Document: 466 U.S. 170 104 S.Ct. 1735 80 L.Ed.2d 214 Ray E. OLIVER, Petitionerv.UNITED STATES. MAINE, Petitioner v. Richard THORNTON. Nos. 82-15, 82-1273. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Nov. 9, 1983. Decided April 17, 1984. Syllabus In No. acting on reports that marihuana was being raised petitioner's farm, narcotics agents Kentucky State Police went to farm investigate. Arriving at they drove past house a locked gate with "No Trespassing" sign, but footpath around one side. The then walked and along road found field over mile from house. arrested indicted for "manufactur[ing]" "controlled substance" in violation federal statute. After pretrial hearing, District suppressed evidence discovery field, applying Katz States, 389 347, 88 507, 19 576 (1967), holding petitioner had reasonable expectation would remain private it not an "open" invited casual intrusion. Appeals reversed, impaired vitality open fields doctrine Hester 265 57, 44 445, 68 L.Ed. 898 (1924), which permits police officers enter search without warrant. 82-1273, after receiving tip grown woods behind respondent's residence, entered by path between residence neighboring house, followed through until reached two patches fenced chicken wire having signs. Later, officers, upon determining were property, obtained warrant seized marihuana. Respondent indicted. Maine trial court granted motion suppress fruits second search, initial warrantless unreasonable, signs secluded location evinced privacy, therefore did apply. Judicial affirmed. Held: should be applied both cases determine whether or seizure question valid. Pp. 176-184. (a) That founded explicit language Fourth Amendment, whose special protection accorded "persons, houses, papers, effects" does "not exten[d] fields." supra, 59, S.Ct., 446. Open are "effects" within meaning term less inclusive than "property" encompassing fields. government's intrusion is those "unreasonable searches" proscribed Amendment. 176-177. (b) Since touchstone Amendment analysis has been person "constitutionally protected privacy." Id., U.S., 360, 516. protect merely subjective only "expectation[s] society prepared recognize as 'reasonable.' " 361, Because accessible public ways home, office, commercial structure be, because fences do effectively bar viewing fields, asserted privacy recognizes reasonable. Moreover, common law, implying land immediately surrounding associated home warrants protections attach conversely implies no legitimately attaches 177-181. (c) Analysis circumstances case-by-case basis expectations violated provide workable accommodation needs law enforcement interests Such ad hoc approach make difficult policeman discern scope his authority also create danger constitutional rights arbitrarily inequitably enforced. 181-182. (d) Steps taken such planting erecting establish legitimate sense required test legitimacy individual chooses conceal assertedly "private" activity, infringes personal societal values fact trespass "search" sense. case general property have little relevance applicability 182-184. 686 F.2d 356 (CA6 1982), affirmed; 453 A.2d 489 (Me.1982), reversed remanded. 1 Frank Haddad, Jr., Louisville, Ky., 82-15. 2 Donna L. Zeegers, Augusta, Me., respondent 3 Wayne S. Moss, 4 Alan I. Horowitz, Washington, D.C., 5 [Amicus Curiae Information page 172 intentionally omitted] 6 Justice POWELL delivered opinion Court. 7 "open fields" doctrine, first enunciated this We certiorari these clarify confusion arisen continued doctrine. 8 * Acting Oliver, investigate.1 sign. A led side gate. several hundred yards, passing barn parked camper. At point, someone standing front camper shouted: hunting allowed, come back up here." shouted when returned resumed their investigation home. 9 substance." 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1). field. Applying 357, 514, "had done all could expected him assert area searched." He posted regular intervals entrance center farm. App. Pet. Cert. pp. 23-24. Further, noted itself highly secluded: bounded sides woods, fences, embankments cannot seen any point access. concluded 10 Sixth Circuit, sitting en banc, 1982).2 Katz, relied, Hester. Rather, entirely compatible Katz' emphasis privacy. reasoned "human relations need ordinarily take place" owner's common-law right exclude trespassers insufficiently linked Amendment's protection. F.2d, 360.3 certiorari. 459 1168, 103 812, 74 1012 (1983). 11 anonymous Thornton's They wire. determined respondent, On evidence, 12 search. premised information during previous unreasonable.4 Therefore, held, 13 Thornton, (Me.1982). It agreed correct "is justifiably relied," id., 493, justify applies, according court, lawfully present observe patent" activity. 495. case, trespassed defendant's made every effort 460 1068, 1520, 75 944 (1983).5 II 14 rule announced indicates some precision places things encompassed its protections. As Holmes explained characteristically laconic style: "[T]he people 'persons, effects,' extended distinction latter old law." 446.6 15 Nor respect, suggestive James Madison's proposed draft what became preserves "[t]he secured persons, other unreasonable searches seizures. . ." See N. Lasson, History Development Constitution 100, n. 77 (1937). Although Congress' revisions proposal broadened respects, 100-103, said encompass fields.7 conclude, deciding text III 16 This interpretation consistent understanding expressed our jurisprudence. 516 (Harlan, J., concurring). Smith Maryland, 442 735, 740-741, 99 2577, 2580-2581, 61 220 (1979). A. 17 No single factor determines may claim under place free government authorized Rakas Illinois, 439 128, 152-153, 421, 435-436, 58 387 (1978) (POWELL, assessing degree given weight factors intention Framers e.g., Chadwick, 433 1, 7-8, 97 2476, 2481-2482, 53 538 (1977), uses put location, Jones 362 257, 265, 725, 733, 697 (1960), certain areas deserve most scrupulous invasion, Payton New York, 445 573, 100 1371, 63 639 (1980). These equally relevant probable cause violates 18 light, we reaffirm today, understood providing demand activities conducted out doors except Air Pollution Variance Bd. Western Alfalfa Corp., 416 861, 865, 94 2114, 2115, 40 607 (1974). true conception embodied reflects recognition enclaves arbitrary interference. For example, since enactment stressed "the overriding respect sanctity embedded traditions origins Republic." 601, 1387.8 Silverman 365 505, 511, 81 679, 682, 734 (1961); Court, 407 297, 313, 92 2125, 2134, 32 752 (1972). contrast, setting intimate intended shelter interference surveillance. There interest protecting activities, cultivation crops, occur practical matter lands usually be. generally rural areas. And Oliver Thornton concede survey air.9 reasons, "society reasonable."10 20 historical underpinnings demonstrate "reasonable Holmes, writing observed Hester, 446, distinguished "curtilage," W. Blackstone, Commentaries *225. curtilage, curtilage extends activity "sanctity man's privacies life," Boyd 116 616, 630, 524, 532, 29 746 (1886), considered part purposes. Thus, courts curtilage; defined reference reasonably expect adjacent will private. See, Van Dyke, 643 992, 993-994 (CA4 1981); Williams, 581 451, (CA5 1978); Care 231 22, 25 (CA10), cert. denied, 351 932, 76 788, 1461 (1956). Conversely, implies, fields.11 contemporary purposes, officers. B 22 contend, contrary, sometimes indicate violated; analyze basis. answers contention. 23 Under approach, guess before landowners erected sufficiently high, sufficient number warning signs, located contraband lawfulness turn '[a] sophisticated set rules, qualified sorts ifs, ands, buts requiring drawing subtle nuances hairline distinctions. .' York Belton, 454, 458, 101 2860, 2863, 69 768 (1981) (quoting LaFave, "Case-By-Case Adjudication" versus "Standardized Procedures": Robinson Dilemma, 1974 S.Ct.Rev. 127, 142). repeatedly acknowledged difficulties created courts, police, citizens hoc, definition standards differing factual circumstances. 458-460, 2863-2864; Robbins California, 420, 430, 2841, 2847, 744 concurring judgment); Dunaway 200, 213-214, 2248, 2257-2258, 60 824 (1979); Robinson, 414 218, 235, 467, 476, 38 427 (1973). makes authority, 460, 2864; creates Cf. Goguen, 415 566, 572-573, 1242, 1246-1247, 39 605 (1974).12 IV 24 event, while urge consider contexts, decisive subject Initially, reject suggestion steps legitimate. true, course, order criminal planted property. precautions, few members stumbled crops police. Neither suppositions demonstrates, however, activity.13 inquiry explained, find concluding inspection accomplishes infringement. law. existence element 'The premise control Government seize discredited.' 353, 512 Warden Hayden, 294, 304, 87 1642, 1648, 782 (1967)). "[E]ven premises particular items thereon." 144, 12, 431, 12. 26 guide consideration defining invasion others wrongful. 153, 435 concurring).14 trespass, forbids intrusions proscribe. instances where exercise vindicates interest.15 V 27 conclude plain Holmes' accords privacy" developed subsequent decisions affirm States; remanded further proceedings inconsistent opinion. 28 so ordered. WHITE, judgment. 30 I concur judgment join Parts Court's dispose issue us; there go deal matter. However landowner's convert into "house" "effect." 31 MARSHALL, whom BRENNAN STEVENS join, dissenting. each consolidated cases, ignoring clearly visible crime. spot vantage public, discovered contraband, subsequently used incriminate owner land. neither authorizing activities. 33 holds conduct sort constitute search" reaches startling conclusion independent analytical routes. First, argues that, terms renders secure effects," inapplicable trespasses lying dwelling. Ante, Second, contends "an home." 178. agree either propositions, dissent. 34 ground rests decision "indicates protections," real included list spaces possessions. 176. line argument flaws. Most obviously, results many decisions, none purports overrule. telephone booth nor conversation therein can fairly described person, paper, effect;1 yet held eavesdrop conversation. (1967). plausibly argued office establishment covered Amendment; entitled if marked fashion alerts Marshall Barlow's Inc., 436 307, 311, 98 1816, 1819, 56 305 (1978); G.M. Leasing Corp. 429 338, 358-359, 619, 631-632, 50 530 (1977).2 35 Indeed, reading incapable explaining even own case. rules zone dwelling, 180. told, "effect"—or why, incorporated shielded cannot. 36 inability reconcile parsimonious phrase prior symptom more fundamental infirmity reasoning. like central provisions Bill Rights loom large modern jurisprudence, designed, prescribe "precision" permissible impermissible identify human liberty forever intrusion.3 construe way statutes, drafters comprehensiveness exactitude wish forbid change prescriptions become obsolete.4 strive, interpreting seminal provisions, effectuate purposes—to lend them meanings ensure liberties sought undermined changing officials.5 37 often acknowledged, freedom "from 7, 2481, (1977). incompletely impinged effect scrutiny. Accordingly, repudiated proposition applies limited locales kinds expressly rejected proffered locational theory coverage "protects people, places." 351, 511. time consistently adhered view provision depends solely "whether invoking 'justifiable,' 'reasonable,' 'legitimate privacy' invaded action." 740, 2580, (1979).6 contention effect, nature adjudication derives.7 landowner might 177 concurring)). mode underlies assertion certainly discussed above. But withstand acknowledges, traditionally looked variety physical space "reasonable." 177-178. Though themselves precise taxonomy, roughly grouped three categories. rooted entitlements positive put. Third, claiming manifested understand respect.8 When Thornton9 examined lenses, becomes clear frequently coterminous rights. E.g., Salvucci, 448 83, 91, 2547, 2552, 65 619 However, "property reflect society's person's act he wishes areas, [they] individual's reasonable." concurring).10 suggested insofar "[o]ne main attaching others, who owns possesses controls likelihood virtue exclude." 431 (opinion Court).11 41 undisputed owned intruded. alone provides considerable support telling sanctions invoke, local Kentucky, knowing entry otherwise enclosed land, unenclosed conspicuously excluding constitutes trespass. Ky.Rev.Stat. §§ 511.070(1), 511.080, 511.090(4) (1975). similar. An "any [the intruder] excluded manner prescribed likely attention intruders enclosed" Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., Tit. 17A, 402(1)(C) (1964).12 Oliver's insistence strangers keep off subjects refuse severe penalties—criminal liability. circumstances, hard credit 42 assessment therein. If, light shared sensibilities, kind able engage fear persons officials, extend question, absence entitlement derived 352-353, 511-512.13 43 Privately exposed regularly employed acknowledges Many solitary walks confident confronted rambles policemen. Others agricultural businesses property.14 Some use meet lovers, gather together fellow worshippers, still sustained creative endeavor. Private refuge wildlife, flora fauna intervention kind.15 Our partially explains seriousness regards deliberate invasions spaces, see 190-191, substantially reinforces landowners' C Whether "took normal precautions maintain affects Rawlings 98, 105, 2556, 2561, 633 (1980).16 reason why insist right. strengthened claimant somehow desire distance. 45 Certain presumptively signals unnecessary; homeowner post "Do Not Enter" sign door deny uninvited guests.17 Privacy ambiguous, taking consequently important; placing lock one's footlocker strengthens examination contents impermissible. 11, 2483. Still are, social convention, presumed unless manifests them. 46 Undeveloped falls last-mentioned category. If boundaries informs passersby welcome, object onto greater against officials. official may, warrant, observations point. Board Fairly read, majority heavily relies, affirms foregoing unremarkable proposition. From aught appears defendants, fleeing revenue committing crime, abandoned incriminating excluded. surprising unpersuaded defendants' Amendment.18 47 very different presented undeveloped public. indicated above, citizen expose obliged unequivocal universally manifestations privacy.19 48 sum, principal criteria reasonableness stay firmly grounded And, marking warnings intrude, dispelled ambiguity desires. 49 justification interests; legitimated established exceptions requirement. therefore, course suppressed. clear, easily administrable emerges forth above: render thereon lies proscription One advantages draws already familiar jurisdiction, substantial body statutory defines must avail himself know entrusted responsibility enforcing public; abide themselves. 51 By today determinate application. making entries future on-the-spot judgments how far extends, outside zone.20 addition, spate litigation much improvement necessary remove category "unoccupied area" exception" now deemed applicable. ante, 180, 11. 52 ill serves "workable application rank-and-file, trained officers," Illinois Andreas, 463 765, 772, 3319, 3325, 1003 (1983), withdraws shield exempting opens investigative repugnant. Cf., Lace, 669 46, 54 (CA2 1982) (Newman, result) ("[W] hen execute military maneuvers residential weeks round-the-clock surveillance, called 'reasonable'?"); Brady, 406 So.2d 1093, 1094-1095 (Fla.1981) ("In position surveillance groups ranch's airfield, deputies forced cross dike, ram cut chain another, proceed yards hiding places"), granted, 456 988, 102 2266, 73 1282, supplemental memoranda ordered oral postponed, 986, 381 (1982).21 properly construed, embodies gives collective men women, civilized society, "to let alone" governments. Olmstead 277 438, 478, 564, 572, 72 (1928) (Brandeis, dissenting); cf. 750, 2585 (MARSHALL, dissenting). bespeaks help promote impoverished vision conceded exception requirement panel Circuit affirmed suppression order. 657 85 1981). four dissenting judges contended apply where, effort[s] [have] public." 372. To extent, dissent implicitly overruled holdings standard. Judge Lively wrote separately argue viewed discredited information, supplied confidential informant, based below adequate state-law grounds. read decision, Constitution. referred Federal purported test; state cited construed articulate clarity Michigan Long, 1032, 3469, 1201 Contrary assertion, review here courts' finding "fact" searched field." us appropriate legal standard lawful conflict illustrative generated among courts. Compare, Byers, 359 84 (La.1978) (refusing doctrine); 1093 (same), 50-51 1982); Freie, 545 1217 (CA9 1976); Brown, 473 952, 954 1973); Atwell 136, 138 1969). offers narrow, unarticulated principle rather reasoning Hester's relied delineating affirmative 426, 2845, Stewart, J.); 589-590, 1381-1382, (1980); Alderman 394 165, 178-180, 89 961, 969-970, 176 (1969). decided indicate, sever language. electronic eavesdropping conversations kept private; protects people—and simply 'areas' seizures," 512, faithful constraints Constitution's wedding unreasoning literalism. dissent's ignore well overturn governing precedent. personal, real, Doe Dring, M. & 448, 105 Eng.Rep. 447, 449 (K.B.1814) (discussing cases); 16, 384-* 385. offices buildings, deep roots history Barlow's, 355, Tr. Oral Arg. 14-15, 58. Allen, 675 1373, 1380-1381 1980); DeBacker, 493 F.Supp. 1078, 1081 (WD Mich.1980). terms, require situations, aerial obtain easy advance interests. conceives bustling diverse lovers' trysts worship services. post, 191-193. disturb character unoccupied, unlikely think vast expanse western ranches Northwest unreality conception. ample implicate enters "public" lose claims security. Arkansas Sanders, 753, 766-767, 2586, 2594-2595, 235 (1979) (BURGER, C.J., judgment). arrest effects fully Watson, 423 411, 96 820, 598 (1976). curtilage. afforded opposed itself. include unoccupied "field" speech. contrary suggestion, 21-22, thickly wooded nonetheless construing Pruitt, 464 494 1972); Bedell State, 257 Ark. 895, 521 S.W.2d 200 sacrificed, suggests, remains millions acres close arguably homes, marked; curtilage—as life extends—is daily experience. occasional this, other, concepts, unprecedented expansion advocated Certainly intend wherever intent choose erect barriers "curtilage" served function. possession exclusion unwanted intruders. follow conferred furthers range nothing strictures Criminal laws prophylactic: poach, steal livestock vandalize civil action important function defeat prescription asserting title. O. Common Law 98-100, 244-246 (1881). unlicensed unjustified, anyone bargain owner, R. Posner, Economic 10-13, confers broader 177, 7. construction phone spoken words. hand, automobile surely theory, cars stand same footing houses. establish, car owners' diminished prying eyes corresponding reduction cars. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 543, 561, 3074, 3084, 1116 curtail Government, Barron Mayor City Council Baltimore, 243 (1833), Fourteenth governments restrictions, see, Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 900, 1213 (1940) (First Amendment); Wolf Colorado, 338 25, 1359, 93 1782 (1949) (Fourth Amendment). McCulloch 316, 407, Wheat. 579 (1819) ("[W]e never forget, constitution expounding." document detailed "legal code"; "[i] ts requires, great outlines marked, objects designated, minor ingredients compose deduced themselves") (emphasis original). rejection statutes perhaps clearest treatment First provides, pertinent part, "Congress shall abridging speech, press" says nothing, about restrictions expressive behavior access Yet, give purpose regulations designed convey message, Edwards South Carolina, 372 229, 83 680, (1963), public's "right trials," Globe Newspaper Co. Superior 457 596, 604-605, 2613, 2618, 2619, 248 (1982). 2483, (1977) (disagreeing dwellings specifically designated locales"; instead safeguard individuals interests"); 143, (holding determinative place"). recent continue rely Katz. Jacobsen, 109, 113-118, 1652, 1656-1659, (1984); Clifford, 287, 292-293, 641, 646, 78 477 771, 3324, (1983); Place, 462 696, 706-707, 2637, 2644, 110 Texas 730, 738-740, 1535, 1541-1542, 502 (1983) (plurality opinion); Knotts, 276, 280-281, 1081, 1084-1085, 55 Sensitive weakness "persons things" mentioned exhaust provision, goes length inclusion opinion, coupled reaffirmation progeny, strongly suggest plain-language sketched Part area. 187-188. nonspatial considerations here. 747-748, 2583-2584, (Stewart, 750-752, 2585-2586 dispute lower findings issue. CR80-00005-01-BG (W.D.Ky. 14, 1980), 19-20; CR82-10 (Me.Super.Ct., Apr. B-4-B-5. seeks evade force contending serve various "prophylactic" "economic" purposes unrelated 184, 15. efforts rationalize distribution interesting explanatory power, (and infra, 191, 12) define enforce interests—to empower whatever tracts intrude views commentators, new, functions thus insufficient sweeping "in Amendment," 183-184. 112, 2565, (1980) (BLACKMUN, Comment ALI, Model Penal Code 221.2, p. ("The thread running [a sample laws] intrusion, notice would-be enter. tramping woodland pasture range. manifestly intruders, defiance actual away objectionable frightening"). requires susceptible, employing it. 13, 2484. evaluate contexts: assess (what formerly called) "standing" challenge officials lacked primary control, 148-149, 432-433; 265-266, 733-734, possible ascertain using violating asserting, 352, (In sort, inquiries II-C, coextensive). applicable majority's protect, 183, misunderstanding level generality proceed. accord 185-186; apparent deserving benefit implicates somewhat accustomed. involves immunity observation shielding scrutiny residues life. Weinreb, Generalities U.Chi.L.Rev. 47, 52-54 derives, rather, preserve inviolate portion world. idiosyncracy not, 152, concurring); 2483; acts affirmatively invite abode, later violated. Lewis 385 206, 424, 312 (1966). supportive constructed record crossed fence. O.T.1923, 243, 16. placed upon—indeed, mention circumstance. extent stated undercut (1928), originating supra 187-188, 6. empowered invade closed parts country, feel self-help expelling serious risk unannounced, fields," involved violent confrontations irate landowners, potentially tragic results. McDonald 335 460-461, 153 (1948) (Jackson, err difficulty experienced trying dwellings. Berrong, 712 1370, 1374, (CA11 1983), pending, 83-988; Perhaps permitted routinely behavior, gradually offensive all. Brandeis once observed: "Our potent, omnipresent teacher. good ill, teaches whole example. Crime contagious. lawbreaker, breeds contempt 485, 575 (dissenting opinion). Solem Stumes, 465 638, 667, 1338, 1354, 79 (1984) (STEVENS,

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