Document: 421 U.S. 349 95 S.Ct. 1753 44 L.Ed.2d 217 Sylvia MEEK et al., Appellants,v.John C. PITTENGER, etc., al. No. 73—1765. Argued Feb. 19, 1975. Decided May Rehearing Denied June 23, See 422 1049, 2668. Syllabus The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is authorized to provide directly all children enrolled in nonpublic elementary and secondary schools meeting Pennsylvania's compulsory-attendance requirements 'auxiliary services' (Act 194) loans textbooks 'acceptable for use in' the public 195). Act 195 also provides 'instructional materials equipment, useful education' school children. auxiliary services include counseling, testing, psychological services, speech hearing therapy, related exceptional, remedial, or educationally disadvantaged students, 'and such other secular, neutral, non-ideological as are benefit children' provided those schools. instructional periodicals, photographs, maps, charts, recordings. films. equipment includes projectors, recorders, laboratory paraphernalia. Appellants brought this suit District Court challenging constitutionality both Acts. court upheld that textbook loan programs program but invalidated extent it sanctioned 'which from its nature can be diverted religious purposes.' Held: 194 provisions violate Establishment Clause First Amendment made applicable States by Fourteenth. Pp. 359-372; 388. 374 F.Supp. 639, affirmed part, reversed part. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered opinion with respect Parts I, II, IV, V. finding: 1 1. direct has unconstitutional primary effect establishing religion because predominantly character benefiting since 75% comply law thus qualify aid under church religiously affiliated. massive receive neither indirect nor incidental, even though ostensibly limited secular material inescapable result substantial advancement activity. 362-366. 2 2. violates at church-related erred holding permissible they only nonideological, excessive entanglement would required assured professional staff members who not advance mission which serve. Cf., Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 602, 618, 91 2105, 2113, 29 745. 367-372. 3 STEWART, joined BLACKMUN POWELL, concluded Part III 195's provisions, acceptable schools, constitutional, 'merely (make) available benefits a general lend books, free charge,' 'financial parents children, schools,' Board Education Allen, 392 236, 243—244, 88 1923, 1926, 20 1060. P. 359-362. 4 REHNQUIST, WHITE, constitutionally indistinguishable supra, 5 Leo Pfeffer, New York City, William Thorn, Philadelphia, Pa., appellants. 6 B. Ball, J. Justin Blewitt, Jr., Harrisburg, Henry T. Reath, appellees. 7 announced judgment (Parts V), together an (Part III), joined. 8 This case requires us determine once again whether state providing assistance nonpublic, church-related, constitutional Amendment, Fourteenth Amendment. Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 108, 63 870, 872, 87 L.Ed. 1292; Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 303, 60 900, 903, 84 1213. 9 * With stated purpose assuring every schoolchild will equitably share textbooks, charge attending schools,1 General Assembly 1972 added Acts 195, July 12, 1972, Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 24, § 9—972, Public School Code 1949, §§ 1—101 27—2702. 10 authorizes requirements.2 'Auxiliary teaching exceptional remedial disadvantaged, nonideological presently hereafter Commonwealth.' specifies themselves personnel drawn appropriate 'intermediate unit,' part system established special local districts. 9—951 9—971. 11 State Secretary Education, either through intermediate units, without meet Commonwealth's requirements.3 books may lent any public, elementary, 12 '(d) Purchase Books. secretary shall purchase otherwise acquire pursuant section, total cost which, year, exceed amount equal ten dollars ($10) multiplied number residing on first day October year grades kindergarten twelve within compulsory attendance act met.' 13 requests officials, children.4 'Instructional materials' defined sound recordings, films, 'or others printed published similar nature.' equipment,' Act, projection recording equipment. 14 On February 7, 1973, three individuals four organizations5 filed complaint Eastern requesting injunction prohibiting expenditure funds statute. alleged each 'is respecting establishment violation Amendment' 'authorizes directs payments (1) controlled churches organizations, (2) have their teaching, propagation promotion particular faith, (3) conduct operations, curriculums fulfill purpose, (4) impose restrictions admissions, (5) require instruction theology doctrine, (6) participation worship, (7) integral sponsoring church, (8) dominant inculcation values, (9) faculty appointments, (10) what teach.' Treasurer were named defendants.6 15 A three-judge was convened 28 U.S.C. 2281, 2284. After evidentiary hearing, entered final judgment. 639. In unanimously 195. F.Supp., 657—658. By divided vote 194's provision authorization 653—659. portion authorizing commonwealth allowed 662. gave examples Id., 660—661. 2—1, insofar cannot readily uses. 16 Except permits capable diversion, therefore, plaintiffs' request preliminary injunctive relief denied. plaintiffs (hereinafter appellants) appealed Court, 1253.7 We noted probable jurisdiction. 419 822, 38, 42 45. II 17 judging various forms applied three-part test been clearly stated, if easily applied, recent cases. See, e.g., Committee & Religious Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 772—773, 93 2955, 2965, 37 948; 612—613 2111, First, statute must legislative purpose. E.g., Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 89 S.Ct 266, 21 228. Second, 'primary effect' advances inhibits religion. E.G., Abington Township Schempp, 203, 83 1560, 844. Third, administration avoid government Walz Tax Comm'n, 397 664, 90 1409, 25 697. 18 These tests constitute convenient, accurate distillation Court's efforts over past decades evaluate wide range governmental action challenged violative prohibition against laws 'respecting religion,' proper framework analysis issues presented before us. It well emphasize, however, viewed setting precise limits necessary inquiry, serve guidelines identify instances objectives impaired. Tilton Richardson, 672, 677—678, 2091, 2095, 790 (plurality Burger, C.J.). 19 Primary among evils protects 'have 'sponsorship, financial support, active involvement sovereign activity.' U.S., 688, 1409; 612, 2105.' 772, S.Ct., 2965. broadly '(n)o tax amount, large small, levied support activities institutions, whatever called, form adopt teach practice religion.' Everson 330 1, 16, 67 504, 511, 711. But clear incidental institution prohibited Constitution. Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 312, 72 679, 683, 96 954; 614, 2112. 'The problem, like many problems law, one degree.' 314, 684. held agree. Approval York's Allen based primarily earlier decision religion' did prevent 'New Jersey spending tax-raised pay bus fares parochial pupils pays schools.' 17, 512. Similarly, found makes charge. Books furnished pupil ownership remains, least technically, State. Thus no 1926. conceded might make 'more likely some choose attend sectarian school, true state-paid does alone demonstrate degree institution.' 244, 1927. 22 Like program, extend schoolchildren well-established policy lending students.8 As student, itself, although, administrative student initially authorities prepare collective summaries these forward officials. 244 n. 6, 1926.9 Thus, York's, schools.10 23 Under could designated approved boards education, trustees authorities.' N.Y.Educ.Law 701(3). construed Appeals apply solely textbooks. N.Y.2d 109, 117, 281 N.Y.S.2d 799, 805, 228 N.E.2d 791, 794. similarly 'textbooks Commonwealth.'11 Moreover, record us, see, 245, 248, 1926—1927, 1929, contains suggestion used anything than purely purposes. 24 sum, identical Allen. York, charge.' such, do offend religion.'12 IV Although qualifying Commonwealth. appellants assert including constitutes impermissible 26 accompanied findings welfare present future generations ample opportunity develop intellectual capacities. intended further objective extending educational aids Commonwealth, students approximately quarter Pennsylvania. 1(a), 9—972(a). accept legitimacy Cf. 609, 613, 2109, 2111; Sloan Lemon, 825, 829—830, 2982, 2985, 939. we agree advancing Act.13 27 requirement imposed satisfy providing, English language, subjects prescribed standards Education. 13—1327. matter policy, inquire into characteristics, any, Coordinator Nonpublic Services, chief administrator testified barred receiving admissions classes services. fact, 1,320 more affiliated institutions. beneficiaries 'secular reimbursement considered parent tuition-reimbursement plan predominant character.14 is, course, legislation transportation, lunches, health facilities—secular unrelated primary, religion-oriented function school. 711; 616—617, 2113; 775, 2966. incidental. For 1972—1973 just $12 million 195.15 To sure, loan—maps, example—are 'self-polic(ing), starting change use.' 660. faced amounts simply ignore reality attempt separate functions role performed then characterize channeling sectarian. Even earmarked purposes, 'when flows so pervasive subsumed mission,' Hunt McNair, 734, 743, 2868, 2874, 923. 30 typify religion-pervasive very integrated education; process extent, devoted values belief. 2113. Substantial accordingly, necessarily results enterprise whole.' '(T)he education goes hand reason schools' existence. Within institution, two inextricably intertwined.' 657, 2133 (opinion Brennan, J.). generally Freund, Aid Parochial Schools, 82 Harv.L.Rev. 1680, 1688—1689. reason, wholly inescapably activity, cf. 781 783, 39, 2971, religion.16 V 31 Unlike supply staff, supportive materials, personnel, 194—remedial accelerated instruction, guidance counseling services—are need. premises, when 'requested representatives.' Department Guidelines Administration 1.3. 32 accompanying virtually 195: assure full development capacities 194, concede validity Nonetheless, argue premises schools.17 33 rejecting appellants' argument, emphasized involved expressly nonideological. question served supplement basic, normal offerings Any concluded, merely indirect, impermissible. 656—657. continuing supervision establish limitations observed guarantee member had 'succumb(ed) sectarianization his her work.' 657. 34 need decide expenditures enrich curricula schools,18 basic activity.19 decisions relying entirely good faith professionalism teachers counselors functioning ensure strictly posture maintained. 35 Earley DiCenso, companion Rhode Island salary supplements rejected proposition, relied upon sufficient assume succeed segregating beliefs duties. 36 'We guilty bad conscious design evade . '. potential fostering present. certain, given Religion Clauses, subsidized inculcate .. 38 'A comprehensive, discriminating, surveillance inevitably obeyed respected. .' 618—619, 2114. 39 prophylactic contacts play role, held, give rise intolerable intanglement between state. 619, same 'certain,' be, Funds Schools Marburger, 358 29, 40—41, aff'd, 417 961, 94 3163, 41 1134.20 40 That funding participating core curriculum, distinguish DiCenso supra. Whether subject 'remedial reading,' 'advanced 'reading,' teacher remains teacher, danger doctrine become intertwined persists. likelihood inadvertent less arithmetic class medieval history seminar, diminished probability sufficient: And state-subsidized counselor surely chemistry fail occasion responsibilities.21 fact employees unit, rather work, substantially eliminate surveillance. auxiliary-services employed discipline authority. performing important atmosphere dedicated belief constantly id., circumstances, although somewhat reduced, nonetheless certain remain Constitution demands, engage being followed.22 addition, statutes creates serious divisive conflict issue religion—'entanglement broader sense political strife.' 794, 2976. recurrent appropriation guarantees annual reconsideration prospect repeated confrontation proponents opponents program. successive opportunities fragmentation division along lines, principal protect. 622—623, 2116. entanglement, neutral compels conclusion reversed; affirmed, Act's now reversed. 43 ordered. Judgment 45 BRENNAN, whom DOUGLAS MARSHALL join, concurring dissenting 46 I join reversal dissent affirmance upholding 47 three-factor compatibility subsidies institutions evolved 50 years stewardship field. must, first, reflect purpose; second, effect1 religion; and, third, ago, albeit express recognition significant fourth factor test: base yet different programs.' 622, 2115, 745 (1971). evaluation determining subsidy essential, said because: 48 'In community where .a assumed entail considerable Partisans understandably concerned rising costs sincerely missions champion cause promote achieve goals. Those oppose aid, religious, fiscal reasons, respond employ usual campaign techniques prevail. Candidates forced declare voters choose. unrealistic people confronted kind find votes aligned faith. 49 'Ordinarily debate division, however vigorous partisan, healthy manifestations our democratic government, lines divisiveness threat process. conflicts whole tradition permit questions Clauses importance legislatures elections divert attention myriad confront level government. Here permanent appropriations relatively few groups. Political religous intensified. 51 aggravated larger demands populations grow. 2115. (Emphasis added.) 52 key Kurtzman's determination violated Clause. way teachers' salaries, specified subjects. paid 15% salary. 53 948 (1973), decided later, attached judges factor: 'One recurring significance weighing potentially program.' 795, 2977. 'with peculiar force us.' 796, created programs. money grants maintenance repair facilities students' welfare, health, safety. second third tuition reimbursements. Stating 'while (political) warrant invalidation survive careful scrutiny certainly 'warning signal' ignored,' 797—798, 2978, 'in light relevant considerations,' "primary offends religion." 798, 2978. 54 today relies stating: 55 (Kurtzman Nyquist) 'entanglement boarder protect.' Ante, 372. 56 Contrary plain explicit Kurtzman inconsistently own treatment plurality, considering says single word about political-divisiveness passing footnote reference factor, bearing result, 'direct (that) activity 366. 57 recognize plurality horns dilemma. notes $16,660,000, $4,670,000 appropriated finance 365 15. 'aid programs, dependent generate increasing population grow .,' ibid., indeed, increased $900,000 $17,560,000 1973—1974 year. Plainly then, Nyguist, applies required, obviously attach determinative weight respects 195.2 involved, hard put explain how weighs determinatively provisions. therefore extricate itself dilemma ignoring 58 much evasion tolerable grounds, responsibility evaluating accorded evaded, relying, does, agreement 1060 (1968). joined, ordained process, parties addressed case. withstand overruling question, Kurtzman—which, repeat, included textbooks—requires weigh instant Further, giving Nyquist require, compels, my view equally plurality's answer difference justified distinguishes recipients loans: while analysis. 59 pure fantasy treat students. that, terms talks acknowledges 'the 361. permitted store students.' 361 9. practices followed statute, regulations implementing clear, not, something conduit pupil. promulgated 'Guidelines 195' implement statutes. regulations, unlike intrusive detailed processes business handled authorities, say. crystal pupils, motivating behind loan, entire transaction conducted officials hand, officers State, other. example, 4.3 March official submit desired submitted standarized 'distributed administrator.' Section 4.6 '(t)extbooks requested shipped school.' states returnable tabulates submits Then, after submission official, transported whose request, physically retained classroom. 61 Indeed, mask transaction. words 4.10 describes transaction: 'Textbooks loaned schools: (a) maintained inventory 4.11 provides: 'It presumed period time lost, missing, obsolete worn out. information should communicated six years, declared unserviceable disposal discretion Education.' treated is: Finally, 4.12 completely removes possible doubt. 62 agency responsible maintaining file certificates them act. open inspection letter certifying accompany requests.' Plainly, sustained regard, sophisticated attempts invalid simple-minded ones. Lane Wilson, 307 268, 275, 876, 1281 (1939). 64 event, far per se immunity examination substance State's were, factors weighed 781, 2969. And, clearly, context application divisiveness, irrelevant exists appropriations, accepted involves increasingly sums approaching $5,000,000 annually.3 blind guise creating 'a 1767.4 focus real relieve desperate plight parochial, suggests immaterial cast, contrast 360 8. contrary, limitation exacerbates divisiveness.5 situation, underlying deeply emotional Church-State relationships, seriously consequences needs elaboration.' 797, 65 limiting reasons independent factor. said, extended extends are, notes, oriented. fatal defect (NJ 1973), 1134 (1974). there N.J.Stat.Ann. 18A:58—63 up $10 $20 high 'secular, supplies.' 'because language (the statute) therein predominately religiously-affiliated satisfied thereby unconstitutional.' 36. Marburger establishes reliance misplaced. 66 misplaced invalidating doubt tools enhance quality oriented heart kept formally ante, 365-366, perhaps accurately textbooks: 'But characterized 68 V, except go rest III. 69 Chief BURGER, 70 affirms Court. My leads me, views expressed REHNQUIST WHITE regard review. especially difficult extravagant finds 194. Here, holding, seems beyond prior holdings (1968), There absolutely or, matter, ordinary human experience concern see 'dangers' lurking common, nonsectarian process—especially tools—to private 'fundamental principle running sensitive field premised logic.' 802, 2991. Certainly, basis 'experience history' conclude provide—through state-selected professionals—the poses unnecessary decisive opposition crabbed attitude shows 371 21. 71 If consequence operated penalize affiliation, grievous enough; nothing power discriminate affirmatively stifle religions 18, 512, 711 (1947). more: penalizes misfortune cope learning extraordinarily heavy physical burdens, most congenital. penalty strikes theirs parents' choice exercise. This, effectively demonstrates, totally turns back Douglas wrote 313—314, 684, 954 (1952), particularly: 'When encourages cooperates adjusting schedule events needs, follows best traditions. accommodates service spiritual needs.' 73 hold, handicaps deriving normally anticipated productive society time, deny Lutheran, Catholic, churchsponsored tilt literally heads. Zorach, 74 'to show callous indifference preferring believe believe.' 75 melancholy 'free exercise' opting child forgo learn with—or overcome—serious congenital handicaps, financed taxes. Affluent parents, employing specialists, able denial protection, gross rights, children's temporal assistance. One hope date, come enlightened tolerant Amendment's exercise religion, eliminating protection church-sponsored take realistic carefully step toward religion—at sits. 76 joins, 77 Substantially set forth White 939 affirm 78 Two Legislature attack 8—801. authority upholds 79 down dealing equipment1 Act.' 363 (footnote omitted). apparently percentage 'church-related institutions.' 364. appears follow unsupportable approach measuring 'effect' of' benefited. 804, 2991 branch three-pronged satisfactory Sloan, 80 look majority demonstration arbitrariness effect. 'well-established comes consider schools,2 81 measured private, religion.3 looks vain, explanation majority's selection denominator calculations. apparent legislation, 8—801, explanation, tells connection discussion administered statutory 'it codified two.' left arbitrary course chosen. failure justify differing approaches above symptomatic upholds, unconstitutional. expect distinction lies tangible items manner operated. concedes use." 365, quoting 660 (ED Pa.1974). Nor bailee regarded determinative. transmitting book premises. distinguished respect. 'ownership State,' 243, Once diversion exists, articulate principled eschews primary-effect striking 369, instead proposition 'give(s) state.' 370. Acknowledging financing 'of curriculum,' 370, cases, (1971), curriculum '(A) responsibilities.' deficient insupportable law. burden proof ordinarily rests plaintiff, dangers ex cathedra pronouncement term this, facts exactly opposite—after consideration stipulations hearing: 85 recognizing logistical realities, traveling therapists pupils. evidence whatsoever presence involve schools.. notion foot inside therapist succumb work supported evidence.' 86 propensity disregard district courts 665—667, 2137—2138 White, J.), variance responsibilities trial appellate federal system, Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 52(a). cases marks sub silentio extension 1971 decision. struck additional order bring salaries closely line prevailing scale schools; qualify, offered premise supporting 'involve(d) 2112, 617, 2113: control separation aspects precollege education. inheres situation.' differs respects. greatly reduced considerably reach Act. embrace narrower services: "Auxiliary means guidance, testing services; children; therapeutic improvement (such as, to, language), non-public 1(b). thought degree, kind. system.4 Since articulated flowed susceptibility 'religious discipline,' exorcisation 'evil' lead result. contend administer discipline.' authority.' 371. unconstititional ultimately unsubstantiated factual '(t)he present.' (of entanglement) degree,' 674, 1414, 697 (1970), record, appellees wonder, possibility promise ear broken hope, teasing illusion munificent bequest pauper's will.' Edwards California, 314 160, 186, 164, 172, 119 (1941) (Jackson, J., concurring). 92 convinced correctness White's statement 814 815, 2994: 'Positing obligation educate acknowledges, contribute going insist want refuse training.' am disturbed overtones actual holding. believes mandates neutrality throw side one. Nothing interpreting extreme '(a)ny interpretation Clause) serves account clause serves.' Kauper, (1964). (1952): presuppose Supreme Being. freedom worship chooses. room variety creeds man deem necessary. sponsor partiality group lets flourish according zeal adherents appeal dogma. When needs. hold believe. Government groups undertake blend person. hostile widen effective scope influence.' respectfully dissent. 9—972(a); '(a) Legislative Finding; Declaration Policy. age fullest objective, provides, Approximately compliance act, taxpayers intent enactment thereof. '(b) Definitions. following terms, whenever referred meanings, circumstances indicates otherwise: "Nonpublic school' wherein resident legally Title VI Civil Rights 1964 (Public Law 88—352). '(c) Provision Services. Pursuant rules secretary, unit met located area respective apportion apportioned excess thirty ($30) unit.' 1949 long taught language.' sections relating provide: 'Textbooks' reusable workbooks, manuals, bound looseleaf form, source study copy expected individual group. Such Loan Textbooks. directly, duty met. (b) equipment' fixtures annexed forming estate, suitable and/or teachers. "Instructional documents, pamphlets, reproductions, pictorial graphic works, musical scores, globes, discs tapes, processed slides, transparencies, filmstrips, kinescopes, video method developed developed. '(e) Instructional Materials Equipment. behalf acquire, twenty-five ($25) Meek, Bertha G. Myers, Charles A. Weatherley; organizational American Liberties Union, National Association Advancement Colored People, Jewish Community Relations Council, Americans United Separation Church State; 643. properly standing challenge 647; Flast Cohen, 83, 1942, 947; Sierra Club Morton, 405 727, 1361, 636. original defendants John Pittenger, Grace M. intervene defendants. Some intervenors benefited indirectly intervenor association Free Exercise Clause, arguing taxation interfered impact min(u)scule Judge Higginbotham, concurred dissented question. 680. renewed sought review segment Consequently, N.Y.Educ.Law, McKinney's Consol.Laws, c. 701; 239, 1924, accomplish Stat.Ann., 801, So schoolchildren, two. 782 2970, 948. Compare 4.6, commencement state-supported 671 scheme never selected themselves, subsequent approval 'any education.' 269—272, 1940—1941 (Fortas, dissenting). contrast, antecedent 658. D.C.N.J., 1134, designed state-loaned Elementary Secondary Commissioner reimburse spent provided—reimbursement purchased textbooks—was directed exclusively Because 'comprehensive, surveillance.' 2114, 610, 2110, 96% 1969 attended 830, An 1973 acquisition $16,660,000. grow, 622—624, 2115—2116, 794—798, 2976—2978. '(W)hile ignored.' Our instructional-material equipment-loan supported, compelled, last Term 1134. violating Jersey's differ 36—37. finding aided, 34, 37. police divertible 38—39. merits, entitled precedential weight. Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 670—671, 1347, 1359 1360, 662; Cincinnati, N.O. T.P.R. Co. States, 400 932, 935, 235, 237, 240 (White, summary affirmance). challenge, argument advanced today, presents ..' Post, 386-387. qualification requirements, compare 1(c), 972(c), (e), eligible More $14 $17,880,000 addition services.' significantly 39. church-state produce.' 40. merits 'speech diagnostic, seem fall regardless accrues severability clause, 2, minor passed aid. 833—834, 2987. none suggested utilized save event major invalid. moreover, provoking controversy meaning content instruction. 783—784, connote render ultimate stated: 'Appellees, focusing 'principal expressing prong test, argued 'primary' grant subsidize legitimate objectives. think metaphysical judgments end immune ascertain immediate supports conclusion: already modern self-perpetuating self-expanding propensities. internal pressures enhanced schemes growing interests support. adjudication steps, taken verge,' platform steps. momentum develops theory 'downhill thrust' motion retard stop.' 624, 2117, failed apprehend writing 642—661, 2125—2135. 797 56, 2978: tendencies throughout 'no defense urge here encroachments Amendment,' 'trickling stream' torrent tomorrow. 225, 1573. 624—625, But, borrow Rutledge's forceful Everson, expandability renders Not 'three pence' assessed: 'Not assessment wrong." 523—524 (quoting Madison's Memorial Remonstrance).' Paraphrasing observation 2971: 'There endeavor former.' 2111. precisely 195) great (relieving bill) seeks burdens sufficiently continue option send purposes aid—to perpetuate pluralistic environment protect integrity overburdened schools—are unexceptionable, unmistakably 'permit(ted) 661 ruling. 357-358 7. intended, coextensive Revisions reproduced Appendix Brief Appellants. 644. largely 'are '(a)pproximately attend(ed) 1(a). average vary materially 19% 1(c) 'each oversees assists districts geographic area. 9—971 (Supp.1974—1975).

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