Document: 431 U.S. 720 97 S.Ct. 2061 52 L.Ed.2d 707 ILLINOIS BRICK COMPANY et al., Petitioners,v.State of al. No. 76-404. Argued March 23, 1977. Decided June 9, Rehearing Denied Oct. 3, See 434 881, 98 243. Syllabus Respondents, the State Illinois and 700 local governmental entities, brought this antitrust treble-damages action under § 4 Clayton Act alleging that petitioners, concrete block manufacturers (which sell to masonry contractors, which in turn general from respondents purchase form structures) had engaged a price-fixing conspiracy violation 1 Sherman Act. Petitioners, relying on Hanover Shoe, Inc. v. United Shoe Machinery Corp., 392 481, 88 2224, 20 1231, moved for partial summary judgment against all plaintiffs were indirect purchasers contending only direct could sue alleged overcharge. The District Court granted motion, but Appeals reversed, holding such as recover treble damages an illegal overcharge if they prove was passed them through intermediate distribution channels. held generally illegally overcharged purchaser suing damages, not others chain manufacture or distribution, is party "injured his business property" within meaning 4. Held: 1. If pass-on theory may be used defensively by violator (defendant) (plaintiff) offensively (defendant). Therefore, unless overruled limited, it bars respondents' theory. Pp. 729-736. (a) Allowing offensive defensive use would create serious risk multiple liability defendants, since even though already recovered part him, still automatically full amount shown on, and, similarly, following automatic recovery purchaser, same amount. Overlapping recoveries certainly result two lawsuits unable establish any whatsoever. 730-731. (b) Court's perception uncertainties difficulties analyzing price output decisions "in real economic world rather than economist's hypothetical model," applies with equal force assertion theories does defendants. 731-733. (c) Because bar petitioners using defense suit (the contractors), must (or narrowly limited), applied attempt offensively. 736-747. 2. correctly decided its construction adhered to. Considerations stare decisis weigh heavily area statutory construction, where Congress free change interpretation legislation. 736-737. Whole new dimensions complexity added suits, undermining their effectiveness, allowed. Even optimistic assumption joinder potential deal satisfactorily problems litigation liability, actions transformed into massive multiparty litigations involving many levels including large classes ultimate consumers remote defendant. concern "massive evidence complicated theories" involved attempting fortiori trace effect each step consumer. 737-744. Attempts carve out exceptions particular types markets entail very sought avoid. 744-745. (d) legislative purpose creating group "private attorneys general" enforce laws 4, Hawaii Standard Oil Co. California, 405 251, 262, 92 885, 891, 31 184, better served injured extent paid apportion among have absorbed it. 745-747. 536 F.2d 1163, reversed remanded. Edward H. Hatton, Chicago, Ill., petitioners. Lee A. Freeman, Jr., respondents. Donald I. Baker, Washington, D.C., States, amicus curiae, special leave Court. [Amicus Curiae Information page 722-724 intentionally omitted] Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion 1231 (1968), Act1 manufacturer shoe machinery one customers, shoes. In defense, show plaintiff been required because claimed those who bought shoes Under defendant's theory, plaintiff's customers persons actually violation. 2 rejected matter law parties except certain limited circumstances,2 defendant permitted introduce fact U.S., at 494, S.Ct., 2232. first reason rejection offer proof unwillingness complicate attempts effects purchaser's prices, sales, costs, profits, showing these variables behaved differently without Id., 492-493, 2231.3 A second barring allowed portion arguably purchasers, violators "would retain fruits illegality" tiny stake lawsuit" hence little incentive sue. 3 case we once again confront question whether should deemed purposes suffered injury overcharge; issue presented context plaintiff, seeks establishing defendants rely Shoe's Having now decide violator. * Petitioners distribute Greater Chicago area. They primarily submit bids contractors portions projects. projects case, entities area, counties, municipalities, housing authorities, school districts. 67 F.R.D. 461, 463 (ND Ill.1975); App. 16-48. Respondents are thus block, passes separate before reaching purchased directly build structures; structures incorporated entire buildings sold 5 Respondent Illinois, behalf itself respondent Act, combination fix prices Act.4 complaint amounts more $3 million higher conspiracy. way respondents, being distribution. Ampress Brick Co., 1164 (CA7 1976).5 6 (1) Petitioner overcharge.6 petitioners' can intervening links chain.7 7 We certiorari, 429 938, 352, 50 307 (1976), resolve conflict Courts Appeals8 authorized decision below consistent restrictions pass-on. hold not, reverse. reach steps. First, conclude whatever rule adopted regarding actions, apply equally contractors),9 faced choice overruling limiting) applying Second, decline abandon given section absence convincing demonstration wrong think effectiveness substantially reduced adopting fraction allegedly II 8 (2) agree however construed respect issue, purchaser. arguing conceded assert Tr. Oral Arg. 33, 48; ask limit defenses "particular factual context" overcharges capital goods products. 41; see id., 36, 47-48. 9 Before turning request consider contrary position, our dissenting Brethren, States lower courts pass-on, unavailability necessarily preclude seeking defendant.10 view, continue both action; them. reject position reasons. 10 allowing it, on; duplicative created unequal application much substantial usual situation sued different asserting conflicting claims fund. one-sided increases possibility inconsistent adjudications therefore unwarranted presuming purchaser) entitled while preventing presumption other plaintiff; overlapping As Cal., 264, 892, 184 (1972), unwilling "open door recoveries" 4.11 11 reasoning cannot justify treatment permissibility arguments. principal basis 493, 2231 costs judicial system efficient enforcement reconstruct courtroom.12 This complex adjustments cost factor production greatly reduce protracted proceedings no less However "long complicated" when ibid., so introduced plaintiffs. Indeed, evidentiary complexities multiplied several steps removed how repeated point price-fixed changed hands reached plaintiff.13 12 (3) It argued, however, rests policy ensuring available deprive "the illegality," 2232, furthered theories. See, e. g., re Western Liquid Asphalt Cases, 487 191, 197 (CA9 1973), cert. denied, sub nom. Cal. Alaska, 415 919, 94 1419, 39 474 (1974); Brief Amicus 4-6, 12-13, 17-19.14 do read remedy countenancing rule. Rather, understand resting will effectively enforced concentrating every potentially affected 13 (4) construe permit purchasers. seek demonstrate walls structures, buildings, submitted buildings. clear fair reading barred contractors. 14 did endorse broad exception recognized permitting middlemen alter reselling them.15 here included event, transform But indicated narrow scope intended citing, example might permitted, pre-existing cost-plus contract. situation, insulated decrease sales pass overcharge, customer committed buying fixed quantity regardless price. essentially determined advance, reference interaction supply demand complicates determination case. competitive bidding process then hardly said circumvent market interactions contract.16 15 left, then, alternatives: either overrule least confine facts), choose latter course. III 16 (5) considering cut back rule, bear mind considerations Edelman Jordan, 651, 671, 1347, 1359, 662 Burnet Coronado & Gas 285 393, 406-408, 443, 447-448, 76 L.Ed. 815 (1932) (Brandeis, J., dissenting). adherence prior construing enactments support reaffirmance joined eight Justices dissent few years ago,17 persuaded policies underlying persuaded. 17 (6) Permitting efforts consumers. appealing allocate seem add whole suits seriously undermine effectiveness. 18 indicated, level common fund chain.18 class plaintiffs) implicates three interests traditionally thought compulsory absent adverse claimants: interest avoiding fund; protecting right allocable them; social administration justice avoidance litigation. Reed, Compulsory Joinder Parties Civil Actions, 55 Mich.L.Rev. 327, 330 (1957). Provident Tradesmens Bank Trust Patterson, 390 102, 110-111, 733, 738-739, 19 936 (1968); C. Wright Miller, Federal Practice Procedure 1602 (1972). Opponents need suggesting interplead claimants 28 U.S.C. 1335.19 defendant, variety reasons,20 claimants, there strong argument joining "persons needed just adjudication" Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 19(a).21 Comment, Standing Sue Antitrust Cases: Offensive Use Passing-On, 123 U.Pa.L.Rev. 976, 998 (1975). These fit classic definition "necessary parties," joinder, Shields Barrow, How. 130, 139, 158 (1855): "Persons having controversy, ought made parties, order court act requires finally determine complete justice, adjusting rights it." 21 Notes Advisory Committee 1966 Amendment Rule 19, App., p. 7760; supra, §§ 1604, 1618; 3A J. Moore, P 19.08 (1974). bringing required, 19(c), "state names, known," claimants; also notified some means pending.22 Where, often numerous impracticable, representative presumably found bring class. 19(d); supra 19.21. 22 unlikely, course, joined. Some wish unmanageable class; beyond personal jurisdiction court. assume ordinarily proceed, "indispensable" 19(b). supra. theories, consumers, apportioned relevant wholesalers, retailers, middlemen, whose representatives joined.23 And similarly implicated.24 23 There virtually (apart retail level). avoid weighing down theories," 2231, inclined ignore burdens impose effective laws. 24 (7) array simplifying assumptions, provides precise formula calculating distributed between (passer) (passees). passer's product perfectly competitive; imposed competitors; passer maximizes ratio shares borne passee elasticities product.25 assumptions accepted, remains problem measuring percentage quantities demanded supplied response percent view encountered, informal adversary proceedings, statistical techniques estimate concepts, Finkelstein, Regression Models Administrative Proceedings, 86 Harv.L.Rev. 1442, 1444 (1973), unrealistic elasticity studies expert witnesses issue. look further own sophisticated methodology evident last Term Gregg Georgia, 428 153, 96 2909, 49 859 companion cases. 184-185, 2930-2931 (joint Stewart, Powell, Stevens, JJ.); 227, 233-236, 2971, 2974-2975, 904 (Marshall, dissenting); Roberts Louisiana, 325, 354-355, 3001, 3016-3017, 974 (1976) (White, 25 More important, observed, latter's drastic simplifications abandoned. Overcharged imperfectly markets. compete sellers subject pricing explained solely convenient profit maximization.26 concluded 492, attention "sound economics" heighten awareness determining overcharge.27 26 quite true contexts others. proposals allow preserving argue, courts,28 resell altering markup materials submitting bids. 9-30; 36-48. Exceptions urged situations most purportedly example, good small vital input larger product, making highly inelastic. Compare Philadelphia Housing Auth. American Radiator Sanitary (ED Pa.1970), aff'd Mangano 438 1187 (CA3 1971), Master Key Litigation, 1973-2 Trade Cas. 74,680 (Conn.). Schaefer, n. 25, 918-925. 27 markets.29 An course avail 735. ground purport charge above erode justification. Firms sectors economy cost-based rules thumb setting prices. F. Scherer, Industrial Market Structure Economic Performance 173-179 (1970). rigidly, however; allocation costs) varied reflect conditions. 176-177. intricacies tracing profits spared litigants. generally, classifying various according likely susceptibility forum meant over line drawn cases inject albeit somewhat generality. noted, 735-736, implicitly discouraged creation defenses, adhere exemption there. 29 closely related reduction smaller outcome apportionment throughout increase overall injecting extremely issues case; time benefits dividing group. Added uncertainty established trial additional increasing diffusing impair important weapon enforcement. 30 (8) longstanding encouraging vigorous private laws, see, Perma Life Mufflers, International Parts 134, 1981, 1984, 982 supports burden litigating recognize sometimes refrain fear disrupting relations suppliers.30 balance, until directions contrary, " 'private general' (9) that, elevating preferred general, denies violations. Of BRENNAN points dissent, "from deterrence standpoint, irrelevant whom paid, long redresses violation." Post, 760. has another addition deterring depriving 2232; designed compensate victims violations injuries. E. Brunswick Corp. Pueblo Bowl-O-Mat, Inc., 477, 485-486, 690, 695-696, 701 (1977). goal compensation absorbs supporting carry principle logical extreme "those distribution," post, 761, especially make individual actual injuries simply depleting issues. Many lawsuit class, come forward collect damages.31 difficulty ascertaining believing suffered. 32 For reasons stated, remanded opinion. 33 So ordered. 34 BRENNAN, MARSHALL BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 35 civil public pursuant 1.1 Section 38 Stat. 731, 15, broadly provides: "(A) person shall property anything forbidden therefor . threefold him sustained ." 36 Decisions defining objectives: deter future stated "does protection competitors, (but) comprehensive terms coverage, practices whomever perpetrated." Mandeville Island Farms, Crystal Sugar 334 219, 236, 68 996, 1006, 1328 (1948).2 Today's affords offender regrettable retreat clearly operate protect middlemen. acted premise gave cause well recently enacted Hart-Scott-Rodino Improvements 1976, 90 1394-1396, 15c seq. (1976 ed.), state parens patriae citizens States. 37 flouts Congress' severely undermines instrument instances, brunt increased along distribution.3 frustrates objectives action. Injured precluded recovering manufacturers, suppliers bulk frustration congressional scheme mandated (1968). To there, relieved consideration essential preserve require affirmance authorize suit. escape circumstances,4 farther distribution.5 argued United's equipment6 reflected consuming public. supported conclusion despite sound economics require" recognition, 2231. followed earlier "victim (immediately) damaged overcharge." 491, 2230. particularly apt precedent proposition Southern Pacific Darnell-Taenzer Lumber 245 531, 186, 62 451 (1918),7 "(t)he tendency regard least, go step," belief carrier profit, take alone relation took sum. 533-534, 186. words, requirement privity deny otherwise able wrong. read, limiting another. That Perkins 395 642, 648, 89 1871, 1874, 599 (1969), next Term, discrimination traced ultimately "causal connection (antitrust laws) sufficient record inference causation, what proves jury." does, denial relied upon Shoe: proving quantifying role 492-494, 2231-2232. discerned reconstructing decisions,8 aggravate nature become commonplace whenever extended plaintiff. lessen action, individually suffer minor Limiting defendants' loss pay conduct failed Consequently, 40 violate fixing monopolizing illegality Treble damage importance times emphasized, effectiveness." 41 confronted choice, Darnell-Taenzer, interpreting overcompensate injury, under-deters ill-gotten overcharges. chose interpret recognition violations.9 imply him. 42 Despite superficial appeal "consistently," precluding alike treating passing-on differently. "offensive" cases, injuries, "defensive" situation. danger frustrate insuring continued wrongdoers retaining spoils misdeeds favor action.10 I fully observation: 43 "The unduly hampers refusal entertain seems ingenious (in ) rationale head." 74,680, pp. 94,978-94,979 44 goes far Treble-damages 210. history shows conceived people individuals," Cong.Rec. 1767-1768 (1890) (remarks Sen. George); 2612 (Sens. Teller Reagan), 2615 (Sen. Coke), 2640 Spooner).11 1914, "any laws." 486 10, 696 (1977), citing H.R.Rep.No.627, 63d Cong., 2d Sess., (1914). 'open(ing) man, he giv(ing) ample suffered.' "12 Brunswick, quoting 51 9073 (1914) Rep. Webb); 9079 (Rep. Volstead), 9270 Carlin), 9414-9417, 9466-9467, 9487-9495. House debates conference committee report. 16274-16275 Webb), 16317-16319 Floyd). 45 interpreted broadly, plainly objective, Northern R. 356 1, 78 514, 517, 545 (1958), play paramount fundamental Nation, Zenith Radio Hazeltine Research, 100, 130-131, 1562, 1580, 129 (1969); Minnesota Mining Mfg. New Jersey Wood Finishing 381 311, 318, 85 1473, 1477, (1965), best ever-present threat anyone contemplating behavior federal accordingly cautioned "not (to) requirements litigant specifically set forth antitrust) laws," Radovich National Football League, 352 445, 454, 77 390, 395, 456 (1957), express approval 'tendency find awarded done. Difficulty ascertainment longer confused recovery' proven invasion rights." Bigelow RKO Pictures, 327 265-266, 66 574, 580, 652 (1946). 1580; ; Radiant Burners, Peoples Gas, Light Coke 364 656, 660, 81 365, 367, 358 (1961), emphasized plead "allegations adequate thereby requires." B 46 1976 expressly "an mechanism prohibited giving (to States' citizens) violators." S.Rep.No.94-803, (1976). Title responded attributable Senate Report accompanying consumer services," 39, provide states, 42: 47 "A inequities inconsistencies restrictive interpretations. 4C assure opportunity manageability (of actions), standing, privity, target remoteness, like."13 (Emphasis supplied.) 48 Representative Rodino, sponsor, during debates: "(A)ssuming attorney violation, 'passed on' injuring 'in property'; is, pocketbooks compromise bill fixer, indirectly, intermediaries, technical procedural 'standing' privity' bill. Opinions technicality squarely bill." 122 H10295 (daily ed. Sept. 16, 1976). difficult expressed clearly. open passage believe was, enacting provision authority referred correct answer. N. 13, tortuous "consistency" return "legal somersaults twistings turnings" opinions led 1914 salvage ailing 9086 Kelly). observed necessity theories." almost highlights unavoidable complication, probable events occurred violation.14 essence, estimating middleman's selling been, ante, 13. Nor block) combined buildings) resale absolute recovery. claims, separately project factored building relative certainty. based strength evidence.15 191 denied Admittedly, on. others, approximately determinable. again, distinguishes Reasoned estimation "while cases) mere speculation guess, enough reasonable inference, although approximate." Story Parchment Paterson Paper 282 555, 563, 248, 250, 75 544 (1931). 266, 580; Eastman Kodak Photo Materials 273 359, 379, 400, 405, 71 684 (1927). Lack precision apportioning denying damages. Moreover, someone deterred judgments much. due, assuring prevent profiting outweighed resulting injustice.16 53 concede wording wrongdoer liable. (1977); developed tests "standing," unlike concept proximate tort law, define point. variously articulated, usually tests. test focuses directness injury;17 liberal, widely "target area" violation.18 language anything, surely render liable indeed "paradoxical windfall recovery." P. Areeda, Analysis: Problems, Text, Cases (2d 1974). IV 54 acknowledge abstract merit sue, while, time, subjects liability. practical matter, existing mechanisms eliminate instances. though, says, procedure currently exists entirely, 11, subjected my erecting presents significant double "double recovery" specter rejected. recorded Act's codify Ninth Circuit : 'We recovery, arise connection, district fashion relief accordingly. court's control decree, devices exist. note consolidation occurred, averting duplicitous awards. short, four-year statute limitations another; later after final herein, unlikely. 15b. interpleader, 1335, necessary, masters appointed handle Finally, doctrines res judicata collateral estoppel procedures joinder. day past courts, deserving merely damages.' 56 "We prefer place appellees, appellants. Such consequence appellees' acts, appellants' suits. Where intermediaries letting guilty free, imposed. 2284. So, too, defendants." S.Rep. 94-803, F.2d, 201 (citation omitted). 57 arises situations: pending courts; filed award suit.19 cogently alternatives suggested Manual Complex (pt. 2) (1976): intradistrict transfer power 1404(b), coordinate pretrial districts, single 1404(a). addition, Judicial Panel Multidistrict Litigation empowered 1407 questions coordinated "will convenience promote actions." After transfers section, consolidated transferred 1404(a).20 device mentioned interpleader litigate inter se appropriate total recovery.21 58 True, greater independently instituted proceeded judgment.22 likelihood remote. discovery, combines short impractical sit entry 59 today regrettably weakens deterrent by, indefensible acting reluctant suppliers23 us signal ascribed today. follow understanding affirm.24 60 BLACKMUN, 61 BRENNAN'S persuasive convincing, join hesitation. sentences say plaintiffs-respondents lost, unhappy chronology. preceded "on books," am positive affirming, perhaps unanimously, Appeals. behind Acts signs direction, compelled. 63 books, feels "consistent" That, me, wooden approach, entirely inadequate considered light Acts. tells present Nevertheless, await which, acknowledges, 734 14, adopt. One regrets takes repetitious effort achieve, recognize, obvious aim. "Any resides agent, sustained, suit, attorney's fee." cited, buyer 'cost-plus' contract, easy infra, 735-736. follows: wide range factors influence company's policies. Normally impact conditions measured fact; businessman whether, (a expensive, buoyant, labor tighter, example), chosen Equally determine, model, sales. per unit volume hard estimate. raised to, of, margin thereafter declined, remain nearly insuperable demonstrating maintained discontinued. Since applicability unascertainable figures, task normally insurmountable. On hand, unlikely existence confirmed, frequently applicability. Treble-damage (Footnote omitted.) c. 647, 209, amended, part: "Every trust otherwise, conspiracy, restraint trade commerce foreign nations, hereby declared .." Private builders settled, prejudice 1164. responses interrogatories four represented (N.D.Ill.1975). Only 7% named apparently **. cited reported one-half project. *. grant them, lacked standing building. F.R.D., 467-468. Although agreed Shoe. 1164-1167. dispositive here, address note, below, 1166, analytically distinct too give Handler Blechman, Consumer Interest: Fallacy Parens Patriae Suggested Approach, Yale L.J. 626, 644-645 aff'g West Virginia Chas. Pfizer 440 1079 (CA2), Cotler Drugs, 404 871, 81, 115 (1971), 1163. 734-735. 753 (BRENNAN, 765-766 (BLACKMUN, 15-21; 50-54, 57-60; 1086-1088; Boshes General Motors 589, 592-598 Ill.1973); 94,978 (Conn.); Carnivale Bag Slide-Rite F.Supp. 287, 290-291 (SDNY 1975). California 6-12. recoveries, lawsuit. 200-201; 1088. 995-998 (1975); Ultimate-Consumer Standing: Misuse Doctrine, 72 Colum.L.Rev. 394, 410 (1972); 25. Various devices, 1407, together obtaining settling, (and 5, supra); acknowledging inevitably U.Pa.L.Rev., 994, proponents approach fall sixfold uncompensated. Colum.L.Rev., 411; ("a slopover shoulders acceptable"). acceptable. ways huge argues strongly Part III, infra. lack gains, 725-726, contracts, "mak(e) damaged." added.) overcharger depend buy contract market, former makes Note, Effect Passing-on So.Cal.L.Rev. 98, 108 simpler sells customers. claim caused element goods, purchased. chain. outweigh gain simplicity passed-on volume. defer understood 756-758 Amici 14-15, 6; 12. (apparently viewing cf. 7, supra) endorsed Circuit's pro-enforcement thrust criticized arguments H.R.Rep. 94-499, (1975), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News, 2572, 2576. sponsors legislation, assumed resolved favorably ed., clear, legislation quoted "creates substantive liability"; newly 4C(a) tracks alternative vindication claims." 2578. establishment liability." Ibid. Rodino himself acknowledged remarks dissenters predecessor 1890. 756-758. 765 24, reliance specific clarify statute. Red Lion Broadcasting FCC, 380-381, 1794, 1801, 371 (1969) (language 1959 amendment 315 Communications approved fairness doctrine FCC "public interest" standard original Act). Here, contrast, borrowed adding section. views legislators "cannot serve intent 'since statements (made) (Clayton) Act.' Regional Rail Reorganization 419 132, 95 335, 353, 320 (1974), Woodwork Mfrs. Ass'n NLRB, 386 612, 639 34, 87 1250, 1265, 357 (1967). While lightly disagree legislators, exclusive benefit Should result, may, amend done recent 42(b), customer. 185 826 (MD Pa.), aff'd, 281 481 (CA3), 901, 234, 194 (1960). "consumers" "middlemen" product. F.Supp., 830-831. Both interlocutory merits, affirmed reasoning. 488 6, 2228. Another forces superseded owned controlled Cf. 197, 199. sole question. 513, 2241. Part, symmetrically, all. assumption, reduces posed obtained nonetheless. residual justifies possible. Interpleader 22(1) unavailable service contrasted run nationwide. 22.04(2) condition invoking posting bond dispute, 1335(a)(2), 22.10, put up multiple-party discussion circumstances "impractical," McGuire, Passing-On Defense Right Remote Purchasers Recover Damages U.Pitt.L.Rev. 177, 197-198 (1971). 19(a) accorded relating situated disposition (i) impede ability (ii) incurring double, multiple, obligations interest." comment 19: "In desirable advise pending, discretion convey information directing letter notice absentee." 7760. 1971) (suit plumbing fixtures homeowners States). (masonry contractors) Auth., homes houses manufacturers' 19-20, 25-26. industrial raw equipment charged Government involve chain, chains distribution; chromite sand ingots, ingots steel, steel 640 77, 636-637 (citing Department consumers). Donson Stores, Bakeries 1973) (motion intervene putative bread manufacturers). 653 (arguing authorizing citizens, interject middlemen). Thus 20, tenants subtenants, fairly apportioned. equivalent excise tax violator's calculated theorems incidence tax. Theory Damage Actions: Legal Analysis, Wm. Mary L.Rev. 883, 887, 893 sources 887 21. Thus, instant offered calculate materials, 20-23, equate marginal revenue explicit profit-maximizing strategy. passee's nothing suggests "no initial itself. 758-759, 14. recognizes, 749 end causes inelastic easily brushed aside. dissenters' argument, harm so. disagree. 314 710, 745-746 1970), (CA2 1971); 597. supporters litigants contended halfway (United curiae ); "Passing On" Suits Laws, 70 469, 476, 478 (1961); commentators 198; Wheeler, Treble-Damage Do Work?, Calif.L.Rev. 1319, 1325 (1973). Commentators noted aggregating numbers individuals brought. Handler, Shift Substantive Procedural Innovations Twenty-Third Annual Review, 9-10 (1971); 1339; Kirkham, Have Good Intentions Gone Awry?, 199, 206-207 appears suggest answer compensating 764, 23. Quite "recognizes rarely, ever, secure share recovery," undistributed substantial." H.R.Rep.No.94-499, 2585. "a penalty deposited revenues," 4E(2), 15e(2) "for benefiting, possible, persons," reducing innovative methods distributing obstacles traditional successfully bid construct block. responsible consequences actions. 760-761. depends market. relatively inelastic, portion. elastic, raise absorb increase, decreasing middleman increase. rarely Posner, Notes, Other 147-149 recognizes "there instance, requiring present." shoes, passed. passing State's monopolized industry practice leasing refusing shoemaking machinery. shippers reparations railroad claiming unreasonable rates. excess rate. "(T)he ., ascertain "what sales"; impossible "could discontinued." 147-149. asserted prima facie out. rendered criminal proceeding 16(a). secured 110 295 (Mass.1953), summarily 347 521, 74 699, 910 (1954). unanimously 976 394 638-655 injured. Yoder Bros., California-Florida Plant 537 1347 (CA5 1976); Bristol-Myers 152 U.S.App.D.C. 470 1276 indication desire persons, comparatively slight, elimination jurisdictional-amount 2612, 3148-3149 Sens. Edmunds). trebled aids compensation, encourages barriers instead pattern "after (9th Cir. 1973); 1973 1975 60,37 (DC Conn.); 60,295 Ill.) (this below); Slide Rite Mfg., 60,370 (S.D.N.Y.); Antibiotics 333 278 (S.D.N.Y.1971); Charles 1971)." accepted stating law. S.Rep.No. 42-43 measure difference lease speculative instance. Pollock, Automatic Defense: Decision, Bull. 1183, 1210 commentator deciding number process. Ed. continuing morally reprehensible defendant" conspired. Loeb 183 704 1910). Earlier disallowed "antitrust type flows (the) acts unlawful." 489, 697. At rephrased target-area reasonably foreseeable conduct. Mulvey Samuel Goldwyn Productions, 433 1073 402 923, 91 1377, court, allocated accordance 42(a). 1971). process, Conduct 1001 Experience Transferee U.Chi.L.Rev. 588 post controversy. 1335(a)(2). 1335 places elect unique considers justified. All Illinois. never 42(a) stipulated settlements settlement affect "recognize(s) suppliers," concludes Ante, 746. keep observes "(m)any damages." 747. Yet precisely judicially perceived weaknesses Abundant sanctions deference indications subsequent worded consistently meaning. NLRB Bell Aerospace 416 267, 275, 1757, 1762, 134 380, FHA Darlington, 84, 90, 79 141, 145, 132 (1958); Stafoff, 260 480, (1923); York Norfolk Peninsula Exchange, 240 230, 232, 511 (1916). true, post-enactment legislators" participated enactment meaning, Manufacturers (1967), Reports amendments reveal 94th kind prohibits. 747 31, authorizes behalf.

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