Document: 112 S.Ct. 1881 504 U.S. 255 119 L.Ed.2d 57 John H. EVANS, Jr., Petitionerv.UNITED STATES. No. 90-6105. Argued Dec. 9, 1991. Decided May 26, 1992. Syllabus As part of an investigation allegations public corruption in Georgia, a Federal Bureau Investigation agent posing as real estate developer initiated number conversations with petitioner Evans, elected member the DeKalb County Board Commissioners. The sought Evans' assistance effort to rezone tract land and gave him, inter alia, $7,000 cash, which Evans failed report on his state campaign-financing disclosure form or federal income tax return. was convicted District Court of, among other things, extortion under Hobbs Act, is "the obtaining property from another, . induced by wrongful use actual threatened force, violence, fear, color official right," 18 U.S.C. § 1951(b)(2). In affirming conviction, Appeals acknowledged that trial court's jury instruction did not require finding had demanded requested money, he conditioned performance any act upon its receipt. However, it held "passive acceptance benefit" sufficient for Act violation if knew being offered payment exchange specific exercise power. Held: An affirmative inducement official, such demand, element offense "under right" prohibited Act. Pp. 259-271. (a) Congress presumed have adopted common-law definition extortion—which does make demand request—unless has instructed otherwise. See Morissette v. United States, 342 246, 263, 72 240, 249-250, 96 L.Ed. 288. While expanded encompass conduct private individual well portion referring misconduct continues mirror definition. There nothing sparse legislative history statutory text could fairly be described "contrary direction," ibid., narrow offense's scope. inclusion word "induced" power begin official. That but even apply necessarily indicate transaction must bribe's recipient. 259-266. (b) criticisms instruction—that properly describe quid pro quo requirement conviction found campaign contribution, find duress—are rejected. satisfies McCormick 500 ----, 111 1807, 114 307, because completed when receives return agreement perform acts; fulfillment offense. Nor step official's need given. 267-268. (c) conclusion herein buttressed facts many courts interpreted statute same way, Congress, although aware this prevailing view, remained silent. 268-269. 910 F.2d 790 (CA11 1990), affirmed. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, WHITE, BLACKMUN, SOUTER, JJ., joined, Parts I II O'CONNOR, Part III KENNEDY, joined. filed opinions concurring judgment. THOMAS, dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA, C. Michael Abbott, Atlanta, Ga., petitioner. William Bryson, Washington, D.C., respondent. Justice STEVENS Court. 1 We granted certiorari, U.S.—(1991), resolve conflict Circuits over question whether 1951. agree Eleventh Circuit not, therefore affirm judgment court below. 2 * Petitioner Commissioners County, Georgia. During period between March 1985 October 1986, (FBI) investigate Atlanta area, particularly area rezonings property, FBI talked telephone met occasions. Virtually all, those were most recorded tape video. conversations, petitioner's 25-acre high-density residential use. On July 25, handed cash totaling check, payable campaign, $1,000. reported form; also 1986 Viewing evidence light favorable Government, we verdict, see Glasser 315 60, 80, 62 457, 469-470, 86 680 (1942), assume accepted knowing intended ensure would vote favor rezoning application try persuade fellow commissioners do likewise. Thus, initiate transaction, bribe constituted implicit promise position serve interests bribe-giver. 3 two-count indictment, charged 1951 failure 26 7206(1). He both counts. With respect count, judge following instruction: 4 "The defendant contends $8,000 received Cormany contribution. solicitation contributions person necessary permissible political activity persons who seek office been office. contribution itself, constitute though donor business pending before 5 "However, demands accepts money [a] her power, regardless made contribution." App. 16-17. 6 noted 790, 796 1990). held, however, benefit basis knows take action induce offering benefit." Ibid. (emphasis original).1 7 This statement law consistent holdings eight Circuits.2 Two Circuits, required support right. States O'Grady, 742 682, 687 (CA2 1984) (en banc) ("Although receipt benefits crime, there proof something, office, cause giving benefits"); Aguon, 851 1158, 1166 (CA9 1988) ("We ourselves accord Second Circuit's Act"). Because majority view extortion, believe adopt, endorse position. 8 It familiar "maxim term generally meaning." Taylor 495 575, 592, 110 2143, 2155, 109 607 (1990). explained, "where borrows terms art are accumulated legal tradition meaning centuries practice, presumably adopts cluster ideas attached each borrowed body learning taken will convey judicial mind unless otherwise instructed. case, absence contrary direction may satisfaction widely definitions, departure them." 288 (1952).3 9 At common law, committed took "by colour office"4 due him duties.5 A request, offense.6 Extortion rough equivalent what now "taking bribe." clear offense.7 statute, insofar applies narrowed 10 unquestionably include acts individuals pursuant obtained means threats. so implication Travel 1952, Nardello, 393 286, 289-296, 89 534, 536-539, 21 487 (1969), expressly relevant our decision today provides: 11 "(a) Whoever way degree obstructs, delays, affects commerce movement article commodity commerce, robbery attempts conspires do, commits threatens physical violence furtherance plan purpose anything section shall fined more than $10,000 imprisoned twenty years, both. 12 "(b) used section— 13 14 "(2) 'extortion' consent, right." 15 present codification 1946 enactment, Act,8 amended Anti-Racketeering Act.9 crafting 1934 careful interfere legitimate activities employers employees. H.R.Rep. 1833, 73rd Cong., 2d Sess., (1934). Amendment beyond reach Teamsters, 521, 642, 1004 (1942).10 significant change Rather, broaden scope concerned primarily distinguishing "legitimate" labor "racketeering," prohibit latter while permitting former. 91 Cong.Rec. 11899-11922 (1945). 16 Many supported argued end some union members engaged in, detriment all American citizenry. They urged their opponents charged, anti-labor measure, rather, measure wake Court's Teamsters.11 Supreme mistakenly exempted laws prohibiting whereas extend citizens. See, e.g., 11910 (1945) (remarks Rep. Springer) ("To my bill protects honest laboring people country. contained relates labor. passed, relate every citizen"); id., at 11912 Jennings) ("The one protect right citizens country market products without interference lawless bandits"). 17 Although much broader12 encompasses official,13 refers either U.S., S.Ct., unilluminating extortion. reference fact "robbery extortion" construed times definitions "based New York law." 3227 (1943) (statement Hobbs); 11906 Robsion). applied officer "who asks, receives, agrees receive" unauthorized compensation, N.Y.Penal Code 557 (1881), intent language quoted above makes merely payment.14 force enacted. 19 two disagreed requiring "begins gratuitous actions another." F.2d, 691; (" 'inducement' can overt 'demand,' subtle 'custom' 'expectation' "). If no guide interpretation text, reading plausible. For reasons, convinced incorrect. 20 First, think individual, case victim's consent "induced fear." requirement. requires obtain "property "or" supports reading.15 Second, parsed officeholder, indicates recipient bribe. cases applying rule concluded establishes requires.16 conclude coercive provided itself. And threat demand. 687; 1166.17 22 argues charge supra, 257-258, allowed convict Brief 24.18 "an duress demand," 22, 23 reject criticism instruction, 307 (1991), time contention included instruction.19 explained above, construction informed drawn understood. hold Government only show entitled, acts.20 24 Our considered issue last years way.21 Moreover, given appellate decisions, together them involved prosecutions important officials known community,22 obvious proscribed silence empowered give us direction" want survive normal presumption identified Morissette, supra. 25 argument raised advanced dissent. limited takings false pretense Post, 279-280; post, 281 (offense "was understood [as] taking right") original); 282. perfectly clear, accomplished fraud well-recognized type types well. Commonwealth Wilson, 30 Pa.Super. (1906), involving would-be brothel owner police captain opening house: commonly dealt decisions corrupt fee services should rendered gratuitously; compensation permissible, larger justifies, yet due; complete offense, mean extortion." Id., 30. 27 Brown, 470, 488-489 (1903) (defendants conspiracy extort they pay procuring election certain school-teachers); State Sweeney, 180 Minn. 450, 456, 231 N.W. 225, 228 (1930) (alderman's erection barn, running gambling house, filling station extortion) (dicta); Barts, 132 N.J.L. 74, 76, 83, 38 A.2d 838, 841, 844 (Sup.Ct.1944) (police officer, $1,000 arresting someone stolen "generically abuse justice misuse oppression clothes officer"); White State, 56 Ga. 385, 389 (1876) (If ministerial "for awing seducing" extortion). 28 dissent's theory notwithstanding, cites, 281-282, n. 3, holds innocent deceived payor representing proper. Indeed, none payor, states "false pretense" Instead, proposition paid entitled collected—both elements clearly satisfied case. thesis explains why Appeals, recognized scholarly commentary.23 29 ordered. 31 join correctly answer certiorari—whether Pet. Cert. i. dissent discussed question, Rule 14.1(a), sound prudential reasons suggest address it. Cf. Yee City Escondido, --- ---- - 1522, 118 153 (1992). Neither party briefed question. proper resolution detailed examination cases, turn intensive historical research. appear substantial arguments side, far assured arriving correct result await addressed parties. unfair respondent decide ground opportunity address. these neither nor express correct. 32 33 gives summary words: "We acts." Ante, 268. Government's prosecution 1951, rule. appears accept alternative rationale, essential determination criminal pretend Here establish embodied violation. concur conviction. write separate explain analysis understanding statute. 34 regard phrase 1951(b)(2), myself Scrutiny placement commas final analysis, yield convincing answer, left quite plausible interpretations. Under circumstances, lenity avoid harsher one. ----. starting point assumption here defines 35 hand, "necessarily indicat[e] the" original). Something mere another required, else superfluous. submit, quo. ability refrain using authority "color invoked property. generates quo, right, prohibits. of" used, agree, sweep within exercises forbids nevertheless damage governmental Monroe Pape, 365 167, 184, 81 473, 482-483, 492 (1961) 'Misuse possessed virtue possible wrongdoer clothed 'under law' ") (quoting Classic, 313 299, 326, 61 1031, 1043, 85 1368 (1941)). 36 entitlement payment, violates intends absent likely trust injury prospective less treatment satisfied. terms, law's effect frustrated winks nods. implied words actions, long interprets 37 usual course concerns itself motives consequences, formalities. trier capable deciding spoken reasonable payor. 1815, (1991) ("It goes saying matters consider"). similarities contract dispute, added vital motive crucial. example, attendant inferred ongoing conduct. 694 (Pierce, concurring). instances, commit dealings victimization withholding treatment, refraining action, breach trust. Lindgren, Elusive Distinction Between Bribery Extortion: From Common Law UCLA L.Rev. 815, 887-888 (1988) (observing always focused corruption). simply up, asserts. derived receive ante, 268, 20, additional principles justify interpretation. First principle statutes constitutional. Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. Florida Gulf Coast Building & Construction Trades Council, 485 568, 108 1392, 1397-1398, 99 645 (1988), cited therein. Judge agreed noted, right,' standing alone, vague almost unconstitutionality." O'Grady,, 695 (Van Graafeiland, part) (citing Village Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, Inc., 455 489, 498-499, 102 1186, 1193-1194, 71 362 (1982)). By placing construction, possibility imputing enactment lacks precision. 39 mechanism controls limits one: (1952) (refusing impute create strict liability crime despite explicit mens rea statute). Hence, firm roots language, implication. 40 legitimates way. compare 260,n. 4, 288, 5, Congress' choice rather office" reflect substantive modification law. indication otherwise, meant 249-250. opinion. 41 prior large happened involve pretenses, hint ever People Whaley, Cow. 661, 663-664 (N.Y.Sup.Ct.1827) ("Extortion signifies, enlarged sense, stricter signifies office; either, where due, due"); Hanley 125 Wis. 396, 104 57, 59 (1905) said 'to justice, consists officer's unlawfully man, thing value due") W. Blackstone, Commentaries 141). Furthermore, demonstrates, during affirmed convictions based claim 42 respect. indicated, instructions act, payment. (requiring "wrongful valid power"). Modern congressional understand fundamental limitation. out corrupt, see, 663-664; Hanley, 401-402, N.W., 59; 870-871 (setting forth six colonial-era extortion), Bagley, Pick. 279, (Mass.1828) (affirming "of meritorious misapprehension rights [had] lawful service performed"). jurisdictions thought E.g., 664 (remarking "with indictment"). event, modern jurisprudence now. short, labors good-faith erroneous belief violate circumstance presented here. 43 us, alleged established (1991). Readers today's little difficulty rationale underlying holding prosecutions. be, for, motive, said, essence 44 complied requirement, 45 whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE SCALIA join, dissenting. 46 premise, fully employs art, " 'knows mind.' 259 249, (1952)). presume, enacted Unfortunately, misapprehends misconstrues respectfully 47 oldest crimes Anglo-American jurisprudence. E. Coke, Institutes *541. Hawkins provides classic definition: "[I]t Sense Oppression Colour Right; Taking Money Officer, Office, due." Hawkins, Pleas Crown 170 (2d ed. 1724) added). Blackstone echoed "[E]xtortion taking, value, Laws England 141 (1769) 48 These pose, critical question: office"? fails assuming encompassed something "due." 260. 49 definite well-established "At is, thereto claimed paying yielded authority." R. Anderson, Wharton's Criminal Procedure 1393, pp. 790-791 (1957) added).1 purports define bears scant resemblance codified 1946. 50 rests set review article. 260, nn. 4-6 815 (1988)). Focusing early English wide range takings, coercion, bribery. Whatever merits description law,2 beside here—the inquiry purposes passed Harmelin Michigan, 501 2680, 2691, 115 836 (plurality opinion) (English background determining constitutional provision, "ultimate question" provision Americans it). 51 survey 19th 20th century construing plain typical Collier 55 Ala. (1877). local prosecutor who, fee, advice suspect. Alabama rejected State's defendant's fee—even improper—amounted "extortion," office." object [extortion] impropriety conduct, fraud, position." 127. "[a] claimed, accepted, yielding 128 enough. "[T]hough guilty infidelity, wrong only, done money. punishable indictment. Private concur, Numerous confirm only—as suggests—when assert payment.3 52 describes incorporated into explanation error clear. foray single-minded proving "inducement"; haste conclusion, consider include. Even receiving (but "inducing") unlawful follow historically logically automatically whenever 53 therefore, errs asserting "rough 'taking bribe,' Regardless contains "inducement" bribery different crimes. solicits takes office"; i.e., entitlement. distinction seems former one, demanding Pritchard, 107 N.C. 921, 929, S.E. 50, (1890) Where issue, sole wrongdoer; office," regards victim accomplice. Burdick, Crime §§ 273-275, 392-396 (1946). bribery, contrast, payment; he, punished 288-292, 426-436. crimes; treated separately. Compare 872 officers employees States" added), criminalizes officials, punishment payor), 201 ("Bribery witnesses" officials). stretching bounds blurs traditional crimes.4 B 54 Perhaps crime—as expansive, very appends qualification: 268 up. treatise dictionary defining "extortion." Its conceivable source, fact, Term Quite sensibly, insisted that, existence accepting purport discern imposed prevent effecting radical (and absurd) life. "To open sense unavoidable campaigns financed expenditures, beginning Nation. conclusion." 1816-1817. contributions. 10, 1817, ("[W]e exists contexts, gifts, meals, travel expenses, items value"). McCormick, 6, 1814, 6; 1818 (SCALIA, concurring), limitation represented first direction. Now squarely history, apparent overly modest: offer contributions, Today's extension McCormick's textually artificial) unexplained inexplicable—except rescue overbreadth. serious disregard construction. chooses harshest maximizes jurisdiction officials. choices. A. 58 "extortion" 1951(b)(2) added).5 argues, part, "induce" rejects argument, concluding verb 265. according read: 'The [1] [2] right.' 265, 15. concede, words. But is—at least—forced, sets up unnatural ungrammatical parallel preposition "under." natural unstated "either" belongs after "induced": comports grammar standard usage setting prepositional phrases, "by"; second "under."6 60 duty then, clear: often stated rational readings other, choose language." McNally 483 350, 359-360, 2875, 2881, 97 292 (1987). Wiltberger, Wheat. 95, (1820) (Marshall, C.J.). expansive compels adoption narrower rule, occasions, serves vitally functions: "First, 'a fair warning world understand, line passed. To fair, clear.' seriousness penalties, usually represents moral condemnation community, legislatures activity." Bass, 404 336, 348, 92 515, 522-523, 488 (1971) (citations omitted; footnote omitted). Given lenity, 63 sensing weakness position, suggests interpretation: satisfied, 64 266. disagree. particular sure, wield coerce payments, threat. ignores reality context, exerts influence others Chairman General Motors meets clerk, whatever pressures exist surely emanate clerk. Miranda Arizona, 384 436, 1602, (1966), course, "inherently compelling pressures" context custodial interrogation. 467, 1624. Now, apparently, exude aura coercion places times. progress. 65 repugnant basic tenets reflected federalism. Over past served engine stunning expansion field traditionally policed laws—acts Ruff, Prosecution Local Corruption: Case Study Making Enforcement Policy, Geo.L.J. 1171 (1977). born single sentence Third opinion: "[The right' Act] repeats threat, duress." Kenny, 462 1205, 1229, cert. denied, 409 914, 93 233, 176 (1972). incorrect require; unfortunately, omits require. overlooking Kenny obliterated essentially creating new encompassing 66 "As effectively crimes, amend[ed] [brought] crime—local affecting interstate commerce. Hereafter, prosecutions, called policing begun." Noonan, Bribes 586 (1984). 67 After prosecutors came license ferreting wrongdoing level—" special code integrity officials.' Letter Raymond Dearie, Attorney Eastern York, Circuit, dated Jan. 21, 1983). short order, circuits followed Kenny's lead upheld, Hobbs-Act astonishing variety governor, Hall, 536 313, 320-321 (CA10), 429 919, 285 (1976), down policeman, Braasch, 505 139, 151 (CA7 1974), 421 910, 95 1562, 775 (1975). 68 precedents, enjoys broad legislate areas regulated States—power apparently extends direct regulation qualifications, tenure, Garcia San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 528, 547-554, 105 1005, 1015-1019, 83 1016 (1985). emphasized Term, federalism legislation sensitive "unmistakably statute." Gregory Ashcroft, 2395, 2401, 410 (internal quotation marks "This acknowledgement retain sovereign powers scheme, readily interfere." Gregory's teaching straightforward: "assume lightly" extraordinary regulate 2400, construe ambiguous provisions least intrusive manner reasonably 2404. 69 restatement law: 70 "Congress reluctant denounced States. Rewis [401 808 [91 1056, 493] (1970)—a Act's counterpart, Act], quick relation jurisdiction. areas, balance, assures legislature faced, bring decision." 349, 523 (footnote Similarly, (1987)—a closely analogous one—we mail 1341, protected citizenry's "intangible good government, hence instances corruption. Such disapproval, "leav[e] outer boundaries involv[e] standards government officials."7 Baxter, Discretion Political Corruption, Pepp.L.Rev. 321, 336-343 (1983). reader search vain consideration animated Gregory, Rewis, McNally. proscription including level. emphasize, decided engage play role evaluating regulation.8 mocks limitations (the textual office") 73 doubt motivated noble aims. level evil, and, policy perspective, perhaps suited enforcement. judges free devise meet occasion. Chief Marshall's timely ever: "It dangerous, indeed, carry reason mischief provisions, punish enumerated equal atrocity, kindred character, enumerated." 96, (1820). 74 evils redress, pale engender. "Courts resist th[e] temptation [to stretch statutes] interest long-range preservation even-handed government." Mazzei, 521 639, 656 (CA3 1975) banc ) (Gibbons, dissenting). All Americans, protection prosecutorial abuse. Morrison Olson, 654, 727-732, 2597, 2637-2640, 101 569 depressing erosion protection. 75 1982. tyrant—just five part-time earning annual salary approximately $16,000. Board's entirely local, quintessentially zoning malfeasance against Evans. 76 1985, "allegations area," agent, Clifford Cormany, bogus firm, "WDH Developers," pretended developer. meeting until 1987, half associates Every contacts agents. agents repeatedly securing decision, brought subject Agent eventually contributed reelection suggestion Nonetheless, arrested 77 jury's verdict crime. version today, say tomorrow confronted next perceived rascal? Until now, Department, reason, extremely cautious advancing "Until decides validity discretion insure might worthy prosecution. restraint amounts high levels involved." Dept. Justice, Attorneys' Manual 9-131.180 (1984) Having detected "[s]uch restraint" certainly expect future. 78 criminal-justice system runs premise enforce legislature. Where, here, breached, becomes impossible tell ends abuse, discrimination, begins. potential grave inherently public-corruption 79 plainly extortion.9 respect, am compelled follows: "[T]he connected Therefore, once shown shown. nature necessary.' 796-797 Garner, 837 1404, 1423 1987), 486 1035, 2022, 100 608 (1988); Spitler, 800 1267, 1274-1275 (CA4 1986); Jannotti, 673 578, 594-596 (CA3) banc), 457 1106, 2906, 1315 (1982); French, 628 1069, 1074 (CA8), 449 956, 364, 221 (1980); Williams, 621 123, 123-124 (CA5 1980), 450 1366, 346 (1981); Butler, 618 411, 417-420 (CA6), 447 927 (1976); Hathaway, 534 386, 393-394 (CA1), 819, 64, (1976). Or, Frankfurter advised, "if obviously transplanted legislation, brings old soil it." Frankfurter, Some Reflections Reading Statutes, Colum.L.Rev. 527, 537 (1947). *141 argue difference phrases. Hawkins' probably source 864 (hereinafter Lindgren). defined right; 316 (6th 1787). Lindgren 882-889. says "common 'due.' 279. statement, because, duties." 884-886. jury, entrapped, 20; predisposed 1946, ch. 537, 1(c), Stat. 420. Section 2(b) read "Sec. 2. Any connection trade moving about move commerce— Obtains June 18, 1934, 569, 2, 979-980. One models statute: "Extortion corporation employee thereof, Penal 1909, 850, amended, 1917, 518, 850 (McKinney Supp.1965). model Field Code, code: Proposed 613 (1865) (Field Code). points offenses, when, 1891, treats "extortion fear thing, Barondess, Hun. 571, 576, N.Y.S. 438 (App.Div.1891). later reversed 133 N.Y. 649, N.E. 240 (1892). identifies statutes, 869, 908. exemption 'the wages bona-fide employer employee' longer 644. House Report Teamsters full, response decision. 238, 79th 1st 1-10 Stirone 361 212, 215, 80 270, 272, 252 (1960): "That speaks manifesting violence. outlaws 'in degree.' Several already broadly enough 289, 536, (1969) ("In statutorily threats"); Bush Ariz. 195, 198, 168 P. 508, 509-510 (1917) (recognizing "has confine commission right"); Peck, Cal.App. 638, 643, 185 881, 882-883 (1919) (In extended person, California ."). commentator individual. 875. treatise-writers allude requirements "demand" officer. LaFave Scott, Handbook p. 704 (1972); Perkins Boyce, 448 Torcia, 695, 481, 698, 484 (14th 1981). would, completely inserted precedes then Holzer, 816 304, 311 (CA7), vacated grounds, 807, 53, 98 (1987), aff'd remand, 840 1343 1988), Paschall, 772 68, 72-74 1985); 124; 418. note proven distinct record establishing aid several exchanges tried clarify other. agent: "I groping I'm gonna work. Let m[e] you work, didn't me three [thousand dollars], this, I've promised help you. work that. You mean. six, I'll exactly wanna' sure you're part. So doesn't really matter. help, that's do." 36-37. ("What ahh, thousand. And, rest cash"), made, year, budget ("Either yep. Oh, understand"). 38. "[t]he [petitioner] conducive 40. defense Courts addressing occasionally mutually exclusive, Feld, 262 App.Div. 909, N.Y.S.2d 796, 797 (1941); intimidated making (extortion fear), voluntarily (bribery), exclusive Stern, Prosecutions Corruption Act: Unnecessary Extortion, Seton Hall 1, ("If [Hobbs] unnecessary involved"). Another overlapping 905, 908, located Hansen, 241 532, 150 542 (1925), aff'g, 211 861, 207 894 (1924). supra; Dioguardi, N.Y.2d 271-273, 203 870, 873, 879-881, N.E.2d 683, 685, 690-692 (1960), relied. Seventh 151, (1974), (1975), trend exclusive. Kahn, 472 278 Cir.1973), den., 411 982, 2270, 958.' pertaining count conceded oral event succeeded claim. Tr. Oral Arg. 3-4, 27. "simply up," acts. contrary, heritage distinguished payments services. (1877), "typical case." 281. Swift, 732 878, 880 1984), 920 (1985); 594-596; 1074; 123-124; 417-418; 320-321; 393-394; Price, 507 1349 1974); 151. Governor Oklahoma extorting Act; 1211 1972), defendants, scheme "was, been, highly placed leader Jersey Hudson both"; operation, ABSCAM, led various which, phases Congressmen. ways history. wants draw artificial look ancient (even former), 280-281, time, criticizes relying 'modern' extortion," 285-286, 4; uses 1961 claims supposed 1946." Begyn, N.J. 35, 46, 167 161, 166, sanitary inspector scavenger garbage removal order continuation contract, overpayment fees. broader paint it, periods view. "modern" 838 (1944); 269-270; Lincoln Record Society, Lincolnshire Assize Roll 1298, no. 322 (W. Thomson 1944) (Adam Lung (1298)) (was spare man having contribute collection quantity malt); Calendar Patent Rolls, III, A.D. 1354-1358, (1909) (Hugh de Elmeshale (1356)) (coroner "office great ransoms feigned indictments"); II, 1313-1317, 681-682 (1898) (Robert Somery (1317)) Somery, commissioner array Worcester men "in connivance escape remain home"); Middlesex Records (Old Series) (J. Jeaffreson 1886) (Smythe (1570)) (one Queen Elizabeth's providers wagons ale beer extortionately" wagon-owners exonerate obligations Queen). straightforward black-letter today. 275, 395 (1946) ("At rendered, authority, capacity added; footnotes omitted); 31A Am.Jur.2d 11, 600 (1989) place office—that Cyclopedia 401-402 (defining "a semblance, shadow, appearance authority; dissembling face pretext cover vicious act; evilly done, countenance unjustly wrongfully worst grounded corruption, shadow color; illegal security; exertion whereby obligation extorted given") (footnotes Those Most commentators maintain 398, 585-587 (1984); 1171, 1179-1180 While—as below—Professor contain element, adequately account crime's element. existed since Founding Republic, cannot ignored. Montague four ago, colore officii sui ("by "signifies badly Countenance Visage Duty, Extortion." Dive Maningham, Plowd. Eng.Rep. (C.B.1550) *542 (describing "more odious robbery; apparent, hath puts visure 661 peace litigant due); Mass. (1828) deputy jailkeeper Stotts, Black. 460, 460-461 (Ind.1840) constable greater services); Burton, Ind. 93, 93-95 (1851) county treasurer Williams Tenn. 160, 162 (1854) perform); Vasel, Mo. 416, 417-418 (1871) collected legally Cutter 125, (1873) (reversing mistaken right); Loftus 183, 184 (N.J.1890) excessive Saulsbury, 152 Pa. 554, 559-560, 610, 611-612 (1893) (reversing, evidentiary constables executing warrant); Cooper, 120 549, 552-554, 113 S.W. 1048, 1049 (1908) (reinstating indictment bail bond Dean Ga.App. 303, 305-306, 597, 598 (1911) collect cf. La Tour Stone, 139 Fla. 681, 693-694, 190 So. 704, 709 (1939) alleges "complete support" dissent, cites allegedly 269-271. counts: brief perusal treatises hornbooks, shows novel, argument. intermediate-court Pennsylvania, 470 (1903). opinions, written Rice, display misunderstanding Citing Practice, confuses act. identical, allied; whilst given, yet, bribery") But, expositors crux Pennsylvania unorthodox explicitly payment—precisely rejects. Francis, 322-323, 191 884, 889 (1963) Wilson Brown extraction things one's explaining "[a]lthough coincide times, crimes") third 225 (1930), upheld Minneapolis alderman's bribe, introduced bribes, gambling-houses. challenged admission challenge grounds. passing, said: [another alderman], dealing houses, [the statute]." all. parenthetical "dicta" "alderman's best, gross overstatement. Fourth, (1944), rationale. neatly extortion: "Our origin 1796, originally reiterative reward performing duties. seem penalize non-innocently permitted obligatory function matter importance days through fees fixed salary. precisely kind situation. [citing, supra ]. "After couple possibly indicating discretionary day announced Barts. thus overlaps behavior established." 46-47, 166-167 citations wishes adopt fine; attempt "common-law history." Finally, 385 (1876). Georgia improperly keeping collected. "took faith, went on, dicta, "should process hands, seducing doubtless, authority. manifest: confused (an office) colloquial (which conjures law). extent White's dicta cuts equally strongly Court's, like earlier footnote, officer—the quarrel suggestion, ante substance formulation formulation, underscores extortion's assertion moreover, espoused Department. ("[T]here [official] [T]he grammatical structure language") Prior McNally, issue. cure ambiguity language; reiterated narrowly. 2881-2882. "If desires go further," "it speak has." 360, 2882. strenuously subsequent silence: "Perhaps distressing aspect casual—almost summary—rejection wisdom thoughtfully answered present. [can] rejection longstanding, Commissioner Internal Revenue Fink, 89, 101, 2729, 2736, (STEVENS, dissenting); Citicorp Industrial Credit, Inc. Brock, 27, 40, 2694, 2702, (1987) Runyon McCrary, 427 189, 2586, 2603-2605, 415 (1976) concurring)." 376-377, 2890-2891 respectful consideration. Ultimately, attention focus Error cured repetition, discharge counting side split. Here, minority Ninth (both en reasoned circuits, "without elaboration conclusions." Cerilli, 603 415, 427, 1979) (ALDISERT, notion—as occasions—that silence, implicitly ratifies decisions. Patterson McLean Credit Union, 491 164, 175, 2363, 2371-2372, assurance approval" statute) unfortunate become land. 268-269 ("Our view" ratified silence). anything, chose sweeping face, task coverage. assumed manifest. "[I]n looking excluded. [statute] included. [I]t anyone covers judges." primary filing income-tax challenges improper instructions. appeals. current Delta Air Lines, August, 346, 362, 1146, 1155, 287 Adickes S.H. Kress Co., 398 144, 147, 90 1598, 142 (1970).

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