Document: 470 U.S. 768 105 S.Ct. 1620 84 L.Ed.2d 674 Wayne LINDAHLv.OFFICE OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT. No. 83-5954. Argued Dec. 3, 1984. Decided March 20, 1985. Syllabus The Office of Personnel Management (OPM) "determine[s] questions disability and dependency" in administering the Federal Government's retirement program. 5 U.S.C. § 8347(c). Its "decisions . concerning these matters are final conclusive not subject to review," ibid., except extent that administrative review by Merit Systems Protection Board (MSPB) is provided 8347(d)(1). In 1979, petitioner, who was employed as a security guard at naval shipyard, informed Navy he be retired on resulting from acute chronic bronchitis, did contest this assessment. But several months after petitioner had been retired, OPM denied his application for annuity ground evidence failed establish severe enough prevent him performing job. Petitioner appealed MSPB, which sustained denial. He then filed complaint Court Claims, invoking jurisdiction under 7703 (which time MSPB decisions court regional courts appeals) Tucker Act. alleged violated its regulations placing burden proving rather than requiring disprove disability, dismissed while attempting obtain benefits, violation an agency initiates action retain employee pending OPM's resolution employee's status. After amended 1982, case transferred Circuit, barred concluded plain words 8347(c), along with structure civil service laws import 1980 amendment adding 8347(d)(2)—which provides both judicial involuntary mental decisions—overcome usual presumption favoring action, and, qualified 8347(d)(2), preclude any voluntary cases. While acknowledging previously interpreted 8347(c) permit legal procedural errors, found such interpretation wrong event overruled amendment. Held: 1. Section does bar altogether judgment affirming denial claim, but bars only factual determinations permitting determine whether "there has substantial departure important rights, misconstruction governing legislation, or some like error 'going heart determination.' " pp. 778-791. (a) It "only upon showing 'clear convincing evidence' contrary legislative intent" access will restricted. Whether statute precludes "is determined express language, also statutory scheme, objectives, history, nature involved." Pp. 778-779. (b) plausibly can read imposing absolute review, it quite naturally precluding about dependency. Under latter reading, "question" applicant disabled distinct what procedures must apply Civil Service Retirement addition, completely preclusive problematic when applicant, here, challenges standards used reviewing those determinations. Finally, Congress' failure use unambiguous comprehensive language typically uses intending all reinforces possibility finality may extend respect questions. 779-780. (c) Scroggins standard (so-called v. United States, 184 Ct.Cl. 530, 397 F.2d 295, cert. denied, 393 952, 89 376, 21 363), prior allowing errors decisions. There nothing history 8347(d)(2) suggest Congress intended discard standard. To contrary, demonstrates well aware standard, 8347 understanding applied generally, continue augmented more exacting 8347(d)(2). 780-791. 2. Circuit directly pursuant jurisdictional grants 7703(b)(1), providing petition decision shall 28 1295(a)(9), exclusive appeal MSPB. 791-799. An whose rejected required file Act suit Claims district court, seek adverse Circuit. require two-step process would accord framework established Reform 1978 (CSRA) Courts Improvement 1982 (FCIA). Sections 7703(b)(1) 1295(a)(9) together provide over do admit exceptions claims. 791-796. FCIA channel cases performed appellate function into leave de novo factfinding courts. Review order involving claim explicitly encompassed Circuit's jurisdiction, makes logical sense, given considers bases decision. A conclusion result exactly sort "duplicative, wasteful inefficient" CSRA were eradicate. 796-799. 718 391 (Fed.Cir.1983), reversed remanded. John Murcko, San Francisco, Cal., petitioner. Edwin S. Kneedler, Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 provision annuities employees their dependents. Subject (MSPB), 8347(d)(1), This presents two importance administration first law procedure. If available latter, limited extent, second question arises: States Appeals cases, instead could taken 2 * A. 3 These implicate host overlapping schemes, we before turning hand. 4 (Retirement Act).1 Government covered contribute portion salaries Disability Fund. §§ 8334(a), (b). amount based average pay years federal service. 8339. types annuities; issue here annuities. Pursuant 8337, completed least five civilian eligible immediate if "disabled," own ("voluntary" retirement) employing ("involuntary" retirement). 8337(a).2 Although no contained general provision, almost 50 ago secure courts' entertain monetary claims against States. Dismuke 297 167, 56 400, 80 L.Ed. 561 (1936). reasoned: 6 "[I]n absence compelling resort assert right creates deemed curtailed so far authority decide officer. authorized fact accepted unless exceeds making determination arbitrary capricious unsupported ., failing follow procedure satisfies elementary fairness reasonableness essential due conduct proceeding authorized. ." Id., 172, S.Ct., 403. 7 later incorporate limiting dependency See ch. 84, 12(d)(3), 62 Stat. 56. As originally enacted, provided: 8 "Questions arising section Commission review. direct medical other examinations deem necessary facts relative degree disability. Ibid. (emphasis added). 9 undergone revisions since 1948;3 now codified relevant "concerning review." 10 (CSRA).4 legislation comprehensively overhauled system. Several CSRA's provisions bear case. First, abolished created OPM, responsible 201, 906, 92 1118, 1224; see 8347(a). Second, directed one Board's duties "under prescribed Board." 1225; Third, new evaluating personnel actions "employees" "applicants employment": employment" decisions, specified actions. 205, 1138, 7701, (1976 ed., Supp. V).5 generally "a Board" Act, appeals, 2342. 1143, V). 11 Public Law 96-500 ("the amendment"). revisited 1980, enacted subclass applicants enjoy enhanced recently CSRA: 12 "In individual [OPM] whole part basis individual's condition, finding made purposes 8337(a) title, [MSPB review] 7701 title title." Pub.L. 96-500, 94 2696, 13 (FCIA).6 FCIA, combined portions Claims' certain elements appeals' vested 127, 96 37, 1295. Whereas appeals formerly shared "of decision" to, inter alia, 7703(b)(1). 1295(a)(9); 144, 45. B 14 Until retirement, Lindahl served Mare Island Naval Shipyard Vallejo, Cal. suffers allegedly aggravated exposure chemical irritants Island. September Department "because your physical condition you unable perform full range position Police Officer." App. 10. agreed Navy's assessment chose separation. 15 Both took steps annuity.7 Lindahl's "fails have useful, efficient, safe performance seeking retirement." 21. 8347(d), denial, demonstrated preponderance within meaning 40.8 16 court's 1491. 42-44. charged ¶ 14, 43.9 57 16, 44.10 moved dismiss, arguing alternative (1) questions, determinations, 8347(c); (2) "employees," longer therefore lacks intervened amicus curiae support reviewability contentions. 17 sitting en banc (1983). subsection, amendment, overcome action. acknowledged 30 "those viewed wrongly decided overruled." 396. argument indicated intention preserve Two judges concurring opinions. 400 (Nichols, J.), 405 (Nies, J.). Four others dissented, arguing, awareness previous construction recognized. (Davis, J., joined Friedman, Kashiwa, Smith, JJ.), 407 (Smith, Davis, JJ.).11 18 We granted certiorari. 467 1251, 104 3533, 82 838 (1984). reverse. II 19 often noted intent should restrict Abbott Laboratories Gardner, 387 136, 141, 87 1507, 1511, 681 (1967). Dunlop Bachowski, 421 560, 568, 95 1851, 1858, 44 377 (1975). just albeit enactment U.S., 403 (judicial presumed "in [statutory] language" contrary). Of course, "clear evidence" never turned talismanic test. Block Community Nutrition Institute, 340, 345-346, 2450, 2453-2454, 81 270 Rather, 345, 2454. 20 reasoned plainly cases: "[i]t difficult conceive clear-cut statement congressional concept thrice repeated single sentence." F.2d, 393. share certainty language. begin with, "questions dependency." reading 8347(c)'s Act.12 MSBP speaks effect says way judgments. our hesitation regarding "plain meaning" compounded that, intends altogether, employs set forth 8347.13 similar "with to" 8347, precisely adopted predecessor, Commission. "Scroggins so-called 363 (1968), imposes special unusual restriction examination, free they 'finality' clause there." Ct.Cl., 533-534, 297. Accordingly, emphasized weigh even traditional substantial-evidence 534, held, however, them there 'a "going determination." ' Ibid.14 22 nevertheless believed revision "provide[s] claims." 394. Again words" analysis, addition 8347(d)(2)—providing 7703—demonstrates unreviewable. "To hold 8347(d)(1) 7703, render superfluous particular 7703." 399. 23 cannot agree "plain" face. allows errors. added safeguards retirements. That subsection incorporates provides, Given much deferential "superfluous" measure certainly face suggesting expanding category Absent indicia overall history—we thus believe circumstances '[t]he mere acts reviewable suffice implication exclusion others.' 1511 (citation omitted). 24 Moreover, without repealing doctrine itself gives rise embody version 8347.15 need rely bare force because indeed 25 grew out investigations oversight hearings conducted Subcommittee Compensation Employee Benefits House Committee Post Service. Report, agencies retirements disciplinary tool unpopular worked "devastating effect" ability scrutinize evidentiary underpinnings dismissals. Forced Retirement/Psychiatric Fitness Duty Exams, 95th Cong., 2d Sess., (Comm.Print 1978) (Subcommittee Report). "eliminate constitutional official 'arbitrary conduct.' Citing numerous including Scroggins, stated relief "show three following conditions: going determinations." 15.16 criticized "as impossible heavy proof" employees, accordingly called outright repeal preclusion id., 20. 26 recommendations embodied introduced year Representative Spellman, Subcommittee's Chair. H.R. 2510, 96th 1st Sess. (1979). proposed bill, representatives objected broad unwarranted unnecessary: long interpreted, 27 "if proper issues, raised Only [sic] itself, fact, actually "We protections adequate. already distinguished are, therefore, entirely precluded obtaining Hearing 2510 Service, (1979) Hearing) (statement Gary Nelson, Associate Director, Group, OPM). 29 Thereafter, substitute "to agency-filed applications condition." H.R.Rep. 96-1080, p. (1980). Director Alan K. Campbell, wrote Chairman inform light elimination "sweeping" proposed, prepared measure: reasonable expanded voluntarily applies seeks benefit law; managerial adjudicating appropriate, conclusive, error, Letter Campbell Rep. James M. Hanley (May 1980), reprinted added).17 31 identical representations Senate Governmental Affairs, Sen. Abraham Ribicoff (Sept. 25, S.Rep. 96-1004, 4-5 (1980), U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 5986; letter cited Report "further reinforce[ment]" "endorsement" Committee's scope 3. 32 Notwithstanding strongly suggests restricted respondent seizes isolated passages impression altogether. post, 804-808 (WHITE, dissenting). were, sure, references throughout proceedings "present determinations";18 purpose frequently characterized being remove ban determinations."19 assertions, supported detailed analyses quotations line cases.20 Because "bar" extends statements serve indicate "expanded [of] retirements" 7703.21 contended, "so narrow" prevented effective review; thorough reveal weakness" many retirements.22 33 expand beyond abolish well, presumably indication effect. none. Nor, despite explicit consideration amend wording expansive "Given sole protection through findings subset hardly follows negatively implied strip -type cases." Turner 228 U.S.App.D.C. 94, 98, 707 1499, 1503 34 "some congressmen," "comments few congressmen" unreliable intent. 399-400. discussed, sponsor originated, Committees consideration. Similarly, contended testimony correspondence officials "could Congress." 399; Brief Respondent 48-49. Yet course touchstone, discerning understood "we necessarily attach 'great weight' administrators 'participated drafting known views committee hearings.' Vogel Fertilizer Co., 455 31, 102 821, 830, 70 792 (1982), quoting Zuber Allen, 396 168, 192, 90 314, 327, 345 (1969). Here described detail Committees, relied existence successfully proposing narrower alternatives legislation.23 35 reasoned, most involved disabilities, none addressed 395. solely retirements,24 clearly indicates generally.25 36 suggested little ill-considered dicta "had resulted virtually reversals reached process," "consider[ed] matter depth," 42; (3) outset "[w]hat properly exist expanded," 802, n. dissenting) ("The apparently product frequent repetition dictum"). Each assertions either erroneous misses mark. applying testament Scroggins' narrow compass, insubstantiality.26 fair carefully articulated reaffirmed vitality measured reconsideration.27 And correctly largely inapposite "For inquiry perceived state law, perception was." Brown GSA, 425 820, 828, 1961, 1966, 48 402 (1976).28 37 erred concluding amended, judicially reviewed, III 38 contends available, Instead, argues, retirees 1346(a)(2) 1491(a), 1295(a)(2) (a)(3), respectively. words, surmount process—with trial initially conducting nonevidentiary followed again. 39 apparent sense sound administration, FCIA. Title 1295(a) provides: "The (9) Board, sections 7703(d) 5." turn discrimination (b)(2), Circuit" added).29 appear 40 reference 7703(a)(1), "[a]ny orders. Contending former advances grounds grant 7703(a)(1). seems 7703(a)(1) operative grant, repeatedly "appears venue provision." 22; 29. wholly misperceives framework. "employee[s]" "applicant[s] employment," subject-matter all. confers jurisdiction—the "power adjudicate"—and "venue" provision.30 similarly fall perimeters 41 CSRA, primarily employment intend, mechanism matters. primary focus actions, actions.31 references, proximity might terms former. lower noted, "[i]n scheme reform address specifically how mechanics [CSRA] situations," task 'look object policy.' Meyer HHS, 229 151, 153-154, 666 540, 542 (1981), Richards 369 1, 11, 585, 592, 492 (1962). When construing arguably ambiguous provisions, duty remain faithful central underlying CSRA." Devine White, 225 179, 183, 697 421, policies 42 rest 2342(6) bill courts, Conference substituted "the orders agencies" best promote efficient H.R.Conf.Rep. 95-1717, 143 (1978), 1978, 2876. 95-969, (1978). although discussion 7703(b)(1)'s "traditional mechanism" "adverse removals, appealable agency." 51, 2773 "judicial 62, 2784.32 identified nonadverse 7703(b)(1); emphasized, example, "Board (other complaints life health insurance ) [shall] reviewable" conferred subsection. 63, 2785 Life matters, reviewed separate 8715 8912. inference strong, included enumeration exceptions, intend outside all-encompassing 43 FICA, combine centralized exercised 1491 tribunal court.33 explained consolidate "government case[s] considered Claims" appeals. 97-275, result, Houses "jurisdiction 21, 97-312, (1981) (Federal "over Board"). exercise jurisdiction; "inheri[t]" "trial jurisdiction" 7; 24. With exception changing name 1491, functions. appears overlap residuary For neither party remains 1491(a)(2) Court's "issue directing restoration office position, placement appropriate status, correction applicable records." contains military disputes channeled 19; 6, remaining 45 ambiguity overlap, functional analysis role different broader purposes. supra, 793-794. clear us function—such record—into courts.34 143, carry "sound polic[ies]" Florida Power Light Co. Lorion, 729, 745, 1598, 1607, 643 (1985); Harrison PPG Industries, Inc., 446 578, 593, 100 1889, 1898, 64 525 46 eradicate.35 demonstrate needless practice same criteria levels. "improv[e] [judicial] system reducing number decision-making entities." 12. trial-level "appropriate" where "additional fact-finding" necessary, "merely eliminat[e] unnecessary layer 52, 2774. 47 skillfully parsed culled every possible nuance ambiguity, advance why depart again reinforced cases—those dismissals disability—are Circuit.36 discern reason forum, forum Judge Nichols concurrence below, disputes—as case—as voluntary, simple matter. 38, infra. persuasive assume create bizarre patchwork.37 conclude instance 1295(a)(9).38 reversed, remanded further consistent opinion. 49 ordered. WHITE, whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR join, dissenting. states: 51 [of Management] subchapter. Except (d) section, 52 majority concedes petitioner's, (MSPB). Nonetheless, concludes notwithstanding entitled benefits. view majority, law. I consider supports fundamentally unsound, dissent. 53 begins asserting ambiguous, "quite 'questions dependency.' Ante, 779. respect, confess understand naturally" subchapter" Had findings, unlikely term "decisions." strikes me termed "ambiguous" theory utterer meant something said. Such nihilistic linguistic fashionable circles, adequate construction. conventional statute—one takes starting point language—would rejecting petitioner's benefits reviewable.1 54 Having declared statute's bolster history. upon, concedes, hint mean says. examines amendments One normally creating rule maintaining underscored undermined contention "revisiting" implicitly ratified doctrine, Commission, held 8347(c).2 relying purports canon Lorillard Pons, 434 575, 98 866, 55 (1978): "Congress adopt re-enacts change. So too, adopts incorporating knowledge incorporated insofar affects statute." 580-581, 869-870. nor authorities cites "re-enact" "incorporate" statute; rather, left intact specific exception, designed remedy problem misuse rid themselves said "adopted" untouched. Even placed inaction unsatisfactory majority's statute. See, e.g., Aaron SEC, 680, 694, 1945, 1954, 611 (1980).3 endorsed 8347(c): clarity otherwise Reports describing amending nowhere recognition existed, available. categorical "bar refers disability," 5988. although, points out, contain classes Report's evinces belief permits form excoriates progeny extreme examples pernicious effects cases.4 represent offered majority; means anyone leaving endorsing permitted 58 floor applied. chaired reported "MSPB's currently 126 Cong.Rec. 14815 (1980).5 colloquy place between Spellman Rudd: 59 "Mr. RUDD: Mr. Speaker, simply ask couple gentlewoman Maryland legislation. 60 "I think recourse always wrongs committed, easier employee-employer relationship Is correct? 61 "Mrs. SPELLMAN: explain gentleman Arizona unfortunately time. 63 My expedite it, speak? Exactly. absolutely right. 65 equity, justice, intimidation employer, employer? 66 No; guess make clear. today asked take fitness-for-duty exams unfit duty, telephone call psychiatrist, having today. What treat citizens America treated, opening up court." 14817. 67 Spellman's status authored her explanation accomplish authority. Train Colorado Interest Research 426 14-17, 1938, 1944-1946, (1976); Duplex Printing Press Deering, 254 443, 475, 349 (1921). Her remarks unequivocal indications unqualified substantially undermines plausibility open 68 insists told large representative drafted ultimately emerged 8347. members fails mention immediately Counsel, stated: 69 "It subcommittee litigation though witness talked needing issues "This fairly decent doesn't agree." et al. Thomas R. Kennedy, Investigations). 71 proceeded gist effectively slim notion 8347(c)—indeed, anything, 72 places emphasis letters written considering (1980); tracks description formula, urges put notice indeed, all: appears, referring MSPB.6 oblique insufficient passage constituted endorsement 73 connected discussed ante, 783. author print review—albeit severely review—of Commission's doubt, advanced attributed later. intervening period, staff changed 807-808, 8347—particularly explanatory floor—leave definite absolute. 74 approach, then, amounts this. far-fetched reasonably posited. On strength "ambiguity," enacting Congress, nearly decades re-enacted question. combing reveals fragmentary incorrect Claims. weight hypothesis construction, assumed statute, assumption another respect. Through remarkable reconstruction process, departs fundamental principles construction: give legislature, surest guide legislature itself. 75 endorse simplistic printed Code answer statutes. Resort accorded sources inflexible canons Statutory requires freedom choose materials suited illuminating less useful itself—when, debatable speculations thought else—courts resist temptation let enthusiasm reports, hearings, prints lead neglect comparatively case, fallen prey thereby missed 76 Ch. 95, 614, 8301 seq. "disabled" "unable, disease injury, [his] reassignment vacant grade level [he] able service." 8337(a). survivorship extended Amendments 1956, 401, 743; states "[t]he change existing provisions." 2642, 84th (1956), 3725, 3737. Subsequent infra, 774-775, technical nature. 95-454, 1111 proceeding, appellant hearing, transcript, presence attorney representative. Attorney's fees awarded circumstances. bears correct. 7701(a), (c), (g). aside MSPB's arbitrary, capricious, abuse discretion, accordance obtained procedures; "unsupported record. 7703(c). 97-164, day impending submitted physician's accompany Record 83-84, formal until four days removal became final, 17-19. fit satisfactory dispositive totally 8331(6) 8337 OPM." 34. argued instituted him, disabled. 7701(c)(1)(B). proof OPM. CFR 1201.3(a)(6), 1201.56(a) Cf. Chavez M.S.P.B. 343, 348-349 (appeals procedures). claimed initiated separation 10-15, active-duty FPM Supplement 831-1, Subch. S10-10(a)(6) 22a. merits allegations pertinent statutes regulations. evidence. 15, 43. pursued allegation appeal, Prior FCIA's vesting divided Some continues scrutiny Pitzak 710 1476, 1478-1479 (CA10 1983); 97-99, 1502-1504 (1983); McCard 702 978, 980-983 (CA11 Parodi 743, 745-748 (CA9 1982). Others Chase 695 790, 791 (CA4 1982); 694 305, 307-308 (CA3 Morgan 675 196, 198-201 (CA8 Lancellotti 704 91, 96-98 1983) (reading grounding V)). third sentence individual." juxtaposition facts" 8128(b) (compensation work injuries) Secretary Labor] designee denying payment subchapter is—(1) fact; mandamus otherwise"). 211(a) (veterans' benefits) ("[T]he Administrator administered Veterans' Administration veterans dependents survivors power Fitzgerald 224 215, 220, 623 696, 699 Polos 223 547, 559-560, 9, 621 385, 391, Fancher 218 504, 509-510, 588 803, 806 (1978); Allen 215 524, 529-530, 571 17-18 grounds, supra; McFarland 207 46-47, 517 938, 942-943 (1975), 423 1049, 776, 638 Lech 187 471, 476, 409 252, 255 (1969); McGlasson 542, 548-549, 303, 307 (1968); Gaines 158 497, 502, 371 936, 83 309, 271 (1962); Smith Dulles, 99 236 739, 742, 352 955, 77 329, 244 (1956); Matricciana Hampton, 416 F.Supp. 288, 289 (Md.1976); Cantrell 240 851, 853 (WDSC 1965), aff'd, 356 915 1966). reenacts change, Albemarle Paper Moody, 422 405, 414 [95 2362, 2370 8, 280] (1975); NLRB Gullett Gin 340 361, 366 [71 337, 337] (1951); National Lead 252 140, 147 [40 237, 239, 496] (1920); 2A C. Sands, Sutherland Construction 49.09 (4th ed. 1973). where, 869-870, Bob Jones University 461 574, 601-602, 103 2017, 2033-2034, 157 Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner Inc. Curran, 456 353, 381-382, 1825, 1840-1841, 182 (1982). analyzed (1968). 15. 19-20. continued oppose Affairs 7703. 2-3 798-799, 36. 5986. 1; Hearing, 4, 11; 2-4; 3-4; 14815-14817 (1980) (remarks Reps. Rudd, Corcoran). 14-16, 19-20; 11-12, 20-21, 28; 4. 15; 4; 8; 4-5; 14817-14818 (Letter inserted Derwinski) (all discussing availability errors). 20; (prepared Federation Employees). Largely tracking respondent's arguments, dissent consists patchwork phrases wrenched context. At times dissent's demands circular: dismisses holding available"; breath, rejects "nowhere mentio[n] Scroggins." Post, 805, 808. during debates lacked "access courts" wished limit "[p]rocedural reasoning review" "would sense." 806, 5, 806. text, desired "access" concerned 783-786. consist basis—which superfluous. 14816-14817 findings; eliminate favor 36, sweep entire random spelled current Counsel expressing skepticism "changed 8347(c)" issuing Report. 809; 807. omits testimony, observed 'courts there,' confining [Scroggins] sustained," complained "people went situation." 18, added), 46, 942. difficult, say least, square stood "absolute review"—let alone 8347(c)." 804, 809 relevance assurances narrowing response representations. thinks unclear all," "for appears" agency's "may MSPB." 808-809. curious separately "expanded" practice. 558-563, 390-393; 529-533, 17-19; 255. cast generally. supra. dicta, invoked exercising warrant reversal. 564-565, 391-392 (remanding law); 533, (reversing annuity). erroneously decided, 510, reliance Erika, 1650, inapposite. 801, Erika Medicare reimbursement care providers. context drawn provisions" omission "provides deliberately foreclose 208, 1654. instant hand, involves interplay "precise." More significantly, "confirm[ed]" "explain[ed] logic." compels opposite conclusion. 7703(b)(2) Court, depending antidiscrimination issue; plaintiff guaranteed 7703(d), referred sets Venue come play concern exercised"; relating "relates convenience litigants disposition." Neirbo Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corp., 308 165, 153, 154, 167 (1939). Compare, 1331 (grant federal-question courts) 1391 (venue jurisdiction). Wright, Miller, E. Cooper, Practice Procedure 3801 (1976). 62-63 2723, 2784; 95-1403, 22-23 29, 2751 ("Action hearing adjudication falling constitutes review") From 1925 "Trial Division" consisting commissioners appointed Article judges; commissioner presided "Appellate Division," themselves. factfinding, routed panel comparable court. bifurcation, Cowen, Nichols, Bennett, Claims: History, Part II, 90-95, 131-133 (1978, published 216 Ct.Cl.); Bar Association District Columbia, Manual 5-8, 71-73 (1981); 7-8 17. bifurcation emphasized. 17-19, essentially exercises Trial Division enter judgment"); (Claims "new article forum"), 22. Vaughn, Discipline Application Utah L.Rev. 339, 369. two-stage record, "serv[ing] visible purpose," contributing "over-crowded dockets courts," impeding give, efficiently expeditiously, kind relief." Adams Laird, 136 388, 392, 2, 420 230, 234, (1969), 1039, 1360, 650 (1970); Scott Macy, 131 93, 96, 644, 647, Connelly Nitze, 130 351, 352, 401 416, 417, Principles 5.4(1) (1976) (discussing uncertain matters); Johnson Stoll, Judicial Dismissals Other Adverse Actions, Cornell 178, 188-197 (1972); Opinions Board: Study Administrative Adjudication, Admin.L.Rev. nn. 29-30 (1982); Developments Employment, 97 Harv.L.Rev. 1611, 1642-1643 original model, "[s]ince cumbersome inappropriate Crown Simpson Pulp Costle, 445 193, 197, 1093, 1095, 312 ("Absent clearer expression intent, unwilling seemingly irrational bifurcated system"). various amici "employee" offer additional asserted applicability provisions. devoted briefing effort demonstrating actions." original). Bronger 740 1552, 1554-1556 (1984), filing M.S.P.B., 348 (retired denial). Our ever issue. ordinarily ruled inferred attempts distinguish silence affirmative here. 790-791, 28. argumentation is, mildly, unconvincing. source reviewable. "at best, 'only overturn retire support. dictum reversal formula was, unheard of. 26. Faced 10(b) Securities Exchange 1934, accepts today: finds expressly occasions significant securities each occasion undisturbed. But, principally falls short odds history." 11. authoritative brought attention probative (1983), acceptance Internal Revenue Service's 501(c)(3) repudiate interpretation. nonaction justified "prolonged awareness" IRS interpretation, space dozen years. 600-601, 2033-2034. cautioned "[o]rdinarily, appropriately, slow attribute significance act legislation." 600, 2033. "Under present (see, 8347(c)). issued June 1968, psychiatric [184 Ct Cl 542], 303 530], 295 (1968)." "statements 786. fallacy obvious: assumes reads unwarranted: House, presented accurate irrelevant, approach GSA (1976), quoted 790. event, establishing unwarranted. explaining remarked "OPM case." 14816 Procedural remark, she view. Congressman recognized Campbell's alluding Congressmen familiar jurisprudence recognize plagiarism.

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