Document: 517 U.S. 456116 S.Ct. 1480134 L.Ed.2d 687 UNITED STATESv.ARMSTRONG et al.Certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for Ninth Circuit. No. 95-157. Supreme Argued February 26, 1996 Decided May 13, Syllabus* In response their indictment on ``crack'' cocaine and other federal charges, respondents filed a motion discovery or dismissal, alleging that they were selected prosecution because are black. The District granted over Government's argument, among others, there was no evidence allegation it had failed prosecute nonblack defendants. When Government indicated would not comply with order, court dismissed case. en banc Circuit affirmed, holding proof requirements selective-prosecution claim do compel defendant demonstrate has others who similarly situated. Held: For be entitled he singled out basis his race, must make threshold showing declined situated suspects races. Pp. 4-14. (a) Contrary respondents' contention, Federal Rule Criminal Procedure 16, which governs in criminal cases, does support result reached by this 16(a)(1)(C) -- which, inter alia, requires government permit documents "material preparation . defense" "intended use as chief"--applies only "defense" against case chief, claims. This reading creates perceptible symmetry between types referred Rule. Moreover, its correctness is established beyond peradventure 16(a)(2), relevant here, exempts from work product attorneys agents made connection case's investigation. Respondents' construction including claims implausible: It anomaly defendant's being able examine all under 16(a)(1)(C), except most pertinent, own case, 16(a)(2). 4-6. (b) Under equal protection component Fifth Amendment's Due Process Clause, decision whether may based an arbitrary classification such race religion. Oyler v. Boles, 368 U. S. 448, 456. order prove claim, claimant prosecutorial policy discriminatory effect motivated purpose. Ibid. To establish show individuals different prosecuted. Ah Sin Wittman, 198 500. Batson Kentucky, 476 79, Hunter Underwood, 471 222, distinguished. Although involved review state conviction, similar rule applies where power invoked challenge exercise one core powers Executive Branch Government, prosecute. Discovery imposes many costs present when respond prima facie selective prosecution. Assuming available appropriate aid see Wade States, 504 181, justifications rigorous standard elements thus require correspondingly it. Thus, entitlement discovery, produce credible defendants races could have been prosecuted, but not. met required threshold. 6-14. 48 F. 3d 1508, reversed remanded. Rehnquist, C. J., delivered opinion Court, O'Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, Souter, Thomas, Ginsburg, JJ., joined, Breyer, joined part. concurring opinions. part judgment. Stevens, dissenting opinion. Chief Justice Rehnquist Court. 1 we consider necessary prosecuting attorney him race. We conclude satisfy showing: They 2 April 1992, indicted Central California charges conspiring possess intent distribute more than 50 grams base (crack) same, violation 21 Section(s) 841 846 (1988 ed. Supp. IV), firearms offenses. three months prior indictment, Bureau Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms Narcotics Division Inglewood, California, Police Department infiltrated suspected crack distribution ring using confidential informants. On seven separate occasions during period, informants bought total 124.3 witnessed carrying sales. searched hotel room sales transacted, arrested Armstrong Hampton room, found loaded gun. later ring. 3 dismissal motion, offered affidavit "Paralegal Specialist," employed Office Public Defender representing respondents. that, every 24 cases closed office 1991, Accompanying "study" listing defendants, prosecuted dealing well crack, status each case.1 4 opposed arguing, things, "that acted unfairly non-black them." App. 150. motion. ordered (1) provide list last years charged both offenses, (2) identify those (3) what levels law enforcement investigations (4) explain criteria deciding Id., at 161-162. 5 moved reconsideration Court's order. With submitted affidavits why chosen study did inference singling blacks local participating alleged played role An Assistant Attorney explained general prosecution, 6 "there 100 involved, twice ten year mandatory minimum sentence; multiple involving thereby indicating fairly substantial ring; violations intertwined narcotics trafficking; overall extremely strong, audio videotapes defendants; several histories violations." 81. 7 also sections published 1989 Drug Enforcement Administration report concluded "[l]arge-scale, interstate trafficking networks controlled Jamaicans, Haitians Black street gangs dominate manufacture crack." J. Featherly & E. Hill, Crack Cocaine Overview 1989; 103. 8 response, intake coordinator drug treatment center told her "an number caucasian users dealers minority dealers." 138. Respondents defense experience nonblacks id., 141, newspaper article reporting "crack criminals punished far severely if caught powder cocaine, almost single them black," Newton, Harsher Sentences Criticized Racial Inequity, Los Angeles Times, Nov. 23, p. 1; 208-210. 9 denied reconsideration. court's case.2 10 A divided three-judge panel reversed, "`provide colorable believing `others prosecuted'" obtain discovery. 1431, 1436 (1994) (quoting Wayte, 710 2d 1385, 1387 (CA9 1983), aff'd, 470 598 (1985)). voted rehear banc, affirmed "a situated." 1516 (1995) (emphasis deleted). certiorari determine claim. 516 ___ (1995). 11 Neither nor mentioned terms cases. Both parties now discuss briefs, contend supports Appeals. 16 provides, pertinent part: 12 "Upon request shall inspect copy photograph books, papers, documents, photographs, tangible objects, buildings places, copies portions thereof, within possession, custody control government, material intended chief trial, obtained belong defendant." Fed. Crim. Proc. 16(a)(1)(C). 13 argue "within possession government" government's strategy "material" any "results nonconviction" successful Rule's purposes, effect. Tr. Oral Arg. 30. 14 reject context "the means case-in-chief. While might argued matter, concept includes "sword," challenging prosecution's conduct term encompass narrower class "shield" claims, refute arguments committed crime charged. argument case-in-chief, defense," and, very next phrase, trial." If persuasive enough, paragraph (a)(2) establishes section (a)(1)(C) can refer defenses inspection "reports, memoranda, internal investigation case." defense, but, "defense," gives right own. Because find implausible. hold authorizes 15 181 (1992), considered file reduce sentence assistance reviewable, assumed showing, although showing. See 186. proceed like assumption here. merits charge itself, independent assertion prosecutor brought reasons forbidden Constitution. Our delineating taken great pains demanding one. These afford "background presumption," cf. Mezzanatto, 513 ___, (slip op., 8) should itself significant barrier litigation insubstantial 17 asks judicial "special province" Executive. Heckler Chaney, 821, 832 (1985). General Attorneys retain "`broad discretion'" enforce Nation's laws. Wayte 598, 607 (1985) Goodwin, 457 368, 380, n. (1982)). latitude designated statute President's delegates help discharge constitutional responsibility "take Care Laws faithfully executed." Const., Art. II, 3; 28 516, 547. As result, "[t]he presumption regularity supports" decisions "in absence clear contrary, courts presume properly discharged official duties." Chemical Foundation, Inc., 272 1, 14-15 (1926). ordinary "so long probable cause believe accused offense defined statute, prosecute, bring before grand jury, generally rests entirely discretion." Bordenkircher Hayes, 434 357, 364 (1978). 18 Of course, prosecutor's discretion "subject constraints." Batchelder, 442 114, 125 (1979). One these constraints, imposed Clause Amendment, Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 500 (1954), unjustifiable religion, classification," 456 (1962). administration "directed so exclusively particular persons mind unequal oppressive" system amounts practical denial" law. Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 373 (1886). 19 dispel violated protection, "clear contrary." supra, 14-15. "properly hesitant prosecute." S., 608. Judicial deference executive officers assessment relative competence prosecutors courts. "Such factors strength deterrence value, priorities, relationship plan readily susceptible kind analysis competent undertake." 607. stems concern unnecessarily impair performance function. "Examining delays proceeding, threatens chill subjecting motives decisionmaking outside inquiry, undermine effectiveness revealing policy." 20 draw "ordinary standards." "had purpose." Ibid.; accord, Oyler, requirement our since (1905). Sin, subject China, petitioned writ habeas corpus, seeking imprisonment San Francisco county ordinance prohibiting setting up gambling tables rooms barricaded stop police entering. 503. He petition enforced `solely Chinese otherwise.'" 507. rejected contention averment Equal Protection allege conditions practices directed exist Chinese, offenders whom enforced." 507-508. impossible prove. Twenty invalidated ordinance, adopted Francisco, prohibited operation laundries wooden buildings. Wo, 374. plaintiff error successfully demonstrated applied nationals laundry-shop operators. authorities applications 200 subjects permits operate shops buildings, 80 "under conditions." necessary: 22 "No intention indulged this. There certainty intent. Plaintiff seeks set aside State, ground unconstitutional face, tendency ultimate actual passed manner administration. matter proof, fact omitted completely, interfere course justice State." 508 added). 23 think urge 79 (1986), 222 (1985), cut absolute failure individuals. disagree. Hunter, disenfranchising convicted crimes moral turpitude. 233. consistent principles, requirement. convincing direct State enacted provision purpose blacks, 229-231, indisputable compared whites: Blacks "`by even modest estimates least 1.7 times likely whites suffer disfranchisement under'" question. 227 Underwood 730 614, 620 (CA11 1984)). affords respondent's position. 25 Batson, standards assessing selection venire" trial. 96. exercised peremptory challenges remove venire members race" fact, potential abuse inherent strike, "any circumstances raise used practice exclude veniremen petit jury account race." During selection, entire res gestae take place front trial judge. judge venire, detect seating juror "pattern" challenges. 97. position discern black evidentiary significance; significance differ consists mostly whites. Similarly, makes called upon justify then court. 97-98. need relation venires 26 Having reviewed turn ordered, assemble files corroborate will divert prosecutors' resources disclose strategy. 27 parties, Courts requisite describe variety phrases, "colorable basis," "substantial showing," 5, concrete "reasonable likelihood," Brief Martin al. However, labels conceal degree consensus about meet "require some tending existence essential Berrios, 501 1207, 1211 (CA2 1974). constitutes "some existence" element. held without defendant. 3d, 1516. mistaken view. vast majority not, Parham, 844, 846-847 (CA8 1994); Fares, 978 52, 59-60 1992); Peete, 919 1168, 1176 (CA6 1990); Carlson, Inc. SEC, 859 1429, 1437-1438 (CA10 1988); Greenwood, 796 49, 52-53 (CA4 1986); Mitchell, 778 1271, 1277 (CA7 1985). explained, "`[s]elective prosecution' implies place." 1436.3 29 started "with people commit crimes-not premise type exclusive province racial ethnic group." 1516-1517. cited authority proposition, seems contradicted recent statistics Sentencing Commission. Those that: More 90% sentenced 1994 black, Comm'n, Annual Report 107 (Table 45); 93.4% LSD white, ibid.; 91% pornography prostitution 41 13). Presumptions war presumably reliable proper issue. 30 expressed "evidentiary obstacles face." 1514. But sister Circuits confronted issue differential protected classes. founded, insuperable task treated differently instance, investigated known officers, threshold-a persons-adequately balances interest vigorous avoiding 31 us, constitute of" 1211. offenses charged, omission remedied opposition article, discussed sentencing laws, discrimination affidavits, recounted attorney's conversation employee another defending prosecutions court, hearsay reported personal conclusions anecdotal evidence. judgment therefore remanded proceedings 32 ordered. 33 djq concurring. 34 I join opinion, discussion extent application 35 36 understand created "major limitation" scope 16. post, (Breyer, judgment). it, decided precise issue: phrase "defendant's states, subsection decide here context, example, affirmative unrelated merits. caveat read today's precedent foreclosing issues tendered review, 37 38 write separately because, my view, limit rights related case-in-chief (ante, 5). says copy" certain physical items (I summarily call "documents") "which defense." simple (such Speedy Trial Act claim), right, foreseeable surrebuttal rebuttal, others. language first item list. interpret limited way legal distinction perspective, arbitrary. create two full parallel sets principles. And, tell, interpretation lacks support. 39 bases "perceptible symmetry," ante, 6, phrases test context. says: 40 [documents items] [2] [3] Though reside eye beholder, Rather, suggests three-part categorization From purely linguistic reason import into category case-in-chief-related limitation (from second category) defendant's-belongings-related third category). 42 categories belies "symmetry"--namely specify (the evidence, belongings) preliminary "materiality." residual (items defense") "materiality" Committee thought, however, "[l]imiting situations unwise. subdivision contains disclosure intends property belongs Advisory Committee's Notes App., 762 (second added special materiality, always "material") (citing Wright, Practice 254, 510, 58, 513, 70 (1969)). Nothing Notes, language, cover 43 advances "case-in-chief" concerns Rule, 16's requirements. majority's asserting valid "selective prosecution" implicit limitation) irrelevant efforts assert defenses. 44 conclusion, follow premises. thing, work-product exception contain exceptions. After all, privilege derived doctrine absolute." Nobles, 422 225, 239 (1975); A. Miller R. Marcus, 2022, 324 (2d 1994) (in civil "is discoverable `necessity justification'") Hickman Taylor, 329 495, 510 (1947)); Ghent, Development, Since Attorney's "Work Product" Doctrine, A.L.R. 412, 465-469, (1971) absolute, "qualified immunity"). "work product" (say, strong prosecution), problem exist. containing represents departure literal language. But, easier authors small exception, large Court? 45 reads literally, disappears supplement possibility supplementation, says, "exemp[t]" "this rule" authorize product. Civ. believed rules (or require) See, e.g., 762, 763 (discussion Brady Maryland, 83 (1963), codify); 761 ("[Rule 16] prescribe amount entitled. judge's broader cases"); 81, 60 1982) ("Because Constitution, overrides court-made procedure. Thus immunity 16(a)(2) prohibits alter duty Brady" (footnotes omitted). majority, sense, permitting more. goes constitutionally related) supplementation needed overcome problem; instead, shrinks creating major scope.Finally, event, sought information 2-3. source look basis. 46 sum, neither "symmetry" structure "case-in-chief." legislative history drafters meant broad authorization defendants' supplemented Whether sources satisfied defense."I Were case--i.e., evidence," (1926), purpose," 608 easy find, instances African Americans, caucasians. so, forth, respect materiality. pp. 66-67 1982); Balk, 706 1056, 1060 1983); Johnson, 577 1304, 1309 (CA5 1978); Murdock, 548 599, 600 1977). 47 dissenting. respected profession. Despite occasional misstep, excellence abundantly justifies "they Nevertheless, political animosity infect institute cannot ignored. reason, settled completely unbridled. notes, exercises fully defined. 3. 49 member officer bar such, she judges maintain profession functions. Judge suspect she, staff, surely factual concern. agree Rules inquiry. disagree, different, relatively rigid needs crafted regulate seldom-exercised power. (Rule "not cases"). correctly concludes facts presented sufficient defense. enough give either circumstances. Like Wallace Appeals, am persuaded sufficiently disturbing Office. 1520-1521 1995). Perhaps necessary, apparent conclusion inquiry permissible. 51 Judge's evaluated light underscore vigilance prosecutions. First, Anti-Drug Abuse 1986 subsequent legislation regime high penalties so-called "crack" cocaine.4 provisions treat gram equivalent cocaine. punishable same prison 5,000 cocaine.5 Guidelines extend ratio penalty above minimums: given quantity guideline range cocaine.6 sentences average eight longer comparable offenders.7 Commission, Special Congress: Policy 145 (Feb. 1995) (hereinafter Report). 52 Second, disparity matched severity punishment conduct. reasons, often minimums, parole, lower baseline penalties, tend substantially systems system. difference especially marked schemes; do, none stark Government. x, 129-138. respondent guilty, life term. Had tried short years, less worktime credits half amount.8 53 Finally, undisputed brunt elevated falls heavily blacks. 65% 1993 represented 4% crack. Eighty-eight percent 39, 161. implementation, white grew preguideline levels: received 40% Statistics, Courts: Does Race Matter? 6-7 (Dec. 1993). figures represent threat integrity reform, whose main elimination (especially racial) sentencing. Commission acknowledges heightened "primary growing White defendants." 163. 54 extraordinary troubling patterns rise fairness charging Evidence whereas warrants close scrutiny District. Judge, sat benches Angeles, development standards, any, governed choice forum 55 Defender's team. statement experience, belonged minorities. David Reed, counsel Armstrong. Reed active court-appointed directors leading association lawyers County stated recall "ever handling [crack] defendants" heard 140. further "[t]here involve groups blacks." 141 original). 56 discounts probative value claiming "hearsay" "personal evidence." Ante, 14. plainly contained mere hearsay; extensive Given breadth background, qualified compare prosecutors. never objected admission grounds. 1518, 8. certainly credit acquired reputation frequent appearances there, statements perjury. 57 criticism "anecdotal evidence" unpersuasive. thought agreed prepare sophisticated statistical studies receive Certainly counselor's observations courts, federal, "ten[d] 12. 58 Even carry burden abused ordering doubt exist, indeed same. circumstances, fail unable notice obvious demand "contradicted" cites, percentages crimes, while crimes. 13. comparison, rather, above, greater numbers guilty substance. therefore, explanation Government.9 59 "[w]hile investigators impact extent, 100-to-1 discretionary dramatic effects." 138.10 heightens danger careful enforcement. Cf. McCleskey Kemp, 481 279, 366 (1987) (Stevens, dissenting). persuade conspicuous pattern accept exceeded so. respectfully dissent. * syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Lumber Co., 321, 337. Other introduced motions 83. denied. bench 23-person sample "statistically insignificant," indicate "whether bias hispanic powdered whatever use." 119, 120. determined sanction, remedy determines victim Here, "it suggested indictments district appeal lie." 1510 reserve question "involving admissions [prosecutors] 15. Stat. 3207, seq. Compare 841(b)(1)(A)(iii) 841(b)(1)(A)(ii). 5-year prescribed 841(b)(1)(B)(ii) 841(b)(1)(B)(iii). Simple produces sentence. maximum drugs year. 844(a). felony offense, life. 841(b)(1)(A). parole. Manual guidelines, increase slower rate quantities. heroin level (15-21 months) (double amount) (21-27 months). USSG translate long. conspiracy distribute, four counts distribution, firearm crime. According convictions Information Establishing Prior Felony Convictions (June 24, 1992). Therefore, potentially faces alone. time sale carried three, four, five years. Cal. Health Safety Code Ann. 11351.5 (West 1988). convictions, probation. 11370. additional 3-year 11370.2. priors reductions, Penal 2933 1996), served little six raised new punishments Also telling 3,500 previous names All 11, 1511. authorized adverse inferences inability example defendant, allay racially said: "Statistics whole answer, nothing emphatic zero ." Hinds School Bd., 417 852, 858 1969) (per curiam). Congress "strongly recommend[ed] ratio." 198. shortly thereafter, 4-to-3 vote, amended guidelines equalize forms proposed modification statutory Statement Majority Support Recommended Changes (May October 1995, overrode Commission's amendments. Pub. L. 104-38, 109 334. submit recommendations regarding changes specifically "revision cocaine." 2(a).

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