Document: 112 S.Ct. 2031 504 U.S. 374 119 L.Ed.2d 157 Dan MORALES, Attorney General of Texas, Petitionerv.TRANS WORLD AIRLINES, INC., et al. No. 90-1604. Argued March 3, 1992. Decided June 1, Syllabus In order to ensure that the States would not undo anticipated benefits federal deregulation airline industry, pre-emption provision Airline Deregulation Act 1978 (ADA) prohibits them from enforcing any law "relating [air carriers'] rates, routes, or services." 49 U.S.C.App. § 1305(a)(1). After National Association Attorneys (NAAG) adopted guidelines contain detailed standards governing, inter alia, content and format fare advertising, purport be enforceable through States' general consumer protection statutes, petitioner's predecessor as Texas sent notices intent sue enforce against allegedly deceptive advertisements several respondent airlines. Those respondents filed suit in District Court for injunctive other relief, claiming state regulation is pre-empted by The court ultimately issued an permanently enjoining enforcement action regulate restrict "any aspect" respondents' advertising operations involving services. Appeals affirmed. Held: 1. Assuming 1305(a)(1) pre-empts portions NAAG guidelines, could properly award relief restraining such enforcement. basic doctrine equity courts should act when moving party has adequate remedy at does prevent officers acting unconstitutional where, here, imminent, repetitive penalties attach continuing repeated violations law, lacks realistic option violating once raising its defenses. Ex parte Young, 209 123, 145-147, 156, 163-165, 28 441, 447-449, 452, 455-456, 52 L.Ed. 714. As petitioner threatened only obligations described however, injunction must vacated insofar it restrains operation laws with respect matters. See, e.g., Public Serv. Comm'n Utah v. Wycoff Co., 344 237, 240-241, 73 236, 97 291. Pp. 2035-2036. 2. Enforcement a State's ADA. 383-391. (a) light breadth 1305(a)(1)'s to" phrase, if connection reference "rates, Cf. Shaw Delta Air Lines, Inc., 463 85, 95-96, 103 2890, 2898-2900, 77 490. Petitioner's various objections this reading are strained well taken. 383-387. (b) challenged guidelines—which require, certain disclosures terms, restrictions, availability—obviously "relat[e] rates" within meaning therefore pre-empted. Each guideline bears express airfares, and, collectively, they establish binding requirements how tickets may marketed sold given prices. event, beyond guidelines' fares, clear economic matter have forbidden effect upon fares: Their compelled restrictions significant impact on airlines' ability market their product, hence fares charge. 387-391. 949 F.2d 141 (CA5 1991), affirmed part reversed part. SCALIA, J., delivered opinion Court, which WHITE, O'CONNOR, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. STEVENS, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., BLACKMUN, SOUTER, took no consideration decision case. Stephen Gardner, Dallas, Tex., petitioner. Keith A. Jones, Washington, D.C., respondents. L. Nightingale, amicus curiae special leave Court. Justice SCALIA 1 issue case whether 1978, 1301 seq., prohibiting statutes. 2 * Prior Federal Aviation 1958 (FAA), 72 Stat. 731, amended, gave Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) authority interstate air take administrative trade practices. It did not, expressly pre-empt regulation, contained "saving clause" providing "[n]othing . chapter shall way abridge alter remedies now existing common statute, but provisions addition remedies." 1506. result, were able intrastate (including those offered carriers), see, California CAB, 189 U.S.App.D.C. 176, 178, 581 954, 956 (1978), cert. denied, 439 1068, 99 834, 59 32 (1979), own practices, see Nader Allegheny Airlines 426 290, 300, 96 1985, 48 643 (1976). 3 Congress, determining "maximum reliance competitive forces" best further "efficiency, innovation, low prices" "variety [and] quality transportation services," enacted (ADA). §§ 1302(a)(4), 1302(a)(9). To own, ADA included provision, services" carrier. retained CAB's previous regarding practices (which was transferred Department Transportation (DOT) CAB abolished 1985), also repeal saving clause prior law. 4 1987, (NAAG), organization whose membership includes attorneys all 50 States, Territories, Columbia, Travel Industry Guidelines (set forth Appendix opinion) containing governing awarding premiums regular customers (so-called "frequent flyers"), payment compensation passengers who voluntarily yield seats overbooked flights. These do "create new regulations" applying industry; rather, claim "explain detail apply frequent flyer programs." Guidelines, Introduction (1988). 5 Despite DOT Trade Commission (FTC) policy grounds, seven including memorandum major airlines announcing "it come our attention although most making concerted effort bring into compliance delineated many carriers still [not disclosing surcharges]" violation 2.5 guidelines. said signatories' "purpose clarify industry whole [this practice] respective practices"; warned "advisory before [the] initiati[on of] immediate actions"; expressed hope "protracted litigation over will necessary discontinue practice immediately." Memorandum Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Missouri, New York, Wisconsin, February 1988 (Exhibit A Exhibit H Motion Temporary Restraining Order), App. 123a, 125a. Several months later, office letters serving "as formal notice[s] sue." Letter Assistant November 14, 1988, 115a. 6 then 1305(a)(1); seeking declaratory judgment that, pre-empted; requesting taking under conjunction services, marketing same. entered preliminary effect, likely prevail claim. Trans World Airlines, Inc. Mattox, 712 F.Supp. 99, 101-102 (WD Tex.1989). (It subsequently extended 33 id., 105-106; propriety extension us.) 897 773, 783-784 1990). Subsequently, unreported order, enjoined action" relating again 1991). We granted certiorari. 502 ----, 632, 116 601 (1991). II 7 Before discussing we first consider whether, assuming does, relief. "basic jurisprudence suffer irreparable injury denied equitable relief." O'Shea Littleton, 414 488, 499, 94 669, 677-678, 38 674 (1974); Younger Harris, 401 37, 43-44, 91 746, 750-751, 27 669 (1971). 714 (1908), held "who threaten about commence proceedings, either civil criminal nature, parties affected act, Constitution." When actions imminent—and least defenses—there See S.Ct., 455-456. 8 think Young establishes available here. described, predecessor, had made seek (those concerning advertising) suits laws. And least, imposes additional liability (by treble-damage actions) multiple violations. Tex.Bus. & Com.Code Ann. 17.47, 17.50 (1987 Supp. 1991-1992). Like plaintiff then, faced Hobson's choice: continually violate expose themselves potentially huge liability; test obeying during pendency proceedings review.1 9 sections "initiating aspect and/or F.Supp., 102. so doing, disregarded limits exercise power. one, intends "first strike" State initiating prospect supplies injury. 238-239, 291 (1952). thus speaks proceedings," U.S., 452 (emphasis added); 158, 453, recognized related context conjectural cannot warrant O'Shea, supra, 502, 679. Any rule (assuming meet Article III case-or-controversy requirements) require determine constitutionality hypothetical situations where even itself applicable. This problem vividly enough illustrated blunderbuss present case, declares "any" thei 10 turn question often observed, "[p]re-emption implied, Congress' command explicitly stated statute's language implicitly structure purpose." FMC Corp. Holliday, 498 111 403, 407, 356 (1990) (internal quotation marks omitted); 95, 2898-2899, 490 (1983). question, bottom, one statutory intent, accordingly "begin employed Congress assumption ordinary accurately expresses legislative 407; Park 'N Fly, Dollar 469 189, 194, 105 658, 661-662, 83 582 (1985). 11 Section "enact[ing] enforc[ing] rule, standard, having force services ." For purposes key obviously, to." these words broad "to stand some relation; bearing concern; pertain; refer; association with," Black's Law Dictionary 1158 (5th ed. 1979)—and pre-emptive purpose. repeatedly addressing similarly worded Employee Retirement Income Security 1974 (ERISA), 29 U.S.C. 1144(a), "insofar relate employee benefit plan." said, example, "breadth [that provision's] reach apparent [its] language," Shaw, 96, 2899-2900; "broad scope," Metropolitan Life Ins. Co. 471 724, 739, 2380, 2388-2389, 85 728 (1985), "expansive sweep," Pilot Dedeaux, 481 41, 47, 107 1549, 1552-1553, 95 39 (1987); "broadly worded," Ingersoll-Rand McClendon, 478, 482-483, 474 (1990), "deliberately expansive," Life, 46, 1552, "conspicuous breadth," 407. True word, "relates plan, ERISA, "if 97, 2900. Since relevant identical, appropriate adopt same standard here: 12 Petitioner raises number reading, none First, he claims use interpretation identical ERISA guide, because sweeping nature derives language, "the wide inclusive sweep comprehensive scheme," asserts have. Brief 33-34. argument flatly contradicted cases, clearly unmistakably rely principles construction phrase 96-97, n. 16, 2899-2900, 16 (citing dictionary definitions); Ingersoll-Rand, 483. stresses FAA "saving" clause, preserves statute," 1506, broader than counterpart. But commonplace specific governs general, Crawford Fitting J. T. Gibbons, 482 437, 445, 2494, 2499, 385 (1987) (a canon particularly pertinent relic pre-ADA/no regime). "remedies" allowed supersede substantive provision—unless thought statute requiring "reasonable rates," "unreasonable" ones, actually set fares. International Paper Ouellette, 479 481, 494, 805, 812, 93 883 (1987), "we believe intended undermine carefully drawn clause." 13 contends prescribing simply reads out statute. Had been designed limited fashion, "regulate 50, 1554 ("A common-sense view word 'regulates' lead conclusion [a matter], specifically directed toward [it]").2 Moreover, effected purpose served very next subsection, proprietary rights airports. 1305(b). 14 Next, advances notion addressed pre-empted, whereas constraints applicability. Besides creating utterly irrational loophole (there little reason why impairment scheme deemed acceptable long particularized application statute), ignores language. consistently rejected precise cases: "[A] 'relate to' thereby affect plans, indirect." 483; 47-48, 1552-1553 (common-law tort contract pre-empted); 2388-2389 (state health insurance plans cover mental expenses Alessi Raybestos-Manhattan, 451 504, 525, 101 1895, 1907, 68 402 (1981) (workers' pre-empted). 15 Last, suggests inappropriate consistent. fact inconsistent here—DOT opposes greater liability—but beside point. Nothing regulation; cases settled matter: "The displace[s] fall sphere, consistent ERISA's requirements." Mackey Lanier Collection Agency Service, 486 825, 829, 108 2182, 2185, 100 836 (1988); 2388-2389. B hardly surprising rests his readings 1305(a)(1), rather contesting really They quite obviously do. Taking seriatim: 2.1, print requires "clear conspicuous disclosure [defined lesser one-third size largest typeface ad ten-point type] as" time availability, limitations refund exchange rights, time-of-day day-of-week length-of-stay requirements, advance-purchase round-trip-purchase variations different airports metropolitan area, breaks changes itinerary, "[a]ny material restriction fare." 2.2 similar, though somewhat less onerous, broadcast fares; 2.3 billboard ads conspicuously "Substantial apply" there fares' availability. mandate advertised sufficient quantities "meet reasonably foreseeable demand" every flight day advertised; basis, statement extent unavailability." 2.4. include taxes surcharges; round-trip 2.6, disclosed prominently one-way round trips; 2.7 " 'sale,' 'discount,' [or] 'reduced' unless "substantially below usual price restrictions." 17 One avoid aspects "relate rates. enumerated above "reference And, Under give consumers cause (for actual damages, 1991-1992)) airline's failure provide particular fare—effectively right advertisement fails mandated explanations disclaimers. appears us much like common-law damages plan pay "relate[d] 1550-1551, 1552-1553. 18 Advertising "serves inform public prices products performs indispensable role allocation resources." Bates Bar Arizona, 433 350, 364, 2691, 2699, 53 810 (1977). Restrictions "serv[e] increase difficulty discovering lowest cost seller [reduce] incentive competitively." Id., 377, 2705-2706. Accordingly, "where retail dramatically lower without advertising." Ibid. Judge Easterbrook succinctly put it, compelling restricting "[p]rice surely 'relates price." Illinois Corporate American 889 751, 754 (CA7 1989), 495 919, 110 1948, 109 311 (1990). 19 Although insists instead merely preventing distortion caused "false" dynamics curtail communicate customers. involved operating almost entirely fixed costs; each passenger. flights divided between volume purchases relatively insensitive (primarily business travelers) demand sensitive indeed pleasure travelers). try sell per possible higher group, fill up selling second group (since costs fixed, passenger paying far average preferable empty seat). process work, redound price-conscious travelers, place substantial availability priced (so rate), advertise severely burden both time: disclosure" make impossible small short ads, (to extent) itemization surcharges vary State, requirement charges forces create market. section "sale," "discount," "reduced" effectively prevents using terms call normally travelers. FTC "[r]equiring too information can paradoxical stifling receive." Christopher Ames, Deputy California, 11, Respondent 23a. Further, 2.4, allowing unavailability disclosed, all. All all, imposed charge.3 20 concluding contends, road leads gambling prostitution applied Nor need address nonprice obscene depictions) rates; more tenuous. adapt "[s]ome [airline fares] tenuous, remote, peripheral manner" effect. 100, 21, 2901, 21. "[t]he plainly borderline views draw line." Finally, note carte blanche lie deceive consumers; retains power prohibit pricing, 1381. 21 22 hold ADA, affirm awarded provisions. Insofar matters, vacated. 23 ordered. 24 SOUTER APPENDIX TO OPINION Task Force Revised INTRODUCTION 25 June, ("NAAG") appointment states study United States. study, unfair report recommended course meeting December 1987. 26 Report Recommendations winter 12, direction (1) receive examine comments groups, agencies, interested parties; (2) evaluate comments; (3) Spring advisability modifications Guidelines. received written Transport Association, Agencies, Advertisers, Council Better Business Bureaus, Commission, Broadcasters, Southwest USAir, Transportation. evaluated comments, reported recommendations NAAG. On 15, changed respond valid concerns raised filing comments. herein reflect chair NAAG's Consumer Protection Committee appoint four serve task effectiveness continue discussions members parties. are: John Van de Kamp (California), Neil F. Hartigan (Illinois), Jim Mattox (Texas), Kenneth O. Eikenberry (Washington). 30 important regulations industry. explain programs. Guideline followed comment summarizes: 31 &#149; Guideline. Force. 1—Definitions 34 1.0 Advertisement means oral, written, graphic pictorial solicitation business. includes, limitation, representation newspaper, magazine publication, notice, sign, billboard, poster, display, circular, pamphlet, letter (collectively called "print advertisements"), radio television ("broadcast commercials"). 35 Comment: definition encompasses materials media covered states' false "Print advertisements" "broadcast commercial" separated categories afforded slightly treatment represents change earlier draft attempt difficulties lengthy commercials. 36 1.1 Award coupon, certificate, voucher, tangible thing promised, given, otherwise program partner member mileage, credits, bonuses, segments units value credited fly partner. 37 definition, definitions 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.6, 1.9, 1.10, self-explanatory. 1.2 level specified amount mileage accumulate award. 1.3 Blackout date travel permitted redeem levels. form capacity control. 40 1.4 Capacity control restricts opportunity levels program. 41 1.5 Clear statement, term ("statement") being size, color contrast, audibility presented readily noticed understood person whom disclosed. used accordance usage meaning. "companion" companion (i.e., traveling member), solely family members. Without limiting preceding sentences: 42 considered type advertising. However, larger than: 43 10-point 200 square inches smaller, 44 12-point inches. 45 If body copy advertisement, copy, typesize requirements. 46 commercial orally understandable information. 47 (c) billboard. (d) required programs, located directly adjacent applies. Type smaller commonly-used document, event type. reservation future beginning printed materials. current completely inadequate manner disclose rarely near appear extremely bottom advertisement. commercials, generally absent advertisements, commercials flashed screen quickly read. billboards mention unusual. Given background, believes define what constitutes media. type-size minima aimed easy read noticeable. Consequently, suggested advertisements. absolute. That is, instance type, regardless suggestions examples reasonable expectation sued follows Force's meetings last summer, abide enforced uniformly. choose safe harbor ventures untested waters, run aground not. free so. 51 critical largely singled treatment. whole, indicated easily elected encourage oral media, difficult people listen to, watch method conveying commercial. converse true—a necessarily video super crawl, conspicuous. safety reasons, large provided billboards. 54 1.6 Frequent awards 55 1.7 Limited-time period blackout periods. 56 applies times year (e.g., April 15), (not January 5), until (available 15). unavailable days week day. 57 1.8 Material restriction, affects refundability ticket, applicable classes (such conditions carriage). 58 Due numerous tickets, confined "material restrictions" unique coach ticket). 1.9 Program accepted program, she accrued 60 1.10 entity provides 61 1.11 Vested enrolled partners, notice Sections 3.2 3.9. purchasing airline, renting car credit card. 62 separates joined receiving prospectively. afford protections vested miles. There sound this. 63 reviewing reward promotional airlines, concluded currently potential increases imposition result unilateral devaluation awards. Therefore, treat miles prospective differently. 64 1.12 mile (or credits) accumulated receives changes, 65 identifies possibility detrimental member. 2—Fare Advertisements 2.0 66 plain conspicuous, non-deceptive. Deception direct inferences therefrom, omitting obscuring restriction. 67 following restate individual statutes 2.1 Disclosure Print as: 69 70 Limitations ticket. 71 Time restrictions. Length stay Advance purchase 74 Round trip 75 Variations two area. 76 on, extra for, leg scheduled. any, 78 fare. 79 met either: 80 81 price, 82 box heading "Restrictions." Examples (in type) copy: 84 RESTRICTIONS: "Weekend traveler" Saturday Sunday p.m. days. box: Restrictions. 86 87 advance 88 Not 20-December 89 York Newark Airport 90 Advertised Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday afternoons. Three-day required. 50% cancellation penalty 92 advantage something shopping Because especially accurate complete contemplating An complies three crucial pieces information: Eligibility—consumers know eligible affecting travel?); Availability—consumers gauge likelihood obtain ticket price; 3. Risk—consumers risks associated non-refundable itinerary?). great deal negative government agencies misunderstood mean full flight. correct. listed existence advertised. misunderstanding, revised misunderstanding states, just option. evidenced another misconception wording wording, assist disclosures, sacrosanct. creative minds agencies. avail talents, certainly adept phrasing message advertiser wants get across consumer. essence advised chosen impose consumers' buy price. 98 Broadcast of: 102 addition, commercial, reservations made: 104 106 types disclosure, defer made. chooses made, "Other apply," similar "Restrictions sufficient. draft, unanimously responded spots purchased argued resulting absorb usefully. eliminate radio. 113 information, stating advertised, harmful alike. 114 compromise. serious ticket—limited nonrefundability exchangeability accomplished simple statement: "Tickets nonrefundable, flights, 15. Other apply." crawl Of course, commenting confirmed typical spot seconds, concern crucial. 115 deferring makes reservation. severely, fewer (and thus, time) needed. compromise position recognizes lends retain refer pace. reason, broadcast, medium disclosure. 117 118 hazardous drivers. disagree proliferation nation's highways. 2.4 Fare quantity appears, after terminates. 120 available, 121 Statements "Seats limited" Guideline: 122 you call. 123 124 125 elicited greatest ATA, DOT. argue implement because, due complexity pricing systems, number. continuously modified point departure. suggest invitation seats, reduce zero close popular seat exists placed. 126 system justify unfairness approach. No retailer stock item grounds minute decided costly goes heart truthful advertises destination face. 127 While appreciates "This flights" call" onerous. Absent retailers, Surcharges 128 fuel, tax, surcharge total 129 Recently, passing along fuel imposing "fuel surcharge" increased costs. remain same, footnote added "mice type" instance, $16 tacked abuse, permitted, obvious. $19 $300 meal, labor, baggage footnote. abuses. construed impossible. minimal tour-related "fare" unknown (if amounts known). known—either exact percentage—do 2.6 Round-trip 130 elects portion purchase, together fare, manner, 131 routinely one-half alleged "one-way" price) purchase. Guideline, practice, location prominent 132 have, part, willingness practice. 133 Deceptive "reduced," 134 temporarily reduced regularly-available is: 135 specified, time, 136 substantially 137 majority significantly "Y" theory allocate "bucket." ceased starting "sale" understand term. 138 attempted confusion describe represent true savings regularly fares—those periods carrying 3—Frequent Flyer Programs Comments 139 programs widely acknowledged successful history. bargain struck proven Customers expecting collect led join place. Some disturbed keeping side real lose revenue flying begin displacing solution contemplated raise thresholds decrease devalue members' credits obscure wholly providers goods rental cars hotel rooms. protect participated good faith, change, advise reserve adequately nondeceptive 3.0 controls 140 partners employ controls, solicitations, newsletters, rules bulletins techniques dates, percentage allocated recipients limited"), maximum rooms mechanism whereby opportunities redeeming dates miles, time. originally requested. 31-day requested reservation, accommodated sold, requests 142 future, limit certificates. unreasonably supply found limitation reviewed. puts want date. 143 drafts based imposed. compromise, permit flexibility around holiday peak times, accommodate tickets: "time window" ticketing. allows reasonable, yet defined entire window, ticketing reasonable. approach straightforward customer frustration. 144 3.1 145 reserved 3.9 levels, member's adversely affected) 146 mailing change. 147 allow lock immediately guaranteed her selection 148 assume claimed old 149 institutes corrective measures detriment future. sets alternative approaches altering expectations wish persons 3.1.1(a) grandfathers one-year notice. 3.1.1(b) locked-in effective gives accrue 3.1.1(c) problems distinguishing equitably adjusting 150 ways changing delineate minimum standards. Notice 151 Adequate Reduction 152 deleting list statements regulations. 153 3.2.1, outer changed. disclosure: 154 "Program rules, subject notice." example 155 "(Airline) reserves terminate six participate your terminated Or: 156 regulations, level. (Airline) add unlimited days, destinations destinations, cruises." Or, intends, might say: 158 "In within—days date, except here." 159 3.1, 160 past, radical vague uncertain blanket "Subject additions, deletions, revisions time." outrage ensued unilaterally 1986-87 told, gamble striving recurrence extensive example. attempts inadequate, intend members, adverse given. work constraints, unduly harshly class 161 giving year's 162 discovered delete lists determined "inactive." Inactive differently formula active participation ten month mailing. mailings, distributed join. 3.3 163 upgrade discount coupon terminology "Y Class") 164 Many encouraging certificates campaign coupons, coupons high (often useless consumers. claimed. 3.4 Certificates 165 Certificates, vouchers, redeemed use, redeposit, extension, re-issuance certificate newsletter 166 Again, year, fairness twelve cycle. 3.5 Fees 167 fee enrollment fully counters solicitations Such accepting 168 obtaining essential review fee. 3.6 Redemption 169 processing redemption processed promptly. prompt request. "processing days." 170 problem. 171 3.7 Termination 172 terminated, termination them. year. certificates, vouchers tickets. 173 uniformly "free," strenuously disagrees. Consumers promise "free tickets" foregoing convenient departure flight, expensive kept expect keep theirs, cost. affords changes. desired 174 mergers reason. unconscionable reaped rewards walk away circumstances. 3.8 175 enrollment. 176 measure. now. entitled Method 177 Disclosures referred assure refers partners. 178 brochures pages. Extremely buried topic headings hidden back inside pages brochure. helpful informative 179 insure permits discloses meaningful 180 complained unreasonable proposes fact, listing brochure significance restriction—that moment—is aware immediately. text 4—Compensation Voluntary Denied Boarding 4.0 policies 181 offer ticketed incentives surrender proposal—including offers accepts offer. 182 individuals involuntarily bumped whatever airplane overbooking. prefer cash passengers. 183 seem attractive wait later carry black used. 184 travel, agrees seat. responsive CONCLUSION 185 dissatisfaction reached crisis proportions. focused scheduling problems, on-time performance, safety, issues, Unchecked, engaged areas play eliminating 186 THE CHIEF JUSTICE BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 187 construing "virtually provision" Franchise Tax Bd. Cal. Construction Laborers Vacation Trust Southern Cal., 24, 26, 2841, 2854, 420 (1983), reading. supported relationship subsections parallel 98, 2900-2901, history provision. 98-99. Today construe (ADA), Instead examining structure, decides "appropriate," similarity Ante, 384. disregards established canons construction, neither nor 188 deciding ascertain enacting issue." 738, 2388, (1985) omitted). At analysis "must guided separate spheres governmental preserved federalist system." 522, 1905, (1981). questions "presum[ption] traditional regulation." 740, 2389. 105(a) provides, "no political subdivision thereof enact carrier subchapter IV transportation." 1305(a). By misleading product "relates," "pertains," "refers" foremost (and, particular, itself. say, prohibition indirectly knowing characteristics product.1 190 Thus, I agree relates presumption counsels interpret indirect indication result. illuminating narrow focus 191 Nation favoring markets entrepreneurs decisions output. 1890 Sherman Act's collusive production central expression policy. Society Professional Engineers 435 679, 695, 1355, 1367, 637 (1978). 1914 sought promote (FTCA), created "[u]nfair methods competition commerce." 719, codified 45(a)(1). regulated Government decree. 192 1938 today's inquiry. March, broadened FTCA "unfair acts commerce" 111, Three 1938. 411, 1003. entry routes fly, charge consumers.2 987-994. patterned FTCA, 1003; North 351 79, 82, 600, 603-604, 953 (1956). Board's regard exclusive, "savings practices.3 1027; 298-300, 1984-1985, 193 replaced regulatory 1958,4 principal remained 1978. withdraw encourage, develop, attain relies quality, variety, H.R.Conf.Rep. 95-1779, p. U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 3737. goal frustrated substituted recently removed regulation. Act, 194 1381(a). fraudulent 1506; Nader, 1984-1985. prohibitions coexisted years, economy since 1914,5 mentioned 195 short, exempt Instead, scope measured withdrawn. 196 essentially Board, interpreted underlying policies—to frustrating deregulation, dual rates Fed.Reg. 9948, 9949 (1979). explained that: 197 "Section forbids federally authorized carrier's Clearly, interfere serve. Similarly, 198 199 "Accordingly, conclude preemption extends factors go quid pro quo passenger's frequency timing, limits, boarding insurance, smoking meal service, entertainment, bonding corporate financing. 9950-9951; Freeman, Regulation J.Air Com. 747, 766-767 immunize engaging 201 finds choice analogous ante, 383-384. support assumption, however. bill proposed "[n]o Hearings H.R. 8813 Subcommittee House Works Transportation, 95th Cong., 1st Sess., pt. Yet accompanying prepared testimony pre-emption; instead, "added defeat regulating transportation. codification leaves unimpaired matters." 243. 202 finally came bill. Report—like Board—did today; narrowly, saying "provid[ed] operates pursuant title H.R.Rep. 95-1211, Admin.News, 3752. 203 Senate bill, hand, provided, schedules, tariffs of, promulgate S. 2493, 423(a)(1), reprinted S.Rep. 95-631, "prohibits exercising airlines." 98. 204 Conference (with exception here), Report. pp. 94-95 therefore, Conferees House's Senate's "determining regulation" language.6 "regulating 205 Even "significant impact" 390, dissent. theoretical arguments persuaded me adopts, 388-390) engage discrimination compete operate efficiently; modest facilitate practice; sales generated advertisements; (4) revenues decrease, advertising; (5) reduction competition, which, turn, judicial findings. 206 Court's reasoning sustained proving "significant" rates.7 Surely local doing consequently, 207 respectfully abstained entertaining line commencing (1971), heightened restrain already-pending about-to-be-pending action, interests, Middlesex County Ethics Comm. Garden Assn., 457 423, 431-432, 2515, 2520-2521, 2524, (1982); Trainor Hernandez, 431 434, 440-447, 1911, 1916-1920, (1977); Younger, 43-49, 750-753. abstention, federal-state comity considerations implicated. Brown Hotel Employees, 468 491, 500, 9, 3179, 3184-3185, 373 (1984); Ohio Bureau Employment Services Hodory, 471, 480, 1898, 1904, 513 dissent (sources deems "more illuminating" "narrow focus" ADA's post, 421), regime here contains Post, 421-426. Suffice say confirm details according natural Harrison PPG Industries, 446 578, 591-592, 1889, 1897-1898, 525 (1980). produced precisely desires: "No of. (1978) added). unperturbed Congress's preference disagrees this—not, turns out, disputes description 427. unexplained, seems inexplicable. arising distinction well: "[A]ny York's Pan Am's remote indirect. challenging care Am charges, flies, amenities Its sole matters concerned, $200 $2,000 LaGuardia London, full-page newspaper telling $2,000. remains route plane Ithaca Istanbul stops chooses, 'direct' flight." 162, (SDNY 1989); People Western Cal.App.3d 597, Cal.Rptr. 238 (1984), 1132, 815, 808 (1985); Note, Form More Perfect Union?: Federalism Informal Interstate Cooperation, Harv.L.Rev. 842, 857 (1989). name "Civil Authority," redesignated Board" Reorganization Plan 1940. 1321(a)(1) (1982 Ed.), repealed 1985 1551(a)(3). 1106 provided: "Nothing 1027. 1958, Pub.L. 85-726, 731. force, conflicts Financial Assn. FTC, 247 167, 199-200, 767 957, 989-991 Verkuil, Preemption 1976 Duke L.J. 225. transportation, 1381, too, rest holding conflict regulations; overlooks "or 385-386, 2, incorrectly assumes narrower demonstrated, space box" two-sentence 2.2, realistically maintained 2.7's sale hinder low-priced proved 2.4's quantities; disclaimer, call." General, Industry, (1988), Amicus Curiae 24a-25a.

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