Document: 415 U.S. 566 94 S.Ct. 1242 39 L.Ed.2d 605 Joseph SMITH, Sheriff of Worcester County, Appellant,v.Valarie GOGUEN. No. 72—1254. Argued Nov. 12—13, 1973. Decided March 25, 1974. Syllabus Appellee, for wearing a small United States flag sewn to the seat his trousers, was convicted violating provision Massachusetts flag-misuse statute that subjects criminal liability anyone who 'publicly . treats contemptuously ..' The Supreme Judicial Court affirmed. District in appellee's habeas corpus action found 'treats contemptuously' phrase unconstitutionally vague and overbroad. Appeals Held: 1. challenged statutory language, which had received no narrowing state court interpretation, is void vagueness under Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment, since by failing draw reasonably clear lines between kinds nonceremonial treatment are those not it does provide adequate warning forbidden conduct sets forth standard so indefinite police, court, jury free react nothing more than their own preferences flag. Pp. 572—576, 578. 2. By challenging courts as applied him, appellee preserved due process claim purposes federal jurisdiction, Picard v. Connor, 404 270, 92 509, 30 438, language or else. A 'hard-core' violator concept has little meaning with regard because at issue sense requiring person conform an imprecise but comprehensible standard, specifying any ascertainable all. 576—578. 3. Even if, appellant contends, could be said deal only 'actual' flags States, this would resolve central deficiency define contemptuous treatment. 578—579. 4. That other words desecration contempt portion address specific (mutilation, trampling, defacing flag) assist appellant, tried solely phrase, highest case did construe taking color from accompanying language. 579—580. 5. Regardless whether restriction scope intentional may held against appellee, such interpretation nevertheless clarify what constitutes flag, inadvertent. P. 580. 471 F.2d 88, Charles E. Chase, Medford, Mass., appellant. Evan T. Lawson, Boston, appellee. Mr. Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 1 sheriff Massachusetts, appeals judgment First Circuit holding 88 (1972), aff'g, 343 F.Supp. 161 (D.C.Mass.). We noted porbable jurisdiction. 412 905, 93 2291, 36 969 (1973). affirm on ground. do reach correctness below overbreadth Amendment grounds. 2 * slender record reveals Goguen wore cloth version trousers.1 approximately four six inches displayed left rear Goguen's blue jeans. On January 30, 1970, two police officers Leominster, saw bedecked fashion. first officer encountered standing talking group persons public street. apparently engaged demonstration protest associated apparel.2 No disruption traffic breach peace occurred. When approached question him about present laughed. Some time later, second observed same attire walking downtown business district Leominster. 3 following day swore out complaint statute. relevant part then read: 4 'Whoever publicly mutilates, tramples upon, defaces ., private property shall punished fine less ten nor one hundred dollars imprisonment year, both. .'3 5 Despite statute, charged act physical desecration.4 As permitted disjunctive structure dealing contempt, specifically 'did treat ..'5 6 After trial County Superior Court, guilty. imposed sentence months House Corrections. appealed Commonwealth Goguen, 279 N.E.2d 666 (1972). rejected argument comment '(w)hatever uncertainties circumstances, we see here.' Id., 667. cited precedents interpreting statute.6 7 began serving sentence, he granted bail ordered released writ Massachusetts. 161. flag-contempt impermissibly uner well overbroad Amendment. In upholding void-for-vagueness contentions, concluded 'readily guilt.' 167. Especially 'these days when commonly hats, garments vehicles .,' 'leave conjectural, many instances, subject actor prosecution.' Ibid. also 'may encourage arbitrary erratic arrests convictions.' 8 Appeals, judge concurring, affirmed both 88. With latter ground, 'resolution (Goguen's void-for-vagueness) challenge necessarily adjudicates statute's facial constitutionality 94. Treating as-applied on-the-face attacks essentially indistinguishable light imprecision issue, id., 92, 94, failed anyone, contained insufficient guidelines law enforcement officials, set juries large. 94—96. Senior Judge Hamley, sitting designation Ninth Circuit, concurred holding. 105. Hamley need 'far broader constitutional ground' relied majority, 'settled principle appellate adjudication questions dealt unless necessary dispose appeal.' II 9 agree holdings doctrine vagueness. settled principles require extensive restatement here.7 incorporates notions fair notice warning.8 Moreover, requires legislatures officials triers fact order prevent 'arbitrary discriminatory enforcement.'9 Where literal scope, unaided capable reaching expression sheltered demands greater degree specificity contexts.10 here, e.g., Street New York, 394 576, 89 1354, 22 572 (1969) (verbal contempt), without benefit judicial clarification.11 10 Flag statutes have been characterized lack theory '(w)hat man work art another.'12 behavior can hardly described art. Immaturity 'silly conduct'13 probably comes closer mark. But force Court's observation become 'an object youth fashion high camp F.Supp., 164. noted, casual contexts widespread contemporary phenomenon. 164, 167; F.2d, 96. relaxed clothing styles simply adornment ploy attract attention. It current, careless uses constitute unceremonial people view contemptuous. Yet widely varying attitudes tastes displaying something ubiquitous flat representations it, purpose Legislature make every informal use charged, however, fails not. all 'be informed State commands forbids,' Lanzetta Jersey, 306 451, 453, 59 618, 619, 83 L.Ed. 888 (1939), 'men common intelligence' forced guess law. Connally General Construction Co., 269 385, 391, 46 126, 127, 70 322 (1926). Given today's tendencies unceremoniously, standards satisfied here. 11 recognize noncommercial context general rule mapped advance basis language.14 cases, perhaps most meaningful aspect actual notice, principal element doctrine—the requirement legislature establish minimal govern enforcement. scrutiny its notable deficiencies. 12 terms, sufficiently unbounded prohibit, 'any deviation formal etiquette Unchanged throughout 70-year history,15 devoid case.16 authority cure defect.17 Statutory standardless sweep allows policemen, prosecutors, pursue personal predilections. Legislatures abdicate responsibilities setting E.g., Papachristou City Jacksonville, 405 156, 165—169, 839, 845—847, 31 110 Gregory Chicago, 111, 120, 946, 951, 134 (1969), Black, concurring opinion, voiced concern, share, entrusting lawmaking 'to moment-to-moment policeman beat.' aptness admonition evident appellant's candid concession during oral before regarding convicted: 13 '(A)s counsel (for appellant) admitted, war protestor who, while attending rally begins rain, evidences disrespect American covering himself avoid getting wet, prosecuted member Legion caught rainstorm returning 'America—Love Leave It' rally, similarly regrettably attitude, prosecuted.' 102 (emphasis original). 14 inherently permits selective enforcement, there denial process. III 15 Appellant's arguments vague, least should case, unpersuasive. Appellant devotes substantial opening brief, argument, contention preserve concedes 'vagueness applied' properly courts,18 contends arguable face. claim, insists, presented requisite precision. 438 (1971). This exhaustion-of-remedies belatedly raised,19 take full measure efforts mount attack courts.20 point length, find Goguen. Without doubt 'substance' 'fairly presented' exhaustion Picard, supra, 275, 278, S.Ct., 513. 16 premised notion rendered hard-core whom whatever implications different conduct. To sure, terms authoritatively construed apply certain activities, whose application uncertain. makes some statutes. category. 'not normative rather specified all.' Coates Cincinnati, 402 611, 614, 91 1686, 1688, 29 214 Such core. absence inclusion exclusion precisely offends Clause. particularly objectionable unfettered latitude thereby accorded fact. Until corrected either amendment construction, affects our defect exists case. subjected were 17 Turning merits presented, argues difficulties ameliorated narrow matter viz., States.21 'takes away .."22 Anyone 'wants proscribes immediately knows if wants stay just doing flag.'23 Apart ffrom ambiguities flag,24 fail how alleged particularity resolves question—the defining 18 remaining equally unavailing. asserted add customarily construes conceded alone, rely general-to-specific case.25 further restricted contempt.26 Aside problems court's limiting construction very defendant previously unnarrowed statute,27 still 19 Finally, authorities shown themselves ready interpret penal narrowly read, reaches direct, immediate acts 'actually impinge upon integrity ..'28 There support former point.29 Similarly, earlier sustains latter. event, wholly open-ended treating 'contemptuously.' allegation desecration. 20 areas human where, nature cannot great Control broad range disorderly inhibit performance official duties area, on-the-spot assessment keep order. Cf. Colten Kentucky, 407 104, 1953, 32 584 comparable reason committing discretion area contempt. Indeed, display takes forms, changing generation another often difficult distinguish principle, care intends outlaw. Certainly prevents flags.30 here approach goal vagueness.31 affirmed.32 21 ordered. Affirmed. 23 WHITE, judgment. 24 crime tramples, States. Appellee contemptuously, evidence being likeness pants. holds too guilt situation, including one. Although I concur affirmance reasons, rationale.1 25 self-evident whole semblance know covered directed these ample room undue officers. variety might claimed State, unpredictability situations change certainty others. 26 am confident respect arrested convicted. beyond reasonable comprehension realize sewing pants affirming conviction, stated 'jury infer violation If thus intended forbids, complain '(T)he intent prohibited consequences accused otherwise render invalid. (W)here punishment knowingly done prohibits, suffer knowledge law.' Screws 325 91, 101—102, 65 1031, 1035, 1495 (1945). 27 argued merely act, willful intending must recalled major patch trousers 'clearly expressed idea, albeit unpopular unpatriotic, country symbolizes .. meant show believed America fit place sit on, proximity anatomy vulgar connotations. Nonetheless, strong forceful communication ideas unmistakable.' App. 13. misapprehension showing acknowledges brief 'it conveyed attitude convict him.' cannot, therefore, Goguen; conduct, irrelevant 'In determining sufficiency necessity examined charged.' National Dairy Products Corp., 372 29, 33, 594, 598, 561 (1963). Statutes 'invalidated difficulty marginal offenses fall within language.' 32, 597. 28 unavoidable inquiry, becomes unconstitutional course, applies speech communicative impact. though particular expressive understood nature, nonspeech interest Government power implement. O'Brien, 391 367, 1673, 672 (1968). my mind powers Congress adopt prescribe national protect welfare, control interstate commerce, defense, exercise proper ends. These powers, inherent attributes sovereignty well, surely encompass protection foolishness suggest men wrote Constitution thought they new Nation, Act Jan. 13, 1794, Stat. 341, c. 1, Union Articles Confederation. Journals Continental 464 (June 14, 1777). history nations government levels, tribes families. historical flags, ours, played important useful role affairs. One explain fully phenomenon existence concede symbol nationhood unity, created Nation endowed attributes. Conceived light, validity laws designating describing regulating use, display, disposition. may. property, regulate make, imitate, sell, possess, it. proscribe mutilation, defacement, burning integrity, provoke violence. Neither congressional power, legislatures, forbid attaching putting words, symbols, advertisements.2 All objects, foreign character, interfere design function. seem mutilation Lincoln Memorial overlaying objects. itself monument, similar protection. mutilating, trampling using billboard commercial advertisements displays. stop proscriptions defacement objects violate respect, enough 'treat' flag; 'contemptuously,' which, ordinary understanding, us, act—and hence himself—was interfering punish communicating unacceptable controlling majority legislature.3 individual salute express favorable toward West Virginia Board Education Barnette, 319 624, 63 1178, 87 1628 (1943). cases disrespectful spoken written consistently (1969). neither spoken, invoke Tinker Des Moines Independent Community School District, 393 503, 733, 731 except incidental preventing unprotected among outside sustained conviction draft card burning, although admittedly expressive. There, destruction cards, not, inimical governmental considerations. made concern result otherwise: 33 'The bar therefore unlike where arises allegedly integral harmful. Stromberg California, 283 359, 51 532, 75 1117 (1931), example, struck down 'opposition organized government' badge, banner, device.' Since aimed suppressing regulation noncommunicative conduct.' U.S., 382, 1682. 34 difficult, believe O'Brien proscribed cards. 35 Any infirmity. true conviction. And Amendments communicated intend so, evidentiary whatsoever convicting 'contemptuous' BLACKMUN, THE CHIEF JUSTICE joins, dissenting. 37 WHITE conclusion vague. disagree protected immature antic withstand challenge. 38 REHNQUIST concludes affords shield result, ground 'would read' entails contact unanimous rescript already exactly that. states 'was 'intellectually diverse' 'speech,' 593—594, Having speech, limited protecting 'treating speech—a element. I, conclude constitutionally permissible harming affixed accept face value. REHNQUIST, 40 Brother insofar violates Amendments. 'symbolic speech,' undoubtedly one, unfortunately expounded dissents concurrences. See 1367, (Warren, C.J., dissenting); 609, 1374 (Black, J., 610, 1375 (White, 615, 1377 (Fortas, Cowgill 396 371, 90 613, 590 (1970) (Harlan, concurring). must, contentions. 41 circumstances appears open decisions. Halter Nebraska, 205 34, 419, 696 (1907); supra; supra concurring); People Radich, N.Y.2d 114, 308 N.Y.S.2d 846, 257 aff'd divided 401 531, 1217, 287 42 What rightly describes 'the case,' ante, 568 shows questioned Main laughing. 'walking short coat, type miniature side pants.' testify, us indicate attempting communicate or, indeed, anything even conclusively reveal sewed himself, manufactured complete counsel, them. appear journey through streets Leominster; amended bill exceptions mention testimony indicating spoke 43 infringes right 44 good trying improper come outermost limits sort 'expressive conduct' speech' entitled did, seeing treated idea are, elements reflected record. 45 Many involve Goguen's, never analysis presence factors. burns factory company products dislikes expect defense consequent arson prosecution given shrift courts. safeguards government's means dangerous life, arsonist's motive quite irrelevant. fate doubtless await after defaced speed limit sign limit. Both arsonist defacer signs infringed interests others, government. either, far rights owned adorned dispositive issue. Just escape asserting proprietary capacity parks title, Hague CIO, 307 496, 514—516, 954, 963—964, 1423 affected property. well-established proposition likes status rule. 47 local governing bodies land, available owner established nearly half century ago Euclid Ambler Realty 272 365, 71 303 Land-use regulations residential zoning typically exclude malodorous unsightly rendering plants; prohibit erection buildings monuments, ones public, aesthetic play 'pure' landowner insist construct operate theater zoned uses. So long guise neutrality, actually content, 48 close control. ownership controlled drugs, firearms, them, sell transfer them manner pleases. copyright laws, U.S.C. § et seq., purchaser chaser copyrighted book acquisition. advertises billboards. Packer Corp. Utah, 285 105, 52 273, 76 643 (1932). 49 violated, purport related owners, neighbors, indeed competing property; protects Government, traditional interest. 50 this, unique. number examples enacted peculiarly privately owned. Title 504 prohibits printing publishing size postage revenue stamp, obligation security likewise importation plates printing. U.S.C 331 alteration Federal Reserve note bank note, 333 disfiguring coin. 702 military uniform, uniform thereof authorization. 704 unauthorized service medals. significance statutes, books, judicially challenged. My says, neutral designed preserving neutral. punishes imposing penalty otherwise, is, impair way. Leaving aside moment invalidated punishing impairs flag's integrity. true, observes, 'narrowing construction' decisions (1907), upheld Nebraska forbade advertising. Attorney prosecuted, penal, "is enlarged plain import, strictly construed." Report Atty.Gen., Pub.Doc. 12, pp. 192 193 guidance, assistance content entire prohibition, think read 'whoever defaces, .' carrying implication treatment, like defacing, itself. reading derogatory gesture performed distance purely verbal disparagement it.* 53 affect remains sought disparaging symbol, permitting impairment seek disparage symbol. Schacht 398 58, 1555, (1970), abridge expression. 54 metes regardless purpose. 'words, figures, designs' parade receptacle depositing collecting money. Likewise offering selling article engraved representation 55 prohibitions demonstrates cast advantage image facilitate purpose, convey message imprinting designs fairly infringe While cover wears reasons falls prohibitions, required Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 656—658, 86 1717, 1726—1728, 828 (1966). incidence warrant legislation 56 (1968), observed: 57 'We limitless labeled 'speech' whenever engaging idea.' 376, 1678. 58 Then, proceeding 'on assumption O'Brien's (was) sufficient bring into Amendment,' justified 'if Government; furthers interest; unrelated suppression expression; freedoms essential furtherance interest.' 377, 1679. 60 enunciation tests concrete time, me substantially complies tests. 'within' enact. character connection uses, 'substantial' easy sever 'no interest,' aspects together. met, outweigh collateral involved actions concluding, myself agreement members referred dissented disposition 61 alludes early observes: 'One disposition.' agree. 62 September 17, 1787, last Constitutional Convention signing instrument, James Madison 'Notes' occurrence incident: 'Whilst Doctor Franklin looking towards President's Chair, back rising sun happened painted, few near Painters sun. he, course Session, vicissitudes hopes fears looked behind President able tell setting: now length happiness sun.' Writings 482—483 (Hunt ed. 1903). 64 Writing years Holmes familiar statement: '(W)hen constituent called life development foreseen completely gifted begetters. hope organism; taken cost successors much sweat blood prove nation. considered experience ago.' Missouri Holland, 252 416, 433, 383, 641 (1920). 66 From earliest days, literature assigned special figures prominently Willson Peale's portraits George Washington, leader forces Colonies Revolutionary War. lived Second World War forget impact photographs Marine Corps raising top Mount Suribachi Island Iwo Jima, commemorated statue Jima adjoining Arlington Cemetery. 67 Ralph Waldo Emerson, writing battles Lexington Concord, wrote: 68 'By rude bridge arched flood Their April's breeze unfurled Here once embattled farmers stood 69 fired shot heard 'round world.' Oliver Wendell Holmes, Senior, celebrated flown 'Old Ironsides' 1812, John Greenleaf Whittier Barbara Frietchie's devotion 'silken scarf' teeth Stonewall Jackson's ominous threats theme poem. Philip Sousa's 'Stars Stripes Forever' M. Cohan's 'It's Grand Old Flag' musical celebrations adults children alike. Francis Scott Key's 'Star Spangled Banner' country's anthem. artistic evocations occur times struggle, correspondingly dependence importance field hostilities. flies over courthouse almost federal, state, building land. visible embodiment guarantees enforced. empty rhetoric say Constitution, seeks upset invariably world practical affairs enforce Going memories presently alive, carried troops summoned decrees Little Rock, Arkansas, 1957, Oxford, Mississippi, 1962. 72 deep emotional feelings arouses large citizenry, dimensions lawyer's opinion. create theatrical performances virtue why mentioned, prohibiting purchased impairing For dyed red, white, blue,. manifestation nationhood—a compiled generations forebears contributed streams imigrants corners globe, traveled origin 'foreseen begetters.' 73 unique adequately highly abstract, scholastic expressing low country, extraordinary wise responsible. 'thing,' 'idea'; primarily 74 was, appears, verbally views seeking pants, Leominster commons assembly permitted. He compelled way pledge allegiance affirmative contravene forebears, acquired copy. enact prohibition. consists filed opposing briefs petition. 1—36, 42—43. transcript, briefly summarizes witnesses trial. stand. Thus account transpired arrest trousers. Tr. Oral Arg. 5—6, 35—36. Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., 264, Omitting several sentences ceremonial activities veterans' groups, follows Geguen's conviction: Flag; misuse whoever displays designs, causes used money thing, exposes view, manufactures, sells, sale, gives possession sale give substance, merchandise articles attached, wrapping printed manner, arms seal commonwealth advertising Words, attached to, directly indirectly connected with, attention advertise section deemed flag.' amalgam provisions (the words) exploitation Governments. concerns enactment 1899. 90, n. 1971, subsequent prosecution, twice. 8, legislature, per Stats.1971, 74, modified inserting 'burns otherwise' 'publicly' 'mutilates,' and, addition, increasing fine. (Supp.1973). August 655, appended 'flag States" appearing sentence: 'For term States' mean designated Resolution emblem, currently force.' 1971 amendments tangential recognition tighten up Perhaps constituted ('(W)e sure background clearly 'physical integrity"). correctly recorded 17—18. exception turn involving commercial-misuse provisions, R. I. Sherman Mfg. 189 Mass. 76, N.E. (1905), interpretation. developed body precedent categorized in, Grayned Rockford, 408 108—109, 2294, 2298—2299, 222 Note, Void-for-Vagueness Doctrine 109 U.Pa.L.Rev. (1960). 162, 843, (1972); (1939) ('No peril liberty speculate forbids') (citations omitted); (1926) ('(A) forbids intelligence differ application, law') omitted). Grayned, 108, 2299; L. Cohen Grocery 255 81, 89, 298, 300, 516 (1921) ('(T)o attempt exact equivalent effort carry penalized detrimental unjust unreasonable estimation jury'); Reese, 214, 221, 563 (1865) ('It certainly net catch possible offenders, leave step inside rightfully detained, large'). 109, Smith 361 147, 151, 80 215, 217, (1959). Compare stringent requirements modern economic regulation. (1963) (Robinson-Patman Act). 6, supra. Mich.L.Rev. 1040, 1056 161, 166. U.Pa.L.Rev., 7, 82 79. 3, seems lain fallow history. Apparently dozen recent years, none produced reported decision. 28—29. 1968, teenager Lynn, desecrating pieces York Times, Sept. p. 31, col. prepare deliver essay continued finding, depriving precedential Thirty-Seven Photographs, 363, 369, 1400, 1405, 822 Reply Brief petition raise commented omission: 'No (Goguen) exhausted remedies, issues raised appropriately proceedings.' unsuccessful motion dismiss 'impermissibly incapable officials.' incorporated exceptions. points cases. 19, 26—27, citing Parker 585 (WDNC 1971) (three-judge court) (North Carolina vaguences overbreadth). correct compartmentalize concepts overbreadth. 19—24. leakage compartments understandable. Overbreadth Doctrine, Harv.L.Rev. 844, 871—875 (1970). separately claims, 666, 667 indicates aware arguments. 17; 9. At definition. raises obvious unsuccessfully met 'official standards' proportions, relation height width stripes stars, meet standards. 11—12, 24—26; dispute stars colors. 11—12. noting '(t)he 'official," N.E.2d, 668. lower holding, we. sensed ambiguity States.' 48. reviewing defendant.' Thus, amounts easily satisfied. reference reliance Ashton 195, 198, 1407, 1409, 469 22. prosecutorial policies, cites published opinions General. Op.Atty.Gen. 470—473 (1915) (reproduced 30); (1968) Jurisdictional Statement 53). deals They provided guidance Nevertheless, tendency portions narrowly. reflect precision recurring 1915 exhibition engravings articles, offense 'in cheaper forms.' 31—32. Concluded 'manifest absurdity.' 32. 1968 advised painted door 'a 53—55. contrary 'raise serious 'plainly statute.' 54. reflects response 'defies' 'casts word act' risk invalidation' grounds, S.Rep.No.1287, 90th Cong., 1st Sess., (1968; H.R.Rep. 350, (1967), became amended, 113 Cong.Rec. 16449, 16450 physically damage 700(a), declares: '(a) Whoever casts defiling, fined $1,000 imprisoned both.' legislative desire defined intentional, willful, accidental inadvertent H.R.R.ep.No.350, 3; courts, challenges. Crosson, 462 96 (CA9) cert. denied, 409 1064, 569, 517 Joyce 147 U.S.App.D.C. 128, 454 971 (1971), 969, 1188, 242 Hoffman 144 445 226 aware, universal adoption governments. synopsized Hearings H.R. 271 al., Subcommittee Committee Judiciary, ser. 4, 324—346 (1967). Most patterned Uniform Law 1917, provides mutilate, deface, defile, defy, trample color, ensign shield.' 9B Laws Ann. 52—53 (1966), 321—346. Because disjunctive, casting utilizing concerned, will depend terms. addressed Gogun's because, having vagueness, decide additional issues. skeletal poor opportunity careful consideration merited raised. litigation, diverse results, Representative following: Thomas Heffernan, 473 478 (CA2 1973); Long Vietnam Moratorium Cahn, 437 344 (1970); (CA9), Deeds Beto, 353 840 (ND Tex.1973); Oldroyd Kugler, 327 176 (NJ 1970), rev'd, 461 535 (CA3 1972), abstention remand, 352 27, aff'd, 924, 2753, 153 (1973; Sutherland DeWulf, 323 740 (SD Ill.1971); 1971); Crosson Silver, 1084 (D.C.Ariz.1970); Hodsdon Buckson, 310 528 (Del. rev'd grounds sub nom. Stabler, 444 533 Ferguson, 302 1111 Cal.1969); Royal, N.H. 224, 305 A.2d 676 (1973); Zimmelman, N.J. 279, 301 129 Spence, 81 Wash.2d 788, 506 P.2d 293, probable jurisdiction 414 815, 61, (1973) (sub judice); Miami Wolfenberger, 265 So.2d 732 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1972); Mitchell, Ohio App.2d 16, 288 216 Liska, 317, 291 498 (1971); Van Camp, Conn. Cir. 281 Waterman, 190 N.W.2d 809 (Iowa Saulino, Misc. 277 580 474 S.W.2d 718 (Crim.App.Tex.1971); 287, rehearing 989, 1646, 157 Cowgill, 274 Cal.App.2d Supp. 923, 78 Cal.Rptr. 853 appeal dismissed, Hinton 223 Ga. 174, 154 S.E.2d 246 Anderson Georgia, 390 206, 902, 1039 protective Rosenblatt, Desecration Statutes: History Analysis, 1972 Wash.U.L.Q. 193. eliminate crucial violation. (1973), Hampshire things valid 'directed 'at mere belief ideas'.' 230, A.2d, 680. proscription prohibition mutiliation ideas. Thus: 'Our drawn evidently purporting be' Cline, (113 245), 673, decided date. Also, multilation defilement inflicted touching enumerates desecration, namely 'mutilate, deface', 'cast contempt' enumerated acts. hold 'or acts' RSA 573:4 abuse Sutherland, 4909 (3d rev. Horack 1943); Small, 99 349, 111 201 (1955); Gas & Electric 163 A. 724 (1932).' 227, 679. extent cause intimated colloquy quoted 575—576, attach weight 'loath conclusive relatively spontaneous responses questioning argument,' Moose Lodge 107 Irvis, 163, 170, 1965, 627 ascribed took court.

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