Document: 383 U.S. 745 86 S.Ct. 1170 16 L.Ed.2d 239 UNITED STATES, Appellant,v.Herbert GUEST et al. No. 65. Argued Nov. 9, 1965. Decided March 28, 1966. Sol. Gen. Thurgood Marshall, for appellant. Charles J. Bloch, Macon, Ga., appellee James Spergeon Lackey. E. Hudson, Athens, other appellees. Mr. Justice STEWART delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The six defendants in this case were indicted by a United States grand jury Middle District Georgia criminal conspiracy violation 18 U.S.C. § 241 (1964 ed.). That section provides relevant part: 2 'If two or more persons conspire to injure, oppress, threaten, intimidate any citizen free exercise enjoyment right privilege secured him Constitution laws States, because his having so exercised same; 3 'They shall be fined not than $5,000 imprisoned ten years, both.' 4 In five numbered paragraphs, indictment alleged single deprive Negro citizens and several specified rights States.1 moved dismiss on ground that it did charge an offense under States. Court sustained motion dismissed as all paragraphs indictment. 246 F.Supp. 475. 5 appealed directly Criminal Appeals Act, 3731.2 We postponed decision question our jurisdiction hearing merits. 381 932, 85 1765. It is now apparent does have decide one issues sought raised direct appeal. As issues, however, appellate clear, reasons follow, we reverse judgment v. Price, 787, 1152, decided today, deal here with statutory construction, constitutional power. I. 6 first paragraph indictment, reflecting portion language 201(a) Civil Rights Act 1964, 42 2000a(a) ed.), conspired of: 7 'The full equal goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, accommodations picture theaters, restaurants, places public accommodation.'3 8 held failed state against court found fatal flaw failure include allegation acts motivated racial discrimination, thought essential interference Title II 1964.4 went say that, event, available sanction protect title 207(b) 1964 2000a—6(b) specifies remedies provided itself are exclusive means enforcing secures.5 9 A appeal 3731, from 'a * dismissing count thereof, where such based upon construction statute which founded.' present case, Court's was based, at least alternatively, its determination defective matter pleading. Settled principles review therefore preclude branch Borden Co., 308 188, 60 182, 84 L.Ed. 181, Chief Hughes, speaking unanimous Court, set out these characteristic clarity: 10 established governing these: (1) Appeal lie rests mere deficiencies pleading, distinguished underlies (2) Nor will has considered but also rested independent defect pleading subject examination. cannot disturb becomes abstract. (3) This must accept given authorized review. *' 193, 186. 11 See Swift & 318 442, 444, 63 684, 685, 87 889. 12 result changed circumstance over Borden, supra, involved comparable purposes Act. had four counts invalid Sherman third accepted first, second, fourth want jurisdiction. Government's open whole case.' 13 hardly necessary add ruling lack aspect implies no whatsoever correctness either appraisal court's view preclusive effect 1964. II. 14 second 15 utilization, without discrimination basis race, facilities vicinity Georgia, owned, operated managed behalf State subdivision thereof.' Correctly characterizing embracing protected Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment, encompass Amendment rights, further law 'any broader would render void indefiniteness.' F.Supp., 486. holding, error, makes abundantly clear. 17 To sure, Price involves Due Process Clause, whereas Clause. But possible reason suggests concluding 241—if protects those other. made clear when speaks States,' precisely that. Moreover, inclusion within compass unconstitutionally vague. Since gravamen conspiracy, requirement offender act specific intent interfere federal satisfied. Screws 325 91, 65 1031, 89 1495; Williams, 341 70, 93—95, 71 581, 593—595, 95 758 (dissenting opinion). And described been firmly consistent line decisions Court,6 specification can raise serious vagueness indefiniteness. 19 Unlike names person acted way color law. argument since there exist wholly private action, affirmed. On face, unexceptionable. acting authority.7 20 connection, emphasize incorporates itself; purport give substantive, opposed remedial, implementation Clause.8 only bare terms itself, nothing said goes what kinds legislation Congress might constitutionally enact implement provision Amendment.9 21 commonplace arise involvement authority. 'does thing another.' Cruikshank, 92 542, 554—555, 23 588. Douglas recently put it, individual wrongs done individuals.' 92, 593, beginning. supra; Harris, 106 629, 601, 27 290; Cases, 109 3, 18, 835; Hodges 203 1, 6, 51 65; Powell, 212 564, 29 690, 53 653. remains today. See, e.g., Evans Newton, 382 296, 486, 373; 1152. 22 say, need direct. variety situations action nature sufficient create even though participation peripheral, co-operative forces leading violation. Shelley Kraemer, 334 68 836, 1161; Commonwealth Pennsylvania Board Directors City Trusts Philadelphia, 353 230, 77 806, 792; Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 81 856, 45; Peterson Greenville, 373 244, 83 1119, 323; Lombard Louisiana, 267, 1122, 338; Griffin Maryland, 378 130, 1770, 754; Robinson Florida, 153, 1693, 771; supra. requires threshold level attain order because, contrary litigants, fact contains express require denial dismiss. One accomplishing object according 'By causing arrest Negroes false reports committed acts.'10 Bell 226, 1814, 822, three members expressed businessman's invocation police judicial carry own policy whom directed.11 Three strongly disagreed view,12 question. extent official may similar Bell, go considerably further. For example, broad enough cover active connivance agents making 'false reports,' conduct amounting clearly constitute Although bill particulars, proof if trial, disclose kind officials State, prevent dismissal III. 24 25 travel freely use highway instrumentalities interstate commerce Georgia.'13 26 error paragraph. another, necessarily highways doing so, occupies position fundamental concept Federal Union. repeatedly recognized. Crandall Nevada, Wall. 35, 744, invalidating Nevada tax every leaving common carrier, took guide statement Taney Passenger How. 283, 492: 'For great government formed, people, country. States; and, same community, pass repass through part interruption, States.' 28 Wall., 48—49. Articles Confederation 'the people each ingress regress State,'14 finds explicit mention Constitution. reason, suggested, elementary conceived beginning concomitant stronger Union created.15 freedom throughout long recognized basic Williams Fears, 179 270, 274, 128, 129, 45 186; Twining New Jersey, 211 78, 97, 14, 97; Edwards People California, 314 160, 177, 62 164, 168, 119 (concurring opinion), 170 opinion); York O'Neill, 359 6—8; 12—16, 79 568—570; 571—574, 585 30 119, California impeded passage indigent, reaffirmation Commerce precedents establishing power surely encompasses movement well commodities. Gloucester Ferry Co. Pennsylvania, 114 196, 203, 826, 827, 158; Covington Cincinnati Bridge Kentucky, 154 204, 218—219, 1087, 1092, 38 962; Hoke 227 308, 320, 33 281, 57 523; Hill, 248 420, 423, 39 143, 144, 337. settled authorizes legislate protection individuals violations civil impinge their commerce. Mitchell 313 80, 61 873, 1201; Henderson 339 816, 70 843, 94 1302; Boynton Virginia, 364 454, 206; Heart Atlanta Motel 379 241, 348, 258; Katzenbach McClung, 294, 377, 290. 31 recurring differences emphasis source travel, canvass further.16 All agreed exists. Its recognition back far 1904. Moore, C.C., 129 F. 630, 633. reaffirm now.17 32 mean, course, affecting individual's 241. proved, trial entitled instruction phrased terms. 106—107, 1037—1038, 1495. Thus, rob traveler not, violate predominant purpose impede oppress right, then, whether proper brought. Accordingly, grant reasons, reversed remanded proceedings opinion. ordered. 34 Reversed remanded. 35 CLARK, BLACK FORTAS join, concurring. 36 I join believe worthwhile comment Part discusses charging appellees conspiring threaten 37 contend returned, utilization 'secured' absence action. With respect contention upholds alleges accomplished, part, '(b)y acts.' carrying discrimination. By construing thus removes necessity 'determination Clause.' study shows capricious one, agree conclusion follows. carves Congress, implementing Amendment. interpretation avoids appropriate legislation, punish conspiracies utilize facilities. My Brother BRENNAN, says disposition constitutes acceptance appellees' aforesaid Some indicates sub silentio outlaw conspiracies. specifically rejects connotation, ante, p. 755, is, believe, both circumstances doubt empowers punishing conspiracies—with action—that rights. 40 HARLAN, concurring dissenting part. 41 Parts II1 opinion, subscribe III sweep. ed.) reaches conspiracies, persons, obstruct otherwise engage am constrained dissent. hand, embrace consider sustainable reasoning itself. covers 'free enjoyment' 'secured 'right travel' disagreement phase lies this: While past cases do indeed establish between unreasonable governmental interference, today's hold depending think unwise impermissible read 43 Preliminarily, expressly secures travel. contract Art. IV: 44 better secure perpetuate mutual friendship intercourse among different Union, inhabitants privileges immunities enjoy therein trade commerce, duties, impositions restrictions thereof respectively *.' regress' eliminated draft discussion main objective Convention union. assumed clause dropped obviously structure subsumed general clauses Wheeler, 254 133, 134, 270. propose examine asserted bases scope relation source. Because close proximity Privileges Immunities declared immunity national citizenship influential Washington circuit, Corfield Coryell, Fed.Cas.No. 3,230, Wash.C.C. 371 (1825), addressed question—'what states?' Id., 380. concerned Jersey restricting rake oysters, upheld. analyzing Constitution, IV, 2, stated confined 'these expressions are, nature, fundamental,' listed them through, reside state, trade, agriculture, professional pursuits, 380—381. 46 dictum approval movement, struck down taxing State. noteworthy Clifford he exclusively grounds 'that legislature impose burden 49. majority Miller, eschewed reliance Import-Export looked rather union: 47 nation. capital *. call point aid service government, also, offices secondary importance parts sea-coasts rivers ports entry. interior land offices, revenue sub-treasuries. demands services citizens, bring points quarters nation, enable defeat established.' 43—44. 48 Accompanying Government, correlative move unimpeded land: 49 'He come seat assert claim transact business it. seek protection, share administering functions. He access sea-ports, operations foreign conducted, sub-treasuries, courts justice whose soil it.' 44. 50 focus very clearly, impediments citizens. emphasized subsequently Miller asserts approach 'neither novel nor unsupported authority,' fundamentally, State's functions Government: '(T) mode embarrass uniformly denied.' 44—45. Later cases, alluding immunities, dicta included movement. Paul 180, 357; 97. 52 respectable precedent support status citizenship, important note dealt simply affected oppressive Only prior argued individuals. There Government predecessor perpetrators notorious Bisbee Deportations.2 straightforwardly egress, admitted parties guaranteed Brief Defendants Error, counsel later gives points: 'So pertaining egress essentially themselves authority.' Brief, p.i. dissent, unrestricted observing inapplicable inter alia, 299, 136. More recent discussing applying always context discussed, infra.3 accordingly regarded historically seen method breaking provincialism, facilitating creation true heretofore presented apply today right. 54 When articulated Corfield, impeding economic activity outsiders, cast Wash.C.C., Justices solely argument, indicating again connection squarely unconstitutional entry indigents into 55 Application area advantage supplying longer tradition refined adjudication. taxation quarantine, see 184 171 172, just weighed adjudication traditionally reconciling interests. Yet like interrelation power, not—with exception moment—with interference. 56 re Debs, 158 900, some doubts proposition. enjoin Debs union continuing obstruct—by strike—interstate mails. Executive could certainly keep channels open, equity less amounted nuisance. permits obtain injunction indictment,4 should applicable interest namely vindicate underlying However, directed toward vindication interests; No stands proposition standing sue nuisance substantive impediments, devolve law; seemingly inconsistent appear substantially vitiated Erie R. Tompkins, 304 64, 58 817, 82 1188. find solid embraces suggestion. mentioned. Professor Chafee, thoughtful study, 'Freedom Movement,'5 unsatisfactory. After thorough history dealing concludes 'valuable human right,' id., 209, best due process terms: 59 'Already used safeguard race they please inside regardless ordinances injunctions. Why equally assure live desires? restraints mobility upset Fifth Thus 'liberty' beings taken away includes liberty speech, press, assembly, religion, movement.' 192—193. endorsed Kent Dulles, 357 116, 78 1113, 1204, deprived Amendment,' 125, 1118, citing holding turned grounds. Aptheker Secretary 500, 1659, 992, doctrine, forbidding Communist organizations passports. Both opinions affirmed principle Viewing terms, make IV. survey various grounding conclusive showing never acknowledged applied, whatever underpinning asserted, impediments. being nebulous precedent. seems me dubious intended certain Constitutional called reform Even Bill Rights, designed personal liberties, authority, narrow range Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 651, 152, implicit elections. Classic, 1368, extended coverage primaries. Logan 144 263, 617, 429, applied injure someone custody marshal; seem depended extrapolations provisions providing supervision prisoners. Quarles, 532, 959, 1080, extending Logan, inform 552, 588, announced assemble petition redress grievances. 64 Whatever validity persuasive authorities adding collection discussed narrow, relationships Government—voting elections, enforcement, communicating Government. footing. arguable considerations led numerous occasions justify spoke capital, serve consult government. formation Nation facilitate commercial intercourse; intellectual, cultural, scientific, social, political interests likewise served Surely vigilantes force, particularly persuasive. difference groups analogies tend misleading. If obstructs ideas, bonds threatened; group effectively stops communication, most temporary breakdown order, remedied authority legislation. 66 decline helpless. railroads, already 'undue prejudice,' Stat. 380, amended, 3(1) 1302. applies motor carriers, 558, 316(d) air 72 760, 1374(b) Fitzgerald Pan American World Airways, Cir., 229 F.2d 499. 243, deals types obstructions Indeed, discriminate reached unaided wide area, unnecessary—if prudential relevance, Baker Carr, 369 186, 258—259, 691, 732—733, 663 (Clark J., concurring)—to strain V. 67 succeeded anything exercise, until transit, little creating one. ostensibly 'discovered' then mechanically who all-encompassing fashion common-law crimes, forbidden judiciary 1812 Cranch 32, 259. Douglas, noted dangers indiscriminate application 241: 'It us vague penumbra about legislated particularize crime highly offensive.' 331—332, 1045, 1368. gainsay leave finding 'private' speak Nevertheless, wrong sustain uncertain ground. subjects challenge score serves place name interpretation. difficult subdue misgivings potentialities decision. 69 premise sufficiently THE CHIEF JUSTICE DOUGLAS reach reasons. footnote infra. much construes holds construed, agree, remainder holds, meaning Constitution' unless discriminatory officers conspiracy. charges '(t)he Appellees They argue 'there action.' 73 seizing concerning employed achieve achieved, reads 'broad Clause,' allegation, 'prevent indictment.'1 understand mean how compelling conspirators murdered, assaulted, intimidated prosecution fail enforcement arrests. 74 Hence, while reversed, severe limitations implicitly imposed. These stem words, referred free—when seeking facilities—from concert officers.2 75 241—without regard participated force prohibits congressional phrase 241.3 76 stems term tacitly restrict 'fully protected' another Unless interferences prohibited law, cannot, view, deemed States' premises neither law4 my (or law). 'created by, arising under, dependent upon,' 293, 626, protected.' emanates Section viewed, context, amplify prohibitions addressed, invariably officers; seeks 'bare terms' protecting interferences. duplicative function envisioned enactment. Appendix 807, 1163. construed restrictive manner contexts. Many encompassed additionally apply, violator officer, vote election, primary, 1368; discuss affairs grievances, cf. Hague CIO, 307 496, 512—513, 954, 962—963, 1423 (opinion Roberts, J.); Collins Hardyman, 663, 937, 942, 96 1253 violence lawful 429; Quarles Butler, 1080. import pp. 796—807, 1158 1163, regarding treat purportedly parity enumerated, provisions. vary particular standard determine whether, election Constitution.' me, created hence Strauder West 100 303, 310, 664, attempt enumerate protect. comprehensive possible. prohibitory; prohibition existence commands provide races owns manages, corollary command. Cf. Brewer Hoxie School 46, etc., 238 91 (C.A.8th Cir. 1956). privately owned generally deny stature last decade, ignore role predicated obtaining nondiscriminatory understanding, understanding expression Titles IV 246, §§ 2000b, 2000c Those reflect creates preface titles II5 explicitly rightly legislative declaration unnecessary, arose reversing numberee paragraph, charged actively connived arrests reports. 80 power—whether indubitably entirely permissible granted 'to enforce, of' Court6 expresses others implicated 'speaks participate. Rather, reasonably Amendment; fully empowered punishment interfering protection. enacting acknowledge notably 11, 21, 835, Congress' s adoption 'appropriate correcting effects acts, effectually null, void, innocuous.' accept—and rejects—this 5. reduces enforce judiciary;7 attributes too limited Amendment's sponsors.8 Fifteenth virtually same, South Carolina Katzenbach, 301, 326, 803, test involving powers reserved classic formulation Marshall McCulloch Wheat. 316, 421, 579, adopted: 'Let end legitimate, let constitution, appropriate, plainly adapted end, prohibited, consist latter spirit constitutional.' defines approvingly refers 339, 345—346, 676, adopting Maryland 'each War Amendments.' Viewed perspective, appears positive authorizing discretion fashioning equality Non directing schools, parks denied who, excess harass murder attempting facilities.9 federalism word denies adequately individuals—not officers—who brutal misguided purpose.10 model 'with rights' 'in lump,' Mosley, 383, 386, 904, 905, 1355; left mark bounds case-by-case threatened occur after anticipated decisions; involved, none know infraction before had.'11 Reliance wording brings danger vagueness. But, stringent scienter saves condemnation failing adequate notice proscribed conduct.12 therefore, 'willfully,' conviction. defiance, reckless disregard, rule definite. 93 95, 101—107, 1035 1038, 1495 J.) (involving 242). pleadings, occasion able proving requisite vis-a -vis Compare 366 213, 221—222, 1052, 1056—1057, Warren, C.J.). discharge imperil effectiveness where, often pertinent implied limitation statute's derives define—with measure specificity—the encompassed, remedy write defect. paraphrase Douglas' observation 105, 1037, 1495, companion shortcoming, desires definite scope, ways so. filed October 16, follows: 'THE GRAND JURY CHARGES: 'Commencing January date HERBERT GUEST, JAMES SPERGEON LACKEY, CECIL WILLIAM MYERS, DENVER WILLIS PHILLIPS, JOSEPH HOWARD SIMS, GEORGE HAMPTON TURNER, did, Athens Division, together, other, Grand Jury unknown, following States: '1. accommodation; '2. thereof; '3. white streets Georgia; '4. '5. Other enjoyed Georgia. plan objects achieved means, including following: shooting Negroes; beating killing damaging destroying property pursuing automobiles threatening guns; '6. telephone calls lives, property, threats person; '7. going disguise persons; '8. acts; '9. burning crosses night view. 'All Code.' additional indication record factual details that: knowledge defendants, Sims Myers, prosecuted Superior Madison County, Lemuel A. Penn guilty.' 475, 487. concerns conceded fifth added provides: accommodation, defined section, segregation color, origin.' criteria theaters 201(b)(3) 201(c)(3), 2000a(b)(3) 2000a(c)(3) ed.); restaurants 201(b)(2) 201(c)(2), 2000a(b)(2) 2000a(c)(2) issue allege accommodation said: contends enumerated automatically purview oral absent mentioned 201(a), draftsman doubtless relied, lists element 'without omitted Supreme (United v.) (542) page 556 (23 588), deprivation "We suspect 'race' cause hostility; averred. material description substance supplied implication. Everything positively, inferentially. form, substance." 484. states: title, local agency asserting ordinance requiring nondiscrimination establishments accommodations, remedy, criminal, right.' Relying history, crystal intend anyone penalties except itself.' 485. Brown Education, 347 483, 686, 98 873 (schools); Orleans Park Improvement Assn. Detiege, 358 54, 99, 46; Wright 284, 1240, 349; Watson Memphis, 526, 1314, 529; Barthe, 376 189, 636, 602 (parks playgrounds); Holmes Atlanta, 350 879, 141, 776 (golf course); Mayor Council Baltimore Dawson, 877, 774 (beach); Muir Louisville Theatrical Assn., 971, 783, 1112 (auditorium); Johnson 61, 1053, 195 (courthouse); (parking garage); Turner 350, 805, 762 (airport). 'No laws.' 747, suggestion BRENNAN'S separate slightest bearing 242, 1823 (separate Douglas); 286, 1847 Goldberg). 318, 1864 Black). Georgia.' Insofar covered Confederation. Human 1787, 185 (1956). relied heavily compel residents Arizona was, involved. Wheeler restricted facts, discredited subsequent decisions. 170, (Douglas, concurring); 586, 758. HARLAN'S guarantees, cited text supports whatever, private. reiterate quite regulated controlled confines 184, 171—172, 6—8, 568—570, 585. Zemel Rusk, 1271, 179; 992; 1204. nonetheless cursorily pronouncing far-reaching questions deliberately least, extraordinary. deportations, President's Mediation Comm'n, Report Bisbee, Deportations (November 1917). misplaced. organize labor unions. reference other' purely incidental dictum. here, crime. Developments Law—Injunctions, Harv.L.Rev. 994, 1013—1018 (1965). 162 relates merely, suggests, n. assuming maintained officers, preventing using (paragraph one) traveling (paragraphs four), else, unquestionably unnecessary motive 207(b), reading isolated (two) Similarly, right; construe prohibit interferences, valid questionable. 2000b Attorney General complaint 'being facility operated, subdivision,' commence 'for relief appropriate' 'necessary effective relief.' Arguably authorize officers. (This II, 2000a—6(b).) affirmatively disclaims intention Judge observed 'additionally,' abandoned consists joining CLARK'S judiciary, viewed likely guarantees equality, presumed primary augment judiciary. James, Framing (1956); Quest Equality 53—54 (1960); Frantz, Congressional Power Enforce Against Private Acts, Yale L.J. 1353, 1356 (1964). Harlan dissent 52, 835: perfectly known apprehended, altogether unfriendly hostile corporations states. intended, (§ 5), clothe congress meet danger.' 803 1161—1163, Appendix. 576, 774; Monroe Pape, 167, 473, 492. 258, 358, Darby, 312 100, 118, 451, 459, 609, 'extends activities intrastate affect regulation attainment legitimate Rutledge 1050. Ante, 753—754. generally, Boyce Motor Lines, Inc. 342 337, 342, 329, 331, 367; Communications Douds, 382, 412 413, 674, 690—692, 925; Ragen, 513, 524, 374, 378—379, 383; Gorin 19, 27—28, 433—434, 488; Hygrade Provision Sherman, 266 497, 501—503, 142—143, 402; Omaechevarria Idaho, 343, 323, 325, 763.

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