously 'libelled' fifteen million people. tremendous expansion concept 'libel,' relatively minor suddenly become vehicle return vicious era seditious libel, power, England country, opponents jail.23 Whatever wisdom, approach exceptions things 'obscenity'24 'fighting words,'25 kind case—wholly conflicting affairs policies—falls however narrowly interpreted. So complete minds asserting abridgment. stating 'absolutes' takes admittedly assert weight induce uphold judgment, sweeping denial existence inalienable speak undermines foundation structure rest.26 Founders Nation people—rights taken amendment basic charter majority's tells publish imperative expedient turns 'Government people, people' 53 adhere limit logic. Since denies publication 'absolute' strict adherence mean conditional right, express neighbors—or neighbors hear views. words, candidate office, low, behalf candidacy, newspaper print affairs, discussions. dependent accuracy scales weighs exaggeration 54 These examples serve illustrate difference sort method insuring purely incidental inadvertent consequences. term came chiefly municipalities keep streets traffic attacked groups wishing purposes.27 treat posed primarily rights. Recognizing instead avenues travel various city ordinances designed prevent noises congestions disrupt flow traffic. enforcement ordinances, regulation openly surreptitiously aimed 'incidental' speech. went point directed regulating invalidated if, 'weighing' reasons conduct, insufficient diminishing vital maintenance democratic institutions' Amendment.28 55 intimated ordinance purported regulate None rightfully walking riding along talking controlled, licensed penalized city—for itself. Those begun upon, upholding obviously antispeech actions Douds29 States.30 falling class.31 56 seeks authority street-regulation defend permissible 'incidental.' association. Why Party? avowed 'advocate' talk, opinions 'advocacy' 'speech.' highest distinction, reason, inescapable presents such, 'direct,' characterization 'direct' explicit contradiction 57 correct decision. place, unduly restrictive penurious test.' describes 'having change.' accurate really stake here? now, country means, hearing conclusion, established.32 seem indicate, existing side real lack value information mind, Bar. was, maintains, who, undeniably character? Our basically common tell loyalty. 59 scale, admits likely effects caused disclosures, 'minimal' secondly, committees review. ground, ignores confidential.33 besides, taxes credulity suppose highly emotional communism rapidly leak injury applicant—regardless happen be. given, fails account widens publicity tends undercut ground. demonstrated companion today,34 small hope relief stubborn destroy arbitrarily innuendoes lasting suspicions. confidential exclusions accept 'minimal.' personal imposed associations. society intimidated inevitable condone deterrent entered anyone want lawyer every safe course desiring scrupulously somebody against, activities most restricted Amendment.35 And, currently atmosphere few organizations favor liberties controversial.36 addition, associated developed discouraged spending amounts money education reached misapplication currently, temporarily, satisfying curiosity 'possible' decades inflated proportion value—the vast maintaining unabridged press paid lip service—and important once away. This, ever-present tied emphasis judges give competing societal values. Judges, everyone else, vary tremendously choice perfectly natural unavoidable. values times. rights, plainest language, obliterate cherish cherished Founders. cut heart liberty-protecting rendered last decade. Randall37 down, tax exemptions veterans sign violence *.'38 arose insisted signing oath. veterans' violated process prove reversed, dissenting, imposition 'can free.'39 relying oaths performed oath, signed, became conclusive attested office concerned. retained officeholder retain position.'40 happening For, persisted proscribed would. situation closely condemned major stronger one. Here, there, implications opinion, places cases, agreed more. Surely greater cooperate distinguishable impose penalty, heavier burden, while involves determine Bar—a public. play words. satisfy forced pay penalty. expended prepare financial standpoint, social standpoint of, 'penalty' Speiser. 65 ever-lengthening speak, write, associate abridged commands Amendment.41 line, alienated allegiance talk zealots hostile everything stands stood. groundless life deeply rooted shaken mere argument wedded totalitarian faith adoption let wanted government—even inclined. underlying revolutionary harmless feet satisfied happy citizenship. Thomas Jefferson voiced simple eloquence occasion inauguration President States: dissolve Union republican stand undisturbed monuments safety error tolerated it.'42 66 main, philosophy county lived prospered creation. have, notable exceptions, short-lived unlamented alien sedition late 1700's, beginning 'cold war' shortly World War II, widespread imagined persuasiveness arguments. commonly offered justification liberty-stifling characterized themselves advantage provides. But, repressive inquisitions Communists.43 repression world imitate survive. survival firmer ground—that freedom, repression. Nothing guilty threatens Quite contrary, indicates fortunate convictions stood peace war. writings published vehement protests overthrowing force. No witness throughout inquisition raised voice hand victim fashion destroying entertain. 68 BRENNAN, joins, Traynor dissent 774, 776, 780, 781—782, 'a (the Party) (Konigsberg's) qualifications.' come forward, show unlawfully otherthrow protects '* sought deterred taxing program demands unencumbered comes forward inhibition.' 528—529, 1343. differences degree,' said, 'in Bar'; yet, also, 'Such logically dictated 782. whimsey governs situations impossible distinguish, apply. saying: 'Whatever relevancy membership) extraordinary variant usual crime, attendant poses threat restraint applicants. heavy innocence, repercussions constrain noncommittally mistake innocuous words grave averted examiners. Confronted obliged it.' predicate distinguish escape speciousness exposed BLACK'S dissent. reverse. refusals, self-incrimination, purview authority, infringed thought, expression Constitutions. affirmatively asserted, following us: '(1) concerning affiliation '(2) California.' essence court's extracts opinion: contains abstention 'Here certification. (T)o committee's subjects nullify concededly legislative direction committee. effectively stifle legislatively issue.' 772, 779, 780. dissented statute sole government, exclusionary issues. Peters grounds belief applicant. Chief Gibson participate Puerto Rico District Columbia, prescribe precondi- tions West Publishing Admission (35th ed. 1957); Survey Legal Profession, Examinations Requirements (1952); Jackson, Character Fordham L.Rev. 305 (1951); Annotation, A.L.R.2d 301 (1959). demonstrating regularly Montgomery, Ala. 378, So.2d 85; re Stephenson, 243 342, 143 A.L.R. 166; Application Courtney, 83 Ariz. 319 991; Ark.Stat.Ann.1947, §§ 25—101, 25—103; Spears 211 Cal. 294 P. 697, 923; O'Brien's Petition, Conn. A. 777; Durant, 140, 497; Del.Sup.Ct.Rule 31(1)(A)(a), (2)(A)(a), Del.C.Ann. Coleman Watts, Fla., 650 (burden applicant; shifts Examiners); Gordon Clinkscales, 215 Ga. 843, 114 S.E.2d 15; Latimer, Ill.2d 327, N.E.2d (semble); Rosencranz Tidrington, 193 Ind. 472, 141 N.E. 1136; Meredith, Ky., 272 S.W.2d 456; Meyerson, 190 Md. 671, A.2d 489 Matter Keenan, 313 Mass. 186, 12; Smith, 220 Minn. 197, N.W.2d 324 Attorney's License, N.J.L. 345; Cassidy, 268 App.Div. 282, N.Y.S.2d 202, affirmed 296 N.Y. 926, 41; Farmer, 191 N.C. 235, 131 S.E. 661; Weinstein, 150 Or. 744; Poyntz, 152 592, 1141 Eary, 134 W.Va. 204, 647 (semble). (366 55—56, 1008—1010, infra), burden-of-proof proceedings, assumed, discuss, nonadvocacy-of-forcible-overthrow statute. debate transpired investigating hearing. Therefore declining termination transcript original intimation fashioned special pertinent Farley (Secretary, Examiners), Investigation Applicants Admission, Cal.State Journal, 454, 457, 466 (1954). hallmarks regulation, Missouri, Wall. 277, 356; Lovett, 328 303, 1073, 90 1252, light Likewise, attributing surreptitious putting justifying respond. excluded impeded remove. reconciled slander, misrepresentation, obscenity, perjury, false advertising, solicitation complicity encouragement, conspiracy, like, unqualified terms: 'Congress abridging press; peaceably assemble said: '(T)he mathematical formulas form; organic living institutions transplanted English soil. Their formal; dictionary, origin growth.' Gompers 233 604, 610, 693, 695, 1115. connection compare Second Amendment: Arms infringed.' Miller, 307 174, 816, 1206. immunity Holmes, J. ('I moment punishing murder, punish produces forthwith evils seek prevent.' Abrams 250 616, 627, 17, 21, 1173); ('But, although fundamental, nature absolute.' Whitney 274 357, 373, 641, 647, 1095); Hughes, C.J. ('(T)he (of speech) absolutely unlimited.' Near Minnesota Olson, 283 625, 631, 75 1357.) character.' 273, 733, 810. containing quantity scanty arguably separate opinions. 260—261, total authoritative accentuated article written Journal Secretary available study, 'law land,' Equal Protection Clauses Cohen Hurley, 117, 135—150, 954, 965—972, 156 (dissenting opinion). Daniel Webster argued Dartmouth College cases: 'Are legislature, affect privileges, land? Let text Blackstone: 'And (i.e. law) rule: transient superior, to, concerning, person; something permanent, uniform, universal. Therefore, act legislature confiscate goods Titius, attaint treason, municipal law: operation spent Titius only, relation community general; sentence law.' Lord Coke emphatic. Citing commenting celebrated 29th chap. Magna Charta, says, disseized, &c. verdict equals, land, all,) law." (Emphasis source.) Trustees Woodward, Wheat. 518, 580—581, 629. 356. 333, 366. doubtless relate 1941 heard ex-Communist attended meetings unit period. unreliability discussed before. 266—268, 729—731. 796. participated expressed probative 246, (concurring opinion) 760, 762. obtained, five older. dissenting 441—446, 590—593, 653; 422—423, 580, Uphaus Wyman, 388, 392—393, 159, 160, 148; 140—144, 1100—1102, 445 453, 707—711, 925. James Madison, understand encroachments protect. ten Amendments) incorporated justice consider peculiar guardians rights; impenetrable bulwark assumption Legislative Executive; naturally resist encroachment stipulated rights.' Annals 439 (1789). supplied.) Minersville School Gobitis, 586, 593, 1010, 1012, 1375; Murdock Pennsylvania, 105, 108, 870, 872, 87 1292; Virginia Education Barnette, 624, 639, 1178, 1186, 1628; Staub Baxley, 355 313, 321, 281, 302. 52, 249, 470, writing 630, 22, 1173 (Holmes, J., dissenting). Gitlow York, 652, 673, 632, 1138: run proletarian dictatorship destined dominant forces community, chance way.' dissenting.) 649, 1095: 'Among men, deterrents ordinarily crime punishment violations assembly.' (Brandeis, concurring.) 630—631, opinion); 672—673, 1138 378—379, 649—650, 1095 Bridges 314 260 263, 190, 192—194, 192. Cir., 183 F.2d 201, 212; 510, 867, 1137. 514, 1324, 1498 National Labor Relations Electric Power 469, 344, 348; Giboney Empire Storage Ice 490, 684, 834. Meiklejohn, Does Mean? U. Chi. 461, 464. Boyd 116 635, 535, 746: '(C)onstitutional Provisions property liberally construed. A deprives half efficacy, leads gradual depreciation consisted sound substance. courts watchful citizen, stealthy thereon.' 919. treats pass 'group libel' unjustified. amounted mentioned violate 'civilized 'conons decency,' reasonableness, etc.' 268—269, 736—737. 287—305, 746—755. story Federalists Alien Sedition Acts 1798 weapon opposition Jeffersonians graphically told Bowers, Hamilton, 362—411. 1031. founders oppressions persecutions unorthodox, unpopular, influential trust elected representatives individual. From distrust derived amendments, whole 'limit Government', define 'cases ought act, mode', unpopular minorities oppressive majorities. 437. amendments erected Constitutional shelter people's religion, press, assembly. reflects static advancing, fullest interchange essential attainment goal. proponents committed faith, determined possess unrestrained views, odious vested challenge.' Feldman 322 487, 501, 1082, 1088, 1408 Typical here: 513. 151, 155. 398—400, 683—685. 508—509, 866, 867. 141—142, 1100—1101, stress resources Anastaplo, 82, 978, 135, utilized fullest, 'weight' 'balance.' regard, 231. stressed rested. 251. 108 112, 992—995. 1342, 1460. 7, remove school system teachers Liberties Union, Urban League, Association University Professors, Women's Emergency Open Schools. 1336, Revenue Taxation Code. section 516—517, 2, 1337. 1342. 528, considerably lengthened Term Times Film Corp. Chicago, 43, 391, 403; Jefferson, Inaugural Address, March 1801. address reprinted Jones, Primer Intellectual Freedom 142, (Harvard Press, 1949). 'Centuries experience group, beginnings, generate hatreds prejudices spread control. Too often inspires passions, reckless contagious. hysteria, popular indignation tars brush group attack which, revered Americans democracy, purposes.' 448—449, 709, 925

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