Document: 127 S. Ct. 1438 (2007) MASSACHUSETTS et al., Petitioners, v. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY al. No. 05-1120. Supreme Court of United States. Argued November 29, 2006. Decided April 2, 2007. *1444 James R. Milkey, Boston, MA, for petitioners. Gregory G. Garre, Washington, D.C., respondents. Thomas F. Reilly, Attorney General Massachusetts, Lisa Heinzerling, Special Assistant General, Counsel Record, William L. Pardee, Carol Iancu, Attorneys Bill Lockyer, California, Marc N. Melnick, Nicholas Stern, Deputy Oakland, CA, Richard Blumenthal, Connecticut, Kimberly Massicotte, Matthew Levin, Hartford, CT, Madigan, Illinois, J. Dunn, Gerald T. Karr, Chicago, IL, Steven Rowe, Maine, D. Reid, Augusta, ME, Stuart Rabner, New Jersey, Stefanie A. Brand, Kevin P. Auerbacher, Morelli, Trenton, NJ, Patricia Madrid, Mexico, M. Bluestone, Stephen Ferris, Judith Ann Moore, Sante Fe, NM, Eliot Spitzer, York, Caitlin Halligan, Solicitor Jared Snyder, NY, Hardy Myers Oregon, Philip Schradle, to the Whitman, Oregon Dept. Justice, Salem, OR, Patrick C. Lynch, Rhode Island, Tricia K. Jedele, Providence, RI, H. Sorrell, *1445 Vermont, O. Leske, Montpelier, VT, Rob McKenna, Leslie Seffern, Jay Geck, Olympia, WA, Robert Spagnoletti, District Columbia, Todd Kim, Donna Murasky, Senior South Malaetasi Togafau, American Samoa, Pago Pago, Michael Cardozo, Corporation Counsel, City Susan Kath Scott Pasternack, Tracy Triplett, Ralph Tyler, Solicitor, Baltimore, Phelan, Jr., Principal Baltimore Law, MD, Julie Teel, San Diego, Center Biological Diversity, Joseph Mendelson III, DC, International Technology Assessment, Food Safety, Environmental Advocates, and Greenpeace, Seth Kaplan, Conservation Law Foundation, B. Tripp, Defense, Brian Dunkiel, Shems Dunkiel Kassel & Saunders PLLC, Burlington, Danielle Fugere, Francisco, Friends Earth, John Stanton, National Trust, David Doniger, Natural Resources Defense Council, Bookbinder, Howard Fox, Sierra Club, Alexandra Schulte, Union Concerned Scientists, Alex Fidis, U.S. Public Interest Research Group, Petitioners. Kenneth W. Starr, A.C. Drake, Andrew Clubok, Ashley Parrish, Derek Bentsen, Kirkland Ellis LLP, Cordray, Grove City, Ohio, Theodore Olson, Miguel Estrada, Debold, McGill, Amir Tayrani, Gibson, Dunn Crutcher Respondents. Norman Fichthorn, Allison Wood, Hunton Williams D.C. Respondent Utility Air Regulatory Group. Russell Frye, FryeLaw Record Intervenor-Respondent CO2 Litigation Of Counsel: Dell E. Perelman, Vice President Hulse, Chemistry Arlington, VA, Wasserstrom, Forest Paper Association, Harry Ng, Colleli, Petroleum Institute, Nick Goldstein, Staff Attorney, Road Transportation Builders Jan Amundson, Quentin Riegel, President, Association Manufacturers, Robin Conrad, Chamber Center, Inc., Bob Slaughter, Petrochemical Refiners Wittenborn, Kelley Drye, Collier Shannon, Roger Martella, Acting Holmes, Protection Agency, D.C, Paul Clement, Sue Ellen Wooldridge, Hungar, Solicitors Malcolm Stewart, Jon Lipshultz, *1446 Department Federal Respondent. Cox, Michigan Casey, Lansing, MI, Alan Hoffman, Neil Gordon, State Michigan, Texas, Greg Abbott, Karen Kornell, Chief, Division, Jane Atwood, Austin, Jim Petro, Dale Vitale, Deputy, Enforcement Section, Columbus, respondent states North Dakota, Utah, Alaska, Kansas, Nebraska, Ohio. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. A well-documented rise in global temperatures has coincided with a significant increase concentration carbon dioxide atmosphere. Respected scientists believe two trends are related. For when is released into atmosphere, it acts like ceiling greenhouse, trapping solar energy retarding escape reflected heat. It therefore speciesthe most important speciesof "greenhouse gas." Calling warming "the pressing environmental challenge our time,"[1] group States,[2] local governments,[3] private organizations,[4] alleged petition certiorari that Agency (EPA) abdicated its responsibility under Clean Act regulate emissions four greenhouse gases, including dioxide. Specifically, petitioners asked us answer questions concerning meaning § 202(a)(1) Act: whether EPA statutory authority gas from new motor vehicles; if so, stated reasons refusing do so consistent statute. In response, EPA, supported by 10 intervening States[5] six trade associations,[6] correctly argued we may not address those unless at least one petitioner standing invoke jurisdiction Article III Constitution. *1447 Notwithstanding serious character jurisdictional argument absence any conflicting decisions construing 202(a)(1), unusual importance underlying issue persuaded grant writ. 548 ___, 126 2960, 165 Ed. 2d 949 (2006). I Section Act, as added Pub.L. 89-272, 101(8), 79 Stat. 992, amended by, inter alia, 84 1690 91 791, 42 U.S.C. 7521(a)(1), provides: "The [EPA] Administrator shall regulation prescribe (and time revise) accordance provisions this section, standards applicable emission air pollutant class or classes vehicles vehicle engines, which his judgment cause, contribute to, pollution reasonably be anticipated endanger public health welfare ...."[7] The defines "air pollutant" include "any agent combination such agents, physical, chemical, biological, radioactive ... substance matter emitted otherwise enters ambient air." 7602(g). "Welfare" also defined broadly: among other things, includes "effects on weather... climate." 7602(h). When Congress enacted these provisions, study climate change was infancy.[8] 1959, shortly after Weather Bureau began monitoring atmospheric levels, an observatory Mauna Loa, Hawaii, recorded mean level 316 parts per million. This well above highest concentrationno more than 300 millionrevealed 420,000-year-old ice-core record.[9] By drafted 1970, levels had reached 325 million.[10] *1448 late 1970's, Government devoting attention possibility associated human activity could provoke change. 1978, Climate Program 92 601, required establish program "assist Nation world understand respond natural man-induced processes their implications," id., 3. Carter, turn, working arm Academy Sciences, investigate subject. Council's response unequivocal: "If continues increase, finds no reason doubt changes will result negligible.... wait-and-see policy waiting until too late."[11] next addressed 1987, Global Title XI 100-204, 101 1407, note following 15 2901. Finding "manmade pollutionthe release dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, trace gases atmospheremay producing long-term substantial average temperature Earth," 1102(1), 1408, directed propose "coordinated national change," 1103(b), ordered Secretary work "through channels multilateral diplomacy" coordinate diplomatic efforts combat warming, 1103(c). emphasized "ongoing deforestation contributing now irreversible process" "[n]ecessary actions must identified implemented protect 1102(4). Meanwhile, scientific understanding progressed. 1990, Intergovernmental Panel Change (IPCC), multinational body organized auspices Nations, published first comprehensive report topic. Drawing expert opinions across globe, IPCC concluded "emissions resulting activities substantially increasing concentrations of... [which] enhance effect, additional Earth's surface."[12] Responding report, Nations convened "Earth Summit" 1992 Rio de Janeiro. Bush attended signed Framework Convention (UNFCCC), nonbinding agreement 154 nations reduce purpose "prevent[ing] dangerous anthropogenic [i.e., human-induced] interference [Earth's] system."[13] Treaty Doc. 102-38, Art. p. 5 (1992). Senate unanimously ratified treaty. *1449 Some five years laterafter issued second 1995 concluding "[t]he balance evidence suggests there discernible influence climate"[14]the UNFCCC signatories met Kyoto, Japan, adopted protocol assigned mandatory targets industrialized emissions. Because did apply developing heavily polluting China India, passed resolution expressing sense States should enter Kyoto Protocol. See Res. 98, 105th Cong., 1st Sess. (July 25, 1997) (as passed). Clinton submit ratification. II On October 20, 1999, 19 organizations[15] filed rulemaking asking 202 Act." App. 5. Petitioners maintained 1998 "warmest year record"; nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons "heat gases"; have significantly accelerated change; IPCC's warned "carbon remains contributor [man-made] forcing change." Id., 13 (internal quotation marks omitted). further adverse effects environment. 22-35. As EPA's authority, observed agency itself already confirmed power 18, n. 21. 1998, Jonathan Z. Cannon, then prepared legal "CO2 within scope regulate," even he recognized far declined exercise authority. 54 (memorandum Browner, (Apr. 10, 1998) (hereinafter Cannon memorandum)). Cannon's successor, Gary Guzy, reiterated before congressional committee just weeks filed. 61. Fifteen months petition's submission, requested comment "all issues raised [the] petition," adding "particular" request comments scientific, technical, legal, economic aspect relevant consideration petition." 66 Fed.Reg. 7486, 7487 (2001). received 50,000 over months. 68 52924 (2003). Before close period, White House sought "assistance identifying areas science where greatest certainties uncertainties" "as soon possible." 213. *1450 2001 titled Change: An Analysis Key Questions (NRC Report), which, drawing "[g]reenhouse accumulating atmosphere activities, causing surface subsurface ocean rise. Temperatures are, fact, rising." NRC Report 1. September 8, 2003, entered order denying petition. 52922. gave decision: (1) contrary former general counsels, does authorize regulations change, see 52925-52929; (2) set standards, would unwise time, 52929-52931. lacked "was aware last comprehensively [Clean Act] 1990," yet adopt proposed amendment establishing binding limitations. 52926. instead chose investigation Ibid. (citing §§ 103(g) 602(e) Amendments 104 2652, 2703, 7403(g)(1) 7671a(e)). reasoned Congress' "specially tailored solutions issues," 52926in particular, 1990 enactment scheme pollutants depleted ozone layer, VI, 2649, 7671-7671qcounseled against reading authorization confer regulatory gases. "urged view" Court's decision FDA Brown Williamson Tobacco Corp., 529 120, 120 1291, 146 121 (2000). case, relying "tobacco['s] unique political history," 159, invalidated Drug Administration's reliance drugs basis asserting "industry constituting portion economy," ibid. own "political history": designed original rather "is fairly throughout world's atmosphere," 52927 (emphasis added); enact amendments force vehicles, H.R. 5966, 101st (1990)); legislation, Fed. Reg. 52927. history, because imposing limitations greater repercussions regulating tobacco, so. 52928. essence, spoke exacting specificity, meant it. Having conclusion, believed followed cannot pollutants" Act. ("It follows [greenhouse gases], such, Act's] provisions..."). bolstered conclusion *1451 explaining were pollutant, only feasible method reducing tailpipe improve fuel economy. But created detailed economy subject (DOT) administration, either conflict superfluous. 52929. Even assuming explained detail why refuse recognizing dramatically increased acknowledged attendant temperatures. 52930. nevertheless controlling Report's statement causal link between "`cannot unequivocally established.'" (quoting 17). Given residual uncertainty, unwise. furthermore characterized motor-vehicle "piecemeal approach" 52931, President's "comprehensive problem, 52932. That approach involves support technological innovation, creation nonregulatory programs encourage voluntary private-sector reductions emissions, research changenot actual regulation. 52932-52933. According unilateral might hamper ability persuade key countries 52931. joined intervenor governments, review Appeals Columbia Circuit.[16] Although each three judges panel wrote separate opinion, agreed "that properly exercised discretion rule making." 415 F.3d 50, 58 (2005). court denied review. announcing court's judgment, Judge Randolph avoided definitive ruling petitioners' standing, 56, reasoning permissible proceed merits inquiries "overlap[ped]," Assuming without deciding statute authorized "in judgment" "reasonably welfare," need based solely evidence, but informed sort judgments motivate action. F.3d, 58. framework, reasonable base uncertainty factors, concern weaken *1452 countries. Sentelle separately failed "demonstrat[e] element injury necessary III." 59 (opinion dissenting part concurring judgment). view, they "harmful humanity large," allege "particularized injuries" themselves. 60 Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 562, 112 2130, 119 351 (1992)). While dissented however, accepted view law case Randolph's closest preferred. 60-61. Tatel dissented. Emphasizing nowhere challenged factual affidavits, 66, Massachusetts "satisfied standinginjury, causation, redressability," 64. Tatel's "`substantial probability,'" projected rises sea lead loss coastal property "far cry" kind generalized harm insufficient ground jurisdiction. 65. He found affidavits adequately failure curb contributed threatened Massachusetts' property. redressability, experts, climatologist, "`[a]chievable gases] delay moderate many impacts warming.'" declaration MacCracken, Executive Director, ¶ 5(e) MacCracken Decl.), available 2 Petitioners' Standing Appendix 03-1361, etc., (CADC), 209 (Stdg.App.)). noted one-time director control affidavit enforceable development technologies "`would gradually mandated around world.'" Walsh ¶¶ 7-8, Stdg. 309-310, 311). merits, length text provided concerns justify refusal 67-82. IV Constitution limits federal-court "Cases" "Controversies." Those words confine business federal courts presented adversary context form historically viewed capable through judicial process." Flast Cohen, 392 83, 95, 88 1942, 20 947 (1968). familiar learning justiciable "controversy" exists parties seek adjudication question, Luther Borden, 7 How. 1, 12 581 (1849), ask advisory Hayburn's Case, Dall. 409, 1 436 (1792), Jones, 520 681, 700, 33, 117 1636, 137 945 (1997), question adjudicated been mooted subsequent developments, California Pablo Tulare Co., 149 308, 876, 37 747 (1893). suffers none defects. *1453 parties' dispute turns proper construction statute, eminently suitable court. moreover type 7607(b)(1). critical inquiry: "Congress define injuries articulate chains causation give controversy existed before." Lujan, U.S., 580, 2130 (KENNEDY, J., "In exercising power, very identify seeks vindicate relate persons entitled bring suit." We not, therefore, "entertain citizen suits public's nonconcrete interest administration laws." 581, 2130. maintains inflict widespread harm, doctrine presents insuperable obstacle. agree. At bottom, gist standing" "such personal stake outcome assure concrete adverseness sharpens presentation upon largely depends illumination." Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 82 691, 663 (1962). KENNEDY concurrence: "While how injured action, party bringing suit show action injures him way. requirement empty formality. preserves vitality adversarial process assuring both actual, opposed professed, outcome, resolved, rarified debating society, conducive realistic appreciation consequences action." To ensure presentation, holds litigant demonstrate suffered particularized imminent, traceable defendant, likely favorable redress injury. 560-561, However, whom "accorded procedural right interests," 572, 7, 2130here, unlawfully withheld, 7607(b)(1)"can assert meeting all normal redressability immediacy," vested right, some relief prompt injury-causing reconsider allegedly harmed litigant. Ibid.; Sugar Cane Growers Cooperative Fla. Veneman, 289 89, 94-95 (C.A.D.C.2002) ("A [litigant] who alleges deprivation protection never prove procedure substantive altered. All step connected result"). Only needs permit consider Rumsfeld Forum Academic Institutional Rights, 547 47, 52, S.Ct. *1454 1297, 164 156 stress here, below, special position Massachusetts. considerable relevance seeking here sovereign individual. Well modern administrative state, litigants purposes invoking Holmes Georgia Tennessee Copper 206 230, 237, 27 618, 51 1038 (1907), citizens originating outside borders: parties; not. elements relied fellow-citizens equitable wanting here. owns little territory affected, damage estimate money, possibly, least, small. capacity quasi-sovereign. independent behind titles citizens, earth domain. word mountains stripped forests inhabitants breathe pure Just Georgia's "independent interest... domain" century ago, well-founded desire preserve today. Cf. Alden 527 706, 715, 2240, 144 636 (1999) (observing system, "are relegated role mere provinces corporations, retain dignity, though full sovereignty"). fact great deal "territory affected" reinforces sufficiently warrant power. Union, surrenders certain prerogatives. invade Island negotiate treaty circumstances police powers in-state pre-empted. Alfred Snapp Son, Inc. Puerto Rico ex rel. Barez, 458 592, 607, 102 3260, 73 995 (1982) ("One helpful indication determining suffices sue parens patriae State, could, attempt lawmaking powers"). These prerogatives lodged Government, (among others) prescribing "emission [the Administrator's] welfare." 7521(a)(1). concomitant rejection arbitrary capricious. protecting quasi-sovereign interests, Commonwealth *1455 solicitude analysis.[17] With mind, clear submissions pertain satisfied demanding process. steadfast risk "actual" "imminent." 560, There is, moreover, "substantial likelihood requested" take steps risk. Duke Power Co. Carolina Study 438 59, 79, 98 2620, 57 595 (1978). Injury harms recognized. Indeed, itselfwhich regards "objective assessment science," 52930identifies number inflicted harms, retreat mountain glaciers, reduction snow-cover extent, earlier spring melting rivers lakes, [and] rate during 20th relative past few thousand ...." 16. hints come. scientist *1456 "qualified experts involved research" "strong consensus" threatens things) precipitate end century, Decl. 15, 207, "severe ecosystems," 5(d), 209, "significant water storage winter snowpack mountainous regions direct consequences," ibid., spread disease, 28, 218-219. observes rising ferocity hurricanes. 23-25, 216-217.[18] climate-change risks "widely shared" minimize litigation. Election Comm'n Akins, 524 11, 24, 118 1777, 141 (1998) ("[W]here concrete, widely shared, `injury fact'"). unchallenged rose somewhere centimeters warming. 5(c), Stdg.App. 208. seas begun swallow land. 196 (declaration Kirshen 5), 216 (MacCracken 23). "owns state's property," 171 Karst Hoogeboom 4),[19] landowner. severity course century: If continue predicted, official believes fraction "either permanently lost inundation temporarily periodic storm surge flooding events." 6, 172.[20] Remediation costs alone, allege, run hundreds millions dollars. 172; 12, 198.[21] *1457 Causation existence connection man-made minimum, "contributes" injuries. contributes insignificantly haled them. same reason, mitigate remedy especially predicted increases nations, particularly offset marginal domestic decrease. overstates case. Its rests erroneous assumption small incremental step, incremental, can attacked forum. Yet accepting premise doom challenges Agencies, legislatures, generally resolve massive problems fell swoop. Lee Optical Okla., 348 483, 489, 75 461, 99 563 (1955) ("[A] reform addressing phase problem seems acute legislative mind"). They whittle away them refining preferred develop more-nuanced best proceed. SEC Chenery 332 194, 202, 67 1575, (1947) ("Some principles await development, while others adjusted meet unforeseeable situations"). tentative notion lack determine conforms law. And automobile hardly step. leaving aside transportation sector emits enormous quantity atmosphereaccording affidavit, 1.7 billion metric tons 1999 alone. 30, 219. accounts 6% worldwide 232 (Oppenheimer 3); 31, 220. put perspective: Considering sector, represent less one-third country's total still rank third-largest emitter world, outpaced European China.[22] Judged *1458 standard, make meaningful contribution hence, according petitioners, Remedy true reverse means decide duty slow Larson Valente, 456 228, 244, 1673, 72 33 plaintiff satisfies shows relieve discrete himself. every injury"). enormity potential effectiveness delayed (relatively short) takes fleet replace older essentially irrelevant.[23] Nor dispositive India poised pace increases, what happens elsewhere. attach significance "agree[ment] `we change,'" 52929 remarks Clear Skies Initiatives, 2002 Papers George Bush, Vol. Feb. 14, 227 (2004)), ardent various emission-reduction programs, dissent "EPA presumably bother thought discernable impact future warming." 66. sumat uncontested affidavitsthe catastrophic remote, real. reduced extent seek. hold denial petition.[24] *1459 V narrow. repeated again, broad choose marshal limited resources personnel carry out delegated responsibilities. Chevron U.S.A. 467 837, 842-845, 2778, 81 694 (1984). height decides enforcement Therefore, Heckler Chaney, 470 821, 105 1649, 714 (1985), held agency's initiate proceedings ordinarily debate remains, rigor rulemaking. differences Horse Assn., Lyng, 812 F.2d 3-4 (C.A.D.C.1987). contrast nonenforcement decisions, refusals frequent, apt involve analysis, formalities, explanation." 4; 555(e). arise denials petitions (at here) affected undoubted file instance. Refusals promulgate rules thus susceptible review, "extremely limited" "highly deferential." Customs Brokers Forwarders Assn. America, States, 883 93, 96 (C.A.D.C.1989). 7521(a)(1) term 7602. alternative, possessed decline priorities. discussed earlier, expressly permits "may be... arbitrary, capricious, abuse discretion, law." 7607(d)(9). VI authorizes event forms "judgment" trouble does. part, provides "shall *1460 intend substances provision. forecloses reading. Act's sweeping definition chemical... air... ." 7602(g) added). face, embraces airborne compounds whatever stripe, underscores intent use "any."[25] Carbon "physical chemical substance[s] [are] unambiguous.[26] Rather text, invokes postenactment deliberations views tantamount command refrain history shed light otherwise-unambiguous identifies remotely suggesting curtail treat pollutants. Congresses eschewed enacting tells nothing about 1970 1977.[27] unlike difficulty reconciling promote interagency collaboration better *1461 change[28] pre-existing mandate welfare. 7601(a)(1). Collaboration thoughtful effort; complement it.[29] 121, similarly misplaced. holding tobacco products "drugs" "devices" Administration (FDA) pursuant Food, Cosmetic (FDCA), 133, considerations counterpart First, unlikely ban products, FDCA classified "devices." 135-137, 1291. Here, contrast, extreme measures. then, "to application requisite technology, giving appropriate cost compliance," 7521(a)(2). However much clashed "common sense" intuition remove circulation, Williamson, counterintuitive putting kilter. Second, pointed unbroken series enactments made "against backdrop FDA's statements tobacco." 144, point here: conflicts way vehicles. had, acted "backdrop" disclaimers Prior provoked litigation, disavowed affirmed (Cannon memorandum). compelling accept invitation read ambiguity finally argues *1462 doing require tighten mileage job (according EPA) DOT. DOT sets licenses shirk charged "health" "welfare," obligation wholly DOT's efficiency. Energy Policy 2(5), 89 874, 6201(5). obligations overlap, think agencies administer avoid inconsistency. appreciated burning fossil fuels flexibility, changing developments render obsolete. language reflects intentional effort flexibility forestall obsolescence. Pennsylvania Corrections Yeskey, 206, 212, 1952, 215 ("[T]he applied situations ambiguity. demonstrates breadth" omitted)). fit capacious pollutant," VII alternative decisionthat timerests divorced text. condition formation "judgment," "cause[s], contribute[s] Put another way, roving license ignore direction limits. makes finding endangerment, requires deleterious (stating "[EPA] vehicles"). latitude manner, timing, content, coordination agencies. once responded rulemaking, inaction conform authorizing Under terms taking determines explanation do. constrains pursue priorities design. refused comply command. Instead, offered laundry list regulate. example, said executive branch provide effective threat *1463 52932, impair "key nations" curtailing reflect "an inefficient, piecemeal issue," neither expertise nor evaluate judgments, evident Still amount justification declining judgment. foreign affairs, extend execute laws. Departmentnot EPAto formulate reference matters relating climate. 1103(c), 1409. showing consultation Department. consult formulation policies rules, absent list. 1103(b). noting surrounding features time. 52930-52931. profound precludes making say prefer uncertaintywhich, SCALIA's apparent belief, post, 1466-1468, said, ("We gas] time" added))is irrelevant. sufficient information endangerment finding. short, cause "arbitrary, 7607(d)(9)(A). reach remand finding, inform 843-844, VIII reversed, remanded opinion. ordered. Chief ROBERTS, SCALIA, THOMAS, ALITO join, dissenting. "crisis," time." Pet. Cert. 26, 22. ultimately affect nearly everyone planet potentially governments done escaped policymakers *1464 Legislative Branches regulatory, legislative, treaty-based Apparently dissatisfied progress elected branches, come claiming broad-ranging injury, attempting tie Government's narrow reject nonjusticiable. Such exists, causes it, problem. recourse. jurisprudence simply recognizes grievances function Executive," courts. 576, vacate below dismissal controversy, expounding so." DaimlerChrysler Corp. Cuno, 1854, 1860-1861, 589 "Standing common case," Steel Citizens Better Environment, 523 102, 1003, 140 210 (1998), described essential unchanging case-or-controversy III," supra, Our framework familiar: "A defendant's unlawful conduct redressed relief." DaimlerChrysler, S.Ct., 1861 Allen Wright, 468 737, 751, 3315, 556 (1984) Applying standard bear burden alleging Agency's prospective issuance standards. test, rules. asserts "States jurisdiction," given "Massachusetts' analysis." Ante, 1454, 1455 Relaxing requirements asserted pressed jurisprudence, "special solicitude" conspicuously provision cited Court, 7607(b)(1), affords rights status. others)" issue, has... rule-making capricious." 1454. reader unfortunate phrasing something *1465 particular knows wants see, e.g., 7426(b) (affording directly sources pollution), rely, treated exactly same. somehow implicitly treats differently. go back novel rule, comes up short. analysis hinges (1907)a indeed draw distinction litigants, respect remedies. standing. Copper, enjoin copper companies neighboring discharging inflicting "a wholesale destruction forests, orchards crops" bordering counties. 236, 618. owned Georgiain "quasi-sovereign""has domain." [were] wanting," lightly pay." Thus complaining remedyone "for pay"the relief. 237-238, present 238-239, certainly suggestion not; dispute, all, landowners 238, since stood State's representative patriae. See, Maryland Louisiana, 451 725, 2114, 576 (1981). Nothing dilutes bedrock satisfy III. claim distinct allegation Wyoming Oklahoma, 502 437, 448-449, 451, 789, Far being substitute raise hurdle state litigant: articulation "quasi-sovereign interest" "apart interests parties." added) (cited ante, 1454). association suing behalf members represents requirements, Focusing Massachusetts's harder, easier. always regarded *1466 standinga interestand converts What more, falters terms. due 1455, applies test 1456 (concluding "has landowner" added)). ownership land "nonsovereign interes[t]" situated proprietors." 3260. top everything else, overlooks cases cast interestas injuryagainst Government. enforce relations field them." Mellon, 262 447, 485-486, 43 597, 1078 (1923) (citation omitted); 610, 16, explains briefs Circuit. legion amici supporting ever writing either. "`to illumination,'" 1452-1453 (1962)), ironic today adopts theory benefit briefing point.[1] plays except implicit concession traditional status *1467 compensate redressability. actually three-part focuses, 64 (C.A.D.C.2005) Tatel, J.), fact. rely rest specific "concrete particularized," "distinct palpable," Allen, 3315 Central concept "particularized" "personal individual way," "directly tangibly benefits him" manner 573-574, Without confidence `a real review' framed `no broader precise facts applied.'" Warth Seldin, 422 490, 508, 95 2197, 45 343 (1975) Schlesinger Reservists Comm. Stop War, 418 208, 221-222, 94 2925, 41 706 (1974)). inconsistent particularization requirement. phenomenon (Sentelle, judgment), focused generallyit literally world. land, "actual conjectural hypothetical," omitted), "real immediate," Los Angeles Lyons, 461 103 1660, 675 (1983) "certainly impending," Whitmore Arkansas, 495 149, 158, 110 1717, 109 135 (1990) "global warming" "[t]hese land." 1456. declarations supports connection. One occurring coast metropolitan Boston area," elaboration. etc. (Stdg.App.). declarant goes "significan[t]" non-global-warming Boston's level: subsidence. 197; 216. Thus, single conclusory statement, accompanying exhibits inference increases. conjecture. attempts "imminent" impending" fares better. 1456-1457. declarants predicts 70 2100. Another uses computer modeling *1468 map Commonwealth's current elevation, calculates high-end state-owned 179. conceded error 30 maximum centimeters. 177-178. initial matter, possible model underrepresents elevation equal excess rise, difficult stock placing side, century-long horizon compounded estimates renders imminence immediacy utterly toothless. 565, (while "`imminence'" "somewhat elastic," "stretched beyond breaking point"). "Allegations impending constitute fact." Whitmore, 1717. omitted; emphasis creates insurmountable promulgation often overlap. 753, 19, "initially articulated facets requirement" importantly, challenging regulation, third party, satisfying becomes "substantially difficult." Warth, 504-505, 2197. relationship simple direct: Domestic emit Worldwide emissionsand harmshave higher been; course, trend reversed. ignores complexities disregarding one, using dire nature bootstrap recognize disperse remain anywhere 50 200 years, data relevant. A-73. declarations, 6 percent 4 232. *1469 smaller still; covers desired gets emissions; linking complexities. "predicting necessarily complex web physical factors including: predict aerosols; fate (e.g., percentage absorbed vegetation taken oceans); radiative properties atmosphere; critically feedbacks cloud cover circulation); characteristics temperatures, shifts daytime evening temperatures); climatic parameters precipitation, storms); decreases agricultural productivity, impacts)." A-83 A-84. able fractional bit-part played describe 150-year phenomenon, myriad bearing injurythe landthe speculative causation. Redressability problematic. tenuous indeterminate add meaningfully 80 originate acknowledges, "developing century," 1458, become increasingly produced overwhelmed times elsewhere offer contending "[i]f similar regarding technology developed program." 220; 311-312. words, worry someone bound invent something, places People's Republic surely regardless cost. previously "depends unfettered choices actors whose *1470 legitimate presume predict," assertion actor manner. ASARCO Kadish, 490 605, 615, 2037, 696 (1989) KENNEDY, J.); internal declarations' (not fanciful) close. No reasons, decrease "slow elsewhere." 1458. Every bit helps, bit. sleight-of-hand failing different test. looks contends emissionsto degree, events worldthe factthe landwill redressed. Schoolchildren know kingdom want horseshoe nail," "likely" matter. realities conjecture suppose prevent demonstrating surprising mismatch source injurycatastrophic warmingand suit. goal litigation symbolic anything else. constitutional courts, casesnot serve convenient forum debates. Valley Forge Christian College Americans Separation Church 454 464, 472, 752, 700 ("[Standing] tends action"). dealing phrased "fairly" redressed, perhaps debate. considering loosely rigorously adverbs, vital keep mind inquiry. limitation controversies crucial maintaining tripartite allocation forth Constitution." 1860-1861 my todayaddressing III's "core component standing," 2130fails seriously. fair, Today's recalls previous high-water mark diluted Students Challenging Procedures (SCRAP), 412 669, 93 2405, 254 (1973). *1471 SCRAP "[p]robably attenuated conferring "surely went outer limit law"until 158-159, 1717; Wildlife Federation, 497 871, 889, 3177, 111 695 (SCRAP emulated Court"). SCRAP, group's railroad freight surcharge rates nonrecyclable goods, produce goods. group, Washington area, find area parks, harming members. 688, 2405. Over became emblematic looseness manipulable seriously self-restraint. seem lawyer's game, fundamental ensuring intrude politically accountable branches. generation.[2] Perhaps much. How else explain devise result? good news applicability bad self-professed relaxation caused transgress properand limitedrole democratic society." 750, respectfully dissent. THE CHIEF JUSTICE, join JUSTICE's full, having decided otherwise, me merits. heart (CAA), prescribe. . *1472 recognizes, "condition[s] `judgment.'" 1462. 1463 finding"); (2003) ("[N]o CAA's meets criteria regulation"). arises: Does whenever filed? citation says yes. Why so? wishes hand, Brock Pierce County, 476 253, 254-255, 106 1834, 90 248 (1986) (discussing Comprehensive Employment Training (CETA), 1926, 29 816(b) (1976 ed., Supp. V), "provide[d] Labor `shall' final determination misuse CETA funds recipient days receiving complaint misuse"). Where CAA points exists. invents multiple-choice ways: (a) endangers (in regulate); (b) (c) "provid[ing] whether" welfare, 1462, regulate). am willing assume, sake argument, Administrator's regard entirely unboundedthat deferring grasp nettle once. precedent, rejects "policy judgments" "amount[ing] justification," 1463, effectively narrowing universe bases one: Judgment concludes [too] profound." precluded would. Ibid.[1] reasonsperfectly valid reasonswere statement. "We laid *1473 calls near-term incentives along aimed uncertainties encouraging government efficiently long term. "[E]stablishing issue. abroad, face financial sensible sinks considered achieve needed reductions. "Unilateral intensity economies. large populations growing economies countries, quickly overwhelm measures Any let Unavoidably, raises issues, prerogative 52929-52931 (footnote dismisses "rest[ing] text." `judgment,' `cause[s], welfare.'" True "cause, defer judgmentthe grapple "policy" rationales, criticizes "divorced text," silent, texts silent discretion. regularly account ought account) entering field: entry Branch policy. imposed limitation. interpretation conferred "its reasonable, incorrect, alone deference *1474 forth, uphold deny B terms, follows. mentioned above, gives option uncertain allow Attached (on unclear) essay requirement: "If," says, 1463. precisely thatand length, contained Council (NRC) Science: Questions: "As (GHGs)] (pp. 9-12). `[a] diverse array temperatures' (p. 16). `[b]ecause variability inherent record histories agents aerosols), [causal] linkage buildup established. magnitude comparison simulated models suggestive linkage, proof simulations deficient decadal scale' `there system varies naturally reacts [GHGs] aerosols' 1). cautioned `current adjustments (either upward downward).' Id. advised `[r]educing wide range predictions major advances aerosols so-called "feedbacks" sensitivity prescribed [GHGs].' extraordinarily evolving. science, addressed. explained, predicting GHGs *1475 impacts). noted, `[t]he relationships weather/climate infancy poorly understood' 20). Substantial assess GHGs. "Reducing aerosols, system." conceive say. reaching discussion "§ `judgment' 1459 authorization, relies `air pollutant.'" 1460. "Air chemical,. correct "[c]arbon hydrofluorocarbons," half definition: "physical, ente[r] mistakenly analysis. definition, "substance [being] air" definitionnamely, agents." pretends exist. faithfully advanced focuses "including" pollutant." Brief 13-14. goes, subset precedes qualify phrase "including," preceding Since air," *1476 agent[s] combination[s] agents," pollutant[s]." definition. indicate "illustrative" sampling category word. Land Bank St. Bismarck Lumber 314 100, 62 86 65 (1941). Often, examples category, category. unanswered) example: `any automobile, truck minivan,' construed encompass foreign-manufactured [truck or] minivan." 34. principle enunciatedthat speaker talking automobilescarries forward illustrative (trucks minivans), accordingly, isolation broader. 28 1782(a), refers proceeding international tribunal, criminal investigations conducted formal accusation." Certainly underway tribunal. also, 54(a) ("The Clerk Representatives shall, Member Representatives, furnish Member, only, privately annotated version Code, supplements pocket parts"); 22 2304(b)(1) ("the findings organizations, nongovernmental organizations"). (or petitioners') result. perfectly entirety: retains characteristic reached: "[A] pollutant' `physical, air.' agent.'" 52929, 52928 root indicates pollutant,' `agent' pollution'"). Once textual ambiguity, found.[2] Evidently, defers interpretations favors. Using to) "agent[s]" pollution." *1477 regulation; Unlike pollutants," pollution" CAA; thus, again ambiguous term, "permissible statute." Chevron, 843, 2778. "regulation 52925. regulate, assertedly responsible change" qualifies commonsense observation "[p]roblems CO2," 52927, resemblance termed pollution": "EPA's prior context. inception used occur primarily near earth. quality (NAAQS) established section related problems. setting NAAQS ozone, monoxide, particulate earth, CO2, approximately lower stratosphere." 52926-52927. upper reaches akin air. look dictionary confirmation reasonable. "pollute," "[t]o impure unclean." Webster's Dictionary 1910 (2d ed.1949). definitions "air" follows: invisible, odorless, tasteless mixture surrounds earth"; earth's esp., distinguished rarefied part"; (3) "[a] affecting senses." 54. conception pollution"focusing impurities "ambient "at earth"is end, "CAA pollution," 52928, "[T]he pollution' interpreted fails unreasonable unworthy deference. * alarm justified, *1478 distort straightforward administrative-law malleable agency. stake, substituting NOTES [1] [2] Washington. [3] York Baltimore. [4] [5] Idaho, Utah. [6] Alliance Automobile Dealers Engine Manufacturers Truck [7] "which welfare" more-protective 6(a) 1690. 1977 approval Ethyl 541 25 (C.A.D.C. 1976) (en banc), "and demand regulator inevitable." 401(d)(1) 1977, 791; H.R.Rep. 95-294, 49 (1977), Code Cong. Admin.News 1077. [8] Quality "[m]an weather." Quality: First Annual 93. Considerable remained early unmentioned 116 Rec. 32914 (1970) (statement Sen. Boggs referring "[a]ir alters temperature"). [9] Change, 2001: Synthesis Report, pp. 202-203 drilling thick Antarctic ice sheets extracting "cores," examine ago extract samples ancient analyzed, yielding levels. [10] dramatic come: 2006, 382 million, Commerce, Oceanic Atmospheric Administration, Loa Monthly Mean Data, www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/co2_mm_mlo.dat (all Internet materials visited Mar. 2007, file), exceed 20-million years. Technical Summary Working Group 39 [11] Board, Dioxide Climate: Scientific vii (1979). [12] IPCC, xi (J. Houghton, Jenkins, Ephraums eds. 1991). [13] listed Annex undertook 2000. immediate restrictions India. developed. [14] 1995, Science 4. [15] Sustainable Communities; Applied Technologies, Inc.; Bio Fuels America; Solar Industries Assn.; Clements Corp.; Advocates; Institute; Earth; Full Circle Project, Green Party Island; Greenpeace USA; Assessment; Network Economic Responsibility Christ; Jersey Watch; Mexico Council; Citizen; SUN DAY Campaign. 7-11. [16] 7607(b)(1) promulgating 7521 title taken, chapter Columbia"). [17] JUSTICE accuses misreading 1464-1465 (dissenting opinion), "devis[ing] 1454-1455. Hart Wechsler's Courts System understands decision. Fallon, Meltzer, Shapiro, 290 (5th ed.2003). devotes entire chronicling permitting litigate interestsi.e., governmental whole." 289; Missouri 180 240-241, 21 331, (1901) (finding involving boundaries lands inhabitants, state," impairment prosperity towns cities state" stake). (1923), (1901)), claims "overloo[k] Government." Post, 1466. Not Mellon "called adjudicate, person property, dominion domain, quasi invaded threatened." 484-485, 597 event, 324 439, 716, 1051 (1945), difference allowing her operation statutes" (which prohibits) do). citizens; Nebraska Wyoming, 515 115 1933, 132 (1995) (holding cross-claim "`quasi-sovereign' `independent domain'" 618)). [18] regard, MacCracken's 2004 affidavitdrafted advance Hurricane Katrinawas eerily prescient. Immediately discussing "particular concern" "increase wind speed peak precipitation tropical cyclones (i.e., hurricanes typhoons)," "[s]oil compaction, recurrent storms destroying 20-30 square miles Louisiana wetlands year. `shock absorber' surges inundate Orleans, enhancing urban population." 24-25, 217. [19] "For [Massachusetts Recreation] owns, operates 53 beaches, reservations, wildlife sanctuaries. [It] sporting recreational facilities areas, numerous pools, skating rinks, playgrounds, playing fields, fortifications, stages, museums, bike trails, tennis boathouses boat ramps landings. Associated infrastructure, maintains, roads, parkways, stormwater pump stations, pier[s], wal[l] revetments dams." 4, 171. [20] 179 Jacqz) roughly 14 acres coastline 2100); 198 (alleging "[w]hen occurs, 10-year flood 100-year 500-year flood"). [21] dissent, "conclusory," quantify exactitude prefer. 1467-1468. "conjectur[al]." recede determined metes bounds soon-to-be-flooded maintain territory. save dissenters, disputes allegations. more. [22] UNFCCC, Greenhouse Gas Inventory Data Period 1990-2004 Status Reporting (2006) Data) (reflecting countries); Sixth Compilation Initial Communications Parties Included 7-8 (2005) non-Annex Energy, Information Admin., 2004, H.1co2 World Emissions Consumption Flaring Fossil Fuels, 1980-2004 (Table), http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/tableh1co2.xls. [23] Mountain Legal Foundation Glickman, 1228, 1234 (C.A.D.C.1996) drastic likely, lesser increment probability standing"); Village Elk Evans, 997 328, 329 (C.A.7 1993) ("[E]ven create controversyto hypotheticalprovided would, granted, probability"). [24] expresses disagreement 687-688, disavow Stewart's Court: "Unlike geographically complained Club [v. Morton, 405 727, 1361, 31 (1972)], Nation's railroads, country. picturesque valley utilize scenic country, air, groups people suffer Indeed demonstrated patent adversely actions. injured, injurious questioned nobody. conclusion." (citations omitted quite wrong analogize entities parsimonious "lawyer's game." 1471. [25] Housing Urban Development Rucker, 535 125, 131, 122 1230, 152 258 (2002) "`any' expansive meaning, indiscriminately kind" (some [26] SCALIA permeate surface, exclusion 1469-1470. distinction, distinguishing layers. Moreover, plainly capture cannot) carefully broadly, expedient "agent." rate, contests "ente[r] tend warm unquestionably pollution. [27] Price, 361 304, 313, 326, 334 (1960) hazardous inferring one"); Cobell Norton, 428 1070, 1075 ("[P]ost-enactment oxymoronic inherently weight"). [28] 5, 2901 seq. (calling establishment research); 1103, 1408-1409 (directing "jointly" Congress); Tit. I, 3097, 2921-2938 (establishing "development integrated program" aid "understand[ing] human-induced change"); Prevention 4058, 6701 Agriculture forestry agriculture); 1992, 1601-1609, 2999, 13381-13388 (requiring pertaining change). [29] puzzled roundabout later stratospheric provision, 17, that. Wechsler) prudential Venezuela Morris 287 192, 199, (CADC 2002) "parens merely species omitted)), for, alter content of, "irreducible minimum" contrary. caption enough, refutes (1982). followed, 1458-1459, 24. Rather, there, troubling. "something ingenious academic conceivable," understood string occurrences happen immediately," "quite wrong" compare `lawyer's game.'" assertions accurate. effect determination. plausible alternative. out, stripe," 1460, airborne, Frisbees flatulence, defies sense.

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