Document: 493 U.S. 474 110 S.Ct. 803 107 L.Ed.2d 905 Daniel HOLLAND, Petitionerv.ILLINOIS. No. 88-5050. Argued Oct. 11, 1989. Decided Jan. 22, 1990. Rehearing Denied March 19, See 494 1050, 1514. Syllabus During jury selection at his state-court trial on various felony charges, petitioner, who is white, objected to the State's peremptory challenges that struck two black venire members from petit jury, ground he had a Sixth Amendment right "be tried by representative cross section of community." The judge overruled objection, and petitioner was convicted all but one charges. On appeal, Illinois Supreme Court upheld convictions rejected petitioner's challenge exclusion jurors. Held: 1. Petitioner has standing raise blacks jury. Although defendant, in order establish prima facie Equal Protection Clause violation, "must show member cognizable racial group . prosecutor exercised remove defendant's race," Batson v. Kentucky, 476 79, 96, 106 1712, 1723, 90 69, this never suggested such correlation between identification defendant excluded necessary for standing. To contrary, entitles every object not designed represent fair community. That seeks an extension fair-cross-section requirement does affect assert it. Pp. 476-477. 2. Petitioner's claim without merit because prohibition upon groups through no basis Amendment's text, support Court's decisions, would undermine rather than further guarantee "an impartial jury." which chosen community constitutes means assuring, (which Constitution demand), it does). Without requirement, State have, effect, unlimited compose pool drawn its favor. This decisions make clear way can be interpreted prohibit challenges. See, e.g., Lockhart McCree, 162, 173, 1758, 1765, 137. Such have been considered "a part jury," Swain Alabama, 380 202, 219, 85 824, 835, 13 759, serve goal impartiality permitting both eliminate prospective jurors belonging they believe unduly favor other side, thereby removing extremes partiality sides. Thus, constitutional jury" positively obstructed cripple device. rule Batson, supra, cannot incorporated into Amendment. case extended Clause's race-based stage individual stage, did so stages are inseparably linked, Fourteenth intransigent discrimination applies both. present equal protection issue, race as nothing do with question before Court. man just strong if been, blacks, any identifiable group. 477-488. 121 Ill.2d 136, 117 Ill.Dec. 109, 520 N.E.2d 270, affirmed. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, post, 488. MARSHALL, dissenting BRENNAN BLACKMUN, joined, 490. STEVENS, 504. Donald S. Honchell, Chicago, Ill., petitioner. Inge Fryklund, respondent. Justice SCALIA 1 questions presented (1) whether white prosecutor's exercise exclude potential (2) violates 2 * Holland charged Circuit Cook County, Illinois, aggravated kidnaping, rape, deviate sexual assault, armed robbery, battery. According allegations, 30 assembled, whom were black. counsel those App. 7-8. subsequently except battery charge. reversed Appellate First District, 147 Ill.App.3d 323, 100 868, 497 1230 (1986), grounds irrelevant here, appeal reinstated 270 (1987). We granted Holland's petition certiorari asserting holding error. 489 1051, 109 1309, 103 579 (1989). II 3 threshold hold does. 4 In 69 we said violation discriminatory jurors, race." (Emphasis added.) suggested, however, our cases community, or systematically himself belongs. Duren Missouri, 439 357, 99 664, 58 (1979); Taylor Louisiana, 419 522, 95 692, 42 690 (1975). Taylor, found circumstances analogous petitioner's: 5 "The first insists male, women But Taylor's constitutionally entitled constituting him reason women. class; there claims presents may made only defendants service." Id., 526, 695. 6 Of course, variation calls scope guarantee, proceed, then, merits claim. III 7 asserts intentionally used strike solely their race, preventing distinctive being represented This, contends, violated denying "fair possibility" representing invites us remedy perceived incorporating test devised permit Clause. Under approach, could objecting use burden then shift based intentional against race. Only nonracial strikes found. 8 reject fundamental thesis deprives While statements prior alluded satisfying held require anything beyond inclusion venire, see 137 (1986); Duren, supra; numbering least six persons, Ballew Georgia, 435 223, 98 1029, 55 234 (1978); Williams Florida, 399 78, 1893, 26 446 (1970). A conceivable text Amendment, 9 It long established selected. principle set forth under Strauder West Virginia, 303, 25 L.Ed. 664 (1880). context, reach logic common-law traditions trial, unequal treatment general particular. therefore application stages, recognized. decision rendered 12 years after enacted, striking down Virginia law service, said: 10 "[I]t hard why statute should regarded discriminating colored when put alleged criminal offence State. easy comprehend how while selected persons own color, or, rather, negro not, latter equally protected former. Is life liberty color prejudice, right, legal amendment? And maintained compelling submit panel expressly alone, however well qualified respects, denial protection?" Strauder, 309. 11 Four Terms ago, squarely more permissible stage—not contained them. Our relatively recent cases, beginning imposed provides pertinent part: "In prosecutions, accused shall enjoy speedy public district wherein crime committed. ." obviously explicit derived traditional understanding "impartial assembled. includes will be, said, "drawn community," U.S., 527, S.Ct., 696 (emphasis added). included notion that, process drawing initial representativeness diminished allowing thought inclined interests—which precisely peremptory-challenge system operates. As described 759 (1965): "[The challenge] often normally proceedings official action, namely, religion, nationality, occupation affiliations people summoned duty. For defense must decide juror particular nationality fact partial, different less likely be." 220-221, 836 (citation footnote omitted). 14 draw up lists manner produce disproportionately ill disposed towards classes defendants, thus yield juries similar disposition. assures, words, selecting prosecution compete basis. 15 say ability "stack deck" each side once hand dealt, believes side. Any theory leading result implausible. tradition already venerable time Blackstone, W. Commentaries 346-348 (1769), reflected federal enacted same Congress proposed Bill Rights, Act Apr. 30, 1790, ch. 9, § Stat. 112, 119, recognized Story common United States, States Marchant, Wheat. 480, 483-484, 700 (1827), endured centuries Swain, 215-217, 833-834. phrase surely take content unbroken tradition.1 One plausibly argue (though Stilson 250 583, 586, 40 28, 29-30, 63 1154 (1919)) impliedly compels challenges, directly indirectly gone out opinions. Lockhart, "We invoked invalidate either for-cause juries, opposed panels venires, reflect composition large." 1765. "emphasized source fairly impose actually mirror population. Defendants composition." 538, 702. Accord, 363-364, n. 20, 668, 20. 16 underlying today's underlay cause, guilt phase capital unalterably death penalty (so-called "Witherspoon-excludables") requirement. violate disqualify related "to case." 175, 1766 "representativeness" required disrupted jury-panel "legitimate interest." Ibid. legitimate interest "obtaining single properly impartially apply facts sentencing phases trial." 175-176, 1766. Here assurance traditionally provided. 17 announce today plausible reading think best furthers central purpose well. runs State, expresses respect contestants: neither nor favored. goal, seems us, which, described, device challenge. acknowledged occupies important position procedures," 98, 1724, indeed 835. Peremptory enabling most partial toward "eliminat[ing] sides," ibid., "assuring unbiased 91, 1720 added).2 18 minimize harm recognition cause assuring need accorded treatment. comforting assurance, compatible If representation using impermissible—which would, "likely elimination challenges." 178, 1767. 19 MARSHALL argues prohibiting purposeful "would leave almost entirely untouched" unlikely recognize many "distinctive." Post, 502. Misplaced optimism subject cost free event eliminat[e] cases," supra 107, 1729 (MARSHALL, concurring), justification indulging prediction, states far certain groups, 502 (citing 1766). true enough, inasmuch happen constitute what demonstrates difficult meet standards distinctiveness, few venire. discussed, regularly itself suggests, quite rightly, even exotic "Witherspoon-excludables" whose rejection 176, 1766-67. If, it, same, commonly bases unavailable. 20 Dispassionate analysis bear MARSHALL's contentions "ignor[ed] precedent precedent," 503, "reject[ed] principles whole line suffer "selective amnesia area," 500. His dissent acknowledges discusses Lockhart—"referr[ed] challenges," 496. nonetheless counts "well-grounded precedents," 490, "the context analysis," dissent's view, assuredly view expressed themselves. noted earlier, three opinions specifically disclaimed 482-483. Last Term, Teague Lane, 288, 1060, 334 (1989), asked very today—"whether," O'CONNOR's plurality now 292, 1065. four-Justice plurality, WHITE agreeing result, "new rules procedure applicable become final new announced," id., 310, 1075, urging adoption rule," 301, 1070 is, producing "not dictated [prior] ibid. original). Though four Justices dissent, them compelled precedent. 340-344, 1091-1094 (BRENNAN, dissenting). short, substance contention "ignor[es] precedent." 21 rolls ultimate weapon, accusation insensitivity discrimination—which lose intimidating effect continues fired randomly. remotely "lightly set[s] aside" justice." 503-504. man, rapist overturn conviction. postmen, lawyers, clergymen, number groups. Race issue case. systematic lawful; supra. lawful. Nor (white) valid exclusion.3 All Amendment—which forbids innumerable generalized characteristics. 22 sure, says, sometimes operates "as weapon combat discrimination," 504, 2—just statutes murder operate way. reasonable portray civil rights characterize proposal increased penalties antidiscrimination law. Since claim, unlawfully discriminated black, denied "trial earnestness commitment justice measured willingness expand provisions purposes proper bounds. 23 judgment Affirmed. 24 concurring. I join SCALIA's agree violated. supported precedents admits limiting workable practice. write separate concurrence note disposition alter rule, challenge, juror's rights. (1986). 490-491, resolve race-motivated underpin Batson. Like find essential here Clause, merit. Many concerns where ethnicity dismissed juror's. bar whenever concede citizens duty, honor, service tolerated, condoned. inference accepted, inconsistent participation civic guarantees. obvious conclude deprive vindicate jurors' sit. states, large nondiscriminatory criteria preserve confidence system. These values shared color; defendants. 27 Support also standing, given premise 87, 1718. Individual subjected bring suit behalf, Carter Jury Comm'n Greene 396 320, 518, 549 (1970), practical matter sort unlikely. reality courtroom lasting sense experience participation, possessing little incentive resources motion arduous needed substantial relation entitle party another. Singleton Wulff, 428 106, 114-115, 96 2868, 2874-2875, 49 826 (1976). An bond type links juror. sum, availability foreclosed 28 contain language indicating situation another consider significance discussion procedural. evidentiary scheme adopted showing "cognizable group," 96-98, 1723-24. structure rests suspicion uses connection factor suspect presence illicit motivation, "belief try defendant." 101, 1725-26 (WHITE, concurring). Where absent, methods proof appropriate. 29 With these observations touching matters raised concur BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 31 decides racially motivated Afro-Americans startling majority misrepresents overstates difficulties associated selection, ignores import well-grounded precedents. dissent. 32 Before proceeding decide, pause not. reasons immediately apparent, disavows argument Afro-American venirepersons. Brief 6, 17; Reply 2; Tr. Oral Arg. 21-23. grant encompass Pet. Cert. 1, parties brief question; today. Recognizing this, explicitly leaves open ante, 487. Another majority's statements, read prefigure faced 477 (implying members" claim). important, therefore, briefly examine question. 33 concluded, close shows infra, page 492; 488-490 (KENNEDY, concurring); 505-508 (STEVENS, Because Afro-American, surprising showing, inter alia, ha[d] 1723. Nowhere state, conclusion. 34 undergirding 'State's deliberate Negroes account administration Clause.' " 84, 1716 (quoting 203-204, 826-827, (1965)). principle, Powell explained bases: pursuant criteria," 85-86, 1717 Martin Texas, 200 316, 321, 338, 339, 50 (1906), Ex parte 345, 676 (1880)); assumed incompetent 1718 308, (1880), 329-330, 523-524, Neal Delaware, 370, 386, 567 (1881)); "public fairness justice," Ballard 329 187, 195, 67 261, 265, 91 181 (1946), McCray New York, 461 961, 968, 2438, 2442, 77 1322 (1983) certiorari)). implies greater (as races) excluded, 476-477, suggest More fundamentally, permitted rights, public. so, 35 event, affects invoke ruled. reader guidance argued, agreement five inquiry illuminating veiled intimations cryptic turns phrase. 36 decided sole excluding contravenes 37 assertion secure defends constructing false dichotomy: protects guarantees mirrors drawn. From options, selects governing principle. 480 ("The does)"). remainder proceeds dependent assumption end flatly false, conclusion leads imagine accept implications.1 38 "by Obviously, concern addressed Just self-evident proposition "jury." "jury" term art, body assembled minimums qualifies sense. (1978) (holding, relying five-person insufficient satisfy Constitution's demand trial). Contrary implication, impartiality; founded denominated eyes unless 39 696, (1975), stated: "[T]he unambiguously declared American concept contemplates unanimous stated Smith 311 128, 130 [61 164, 165, 84] (1940), '[i]t instruments truly community.' 'at war basic concepts democratic society government.' 41 Indeed, provide distinct protections, 536, (acknowledging "Sixth community"). protections shown (1979), reaffirmed state women, men, opt contend biased him. Rather, claimed de facto serves impartiality. 370-371, 671-672, (opinion J.). 43 recently, written again confirmed mandates serving purposes. analyzed requirements separately, suggesting resolution affected issue. Compare 174-177, 1765-1767 (class "distinctive group" requirement), 177-184, 1767-1770 (rejecting "alternative" resulting "slanted" guilty verdict requirement). B 44 belie merely assuring" Ante, 480. identified "(1) 'guard[ing] arbitrary power' ensuring 'commonsense community' act 'a hedge overzealous mistaken prosecutor,' preserving 'public system,' (3) implementing belief 'sharing responsibility.' 174-175, 1765-1766 530-531, 698). 45 Had purposes, pressed deny itself, "such Mexican-Americans clearly contravene[s] aforementioned [are] completely unrelated case, raise[s] possibility arbitrarily skewed benefit common-sense addition, individuals inability some immutable characteristic gender, ethnic background, undeniably [gives] rise 'appearance unfairness.' Finally, improperly deprive[s] historically disadvantaged cases." (citations 46 referring analysis. obtaining "commonsense community" impaired significant segment community; accomplished immaterial. 86, 1717. venirepersons, destroys 47 Likewise, second animating requirement—preserving system—applies Racially destructive public's perception exclusions 87-88, 48 full implies, trust enough intelligent trying. eventually seated immaterial; expected perceive participant justice, whole, told government too stupid might indignity answer injury inflicted instance racism forced endure. rational distinction jurisprudence accepted here. avoids reaching expedient ignoring cases. justifies refusal confront "all [Taylor, ] 485-486. semantic games aside, inapplicable jury; simply mandate population 701-02 ("[W]e population"); 364, (the "requirement mean 'that ") 702); 1765 (Court "reflect large"). past "invoked applied unconstitutional fewer smaller 'truly represen[t] communities,' 14, Ballew, 239, 1039). "[d]ispassionate analysis" 485, makes Moreover, shown, 495-498, attempt deny, terms principles, meritorious. reaches So discern, refusal, turn, afterthought—that acceptance step slippery slope judges engineer reflect, members, myriad demographic composed. 482-483, 484. admit, 484, disclaims regime compelled, possible. frightened argument, consequences fancies flow argument. 51 apparent applying logical matter, chimerical. served prosecutors precluded exercising 494-498, (or group). They support, comprise specific purposely membership group—whether challenges—is 52 arguably requirement—the commonsense community—would 512, dissenting) (showing interfere jury's expression community). third unfair especially spin wheel. Public undermined appearance trying stack deck No operations chance. Similarly, requirement's seated, luck draw, instead 53 mandating community's born necessity, enforced. "[t]he limited direct inevitable consequence impossibility providing 'representative' 173-174, 1717, 6). 54 demonstrated deciding emphatically impossible enforce extent limitations feasibility, indefensible. Rather real arguments case—whether several dictate circumstances—the avoid acting despite repeated doing, glosses over few, literally decided. C 56 selective area surprising, suggestion challenge," staggering. suggests "venerable" impartiality, 481-482; power peremptorily basis, including effectively destroy system, 483-485; implicated exclusions, 483, Each plainly fallacious. 57 First, admits, 481-482, repeatedly (1919). reconcile somehow protected. "[o]ne argue" 481, hardly contrary Plausible erroneous propositions, wrong. STEVENS invocations defeat claims. 517-518, 15. analysis, quotes (1965), 'extremes sides.' What neglects mention overruling part, cites Swain: 59 contends eviscerate recognize, procedures, contribution generally justice. practice, amply state- federal-court opinions, unfortunately times discriminate By requiring courts sensitive ends 98-99, 1724 (footnote 60 "distinctive" attribute untouched. exaggerated "postmen, clergymen" within meaning 486, doubt quickly interred ever litigant claiming date, least, minorities sorts characteristics cases). 61 proves intends. Unless face, unconcerned they, class, lack intelligence fill role. distinguish policy attorney general's office. conceive intends holding, me wonder sanguine. 62 Perhaps about destruction absolutely prohibits Five Members operation prohibition. 491-492 joined dissenting); Whatever "damage" my interpretation done (in arena concerned) nil. insulates invidious form scrutiny. chooses pretend writes blank slate, conjures specters—of dreaded "representative challenges—as though sources concern. fantastic fears override duty clear, apparitions vanish examination. 64 Even marshaled accompany remain dubious. lightly aside. apparently disagrees,2 65 66 When began eligible service. accordance law, blindly active list,1 turn composed random,2 broad community.3 At commencement voir dire, abandoned neutral process. eliminating individualized allegedly removed citizen satisfactory acknowledges, practice "obviously" unlawful. and, holds "require venire." 478. appropriate review eliminated sufficient product possibly Federal Constitution. argued personal Second, third-party assert. court merits. 68 refuses challenges" 486-487; 488 491 reiterate There, declined grounds, framing briefs terms. 112-115, 1731 -33 (Burger, dissenting).4 prescinded question, 85, 4, 1716, rested begin recognizing meritorious relief. KENNEDY note, confined objects juror's." "[r]acial harms try," juror." "Selection procedures purposefully citizen, class. interests status defendant.5 message Clause.6 70 unable 89, 1719. motive work stronger when, defendant. 490 (concurring opinion). Petitioner, evidence ruled ruling My prove 71 Fifteen 696. reliance novel, vindicated ancient. Long Duncan 391 145, 88 1444, (1968), "part 130, 84 "contraven[e] idea 330, 524, (1970).7 century ago—and reiterated since— indifferently color." (1880) (1880)). "[a]n charges Cassell 339 282, 287, 629, 631-32, 94 839 (1950) (plurality opinion); 295, 635-36 (Frankfurter, concurring) Negro consciously account. command Constitution"). 72 promise six-person contravene Constitution, 102, 1907, (1970) ("As class forbidden, see, Commission, cross-section significantly decreased size unrealistic one"), nonunanimous verdicts, Apodaca Oregon, 406 404, 413, 92 1628, 1634, 184 (1972) J.) ("All forbids, segments ultimately refused scrutinize verdicts McCleskey Kemp, 481 279, 309-310, 1756, 1775-1776, 262 (1987) ("Because risk enter process, engaged 'unceasing efforts' eradicate prejudice [106 1716-17, 69] efforts guided 'the inestimable privilege vital justice,' Milligan, Wall. 2, 123 [18 281] (1866). 'protection prejudice.' 309 [25 664] (1880)").8 73 mechanism generate 1767-68, 701-02; Apodaca, 1634 J.); Cassell, 286-287, 631-632. proportional races quotas classes. Cf. Castaneda Partida, 430 482, 499-500, 97 1272, 1282-1283, 498 (1977); 1283-1284 concurring).9 fact, balanced focus distort reflection society, characterized age, sex, ethnicity, education level, economic class.10 100, 1906; 236-237, 1037-1038 245, 1041-42 judgment). 74 previous explain provision file declaration placed pool. directed purpose, ran afoul "defendant's 534, 699-700. Missouri gave automatic exemption Louisiana Missouri's resulted underrepresentation justified stereotype domestic responsibilities. 369, 671.11 75 insure reasonably pool, Amendment: place overcame special hurdle among others, hardship 699-700; Rawlins 201 638, 560, 899 render verdict, 1766; cf. 220, 835-36, (1965) ("[T]he country 'not freedom bias accused, prosecution' Hayes 120 68, 70, 350, 351, 578 (1887)). token, frail defeated creation additional level selection.12 insures views community—one characteristic. 76 Applying manifest competent serve.13 hearing, Prior assume correct successful. virtually irrebuttable presumption obtain court." 222, 837. overcome peremptories county, whatever circumstances, whoever victim responsible removal commissioners survived juries." presuming along reasons. created limited, exception presumption. totality relevant facts," 94, 1721, operated fashion. procedure, group, longer presumed able "strikes try" 1725 operating "selection procedure," 1718, necessarily establishes explained, underpinnings factfinder: 78 "By bearing truthfinding function trial. Significantly, joins protect factfinder. Those mechanisms existed creating high probability bias." Allen Hardy, 478 255, 259 2878, 2880, 199] (1986) 79 facially protection.14 80 rejects assumptions, implicit. ratification presumably immune misleading15 response forsworn history give numerosity unanimity requirements, (1972); (1970); conflict 81 always interest" 483. black—an impermissible since mechanism, eliminates race.16 answers "traditional[ly]" interests." 82 challenge." context: After burden. here: 83 "While enforces heterogeneous Nation, strengthened ensure disqualified "Nor persuaded create serious administrative difficulties. version standard today, experienced burdens, survived. decline, formulate followed timely objection 1724-25 (footnotes respectfully "historical overstated," "will better Blackstone 1790 Congress" support. former, "[w]hat said"—namely, King cause. STEVENS' quotation continued next sentences "However held, king assign till through, challenged. sooner, king's shew cause: otherwise sworn." 347 (1769). legislation provided if, treason prosecution, refuse plead, (35 treason, cases), notwithstanding proceed [the defendant] pleaded guilty." 119. 518 statute's relevance acknowledgment unquestionably alike. cited existing crown Edw. I., uniform prevailed statute," 484 relies later Shackleford, How. 588, 590, 495 (1856), prosecutorial available July 1840, 394, conform misses point—which statutory Marchant held) well-established formed background Far refuting Shackleford reinforces "qualified [of challenge], government." How., 590. historical record much importance requirements," rely either. 518. certainly departure regarding saying adherence unencumbered envisions, 12-person unconstitutional. "assumption Batson." 519. undoubtedly (and, necessarily, group-based assumptions) outset, seek briefed argued. decided, 506-507, contradicts Rule 14.1(a), states: "Only petition, therein, Court." unprecedented involving presented, briefed, where, accurately Chief Burger's depart[ed] dramatically normal explanation." 115, 1732-33. "makes appropriate" 507. decline convert unexplained rule. persuasively 508-520, (dissenting opinion), serve, achieve considers "rando[m]" signals retreat discrimination. 486. 493-495. Yet says concerned "postmen." concludes "[r]ace retreat; criticism anything, mark. jurors—both random—for county circuits respectively. Ill.Rev.Stat., ¶ 32.1 (1987), circuits, chief circuit certify clerk month. repair office there, mentioned Section Act, lot names provided." somewhat unclear (30, 35, jurors). (1987): prescribed vote judges, also: "(a) prepare secondary list known list, containing taken 5% aggregate thereof, appointed rules, addition thereto, lists, period require. for, indicated, year conveniently serve. certified back act, prepared twentieth name, rate required, counties having 1,000,000, charge arranged towns precincts purpose. count run continuously starting town precinct." 25: entering duties office, thereafter, voters desire include driver's license holders precinct qualifications list. revised amended annually discretion commissioners." exemptions, officials, practicing physicians, attorneys, others. (repealed 1987). disguise such, Respondent 20-21, 24-27. overlap; indeed, sense, image 'indifferently chosen,' 350 (Cooley ed. 1899)), rest 4. commentator noted: "If allowed races, grandparents Hispanic, Asian, Native ancestry diverse determining qualify brown red, older practiced jure segregation, South African tribunals, Nazi Germany." Alschuler, Jury: Voir Dire, Challenges, Review Verdicts, U.Chi.L.Rev. 153, 191-192 (1989) Ristaino Ross, 424 589, 596, 8, 1017, 1021, 258 (1976) ("In considerations militate divisive assumption—as per se rule—that pigmentation skin, accident birth, choice religion"). relied supervisory courts, (1946); Thiel Southern Pacific Co., 328 217, 984, 985-86, 1181 (1946) proceedings, mean, representatives economic, social, religious, racial, political geographical frequently complete impossible. officials Recognition stratum society. competence matter. lies heart disregard door distinctions discriminations abhorrent ideals jury"); Glasser 315 60, 457, 471-72, 86 680 (1942) functioning democracy requires 'body community,' organ observed, choosing called. allow lead selections comport Tendencies, slight, method undermining processes weakening institution sturdily resisted"). safeguard corrupt compliant, biased, eccentric judge," 156, 1451, procedural safeguards permits brought recognizes respects. impartial, still (1978), agreed Burch 441 1623, Turner Murray, 36, 1683, 1688, Tanner 483 127, 2739, 2751, (noting jury). inherent judged fully independent Inaugural Address, President Thomas Jefferson "principles [that] bright constellation steps age revolution reformation," selected." Writings 322 (Memorial 1903) dispel exist imposition sentence victim. Mobile Bolden, 55, 88, 1490, 1510-11, (1980) judgment) ("A prediction reliable certainty alike so"); Cousins City Council 466 F.2d 830, 852 (CA7) opinion) ("Respect citizenry ethnic, social group"), cert. denied, 409 893, 93 151 (1972). explained: "So emerged mathematical problems insurmountable. computer attempting income, occupation, educational religion juror—and perhaps factors well—in sure considered. Furthermore, feel she filling predetermined 'slot' feelings harder together conscious differences bonds unite people. logical, desirable, impanel jury—and Congress—is select randomly laws statistics time. approach possible manipulation ensures independence 'impartial' strict term, box perspectives gained lifetimes experience. range attitudes, do. random 'community' enlarged technological communication information, diversity insofar proportion strength population." J. Van Dyke, Selection Procedures (1977). Amar, Choosing Representatives Lottery Voting, Yale L.J. 1283, 1288-1289, 1293 (1984) (choice replicates distribution then-Justice REHNQUIST bore marked similarity 371, 671 example, passed dire examination male venirepersons female (1940). tendency "systematically" teaching 12-13. prevented 477-478, categorical instances, qualification determination make. Simon, Batson: "Under sixth amendment, go mentioned, added dimension analysis: although tactics manipulate tolerated." 184-185, 131, 292 overstated. wishes tradition, Congress. prisoner "in ones, favorem vitae," "[t]his privilege, prisoner, king, I. st. enacts, assigning certain, approved 346-347 Congress, similarly silent government's. (1856). government's "stand reflects "draws" contention, "through States." 481. debate throughout 18th 19th populous Nation's century, York until 1881 1919 10, 147-150, 167; Goldwasser, Limiting Criminal Defendant's Use Challenges: Symmetry Trial, 102 Harv.L.Rev. 808, 827-828 worthy clause "right challenge" original draft Senate ratification. Annals Cong. (1789). misconstrues forbid considerations, aggregated, definition ineligible impaired. argue, "unfairly" deprived opportunity section.

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