Document: 461 U.S. 95 103 S.Ct. 1660 75 L.Ed.2d 675 CITY OF LOS ANGELES, Petitionerv.Adolph LYONS. No. 81-1064. Argued Nov. 2, 1982. Decided April 20, 1983. Syllabus Respondent filed suit in Federal District Court against petitioner city of Los Angeles and certain its police officers, alleging that 1976 he was stopped by the officers for a traffic violation although offered no resistance, without provocation or justification, seized him applied "chokehold," rendering unconscious causing damage to his larynx. In addition seeking damages, complaint sought injunctive relief petitioner, barring use chokeholds except situations where proposed victim reasonably appeared be threatening immediate deadly force. It alleged that, pursuant petitioner's authorization, routinely they were not threatened any force; numerous persons had been injured as result thereof; respondent justifiably feared future contact might have with again being choked provocation; there thus impairment various rights protected Constitution. The Court, on basis pleadings, ultimately entered preliminary injunction under circumstances did threaten death serious bodily injury. Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. case is rendered moot even though while it pending this authorities prohibited type chokehold imposed 6-month moratorium another force authorized. terms permanent, intervening events irrevocably eradicated effects misconduct. Pp. 100-101. 2. federal courts are jurisdiction entertain respondent's claim relief. O'Shea v. Littleton, 414 488, 94 669, 38 674; Rizzo Goode, 423 362, 96 598, 46 561. 101-113. (a) To satisfy "case controversy" requirement Art. III, plaintiff must show has sustained immediately danger sustaining some direct injury challenged official conduct, threat "real immediate," "conjectural" "hypothetical." "Past exposure illegal conduct does itself present controversy regarding . if unaccompanied continuing, adverse effects." O'Shea, supra, U.S., at 495-496, S.Ct., 675-676. 1665-1666. (b) failed demonstrate would justify equitable sought. That may illegally 1976, presumably affording standing damages individual perhaps establish real violation, other offense, an officer who choke into unconsciousness provocation. If authorized only counter resistance arrest suspect, thwart effort escape, from policy more than possibility encounter either resist disobey their instructions render doctrine cessation (here few seconds respondent) bar controlling, since lack rest termination practice but speculative nature will experience continued. rule become capable repetition, yet evades review, likewise inapposite. 1667-1670. (c) Even assuming affords III seek remedy arising out events, nevertheless unavailable because irreparable injury—a cannot met showing wronged again. Nor allegedly suffered go unrecompensed; adequate law. Recognition need proper balance between state authority counsels restraint issuance injunctions engaged administration State's criminal laws absence which both great immediate. 1670-1671. 656 F.2d 417, reversed. Frederick N. Merkin, Angeles, Cal., petitioner. Michael R. Mitchell, Woodland Hills, respondent. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 issue here whether Lyons satisfied prerequisites district court. 2 * This began February 7, 1977, when respondent, Adolph Lyons, injunction, declaratory United States Central California. defendants City four officers. October 6, a.m., defendant vehicle code whatsoever, "chokehold"1—either "bar arm control" hold "carotid-artery both—rendering Counts I through IV City. Count V, we principally concerned here, permanent control holds. count city's "pursuant instruction encouragement regularly apply these holds innumerable whatsoever," application chokeholds, others similarly situated form loss life, "justifiably fears strangled provocation, justification legal excuse." First, Fourth, Eighth Fourteenth Amendments. Injunctive "except said appears force." VI City, i.e., judgment absent per se constitutional rights. 3 order, granted City's motion partial pleadings V VI.2 reversed VI, holding over objection despite our decisions 674 (1974), 561 (1976), chokeholds. 615 1243. held sufficient likelihood subjected unlawful constitute warrant otherwise We denied certiorari. 449 934, 101 333, 66 158. 4 On remand, injunction. pressed point. See n. infra. heard affidavits, depositions government records. found infringement involved "department-authorized resulted injuries plaintiff." court further department authorizes one grievous harm, insufficiently trained, involves high risk then employed, continued neither nor "is unconscionable civilized society." concluded such violated Lyons' substantive due process Amendment. A enjoining "the carotid-artery do injury." An improved training program regular reporting record keeping also ordered.3 affirmed brief curiam stating abused discretion entering 417 (1981). certiorari, 455 937, 102 1426, 71 647 (1982), now reverse. II 5 Since grant pertinent changed. Originally, least two deaths occurred police. His first amended 10 chokehold-related occurred. By May, 1982, five deaths. May Chief Police bar-arm circumstances. days later, 12, Board Commissioners six-month authorized.4 6 Based June 3, Memorandum Suggesting Question Mootness, reciting facts arguing moot. turn dismiss writ certiorari improvidently granted. reserved question mootness later consideration. 7 oral argument, reasserted position light changed conditions, decree unnecessary longer subject He urges should vacated. hand, acknowledging subsequent significantly posture case, asserts lifted time. 8 agree moot, permanent. Intervening "irrevocably violation." County Davis, 440 625, 631, 99 1379, 1383, 59 642 (1979). hold, reason, 9 goes saying those invoke threshhold Article Constitution actual controversy. Flast Cohen, 392 83, 94-101, 88 1942, 1949-1953, 20 947 (1968); Jenkins McKeithen, 395 411, 421-425, 89 1843, 1848-1850, 23 404 (1969) (opinion MARSHALL, J.). Plaintiffs "personal stake outcome" order "assure concrete adverseness sharpens presentation issues" necessary resolution questions. Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 82 691, 703, 663 (1962). Abstract enough. "has injury" See, e.g., Golden Zwickler, 394 103, 109-110, 956, 960, 22 113 (1969); Public Workers 330 75, 89-91, 67 556, 564-565, 91 L.Ed. 754 (1947); Maryland Casualty Co. Pacific Coal & Oil Co., 312 270, 273, 61 510, 512, 85 826 (1941); Massachusetts Mellon, 262 447, 43 597, 601, 1078 (1923). dealt brought class plaintiffs claiming discriminatory enforcement Among things, county magistrate judge accused respects, sentencing members plaintiff's harshly defendants. dismissal ruling allegations proved, appropriate could entered. 11 failure allege 493, 674. Although claimed particular actually unconstitutional practices, observed "[p]ast Id., Past wrongs evidence bearing "whether repeated 496, 676. But prospect rested "on [plaintiffs] arrested charged violations law bond proceedings, trial, before petitioners." Ibid. most plaintiffs' "that proceed violate unchallenged charged, answer, tried proceedings petitioners, practices petitioners followed." 497, find circumstances: "sufficiently existing simply anticipate violating lawful statutes offenses. ." assumed activities within so avoid prosecution conviction well course followed 12 considerations "obviously shade determining states sound relief," 499, 677, went presented controversy, demonstrated: 13 "[Plaintiffs] failed, moreover, basic requisites circumstances—the substantial injury, inadequacy remedies already canvassed necessarily conjectural subjected. And ever prosecuted face sentenced, available procedures provide wrongful alleged." 502, 679. 14 Another relevant decision purposes widespread aimed minority citizens residents general. reiterated past themselves amount make upon "what small, unnamed policemen them unknown policeman's perception" departmental procedures. 372, 604. hypothesis "even attenuated insufficient [the] invocation jurisdiction." trial relatively instances deliberate behalf named defendants, 15 (1969), analogous situation, directly apposite. Congressman Zwickler New York statute prohibiting anonymous handbills pertaining election campaigns unconstitutional. once convicted statute,5 apt run reelection. unanimous "most unlikely" statute, "sufficient immediacy reality" allow judgment. 109, 960. Just Zwickler's assertion candidate Congress "hardly substitute 'immediacy reality,' " ibid., create exist 16 note Ashcroft Mattis, 431 171, 97 1739, 52 219 (1977). There, father boy killed declaration Missouri apprehending person committed felony Plaintiff son, "if attempt suspicion felony, flee give appearance fleeing, therefore 172-173, 1740, ruled "[s]uch speculation existence present, live controversy." 17 No extension sought.6 requested depended likely suffer stop choking incident months before. nothing part. additional allegation falls far short parties. 18 incredible either, (1) all always citizen whom happen encounter, purpose arrest, issuing citation questioning or, (2) ordered act manner. threatened, indicate why realistically acted strictures policy. If, example, used detention provocation.7 19 Under Rizzo, complaint.8 apparently conclusion dismissing findings, interpreted action based standing, made "insufficient again." F.2d, 1246. For several reasons—each infirm, view—the thought reliance misplaced cases since, according Appeals, minor strangleholds. near future, untenable assert, allegation, strangleholds every regardless stopped. "odds," 1247, whatsoever elapsed filing complaint, unfortunate encounters 21 Of course, among countless unconstitutionally inflicted victim. As said, however, conjecture suggest instance stop, citizen, inflict excuse. surely assert himself instances, provoke resisting attempting Second, viewed "massive structural" local systems holdings inapposite plaintiff, seeks enjoin "established," "sanctioned" assertedly violative easily confined facts. repetition October, requirements court, contemplates intrusive structural discrete practice. asserted "had active claim" period seconds" stranglehold reasons disentitle relief: normal rules equity, merely complained ceased; second, "capable evading review" heard. Indeed, still meet requirements. Nevertheless, meets preconditions asserting forum. little help respect, 24 remains litigated damages; sense "evade" review. Furthermore, capable-of-repetition applies exceptional situations, generally can reasonable illegality. DeFunis Odegaard, 416 312, 319, 1704, 1707, 40 164 (1974). indicated, demonstration. 25 findings remand improve respect standing. having reversed, expressly address relief, careful preserve question. There finding faced choked. described authorizing "under harm." described, contained department's employment Nothing policy, Department manual, suggests kinds matter, arrestee suspect.9 contrary, instructed lesser degrees suffice "to gain suspect violently trying escape." App. 230. 26 Our heed authority, quite right V. 27 fares better events. again—a "likelihood requires prerequisite fulfilled. 28 Contrary view "difficult" see how anyone challenge similar administrative practices." 1250. legality violence claims determined there. 29 Absent way, entitled Angeles; Cf. Warth Seldin, 422 490, 2197, 45 343 (1975); Schlesinger Reservists Stop War, 418 208, 2925, 41 706 (1974); Richardson, 166, 2940, 678 undifferentiated taken seriously authorities. interest alert interested essential element effective fair government, local, national level.10 forum press unless entry satisfied. 30 decline invitation slight relief; held, recognition states' 677; Younger Harris, 401 37, 46, 746, 751, 669 (1971). Mitchum Foster, 407 225, 92 2151, 32 705 (1972) suits 42 U.S.C. § 1983 exempt flat ban directed 2283. displace principles comity federalism inform asked oversee exercising powers recognize "[t]he special delicacy adjustment preserved power State own law." Stefanelli Minard, 342 117, 120, 72 118, 138 (1951); 500, 678. 380, 608; Cleary Bolger, 371 392, 83 385, 390 (1963); Wilson Schnettler, 365 381, 81 632, 620 (1961); Pugach Dollinger, 458, 650, (1961). factors properly erred case. 31 noted 503, 679, withholding mean "federal exercise deterrent effect circumstances." barred Constitution, deliberately deprive laws. Beyond impose same remedial govern proceedings. permit continuing basis. role proffered 33 accordingly 34 Reversed. 35 BRENNAN, BLACKMUN STEVENS join, dissenting. 36 life-threatening pose violence, chokehold. today matter flagrantly be. one—not who, like almost death—has continuation free continue indefinitely long willing pay result. dissent unprecedented unwarranted approach 37 plainly concerning constitutionality implicated clearly alleges carrying municipality liable employees Monell Dept. Social Services, 436 658, 694, 98 2018, 2037, 56 611 (1978). obtain whatever deem appropriate. None prior requests forms raise issues Standing outcome controversy," (1962), "precise sought." 423, 1849, J., joined WARREN, C.J., A. 39 24-year-old Negro male resides Angeles. According uncontradicted record,1 about 2:30 A.M. pulled curb (LAPD) infraction taillights burned out. greeted drawn revolvers exited car. told car spread legs. so. clasp hands put top head. complied. After completed pat-down search, dropped hands, place back above head, grabbed slammed onto pain caused ring keys hand. Within ten seconds, applying forearm throat. struggled air, handcuffed him, until blacked When regained consciousness, lying down ground, choking, gasping spitting up blood dirt. urinated defecated. issued released. commenced Eighth, Amendments "carrying policies, customs Angeles." II, ¶ 13.2 These included incorporated each counts defendant. VI. "in whatsoever." 22. B instructs force, 1975 less died following LAPD officer. Twelve males.3 submitted Court4 established many years employ variety violence. reported "altercations" frequently means physical restraint.5 Between July 1980, 975 occasions, represented three-quarters altercations.6 undisputed unpredictable death. Chokeholds intended bring unconscious. Depending officer's applied, victim's voluntary involuntary reaction, health, inadvertently crush larynx, trachea, thyroid. cardiac asphyxiation.7 reaction "do[ing] chicken," Exh. 44, p. 93, reference reactions chicken neck wrung. experiences extreme pain. turns blue deprived oxygen, spasmodic convulsions, eyes roll back, body wriggles, feet kick down, arms move wildly. occasion determine precise contours provides indications. Terry Speer testified deploy whenever "feels there's attack him." 381 (emphasis added). bulletin "[c]ontrol subdue suspects." 47, below characterized escape," "subdue suspects,"8 officer, "where resisted, harm death, forcibly resists officer." (Emphasis added.)9 44 given revealing Officer instructing distinguish misdemeanor suspects. 379. Moreover, taught maintain limp, 387; Pet.App.H. 51a, invariably induces "flight flee" syndrome, producing struggle misinterpreted willful overcome prolonging increasing applied. supra. addition, safely deployed three minutes. 387-388; 48a. Robert Jarvis, expert Academy twelve years, admitted never cause just seconds. 388. nine average duration specified approximately C appropriateness recognized constraints Due Process Clause "[d]uring confrontation, Department-authorized "City authorize constitutes "deadly force," constitutionally threatened." conclusion, injury."10 noted, "[a]ll done, far, tell life routine work prevent At outset important emphasize entitlement award depend violates indispensable municipal liability proof attributable custom. Polk Cty. Dodson, 454 326, 445, 453, 70 509 (1981); enough agents solely theory respondeat superior. Monell, 2037. 47 errs suggesting prayer concerns responsible support damages. Ante, 7. Paragraph "without Defendant Officers Angeles," "by virtue thereof, actions" added.) including 48 Court's orders provocations." am completely understand paragraphs deemed finds wanting because, fails haec verba suspects aware decided abolition old common action, cites none, way supports crabbed construction complaint. concluding plus equals four.11 49 sufficiently event "belied injunction." flatly contradicts express factual finding, left undisturbed "Department-authorized contend erroneous.12 50 sum, it's absolutely clear call unconstitutional, 51 gives success depends demonstration beyond dispute invoked adjudicate presents III. request, lawsuit, very anomalous supported precedent fundamental concern underlying requirement. fragmenting single multiple types requiring separate departs traditional conception courts. disingenuous "[n]o extension" (1976). 105. contrast disputes focusing faced. compensatory relief.13 misconduct substantiality (1977), (1969),14 relies. 53 today. "threatened 674, quoting Linda R.S. Richard D., 410 614, 617, 93 1146, 1148, 536 (1973) 675, Because redress sue entirely Apart desire eliminate personal controversies. 54 contrast, request prospective coupled injury.15 rely controversy.16 relied majority, decide litigate hurdle sought.17 55 lacks assure largely illumination difficult questions." stated 101, 1953, (1968), related adjudicated adversary context historically judicial resolution." Valley Forge Christian College Americans Separation Church State, 464, 472, 752, 758, 700 (standing ensures questions resolved, rarified atmosphere debating society, conducive realistic appreciation consequences action"). prevail demonstrates adequately assures policy.18 dispositive doubt involve familiar relating implicate litigant's sue. denial separately justified requirement.19 57 inquiry imposing sought, required claim. Whether understood focused litigated, 99, 1952, 58 uniformly touchstone dispute, Once establishes done "invok[e] court's adjudicated." 471-472, (1982). 1953 (stake lawsuit"); Eisenstadt Baird, 405 438, 443, 1029, 1033, 349 (plaintiff challenging statute's validity"). litigant depends, turn, legally redressable "personally injury," Gladstone Realtors Village Bellwood, 441 91, 1601, 1607, 60 (1979) added), "fairly traced action." Simon Eastern Kentucky Welfare Rights Org., 426 26, 41, 1917, 1925, 450 redressed favorable decision." Simon, 38, 1924. Duke Power Carolina Env. Study Group, 438 59, 74, 2620, 2630, 595 (1978); 508, 2210, (1975). well-accepted criteria requisite fragment series Quite ask linked principles, remedied prevented Satisfaction lawsuit entail advisory injury.20 Therefore needs merits, injuries." ibid 2210; monetary reduce accepted heads Until now, threshold limited possible. adopted drastically alters 62 fragmentation inconsistent treated merger equity. reserve consideration after determination foreclose pleadings. part action. 2A Moore's Practice 8.18, 8-216, (1981 rev.), cited therein; Wright Miller, Procedure 2664. Rather, usual invaded available, good wrong done." Bell Hood, 327 678, 684, 773, 776, 90 939 (1946) (footnote omitted). 63 Rule 54(c) Rules Civil specifically "every final shall party whose favor entitled, demanded pleadings." [he] remedy." 1664. fully consistent cases. Supra, 128-129 18. 64 departing treatment demanding seeks. require "standing" complaint.21 54(c). Holt Civic Club Tuscaloosa, 439 60, 65-66, 383, 387, 292 Albemarle Paper Moody, 405, 424, 2362, 2374, 280 one. highly unlikely remedy, dangers inherent permits it. broad protect class, occur wrongdoer permitted actions. Where, concededly implementing rarely easy certainty conceivable set 65 wholly clashes long-standing what resolve dispute. remaining petition aside "constitute[s] interference operation department." Petition Certiorari i.22 my not. portion second question, argues ignored forth Brief 40-47. misplaced. "significantly revised internal Philadelphia 379, 608. adopt "a comprehensive dealing civilian complaints" formulated accordance extensive "guidelines" 369-370, 603, 357 F.Supp. 1289, 1321 (1973). Those guidelines detailed revisions manuals procedure, adoption specific processing, screening, investigating adjudicating complaints. supervised implementation program, posting distribution drawing "Citizen's Complaint Report" format designated review progress department. 364, sweeping federalism." 68 preclude Unlike entails supervision LAPD's activities. forbids permitting exist. takes preventive traditionally regarded remove obtaining approval plan. records uses access records, hardly onerous, maintains 69 mindful "federal-court intervention daily large department, undesirable avoided possible." 609 (BLACKMUN, dissenting).23 modest interlocutory differs markedly, arise undertakes "supervise functioning Apparently unwilling conclude unavailable." 111. alternative ground puzzling reasons. says, merits. discussion Part purely opinion. us. whether, so, impermissible consider satisfies 22, 73 raised, disposition With exception supra,24 (1971), extraordinary "great id., 750, reflects venerable equity prosecution, fact defenses raised friction produce. 750; Steffel Thompson, 415 452, 462, 1209, 1217, 505 74 repeatedly emphasized quasi-criminal proceeding, comity, federalism" underlie "have citing Lake Carrier's Assn. MacMullan, 406 498, 509, 1749, 1756, 257 (1972). Outside applies, governed considerations. Doran Salem Inn, Inc., 922, 930, 2561, 2567, 648 Whatever scope be, counsel proceeding analyzed general rather stringent standards becomes apparent precludes aside. "In reviewing constituted abuse discretion." Brown Chote, 411 457, 1732, 1735, 420 76 concluded, it, Infra, 119. Given inquiry, know ascertain manner, unprovoked 'that exists cognizable recurrent violation.' Rondeau Mosinee Corp., 49, 2069, 2076, (1975), W.T. Grant 345 629, 633, 894, 897, 1303 (1953). Courts much greater latitude granting furtherance public private interests involved." Virginian Ry. System Federation 40, 300 515, 552, 592, 789 (1937). 2948; Pt. 65.04[1]. amply considering public, stayed, moratorium. circumstances, believe discretion. 77 approved situation. Lankford Gelston, Allee Medrano, 802, 816 9, 2191, 2200 566 15, Lankford, houses searched uncorroborated, tips Fourth Circuit, sitting en banc, searches, homes future. vitiate "one valuable features jurisdiction, irreparable." Vicksburg Waterworks Vicksburg, 185 65, 82, 585, 591, 808 (1902). 78 Here propriety time grants 79 removes entire immunizes persistent deprivations injured, again, THE CHIEF JUSTICE Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 419, 1999, 2016, 619 (1971) (dissenting opinion), response 'shoot kill' fugitive?" answer "easy predict collective wrath outrage." learn outrage translated cease practice, victimized survivors fortunate. expressed majority today, "shoot kill," shooting suspects, powerless continuation. Compare 621, 1150, (WHITE, dissenting). levying toll systematic violation. referred "control holds," "chokeholds," "strangleholds," "neck restraints." All refer procedures: "carotid" arm" hold. positioned behind places around subject's wrist using lower bicep muscle, pressure concentrating carotid arteries located sides neck. diminishing flow oxygenated brain. administered similarly, front "Bar causes pain, reduces oxygen lungs, gave insofar First Amendments, VII, Attorney prosecute charges. file previously dismissed motion, reappeared Appeals. terms, assume confine use, constitutional. successive stays gone effect. staff assess effectiveness techniques report months. Prior argument reports submitted, took November extended "opportunity evaluate" third Insofar advised, submitted. grounds. 105, 958. Appeals' parties agreed advised severed relief." Petitioner otherwise. therefore, came us, fours judged such. centerpiece Marshall's recover prove authorization. succeed happened is, alleged, excuse whatsoever—was reasons, follow prayed policies [the officers] equivalent unbelievable belied Third, read containing experienced, tries escape Yet precisely event, sustain credibly Marshall nowhere confronts requirement—the necessity he, himself, requirement, Littleton. respect. 98, reasonableness fear dependent recurrence conduct. reality subjective apprehensions. emotional upset notes "feels" attack. Post, 118. dissent's emphasis word "feel" distinction "threat" believes attack, clear. not, cannot, point written pronouncement pattern behavior offering, offer, resistance. Mootness informed major civic 1982 spirited, vigorous, times debate" place. current summary deposition "Notice Application Preliminary Injunction Declaratory Relief; Points Authorities." 3-4. petitioners' contains account. 8. Thus males 9% population, accounted 75% resulting allegations, racial discrimination Equal Protection &Par; 10, 23, 24, 25, 30. deaths, nine. December stayed appeal. Four during stay 453 1308, 14, 1015 (1981) (REHNQUIST, chambers), thereafter. Statement Pascal K. Dionne (officer-in-charge Physical Training Self-Defense Unit LAPD), 240-241. Dionne, 259. figures undoubtedly understate frequency witness testified, compiled include altercations citizens. 241. Dionne's define "altercation" "altercation reports" physiological follows Dr. Griswold, pathology (App. 364-367): "From medical view, extremely dangerous fashion. Pressure locked across compress close trachea asphyxia must, anatomical certainty, fractured hyoid bone crushed substantial, time, unpredictable. "It thing vertical exerted. "Another factor contributing unpredictability [The] exerted laryngeal spasm seizure shuts off trachial air passage, leading asphyxiation. Also, transmission brain nerve messages immediate, acute sets 'flight flee' syndrome wherein reacts save escape. Adrenalin output increases enormously; switched muscles strong, violent ensues extent involuntary. From wilful, Thus, 'resistance ceases' meaningless. "This reduction reason cardiac, respiratory disease. "The [operates a] misconception length sole measure risk. true. larynx ensuing, irreversible manner equally control. ". pressure, sheath bony structure neck, foreseeably shutting supply "However, sheaths results inadvertent unintended, vagus nerves. nerves (right left) composed sensory motor fibers. Stimulation activate reflexes system heart stoppage (cardiac arrest). simultaneous intensity pressure." Opposition Injunction, pp. Opening Brief, 33. provided lift keep available. refrained stage. 456, suggestion, ante, inconsistency excuse," [officers] 23. One 381. testimony indicates subjectively perceives threat, anything objective perception. refuted statement 110, predicated custom embodied formal suggested exposed past, petitioner's, involving individually respondents officers." 492, repeatedly. 495, 3. Mattis originally shielded good-faith immunity, pursued mooted elimination claim, entertained remained viable. "primary satisfaction son's wrongful," 172, 1740 omitted), reviewed office again; "can 'a again.' mere logical 364 197 (CA4 1966) (en banc), 816, 2200, Circuit indistinguishable families house search Baltimore conducting wholesale searches uncorroborated tips, "claim Attorney[,] individuals alleged," stood "sharp contrast" judge, contain allegations. Attorney. Spomer 514, 518, 5, 685, 687, 694 Like Whereas acknowledged significance inexplicably treats irrelevant reason. "affirmative link occurrence incidents plan [defendants]." 371, was, unidentified officials defendants—the Managing Director, Commissioner, 604—the "serious doubts" existed Here, 120-122. distinguished deprivations. 373-374, 605, distinguishing Hague CIO, 307 954, 1423 (1939); 1966). 6. deciding upholds res judicata severance diminish incentive unconstitutionality banc) (plaintiffs injury). reaches unlike offer opposed appropriate, requests, reversing entirety. novel requested, raises advance entitle principle principle, tentatively embraced Alternatively, narrower theory. prevails, predicates decision. judicious discretion, full requests. addresses jurisdictional concerns, demonstrated fashion remedy. concern, aspect adjudication enforce tantamount Aetna Life Ins. Haworth, 227, 241, 461, 617 (1937) ("[The controversy] [one] admitting conclusive character, advising hypothetical facts.") "substantial probability," redressing latter recasting causal nexus, 128, challenged, futility. summarized "legally redressable." Jenkins, 1850 precluded states: "Does modifies relative technique?" municipalities enjoined 1983, departments policies. Allee, 2200. fashioning retains afford invasion Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg Education, 402 1, 1267, 1275, 554 (1971); (1946). explained above, Goode entailed workings sort 132-133.

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