Document: 339 U.S. 725 70 S.Ct. 955 94 L.Ed. 1231 UNITED STATESv.GERLACH LIVE STOCK CO. STATES v. POTTER. ERRECA. JAMES J. STEVINSON. 3—H SECURITIES Nos. 4 to 9. Reargued March 29, 30, 1950 Decided June 5, 1950. Mr. Ralph S. Boyd, Washington, D.C., for petitioner. [Argument of Counsel from page 726 intentionally omitted] Edward F. Treadwell, San Francisco, Cal., respondents. Warner W. Cardner, Gill and others as amici curiae, by special leave Court. Justice JACKSON delivered the opinion 1 We are asked relieve United States six awards Court Claims just compensation deprivation riparian rights along Joaquin River in California caused construction Friant Dam, its dependent irrigation system, part Central Valley Project. 2 This is a gigantic undertaking redistribute principal fresh-water resources California. vast basin, stretching over 400 miles on polar axis hundred width, heart Bounded Sierra Nevada east coastal ranges west, it consists actually two separate river valleys which merge single pass sea at Golden Gate. Its rich acres, counted millions, deficient rainfall must remain generally arid unfruitful unless artificially watered. 3 Water there are, if they can be captured distributed land. From highland barricade north Sacramento flows southerly, while Yosemite region southeast winds northeasterly until meet consort outlet through estuaries that connect with Francisco Bay. These dominating rivers collect tribute many mountain currents, carry their hoardings past parched plains thriftlessly dissipate them Pacific tides. When sought make these streams yield wasting treasures lands traverse, men confronted paradox nature; Sacramento, almost twice water, accessible least land, whereas about three-fifths valley lies domain less affluent Joaquin. To harness waters, overcome this perversity nature water available where would greatest service, State proposed re-engineer natural distribution. project was taken 1935 has since been federal enterprise. The plan, broad outline, capture store waters both tributaries basins, some cases taking advantage resulting head generation electric energy. Shasta Dam will produce power use throughout much provide great reservoir equalize seasonal Sacramento. A more dramatic feature plan storage system other end valley. There arrested Friant, take mountains, diverted south canals sold irrigate than million acres far 160 away. cost refreshing expanse semiarid land that, except occasional spills, only dry bed cross plain below dam. Here, however, surplus utilized, 150-mile canal pumped cultivated formerly 5 Both afford navigation—the considerable distance inland, practically tidewater levels. have navigation consequences, principally Sacramento; but effects economically insignificant compared values realized redistribution benefits. 6 Such inevitably unsettles advantages long enjoyed reliance upon order, such benefits we here concerned. 7 Claimants own parcels Joaquin.1 called 'uncontrolled grass lands,' distinguish either crop or 'controlled irrigated controlled systems supplied stream. Neither latter injured diversion, provided replacement 8 Uncontrolled involved claims parts large area overflow Each year, predictable regularity, stream swells submerges saturates lowlying lands. They moistened enriched inundations so forage pasturage thrive, otherwise cannot. high stage river, fluctuating height variable arrival, not flood sense an abnormal sudden deluge. rises falls rhythm cycle seasons, expansion being normal time curtailment others, repeated constancy years. It should noted, claimants' benefit comes very crest stage, elevated borne base full none utilized above little them. Their claim right is, words, enjoy natural, fluctuation unhindered, presupposes peak flow largely unutilized. 9 puts all this. Except rare intervals, no spill parched, barren. Unlike supply nearby 'controlled' lands, vanishing inundation cannot replaced water. severally awarded annual inundations, theory flow, continuance annexed property. 76 F.Supp. 87, 99, 111 Ct.Cl. 1, 89. issues common granted certiorari. 335 883, 69 234, 93 422. I Navigation Reclamation Project? 10 Solicitor General contends overall project, each it, authorized Congress, under commerce power, measure control navigation. hand urge although improvement one objective whole, nevertheless consequent had purpose effect reclamation. This, claimed, actual, avowed Congress. On conflicting assumptions parties predicate contrary conclusions compensation. 11 In Rivers Harbors Act August 26, 1937, § 2, 50 Stat. 844, 850, again October 17, 1940, 54 1198, 1199—1200, Congress said 'The entire * declared purposes improving navigation, regulating River, controlling floods, providing delivery stored thereof *.' 1937 also 'the dam reservoirs shall used, first, regulation, 12 But true, pointed out claimants, Acts expressly 'reauthorized'2 already initiated President Roosevelt who, September 10, 1935, made allotment funds Federal Emergency Relief Appropriation Act, 49 115, 118, 4, 'shall reimbursable accordance reclamation laws.'3 finding feasibility, required law,4 Secretary Interior November making reference his recommendation development project' approved December 1935. 13 'reauthorized' undertaking, same provisions law,5 amended, govern repayment expenditures construction, operation, maintenance dams, canals, plants, pumping transmission lines, incidental works deemed necessary may enter into contracts, agencies, authorities, associations, persons, corporations, public private, including agencies contracts law, acquire proceedings eminent domain, otherwise, rights-of-ways, rights, property purposes: 14 basin envisions, sense, integrated aggregate subsidiary projects, first magnitude. thirty-eight major dams bordering floor scores smaller ones waters. contemplates twenty-eight hydropower generating stations. includes hundreds main thousands laterals drains, feeder lines substations, network structures irrigated, three newly 360,000 delta needing protection intrusions salt municipal miscellaneous cities, towns, duck clubs game refuges. projects widely separated geographically, physically independent acts year constructed different times span formula multiple responsibility Bureau Reclamation, exclusively Army Engineers.6 administered Reclamation. 15 disagree contention implementing work carried forward Bureau, proceeded basis recognition having valid existence state law. By command law several directed proceed conformity laws, giving every vested those laws.7 Cf. Nebraska Wyoming, 295 40, 43, 55 568, 569, 79 1289; Oregon Power Co. Beaver Portland Cement Co., 142, 164, 725, 731, 1356; 325 589, 614, 65 1332, 1348, 89 1815; Mason Tax Comm'n 302 186, 58 233, 82 187. respect, Congress' action parallels Ford & Son Little Falls Fibre 280 369, 140, 74 483. original purchase included estimate cost.8 advised Government administration consistent practice respect rights. specifically Bureau's connection reported Congress,9 responded nine twelve years requests appropriations expenses. think amounts, authorizations declarations creating causes against States, awareness approval administrative construction. clear conception, enactment subsequent recognized status 16 doubted totality comprehensive legitimate relation inland particular components described without pretense projects. appropriate justify national burden general 17 declaration applicable related facilities integral 'what quite properly treated unit.' Adverting Willow 324 499, 761, 1101; Commodore Park, Inc., 386, 803, 1017; Appalachian Electric 311 377, 61 291, 85 243; Chandler-Dunbar 229 53, 33 667, 57 1063, relies rule does compensate destruction interests point conflict superior easement exercise occasions damage. And irrespective divisibility involves control, sensibly Oklahoma ex rel. Phillips Guy Atkinson 313 508, 1050, 1487. 18 Claimants, hand, wholly unrelated ends could Congressional purpose. definitions expanded, supra, instance denied noted bore positive 510, 767, 391, 805, 423, 306, 62, 671, 1063; cited. And, referring International Paper 282 399, 51 176, 75 410; Rouge Imp. 269 411, 46 144, 339, cited, observe never permitted pervert servitude destroy reimbursement existed. 19 Since do agree intended invoke group coordinated reach constitutional thus posed. Accordingly, need decide whether interference neither means, South Carolina Georgia, 23 782, nor consequence, advancement elsewhere. Similarly, ponder whether, virtue highly fictional purpose, navigable away sale private deprived held anything like any question power; find attempted taking, compensation, 20 contrary, direction help objection undertake big bundle custom invoking authorizing improvements appears origin when internal contested doubt. 1936 Butler, 297 56 312, 318, 80 477, 102 A.L.R. 914, time, dissent point, conferring tax 'to pay Debts Defense Welfare States,' Constitution, art. 8, cl. delegates distinct later enumerated, restricted them, substantive welfare, limited requirement exercised distinguished mere local If doubt remained, laid rest following Helvering Davis, 301 619, 640, 904, 908, 81 1307, 109 1319. Thus promote welfare large-scale reclamation, irrigation, improvement, now ample accomplish results indirectly resort strained interpretation navigation.10 view background justification location component project. 21 Even assume, Government, fact bears realistically elected treat conceived represented Whether chosen dominant immaterial. directing 1902, way interfere laws relating appropriation, use, distribution used acquired thereunder.' 32 388, 390. 22 twist words election language Holmes, writing 407, 177, 410, 'proceeded footing (riparians') Government's duty (it) purported accomplish.' conclude not, recognize state-created domain.11 guided conclusion placed which, administering pursued course impossible reconcile present contentions Government. beginning, acted assumption casual inspection committee hearings reports leaves familiar interpretation. Although because remotely compensable, observed originally adopted expense crops lands' marginal pasture lands.12 consistently purchasing accordingly.13 Moreover, Congress14 users15 prosecution work, existing respected. 24 extended even question. Pursuant offered claimants 7, 9, price. addition, entered written contract Miller Lux, $2,450,000 identical denies exist. asserted Gerlach, Erreca Potter, who obtained title properties Lux. Because certain reservations grants, possible Lux retained properties. therefore agreed sum $511,350 deposited escrow agent. final judgments obligate grantees reimbursed fund amount exceeding $9 per acre. However, dismiss claims, escrowed go substance strange transaction asks us hold bought paid price allowed. bargain and, what goes As cases, defending real party interest, undertook behalf 25 Of course, bound mistakes. contracted nonexistent, preclude upholding better contentions. regarded highest Executive authorities initiation payment knowing history, given approvals has, ground asking apply. apply turn, bids us, determine liabilities landowner appropriator. 26 II. Claimants' Riparian Rights Under Law. 27 adversaries case rival doctrines competition legal history. based common-law riparian-rights courts. stands position upstream appropriator beneficial use. 28 governing derived 1928 Amendment Constitution16 compresses paragraph reconciliation modification evolved litigations vexed judiciary century. text questions answered, legislation judicial decision provides direct explicit determination before us. adopts test liability, venture peculiarly light history strife doctrinal conflict, says known judge matters, Conger Weaver, Cal. 548, Am.Dec. 528, continuity cryptic policy statutes become intelligible.17 29 Upon acquiring statehood 1850, England courts inconsistent Constitutions legislation. middle Eighteenth Century, English body doctrine That Mexican lingering authority there, see Boquillas Cattle Curtis, 213 343, 493, 53 822; Gutierres Albuquerque Land 188 545, 556, 338, 342, 47 588, peculiar concession 'pueblos.' Indeed, prevailed Western civilization. 30 ago Institutes Justinian, running air sea, were res communes—things none. spread civil-law commentators embodied Napoleonic Code Spanish conception passed sources, inquisitive powerful minds Chancellor Kent Story drew basic American 31 developed amply watered rainfall. primary asset run-off incidental. access flowing became shore. followed principle equality requires corpus one's aside rather domestic agricultural above, owner down him volume channels unimpaired quality. permit reduced possession commercial nonriparian purposes. working details egalitarian concept, states variations, seeking incentives advantages. set forth Shively Bowlby, 152 38 331. philosophy then States. Then mountains combination circumstances unprecedented litigious unprecedented. Almost Mexico ceded California, territories, gold discovered rush hardy, aggressive venturesome pioneers began. treasure prospectors, essential precious dross. miner's convenience—it necessity; necessity knows conditions favorable did—law unlike world. adventurers little-inhabited, unsurveyed, unowned ungoverned country, theretofore thought value. miners well subject preemption. best title. Priority—of discovery, appropriation—was source Fortuitously, lower reaches owners challenge customs miners. 34 September, admitted Union State. 1851, Legislature enacted Civil Practice contained provision 'in actions respecting Mining Claims, customs, usages, regulations, Constitution Laws State, action.'18 appropriating authority, notwithstanding contradiction books. Here provocations controversy soon came established 35 everywhere, product between upper Matthew Irwin built miners, downstream settler Robert tore descend volume. Faced issue doctrine, Supreme escaped observing located show proprietorship. squatters, priority appropriation right. court gave warning appropriative might prevail claimed Phillips, 1855, 63 113. 36 whole proprietor, vulnerable challenge. left trespassers. taught tenure preemptions precarious when, 1858, Attorney intervened litigation contend dispute public, restrain mining operations His intervention successful, injunction forbade mine question, writ issued Lincoln military remove Parrott, C.C., Fed.Cas.No.15,998, McAll. 271. 37 Demands uncertain loud, went unheeded amidst problems civil war. after war closed, precipitated bill introduced request Treasury withdraw mines appraise sell reserving royalty sale. believed revenue debt. prevailed. July 1866, 251, R.S. 2339, free open preemption following: 'That whenever, possession, mining, agricultural, manufacturing, purposes, accrued, acknowledged decisions courts, possessors maintained protected same; ditches aforesaid hereby confirmed: Provided, passage act, person, persons shall, ditch canal, injure damage committing injury liable damage.' 253, 43 U.S.C. 661, U.S.C.A. 661. section expounded Field Jennison Kirk, 98 453, 240, foreclosing further proprietary rested custom. 'an unequivocal grant' diversions Broder Natoma 101 274, 790. good patent removed cloud cast adverse claims. 39 While accomplished, changed brought new appropriators. Homestead 1862 opened up method formal 392. Farms ranches appeared wanted give flow. appropriators settlers whose interfered. decided 'a he assert stream, though prior appropriation.' Crandall Woods, 136. 40 1886 decisive battle Haggin, 255, P. 919, 674. Haggin organized company Kern downstream. still attached hostile thereafter. itself apart effort rejected forthrightly completely. 41 Twentieth Century inducted old struggle. Gigantic succeeded operations, municipalities by-pass intervening city supply. Increasing dependence branches State's economy, rural urban, centered attention conservation maximum utilization. 42 seemed frustrated 1926, Herminghaus Southern Edison 200 81, 252 607, Court, argument, dismissed certiorari want 1927, 275 486, 48 27, 72 387. here. projected primarily generation. Plaintiffs' ranch, always naturally productive threatened impair value ranch. unwilling utilization economic waste plaintiffs' benefit, enjoined ruling movement amendment focus contest grown bitterness intensity regions populations mounted. characterized socialistic. Weil, Theories Law, Harv.L.Rev. 530 (1914). result monopoly. 309, 674, 703. uneconomic consequences unlimited riparianism revealed decisions, unrestrained apparent completely appropriated, leaving newcomers industry.19 44 Joint Committee study careful consideration remedies. Among proposals, relevant our revoke nullify retroactively 1850.20 dispossession proposals confiscatory. serve preserving limiting curbing unreasonably wastefully. submitted electors constitutes California's defers. 45 assume impact here, for, seen, provoked assertion. deprive declares continue unintentionally strike studied preserve. concerned continued compensable taken. took left. Riparianism, pressed limits logic, enabled play dog-in-the-manger. shore proprietor enforce bare technical getting substantial it. canine element abolished. reasonably served, limitation transgressed loss actual Any hazard lurks clause: 'and extend unreasonable diversion water.' attach to, put clause, wasteful character. prodigal inseparable benefits, enforced injunction. withholding equitable remedies, specific performance, mandatory orders injunctions, mean exists. invasion call indemnification. fact, adequacy remedy usually grounds denial former. sacrifice broader higher utilization, necessarily require uncompensated takings surrendered interest. resale shed. Thereby fruitful, valuable, operation profitable. contemplate share charges, reimburse outlay. anticipates recoupment forty-year period.21 No reason why get spared whom Public interest appropriation; expropriation. destroyed confiscated adjudicated right, remains longer enforcible entirely clear. Insofar exact survive.22 Five Amendment, Superior California23 sustained Madera Irrigation District build site divert 170,000 acres. sued subsidiaries, decrees favor 1933. general, uncontrolled belong claimants. adjudged invalid ineffective 1940 Madera's pending applications outstanding adjudications grantor Without considering 1933 judicata, persuasive had, survived retired condemnation acquisition valid. answer problem. precedents discussions collateral issues, especially Peabody City Vallejo, Cal.2d 351, P.2d 486; Lodi East Bay Municipal Utility District, 316, 60 439; Hillside Los Angeles, 677, 681; Gin Chow Santa Barbara, 217 673, 5; Meridian, Ltd. County 424, 90 537, 91 105; Angeles Glendale, 68, 142 289, sound apparently indicate. unique Where thirst rainfall, floods detriments disasters, abate overflows rarely ever cause But, out, uncommon rise singular scarcity makes advantageous gives extraordinary interception correctly applied 52 III. Other Issues. assigns error date impoundment occurred 20, 1941, prevented reaching contemplated protect suits 'initiated sixth anniversary initial diversion.' expiration contract, accrual Regardless how fixed absence determination, decline subject. Second, misconstrued deeds facts recited seems event, presents conveyancing case, depending manifest error, accept, review, thereon. Finally, protests failed adequately describe award. simple exhaustive character findings understanding seven litigations, prospect grievously misled deficiencies, any, exist description. affirmed. Affirmed. BLACK concurs judgment agrees DOUGLAS 59 DOUGLAS, concurring dissenting part. respondents entitled matter For repeatedly river. See 307, 390—391, 1101. true involved. Gibson 166 269, 578, 996; Rio Grande 174 690, 770, 1136. plain, 427, 308, changing aid Nor respondents' recover founded appropriated money created claimant teaching Brandeis' Mitchell 267 341, 345—346, 293, 294, 644. inter alia, 'losses firms procurement land.' denying business said: 'By clause firms, purpose,' doubtless War losses due business, purchased agreement owners. follow agreement, plaintiffs compel losses. recover, statutory conferred.' 62 case. example, 'may rights-of-way, purposes.' Authority construed liability pay. sure, relinquish immunity suit taking. 141, 483; Realty 163 440, 1120, 1125, 215. done so—not 1902. 371 et seq., seq. 64 applies solely western deals indicates. Section authorizes carrying Act.1 provides: nothing affecting affect Territory thereunder, Interior, herein landowner, appropriator, user in, interstate thereof: appurtenant basis, measure, limit right.' 383. 66 respects 'any right' thereof.' interfered found 7. customary file notice pursuant 67 Petitioner seeks avoid force Sections asserting streams. 68 legislative particularly instructive. House reporting 'Section recognizes non-navigable irrigation.' H.R.Rep.No.1468, 57th Cong.1st Sess., p. 6. evidence, framers scope narrow. recommended 1901, Theodore suggest 'vested rights' laws. Cong.Rec. 6677, 6775—6776. statements Representative Mondell, charge Bill (35 6678—6679) Senator Clark Wyoming 2222). according acquired' added House. 6762. authoritatively determined courts.2 recognized, 1815. Commission 223, 187, involving Columbia River. Whatever doubts me dispelled summarized Commissioner memorandum dated April 19, Reports regional counsel review files formed memorandum. 71 concluded invariable notices regard nonnavigable.3 filings probably rivers. too contradicted documents cited petitioner.4 drawn recent Department officers confirming practice. often emphasized weight statute agency. Trucking Ass'ns, 310 534, 549, 1059, 1067, 84 1345; National Labor Relations Board Hearst Publications, 322 111, 130, 851, 860, 88 1170. resolves ambiguities arise wording statute. 73 (though Constitution) nonnavigable holds, assumes statute, allowable Goltra, 312 203, 207, 487, 490, 776; Thayer-West Point Hotel 329 585, 398, 521. obtains takes Fifth Amendment. Seaboard Air Line R. 261 299, 354, 356, 664. §§ Act. contain refers exists ascertain damages '(T)he Project, heretofore (49 115) First Deficiency fiscal 1622) reauthorized $6,900,000 'Friant Reservoir therefrom', 'reimbursable Law.' 1597, 1622. Development Cal.Stat.1933, 2643. Studies feasibility participation, accompanying congressional authorization Aug. 1028, 1038. representation Chief Engineers phase, 'No accrue development,' (House Doc. No. 191, 73d Cong., 2d Sess. 3; Comm. Harbors, H.R., 35) participation purely northern valley, expenditure $12,000,000 Kennett exempt requirements 850. 25, 1910, 835, 836, 413, begun beenrecommended order States.' feasible, adaptable settlement farm homes, return Dec. 1924, 4(B), 672, 702, 412. n. 3, supra. Letter Truman 15, 1949, S.Doc.No.113, 81st 1st adverted, seventeen extent clearly say subsist 'Part retirement 250,000 submarginal *' Feasibility Report, Ickes Roosevelt, Nov. Included Secretary's estimated costs item $8,000,000 'rights way, expenses.' Ibid. 'by roceedings regularly 1938 1949. occasion, excepting 1945, purchased, (fiscal 1946) Hearings, Subcomm. Appropriations, Dept., 75th 281, (except references subcommittee), H.R. Rep. 786, 14; 3d 349, 76th 421, 422, 161, 16; 495, 1709, 77th 741; 434—439; Pt. 78th 1174; 79th 1200; 315—317; 80th 749—752; 1214, 1279—1280, Senate 921—924; 564, 597; 324; 685, 719; 303, 336; 506, 536; 451, 476; 348, 367; 460, 475; 1112, 1129. recommending project,' pointing served excellent transportation facilities, shipped eastern markets, decreasing productivity acute shortage needs continue, suffered residing areas directly affected.' approach unnecessary consider relevancy 521; Tillson 100 543, Unless choose disturb ourselves saying invocation 1902 simply assumed 'In conducting investigations constructing operating West, fully Not operates, fair procedure. report predicated policy.' Report Regional Director, Region II, 1947, 1948. 39. After consultation replied concerning Project Districts Association California: perfected inception program law; consistently, zealous maintaining compliance act. proud historic tenets West Ample demonstration administration, action, assignment, purchase, considerations amounting millions dollars agreeable vendors—all Further, landowners affected analyzed adjustments, landowners, process worked out.' XIV, 'It prevailing fullest capable, prevented, reasonable people welfare. section, adaptable, uses; provided, depriving methods lawfully entitled. self-executing, enact furtherance contained.' historical 1866 comprehensibly Wiel, 264 (3d Ed., 1911), articles author: Policy Decisions, Cal.L.Rev. 11; Comparative 245, 342; Political Rights, 111; 530. Pomeroy cc. (1893); Farnham, Waters c. 22; Toelle, Prospective Effect Law Proposed Missouri Authorities, Temple L.Q. 425; Walton, Origin Growth Ill.L.Rev. 126; Bannister, Disposition Priority 270; Lasky, Prior Economic Distribution State—Via Administration, Rocky Mt.L.Rev. 161. 621. 748, Procedure. opinions indicate Platte inadequate priorities decreed Comstock Ramsay, Colo. 244, 133 1107. Boise Idaho appropriated. Burley, 172 615. Many Colorado overappropriated. Humphreys Tunnel Frank, 524, 105 1093. Pending 169 257, Europeanizing Constitution—The 454; Note, Stanford L.Rev. 172. Ickes, Friant-Kern Canal Canal, among included, says, next returned interpreted within forty works. $170,000,000 cost, charges $7,500,000. revenues sufficient cover charges. belief cost.' rendered 12, 1950, Rank Krug, 773, views Drainage Colusa County, 196 414, 432, 238 687, 694. fall Fidelity Trust Field, 169, 109, King Order Commercial Travelers America, 333 153, 488, 92 608. becomes property, process, sums needed Attorney-General application commenced thirty days receipt Justice.' 421. recently held, al. 773. records data: (Washington, Idaho, Oregon, Montana) filing (northern Oregon), include number revealed. (southern Arizona, southern Nevada), exception Nevada, Utah, Colorado), occasion yet arisen (Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado) (eastern Montana, North Dakota) Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas) notes explain exception. Hoover 'river control,' thereafter irrigation. 1061, 617e. Compact assures adequate points search fails disclose refused validly law.' Another Spokane Yet past, instituted also. unpublished Manual printed guidance employees, supports petitioner's 1913, 1917, 1927 editions, lesser edition. manual preparation. early (California L.D. 391), support position. explained 'despite statement earlier manuals *,' distinction

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