Document: 413 U.S. 189 93 S.Ct. 2686 37 L.Ed.2d 548 Wilfred KEYES et al., Petitioners,v.SCHOOL DISTRICT NO. 1, DENVER, COLORADO, al. No. 71—507. Argued Oct. 12, 1972. Decided June 21, 1973. Rehearing Denied 9, See 414 883, 94 27. Syllabus Petitioners sought desegregation of the Park Hill area schools in Denver and, upon securing an order District Court directing that relief, expanded their suit to secure remaining School district, particularly those core city area. The denied further holding deliberate racial segregation did not prove a like policy addressed specifically and requiring petitioners de jure for each they have desegregated. That court nevertheless found segregated were educationally inferior 'white' elsewhere district relying on Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 537, 16 1138, 41 L.Ed. 256, ordered respondents provide substantially equal facilities schools. This latter relief was reversed by Appeals, which affirmed ruling agreed segregation, even though deliberate, proved nothing regarding overall segregation. Held: 1. Court, purposes defining 'segregated' school, erred placing Negroes Hispanos same category since both groups suffer educational inequities when compared with treatment afforded Anglo students. Pp. 195—198. 2. courts below apply correct legal standard dealing petitioners' contention respondent Board had deliberately segregating 198—113. (a) Proof school authorities pursued intentional segregative substantial portion will support finding trial existence dual system, absent showing is divided into clearly unrelated units. 201—203. (b) On remand should decide initially whether Board's respecting Hills constitutes whole system. 204—205. (c) Where, as this case, has been respect significant burden (regardless claims 'neighborhood policy' racially neutral) actions other system likewise motivated intent. 207—213. 10 Cir., 445 F.2d 990, modified remanded. James M. Nabrit, III, New York City, Gorden C. Greiner, Denver, Colo., petitioners. William K. Ris, respondents. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 case concerns Colorado, never operated under constitutional or statutory provision mandated permitted public education.1 Rather, gravamen action, brought 1969 Colorado parents schoolchildren, alone, use various techniques such manipulation student attendance zones, schoolsite selection neighborhood policy, created maintained ethnically (or ethnically) throughout entitling decree entire district. 2 boundaries are coterminous county Denver. There 1969, 119 schools2 96,580 pupils In early adopted three resolutions, Resolutions 1520, 1524, 1531, designed desegregate northeast city. Following election produced majority opposed resolutions rescinded replaced voluntary transfer program. then filed requesting injunction against rescission afford opportunity 'for whole.' App. 32a. construction new, relatively small elementary Barrett, middle Negro community west Hill, gerrymandering so-called 'optional zones,' excessive mobile classroom units, among things, engaged over almost decade after 1960 unconstitutional schools.3 therefore through implementation resolutions. D.C., 303 F.Supp. 279 289 (1969). 3 Segregation limited, however, area, satisfied success obtaining pressed prayer all heavily area.4 But concluded its purposeful systematic program affecting thousands students not, itself, impose affirmative duty eliminate Instead, fractionated held make fresh relief. Moreover, any sense material question intent areas Under restrictive approach, evidence intentionally discriminatory action than insufficient 'dictate conclusion calls all-out effort desegregate. It more facto rule cannot better balance.' 313 61, 73 (1970). 4 Nevertheless, went hold proofs established predominantly 'Anglo' parts district—that is, 'separate . unequal quality education provided.' Id., at 83. Thus, that, doctrine 256 (1896), constitutionally 'must minimum offer opportunity,' F.Supp., 83, therefore, although 'could be decreed, only feasible acceptable program—the furnishes anything approaching equality integration provides compensatory integrated environment.' 90, 96 formulated varied remedial plan end incorporated Final Decree.5 5 Respondent appealed, cross-appealed, Appeals Tenth Circuit. sustained Court's Decree respect. As schools, determination violation Fourteenth Amendment because afforded, set aside so much required improvement programs 990 (1971). reachingt result, also disregarded accepted 6 We granted petition certiorari review Appeals' judgment insofar it part pertained 404 1036, 92 707, 30 728 (1972). vacate instead reverse Decree. cross-petitioned Docket 71—572, Keyes. cross-petition denied. 7 * Before turning primary we today, word must said about method school. tri-ethnic, distinguished from bi-racial, community. ethnic composition 66 Anglo, 14% Negro, 20% Hispano.6 assessing preliminarily resolved placed establish character 69. Later, determining likely produce opportunity, would considered if 'a concentration either Hispano general 70 75 percent.' 77. intimate no 70%-to-75% requirement correct. used figures signify there suggestion record define context. What necessarily depend facts particular case. addition school's body, factors, faculty staff administration attitudes toward taken consideration. recognized these specific factors elements definition id., 74, may infer consider them again remand. 8 conclude, separating constitute identifiable class Amendment. Hernandez Texas, 347 475, 74 667, 98 866 (1954). United States Texas Educations Agency, 467 848 (CA5 1972) (en banc); Cisneros Corpus Christi Independent District, 142 Alvarado El Paso 1011 1971); Soria Oxnard 328 155 (CD Cal.1971); Romero Weakley, 226 339 (CA9 1955). Indeed classifying own right. Southwest great many things common. Commission Civil Rights recently published two Reports Southwest.7 Focusing Arizona, California, Mexico, American Indians.8 fact, itself '(o)ne common economic cultural deprivation discrimination.' agreement different origins identical discrimination circumstance, think entitled combined predominance included II 9 our view, requires decision time subsumed Question questions presented petitioners, namely applied incorrect addressing Our contention.9 apparently concede Denver's, where ever existed, plaintiffs schooling exists but state action. Indeed, '(b)etween policies show undeviating purpose isolate students' 'while preserving (other) schools.' 294. relate insubstantial trivial fragment contrary, guilty following attended, 37.69% Denver's total population, including one-fourth pupils, two-thirds junior high two-fifths pupils.10 addition, uncontroverted teachers years assigned basis minority teacher argues, state-imposed can viewed isolation rest does exist follow could predicate fact do agree. suggested cases bear proving every within current condition compelled authorized statute Brown Education, 483, 686, 873 (1954) (Brown I), State automatically assumes 'to effectuate transition nondiscriminatory system,' 349 294, 301, 753, 756, 99 1083 (1955) II), see Green County Board, 391 430, 437—438, 88 1689, 1693—1694, 20 716 (1968), 'all vestiges segregation.' Swann Charlotte-Meckleburg 402 15, 91 1267, 1275, 28 554 (1971).11 11 existed. carried out students, teachers, conclude Several considerations conclusion. First, obvious practice concentrating certain structuring zones designating 'feeder' race reciprocal effect keeping nearby white.12 Similarly, building school—such Barrett Elementary case—to size location, 'with conscious knowledge school,' 285, So also, classrooms, drafting policies, transportation assignment staff, bases, clear earmarking according composition, this, turn, together construction, profound residential neighborhoods metropolitan thereby causing said: 12 'They (school authorities) location capacity light population growth, finances, land values, site availability, endless list considered. result which, one technique another assignment, determine body Over long run, consequences choices far reaching. People gravitate facilities, just located response needs people. thus influence patterns development important impact inner-city neighborhoods. 13 'In past, potent weapon creating maintaining state-segregated classic pattern intended white sometimes, Brown, closed appeared become mixed changes patterns. sometimes accompanied new suburban expansion farthest centers maintain separation races departure formal principles zoning.' Such simply short-run well promote zoning,' lock mold races. Upon proper fashioning remedy.' U.S., 20—21, 1278. 14 short, dictates inspired board beyond subjects actions. say, course, geographical structure of, natural within, dividing separate, essentially first instance, rare. absence determination, proof suffice Of made, involving systems, system.' II, supra, 394 756. 15 remand, instance observe now before us indication might stated, summary findings degree interrelationship certainly others.' And cogent ultimate limited area: changed least 29 attended one-third system.13 suggests official affected hand, indeed any, reason why attention turned saying view 'different'—the areas, adjacent other, separated Boulevard, six-lane highway. From record, difficult assess actual significance Boulevard runs length Teller Steck, cross Boulevard. referring line,' 282, feel constrained limit consideration east establishing eastern boundary zone, able number regarded type barrier confine perhaps major highway generally effective buffer between adjoining areas. Cf. Davis Commissioners Mobile County, 33, 1289, 577, factual resolution event, inquiry standards true identifiable, unit. III 17 proceeded premise irrelevant began examination essential segregation—that stated simply, resulting directed schools.14 Petitioners' showed 22 less 30% enrollment 10% Anglo.15 introduced demonstrating disproportionate 18 intent, tending period years, Respondents countered arguing neutral acts complain explicable bounds policy. Accepting explanation, permissible failed '(1) (2) causal relationship complained imbalance admittedly existing 1006. assessment incorrect. 19 Although already crucial totally ignored Plainly, devoid probative value authorities' contrary where, here, involves board, highly relevant issue board's merely application well-settled evidentiary principle 'the prior doing similar acts, scheme useful reducing possibility act done innocent intent.' J. Wigmore, Evidence 200 (3d ed. 1940). 'Evidence related offenses committed tend(s) consistent conduct Nye & Nissen States, 336 613, 618, 69 766, 769, 919 (1949). illicit meaningful item remainder. See, example, cited 301—302. '(t)he foregoing equally applicable civil criminal ..' 300. McCormick, 329 Applying special context cases, creates presumption adventitious. establishes, words, prima facie unlawful design authorities, shifts determined independently because, situation, probability effectuated impermissible emphasize differentiating factor referred Swann16 segregate. Where practiced expected oppose system-wide desegregation, ground purposefully isolated individual events, leaving otherwise. point segment heard argue 'isolated individual' unlawfully fair reasonable require 21 burden-shifting novel. hard-and-fast governing allocation situation. issue, rather, 'is fairness based experience situations.' § 2486, 275 education, courts, variety situations 'fairness' 'policy' explaining conditions appear motivated. Swann, 18, 1277, observed 'history segregation,' 'where possible identify 'white school' 'Negro reference buildings equipment, organization sports activities, substantive rights Equal Protection Clause shown.' Again, history discharge disproportionately large incident 'thrust(s) justifying convincing evidence.' Chambers Hendersonville City 364 189, 192 (CA4 1966) banc). Jefferson 372 F. 2d 836, 887—888 1966), aff'd en banc, 380 385 (1967); North Carolina Teachers Assn. Asheboro 393 736, 743 1968) Williams Kimbrough, 295 578, 585 (W.D.La.1969); Bonner 305 600, 621 (S.D.Tex.1969). Nor former systems. e.g., Pontiac, 309 734, 743, 744 (E.D.Mich.1970), aff'd, 443 573 (CA6 151, 301 201, 228 (N.D.Ill.1969), grounds, 432 1147 (CA7 1970). say segregation' past. allegedly unitary segregated, subsequent justifies imposing acts. discharging burden, enough, rely some logical, explanation Their adduce sufficient attributed antedated Brown. reject remoteness relevance If continues exist, 'intentional.' 23 met supporting lesser resulted acted did. past present attenuated incapable warranting judicial intervention. 31—32, S.Ct., 1283—1284. Hobson Hansen, 269 401, 495 (D.C.1967), sub nom. Smuck Hobson, 132 U.S.App.D.C. 372, 408 175 (1969).17 made clear, connection apparent close concluding exist. Intentional environment growth disprove rebut create contribute 24 invoked concentrations Hispano, policies. occasion justify constituting enough mere assertion dispositive practed indicate concept free manipulation. observation 28, 1882, instructive score: 25 'Absent judicially ordering basis. All being equal, discrimination, desirable assign nearest homes. constructed enforce 26 '. 'Racially neutral' plans proposed inadequate; fail counteract continuing effects sites distortion achieve artificial separation. When 'loaded game board,' form altering truly assignments. appears neutral.' having establishes respondent's determinative 'simply IV 27 summary, first, section treated fails contention, second, carrying determines 'root branch.' 438, 1694. determines, court, third, raised There, practices size, renovations additions, student-attendance options, etc., premised concept, effectuation or, unsuccessful effort, Considerations demand must, concern remanded proceedings opinion.18 Modified ordered. 31 Chief BURGER, concurs result. 32 WHITE took 33 DOUGLAS. 34 While I join agree my Brother POWELL difference agency lines draws, locations selects sites, makes budgets prepares purposes. 35 Judge Wisdom cogently Education 848, often created, systems decreed legislature, districts boards. Each meaning 'Here faculty, professional staff; employed chose schools; renovated old ones; drew zone lines. foreseeable consequence Mexican-Americans. Affirmative desegregation. actions, additional deny protection laws. 36 'We need quantity participation prerequisite violation. Like concepts man', 'due care', 'causation', 'preponderance evidence', 'beyond doubt', necessary involvement precise defined case-by-case Suffice here played role perpetuating opportunities Mexican-Americans, basis.' 863—864 These contrasted But, observes, product 'neighborhood' 'geographical' unit along play covenants restrict elite,' 'undesirables' move elsewhere, force law behind covenants. 38 funds dispersed urban agencies build ghettoes. 39 separate black exclusively fringe built distant continued level, They kind quite distinct classical Yet calling misnomer, subtle types wholly partially Kelly Guinn, 456 100. 40 forces, aids, abets, helps 'neighborhood,' travesty justice treat sacrosanct creation taint Constitution Bill described pluralistic society. right seek companions he desires. barred device ghettoes attend. 42 concurring dissenting part. 43 concur grounds differ relied 44 reach outside South. comes provisions segregation.1 argued legislative (such zoning housing laws) contributed issue.2 inquired what extent acknowledged 45 70% 75% 'Nigro Wherever draw line, undisputed most bodies overwhelmingly composed non-Anglo children. city-wide mix 66% Hispano. largely resides, entirely so. 46 situation comparable cities across country federal courts. fully pervasive southern decrees half. focus problem shifted South whole. Unwilling footdragging process places, progress achieving Southern States.3 No nonsouthern populations4 primarily facto/de distinction nurtured complacently voices denounced evils South.5 national who attend rather legalism rooted reality, recognize evil operating Atlanta. 47 abandon outlived time, formulate regional application. decided, rationale confronting confined officially imposed extending back usually embodied provisions. 48 contribution unmistakable terms forbids state-compelled state-authorized 488, 493—495, 688, 691—692. language expansive, negative: instrumentalities children forbidden jure, construed—for courts—as neutrality, allowing 'freedom choice' assured choice genuinely restraint.6 49 I, amplified (1955), retain original meaning. series decisions 1954 1971 neutrality transformed systems.7 keystone 1694, boards declared take whatever steps convert eliminated root rural sparsely settled populations, (there county), none problems urbanized district.8 properly identified freedom-of-choice subterfuge, appropriate however vastly setting extensive presenting solutions Kent Virginia. 50 doubt affirmative-duty flower laid Charlotte-Mecklenburg (1971), articulated Charlotte, Carolina. describing noted 'familiar phenomenon' 'concentrated city,' 25, 1280, that: 51 'Rural accustomed half century consolidated implemented bus adjustments readily dense shifting numerous congested complex traffic patterns.' 14, 1275. 52 Despite recognition fundamentally involved Green, applicable, prescribed 107 84,000 remedy—elimination branch'—which 1,300 County. 53 concerned implement I. 5—6, 1271. doing, refrained considering evolution Green/Swann undercut logic once supported distinction. duty, entailing largescale alleviate historic, familiar cause biracial same: migratory perpetuated rarely ameliorated authorities. national, southern, phenomenon. laws.9 54 Whereas rightly elimination obligations regionally unique origin country. extend outgrowths outlawed points inevitably uniform, approach 55 while adhering jure/de distinction, 'affirmative duty' despite state-mandated Board. position responsible State, sound perpetuate nor leave initial tortuous identifying 'segregative acts' deducing hold, degree, duly constituted (I refer collectively 'school board') sufficiently responsible10 warrant nationally demonstrate gunuinely integregated 56 principal abandonment doctrine, longer justified principled decreeing requirements Charlotte/Mecklenburg dealt metropolitan, basic causes sections country, decision. Further, extension include compulsory remedying laws responsible. today abundantly demonstrates, deemed subjective fairly resolve. 57 At outset, try enforced. easy, precedents explicit. emphasizing importance 58 'Such undertaken it, available terms.' 493, 691. 59 'fundamental principle' enunciated unconstitutionality 'racial education,' 298, 755, spoke personal interest admission soon practicable non-discriminatory 300, ambiguous right, means—as minimum—that evolutionary 1954, added gloss nowhere expressly terms, derived expect assumed responsibility local operate respective districts.11 means goal attaining customary enhancing opportunities. 60 term 'integrated system' presupposes, laws, regulations, supportive 'legalized' condemned A accord (i) integrate faculties administration; (ii) scrupulously assure instruction, curriculum district; (iii) utilize authority integration; (iv) locate ones, grade categories objective mind. undertake integrative 61 prescription definitive all-inclusive, contour characteristics citizens justifiably confident neither tolerated. An mean—and mean areas—that happens one. 62 Having best assurance meeting otherwise, find place officials. Courts judging avoiding murky, judgments inherent search Any test resting nebulous elusive element 'intent' inadequate short-changed entrusted operation 63 Public creatures state-created state-assisted state-perpetuated principle. exercises long-range planning daily operations sets employment assignments, closings consolidations, myriad matters. obviously sole conditions. if, detailed complete supervision, still persists, strong omissions, supervision continue fall 64 little violations consequent solely widespread traditionally cared recognize.12 commentator noted: 65 '(T)he appeals denying abolish arose cities—Cincinnati, Gary, Kansas Kansas—where formerly law. (Deal Cincinnati 369 cert. denied, 389 847, 39, 114 Downs 988 (CA10 1964), 914, 85 898, 800 (1965); Bell Ind., 324 209 1963), 377 924, 84 1223, 216 (1964).) Ohio discarded 1887, Indiana 1949, until advent Mississippi theory otherwise dissipated, reasoning Indiana, five existed presumably effects?' Goodman, De Facto Segregation: Constitutional Empirical Analysis, Calif.L.Rev. 275, 297 (1972).13 Not inequitably communities importantly, disadvantages well. Fifth Circuit stated: 67 "The Cleveland, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, York, nation classifies receive comfort make-up violate born society, exact border states violates counterparts, blood brothers, everywhere protected Constitution, area." 142, 148 banc), quoting 385, 397 1967) (Gewin, J., dissenting).14 68 breaking down sectional disparities, clings tenuously searches do, results feels intent:15 segregate.' Supra, 208 (emphasis Court's). insistence 'differentiating factor' 'purpose intent' reconcile recent Wright Council Emporia, 407 451, 2196, 'motivation' irrelevant, 71 'dominant' motivation fruitless. mandate measure effectiveness.' (91 1292, 577). focused effect—not motivation—of dismantling 72 Though courts' holdings rested purpose, involved. proper.' 462, 2203. discern Virginia controlling Colorado. argued, Emporia net language, sections, made. Rather straining standard, forthrightly rights. elsewhere: 'Circumstances chance dictate persons serve jury during period. taxes credulity members six thousand jurors called years. bespeaks commissioner.' 482, 672, (Emphasis added.) B matter adhere cases. reasons prudent strongly adoption uniform rule. litigation heretofore centered surfacing regions. invite suits hope uniformity 76 regregated exists. conceded them. 'meaningful significant' intractable litigating lawyer. litigation—often arrived subjectively endeavoring ascertain years—will fortuitous, unpredictable capricious. 77 illustrative problem. regard dissimilar. contend Manual High surrounding effect, merge Brief 80—83. will, differ, especially suffices requisite Even clarify question, wide differences judges inevitable slippery 'purpose,' hundreds varying 78 repeatedly 'extremely motivation, collection motivations, lie enactment,' Palmer Thompson, 403 217, 224, 1940, 1945, 438 (1971); McGinnis Royster, 410 263, 276—277, 1055, 1063, 282 (1973); O'Brien, 367, 381, 1673, 1681, 672 (1968). Whatever difficulties single compounded system.16 Every administration, failure indicated, subject scrutiny. routine daily, affect degrees remain condition, desegregated, or—for future—are other. nonaction location; timing size; closing consolidation drawing zones; enforced; recruitment, promotion supervisory personnel; transfers another; whether, extent, provided, located, qualify them; curriculum, 'tracks' lead college vocational training, routing tracks; social, recreational, athletic 79 probe proximate 'endless' factors. suit. type, exists, today's uneven results, protracted inconclusive litigation, burdens serious disruption standards, administrators uncertainty disarray, speculating strike. C 80 prop up grounded principle, contributing indicated above, acknowledge whenever board. true, schools—wherever located—are inaction earlier, North, West, South, socio-economic influences concentrated inner disperse suburbs. continuing, John Minor noted, '(w)hen (showing schools) speak eloquently, established.' foreshadowed implicitly minimize ameliorate pursuing consistently without doctrinal time. 81 preceding addresses obligation met. 227—228. successfully becomes desegregative compliance standard. nature scope remedy? 82 virtually compels 'dual 437 critical ought entail? A. 83 confront confound what, indeed, require? purported enunciate principles, Green. ratios' sanctioned secondary pupils. Lower read far-reaching decrees17 greatest desegregation.' 26, 1281. heavy different—and widely dispersal expansively reading date. To thought large-scale longdistance districts, misgivings. Nothing commands encourages court-compelled education. accurate broad remedies flexible values interests Thus judiciary, charged task desegregating 16, 1276. adjust pupil approved device, orders suspect 'when distance travel risk health significantly impinge process.' 30—31, 1283. Finally, age transported limitation travel. 31, supposed help guide framing equitable cases.18 emphasized inherently sensitive, achieved, private interests: 86 '(A) repair denial correct, balancing collective interests, offends Constitution. 15—16, 87 Those words echoed expression 756: effectuating decrees, guided principles. Traditionally, equity characterized practical flexibility shaping facility adjusting reconciling needs.' 89 desegration counsels reason, flexibility, balance. e.g. Lemon Kurtzman, 411 192, 1463, 151 (1973). am aware, reasonableness relative concept. seem embody balanced evaluation legitimately assert. Neglect destroys even-handed spirit approached.19 Overzealousness pursuit untrue tradition 'balance' 'flexibility' always respected. 90 defaulted insure ensue. Many effectively damaging parental resonable vicinity home. framework pursue For drawn practicable, body. Construction encourage likelihood integration, Faculty attained 19, 1277; Montgomery 395 225, 1670, 263 optional majority-to-minority program, providing desiring helpful adjunct desegregated 26—27, 1281—1282. hardly repeated resources scrupulous above examples meant illustrative, exhaustive. assessed deciding superficially neighborhoods, preserves eliminates homogeny (sic) given schools.'20 Keyes 1005 1971). Tulsa 429 1253, 1258—1259 imply consolidation, detriment neutral, nonracial considerations. can, initiative, manner enhance Defaulting have, minimum, sort outlined section. would, develop initiate society ours, demeaned discriminated learn play, work, cooperate pursuits endeavors. discourage exceeding minimal promoting experience. presents promises, greater infringes aspirations divert foremost system: does, command tolerated sake maximizing integration.21 process. transporting settings indispensable books. presently estimated approximately ride buses integration.22 level particular, larger wider, constituency privately financed necessary. difference, voluntarily initiated court. represent convenient access home; lengthy trips integration.23 unquestionably 'one tool 30, 1283.24 when, circumstances, appropriately answer turns—as law—upon exercise discretion circumstances. 95 limits obligations. 'any balance mixing disapproved .,' mathematical ratios 'no starting remedy 24, infringe short disruptive transportation. refusal arbitrary 'one-race schools,' 1281, parents, stake legitimate recognizable interests. desire near Dr. Coleman testified 'most organize relation residents fixed very homogeneous.' 1549a. Deal F.2d, 60, Sixth summarized advantages schools:25 97 'Appellants, pose placement, administered bias, comports administration. several valuable aspects aid minimization safety hazards reaching economy cost needs, ease placement easily home-school communication.' convenience, advantages, legitimacy rests grounds.26 Neighborhood neutrally administered, reflect deeply felt traditional source strength Nation, derive identification features neighborhood. Community support, interest, dedication run higher pattern: disinterest. decline intimacy institutions—home, church, school—which caused concomitant unity communal pass viewpoint, believe wary compelling name dissolution traditional, fabric 100 Closely duties nurture, welfare children, Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 534—535, 571, 573, 1070 unanimous 101 'Under Meyer Nebraska, 262 390 (43 625, 1042), plain Act 1922 unreasonably interferes liberty guardians direct upbringing control. child creature State; nurture him his destiny coupled prepare obligations.' 102 Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 1678, 1680, 510 (1965), Pierce, educate one's chooses First Amendments.' parent's send Most luxury tuitions taxes. forced forfeit voice attends. impractical allow wishes controlling. parent enhanced parentschool parent-child communication allowed suppressed 103 commendable alleviating overlooked child, black, spend day suffers impairment privacy. ago, B. Conant wrote '(a)t seems clear. young question.'27 child's spent creatively classroom, playground, extracurricular activity. Decisions these, life, lightly errant. 104 Up mainly broader me seriously integration. depending urbanization, financial resources, composition. Some disruption, others, notably large, considerable expense frequently courts.28 suffering malnutrition, severe, capital outlays annual costs millions dollars.29 occasioned burdens, touched sensitive literally 105 argument overlooks exceeds redress evil. Let example. nonaction, legally maximum decades, fundamental persist.30 novel power—not mention dubious doctrine—to purely nonstate causes. 106 carries infirmity remedy. With violations, falls offending officials speech, voting, religious exercise, obliged cease necessary, institute corrective measures. brunt effects. discontinue extends full borne participate farreaching maximize motion unmanageable social consequences. estimate hasten exodus preserve disadvantaged Or guess how impetus dismantlement gives movement suburb, know deterioration paramount perennially divisive debate where. 108 perplexed officials, nearly decades. problem, 'busing issue,' profoundly disquieted wherever pretense knowing answers. Yet, whatever. history, or—until recently—in jurisprudence mandates teenage be. strayed, reiterated 'guided principles' 'adjusting (of) needs,' 109 urge return rationale. prohibition court-ordered furtherance accorded decree, caution proposal family life interests—and ultimately itself—as elementary-age engage unnecessary away children.31 performs vital role. tender physical psychological health. sharply implicated.32 110 shed guidance issues opinion: (ii), so, ambiguities construed date uniformly favor transportation, redefined restore viable deference, way adequate rational, coherent 111 chosen, rationale, increased regrettable—to deferment subject. land. funded subdivisions. factors—and authorities—in other—have prevails. Instead recognizing reality multiple persists whose duality operates unfairly others. 112 second relates disregard decrees. involve witnessed 113 remember course running end—so overlooked—is Communities deserve freedom incentive turn energies debilitating battles levels. risked distracting diverting ends, embittering communities, exacerbating, ameliorating, interracial friction misunderstanding. societal rational understood races, enduring qualities genuine success. REHNQUIST, dissenting. 115 notes outset 'de jure' (1954), progeny. similarities differences, claims, violation, somewhat 116 statutes prevalent mandating statute, race, 117 ordinance description. claim plaintiffs, opinion, 'use account making assignments lessen assignment. proved, manipulative undoubtedly deprived surely statutorily invidious prohibited obscure alleged 118 obscures shown earlier opinions states, 200, '(w)e II) statement context, later ones come invariably obtained 'dual' law, whites attending Since 120 conceivable keep victims evenhanded suffered deprivation. normal English usage describe facts, unprecedented mixtures 121 possible, purporting adopt might, invidiously discriminate minorities, jurisdictions 122 Underlying thesis judge 'gerrymandered,' candidate practice, receivership. reliance 1693 indicates open require, inter alia, distances gerrymandered. unless 'taint,' primitive centuries ago fiat. 123 represented marked supra. 124 'It immediately (349 294 (75 1083)) break long-established excluding immediate step, however. unitary, 435—436, 1693. 125 'Brown call well-entrenched tempered awareness multifaceted arise successful resolution. 126 drastic barely, all, explicated opinion. disestablished, thing. affirmatively achieved something else. 127 unmistakably Brown's conversion integrate, rigidly excluded whites. soundness justification shows 128 lip service notion one, refers 'fractionated' 193, 'held ibid. references, 129 'fractionating' events occurred period, separately span followed experienced careful finders fact. 130 commencing comprehensive 'core area' observed: 131 'The above. thing, minorities instances, Supreme different, members. Furthermore, transitions gradual perceptible supplied.) July 279, differentiation themselves so- 'Park Hill' preliminary prohibiting rescinding differently redrawn granting injunction, 133 'Attention hearing commonly Hill. acquired ten migration eastward 'Five Points.' 1950 lived bounded roughly 20th Avenue south, Street west, east, 38th north. were, now, However, validity condition. During small, developed sizeable. narrow corridor—more north-south boundaries. segregated.' 282. 134 Further steadily expanding heightened sensitivity 135 schools—New School, Cole Junior Morey Columbine Schools—took 1952 1961. place, references rapidly indefinite Negro. 136 intimation virtual arbitrariness contained absolutely jumbled hash emerge fact-finding favorable Far difficulty encountered intentions performed consist members, membership customarily turns frequent periodic elections. previously favored correction 137 abandoned, suggest care conducted ingredient 138 bald city' flatly belied 139 'Although situation.' 74—75, n. 18. 140 aware intention performing act. treatises Wigmore McCormick support. authors treatises, deal individuals, 'intention' constantly changing. 141 confuses inference 'presumption,' 'shifts proving' defendant authority. gone factor, thoroughly familiar. another. restatement aware. And, obviously, upholding proposition question. 143 736 1968), background litigation.' 192. decimation ranks unaffected, cast decimation. offered reached. 144 Also worthy note hearing, appellants amounted 'clearly erroneous,' appellate court's evaluating finding. reviewing Fourth Asheboro. upset Appeals. 'A seasoned wise concurrent final exceptional error.' Comstock Group Institutional Investors, 335 211, 214, 1454, 1456, 1911 (1948). 145 doubtless realizing outright reversal, remands newly presumption, proof, Quite apart disagreement parties vague imprecise mandate. fundamentally, sympathetic plaintiffs' gave carefully him. He declined prerogative finder affirmance binding us. 146 leap equating district-wide ordinances require. adds potpourri confusing enunciation rules wants reach. dissent. Art. IX, 8, prohibits 'classification color.' 1927, violated Jones Newlon, Colo. 253 P. 386. junior-senior senior Opportunity Metropolitan Youth Center, Aircraft Training Facility. schools' Stedman, Hallett, Smith, Philips, Schools; Smiley School. East serves it. (See Appendix.) Bryant-Webster, Columbine, Crofton, Ebert, Elmwood, Elyria, Fairmont, Fairview, Garden Place, Gilpin, Greenlee, Harrington, Mitchell, Smedley, Swansea, Whittier, Wyatt, Wyman Baker, Cole, East, Schools. four opinions, injunction. 289, August supplemental conclusions. third March 1970, merits. fourth May 1970. unreported October 1971, extended Hallett Stedman Schools opinions: 5, vacating injunctions; 27, staying injunction; September amend stay; 17, motions dismiss; stay. Brennan, 29, reinstating 396 1215, 37, April entered per curiam stay, 182, 1399, 710. 'Anglo,' 'Negro,' 'Hispano' record. shall terms. Department person Spanish, Mexican, Cuban heritage. Human Relations Historical Record 203 Southwest, 'Hispanos' 'Chicanos' 'Mexican-Americans.' follows: Pupils % 33,719 61.8 8,297 15.2 12,570 23.0 14,848 68.7 2,893 13.4 3,858 17.9 Senior 14,852 72.8 2,442 12.0 3,101 Total 63,419 65.7 13,632 14.1 19,529 20.2 Rights, Mexican Study, Report Ethnic Isolation Americans (Apr. Educational Series, 2, Unfinished (October Commission's Report, p. 41, summarizes findings: report Southwest—Mexican Americans, blacks, Indians—do obtain benefits rate classmates.' REHNQUIST argues dissent somehow transgresses 'two-court' Infra, 264. stage, concurred below. Neil Biggers, 409 188, 375, 401 address affects listed (As resolutions.) PUPILS 1968-1969 4232 634 686 751 684 223 963 Philips 307 555 Jr. 360 1.112 1,546 884 1,219 1,409 1,039 2,623 Subtotal 1,095 2,104 179 3,378 406 1,996 363 2,765 Sr. 2,910 5,139 717 8,766 1968 was: above-mentioned included: 25.36% 68.99% 42.55% integrate' 'prohibition discrimination' 'in 258. interpretation expressed three-judge Briggs Elliott, 776, 777 (D.C.1955): rejected 'School (by remains Alexander Holmes (1969); Kelley 317 980, 984 (D.C.1970). President put it: 'Once you change Testimony Mrs. Lois Heath Johnson cross-examination. 951a—952a. 'Infection infects simple blacks other.' 888 1972). chart 1008—1009, 31,767 262. cites excerpt footnote 18: omits footnote: 'Thus, discussed units 1524 1531.' Obviously, limiting comment 78, Elyria Smedley Schools, became 92. 17—18, 1276—1277, applying 'caused' 'cause' 'non-attenuation.' established. reach, upon, merits erroneous 73, nevertheless, 96. Article 23, 1279, (1971): decree.' 'state action,' herein, According Health, Welfare (HEW) estimate, 43.9% 27.8% West. Fifty-seven percent West 80% 32.2% Cong.Rec. 564 HEW Enrollment Survey dramatized non-southern cities. percentage 91.3 Ohio; 97.8 Compton, California; 78.1 Dayton, 78.6 Detroit, Michigan; 95.7 Indiana; 86.4 Missouri; 86.6 78.8 Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Newark, Jersey; 89.8 St. Louis, Missouri. data 563—566 Senator Ribicoff recognized: 'For fought battle severe. long, arduous fight deserved needed won. 'Unfortunately, moved north Mason-Dixon northerners bid evasive farewell 100-year struggle equality. motto 'Do southerners want yourself.' 'Good offered, moving vigorously ahead 'First, worse Then true. hear facto-de refrain. 'Somehow accidental hard understand, avoid problem.' 5455 Bradley 345 310, 316 (CA4, 1965) banc): such. grants unrestricted pupil, assigns himself attend.' vacated submitted. 382 103, 105, 187 (1965). 1963); 1964); 1966). concise commentary evolution, Bickel, Idea Progress 126—130 companion Raney 443, 1697, 727 Monroe Commissioners, 450, 1700, 733 Karl Taeuber article, Residential Segregation, 213 Scientific (Aug. 1965): 'No elaborate analysis universal characteristic South; small; nonindustrial industrial; few thousand, progressive not.' book, Cities 'regardless regardless forms 36. recognized, standards. demographic vary formulated. populated populated, trigger inquiry. discussion Part infra, accomplish finds Plaintiffs necessity goes probable occurring government Beckett 308 1274, 1311—1315 (ED Va. 1969), Hoffman compiled States. '(o)nly Maine, Hampshire, Vermont, Washington, Nevada, Hawaii nonexhaustive research books another.' Id. 1315. author continues: 'True, abandoned danger covertly, materially suppose universally line safely not. purposes, administrable cutoff objectionable. asserted magnitude, passionately resented, questionable politically morally acceptable.' 7, 119: 'If perceives invidious, hundred removed slavery, going fine distinctions separation.' holds burden—normally plaintiffs—shifts namely, benign, 207—209. Starting unassailable formulation—still professing fidelity doctrine—is if: exist; board; segment' system; remainder nonsegregative. prepared inquire motive, thorny capable proven trial. majority, grounds? prompted mixture motives, alone act? wished please constituents, whom knew so? classified jure-de all. altogether lacking too insignificant, standpoint moral culpability involved, treatment.' 284 285 Thompson Newport News, 465 (1972), banc upheld 'travel forty minutes hour, way, busing district.' up, eight age. Northcross Memphis 466 890, 895 14,000 (being) way. Weick instructed yet orders. Plans 39,085 61,530 respectively, undetermined lengths 895—986. Potts Flax, 1007, 433, 299 contended Circuit's directive Flax Potts, 464 865 rides hours round trip miles. Pet. Cert. 14. 'astounding inflation,' Opposition magnitude inevitable. 883 (Bell, seven joined): 'whether outweigh legal, moral, favoring keeps day, consumes portions spendable directly child.' Comment, Desegregation After Swann: Theory Government Responsibility, U.Chi.L.Rec. 421, 422, study historical uses abuses Weinberg, Race Place (1967). due characterize unrealistic gravest Professor Bickel notes: order, city, capability future Only reordering econimic broadest front appreciable impact.' 132. Estimates vary. '(e) ighteen million Nation's 39%, 1969—1970 country.' Ribicoff, thoughtful '(t)wo-thirds integration.' 5456 Historically, wrongly traveling vehicle. reasonably child,' 20, 87. deplorable led atonement code misuse valid nonsegregative present. wrongful detrimental today. 11, 1282; 34—35, 1290—1291, 577 presence implementing Watson Chapel 446 933, 937 (CA8 444 1179, 1182—1183 Little Rock, 1197, 1203 Ark.1971). obligated effect. progress, denote walkin blocks. susceptible variation 'locality.' Both elastic dependent measured rods miles.' Connally General Co., 395, 126, 129, 322 (1926). proximity, preference nearer to, from, chosen Slums Suburbs (1961). Memphis, expenditure $1,664,192 plus $629,192. estimates investments $3,924,000 $1,783,490. $2,354,220, $2,431,710, $3,463,100 arrangements. 898 (Weick, dissenting). experiences age, older adults inhibiting consciousness. 226—227. should, weighed permitted, wisest, good faith, permit delicate own.

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