Document: 519 U.S. 172117 S.Ct. 644136 L.Ed.2d 574 Johnny Lynn OLD CHIEF, Petitioner,v.UNITED STATES. No. 95-6556. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Oct. 16, 1996. Decided Jan. 7, 1997. Syllabus * After a fracas involving at least one gunshot, petitioner, Old Chief, was charged with, inter alia, violating 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(1), which prohibits possession firearm by anyone with prior felony conviction. He offered to stipulate 922(g)(1)'s prior-conviction element, arguing that his offer rendered evidence name and nature offense-assault causing serious bodily injury-inadmissible because its ''probative value [was] substantially outweighed danger unfair prejudice . ,'' Fed. Rule Evid. 403. The Government refused join stipulation, however, insisting on right present own conviction, District agreed. At trial, introduced judgment record for jury convicted Chief. In affirming Appeals found entitled introduce probative prove offense regardless stipulation offer. Held: A district court abuses discretion under 403 if it spurns defendant's concede admits full over objection, when or raises risk verdict tainted improper considerations, purpose is solely element Pp. ___-___. (a) Contrary Chief's position, as contained in official relevant element. That made 922(g)(1) status ''more probable than [would have been] without evidence,'' 401; availability alternative proofs, such admission, did not affect evidentiary relevance, see Advisory Committee's Notes 401, 28 U.S.C.App., p. 859. (b) As criminal defendant, 403's term ''unfair prejudice'' speaks capacity some concededly lure factfinder into declaring guilt an basis rather proof specific charged. Such grounds certainly include generalizing from past bad act defendant propensity perpetrator current crime. Thus, requires relative be balanced against prejudicial misuse. judge should balance these factors only item question but also any actually available substitutes. If were same greater lower prejudice, sound judicial would discount first exclude discounted unfairly risk. (c) dealing problem raised there can no generally carries whenever arresting enough juror sequence bad-character reasoning. Chief sensibly worried about effect offense. His proffered admission presented alternative, relevant, admissible, seemingly conclusive, while may been technically addressed detail definition covered admission. (d) supplied equivalent what Government's carried. accepted rule prosecution case free option away has virtually application point issue legal status. Here, most needed know conviction admitted fell within class crimes Congress thought bar convict possessing gun. More obviously, went entirely outside natural thinking doing commit Since cognizable difference between significance record's legitimately component, since functions competing distinguishable inherent wholly absent other, reasonable conclusion value. abuse admit available. 56 F.3d 75 (C.A.9 1995), reversed remanded. SOUTER, J., delivered opinion Court, STEVENS, KENNEDY, GINSBURG, BREYER, JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, filed dissenting opinion, REHNQUIST, C.J., SCALIA THOMAS, Daniel Donovan, petitioner. Michael A. Estrada, Los Angeles, CA, respondent. Justice SOUTER Court. 1 Subject certain limitations, government introducing similar identifying previous Fearing learns earlier crime, defendants sometimes seek avoid informative disclosure offering fact here whether judgment, conviction.1 We hold does. 2 1993, arrested after gunshot. ensuing federal charges included assault dangerous weapon using relation crime violence violation 922(g)(1). This statute makes unlawful ''who of, punishable imprisonment exceeding year'' ''possess affecting commerce, '' ''[A] defined ''any Federal State offenses pertaining antitrust violations, trade practices, restraints trade, other relating regulation business practices'' classified laws misdemeanor two years less.'' 921(a)(20). 3 indictment injury. Before he moved order requiring ''to refrain mentioning-by reading Indictment, during selection, opening statement, closing argument-and soliciting testimony witness regarding convictions Defendant, except state Defendant (1) year.'' App. 6. said revealing tax jury's burden beyond doubt assault, possession, firearm, ''solve stipulating, agreeing requesting instruct year[ ].'' 7. argued inadmissible Rules Evidence, being outweigh proposed this instruction: 4 ''The phrase 'crime year' means felony. does less concerning practices. 5 ''[I] hereby you JOHNNY LYNN CHIEF imprisonmen t 11.2 6 Assistant Attorney way, agreed, ruling orally that, ''If doesn't want stipulate, to.'' 15-16. renewed commitment document disclosed December 18, 1988, ''did knowingly unlawfully Rory Dean Fenner, resulting injury,'' sentenced five years' imprisonment. 18-19. guilty all counts, appealed. 7 Ninth Circuit brevity: 8 ''Regardless through introduction evidence. See v. Breitkreutz, 688, 690 (9th Cir.1993) (citing Gilman, 684 F.2d 616, 622 Cir.1982)). Under law, proof, and, thus, place FRE balancing process. 691-92. 9 10 ''Thus, we allowing charge.'' 94-30277, 1995 WL 325745, *1 (C.A.9, May 31, 1995) (unpublished), 50-51. 11 granted petition writ certiorari Courts divided sharply their treatment defendants' efforts names natures cases like this. Compare, e.g., Burkhart, 545 14, 15 (C.A.6 1976); Smith, 520 544, 548 (C.A.8 1975), cert. denied, 429 925, 97 328, 50 294 (1976); 690-692 1993) (each recognizing part refuse proceed offense) Tavares, 21 1, 3-5 (C.A.1 1994) (en banc); Poore, 594 39, 40-43 (C.A.4 1979); Wacker, 72 1453, 1472-1473 (C.A.10 1995); Jones, 67 320, 322-325 (C.A.D.C.1995) holding triggers obligation eliminate underlying another). now reverse Circuit. II 12 threshold matter, erroneous argument irrelevant reason 402 Evidence.3 401 defines having tendency make existence consequence determination action more evidence.'' 401. To sure, injury than, say, theft itself ultimate fact, had specifically required injurious assault. But demonstration step route served particular sub-class offenders whom firearms outlawed documentary named thus making 13 Nor relevance affected proofs went, ''punishable meaning statute. 1972 Committee directly: 14 directed need dispute. While situations will arise call exclusion conceded opponent, considerations waste time undue (see 403), general requirement admissible matters dispute.'' If, then, presence related it, must rest ground ''irrelevant,'' character prejudicial, cumulative like, notwithstanding.4 B 16 principal scope trial judge's 403, authorizes confusion issues, misleading jury, delay, time, needless presentation relies prejudice.5 17 prejudice,'' different J. Weinstein, M. Berger, & McLaughlin, Weinstein's %57 403[03] (1996) (discussing 403). So, explain, 'Unfair prejudice' context suggest decision basis, commonly, though necessarily, emotional one.'' 860. points here: taking raising odds later (or, worse, calling preventive even happen innocent momentarily). then-Judge Breyer put ''Although 'propensity evidence' those charged-or uncertain guilt, anyway person deserves punishment-creates outweighs ordinary relevance.'' Moccia, 681 61, 63 1982). Jackson described how law handled risk: 19 ''Courts follow common-law tradition almost unanimously come disallow resort kind evil establish probability guilt. Not invests presumption good character, Greer States, 245 559, 38 209, 62 L.Ed. 469, simply closes whole matter disposition reputation prosecution's case-in-chief. show trouble acts, ill among neighbors, facts might logically persuasive inquiry rejected irrelevant; contrary, weigh too much so overpersuade them prejudge deny him fair opportunity defend charge. overriding policy excluding evidence, despite value, pract ical experience disallowance tends prevent surprise prejudice.'' Michelson 335 475-476, 69 213, 218-219, 93 168 (1948) (footnotes omitted). 20 Evidence 404(b) reflects common addressing reasoning ''Evidence crimes, wrongs, acts conformity therewith.'' 404(b). There is, accordingly, ''improper basis'' subject analysis misuse Cf. Strong, McCormick 780 (4th ed.1992) (hereinafter McCormick) (Rule occur, example, ''evidence prior, unrelated lead think already record, quite otherwise case''). analytical method used balancing, basic possibilities themselves. An viewed island, estimates sole reference deciding ought excluded. Or admissibility seen inviting further comparisons take account understands made.6 second approach start out ready go further. On decide prejudice. did, evaluate degrees substitutes well. explain on, calculations appreciation party's richness narrative integrity presenting case, mere pieces not, course, necessarily mean in. It applying could reasonably apply faced risky going point. Even approach, below, objection cannot prevail choice showing circumstances surrounding infra, __-__.7 22 understanding open very telling objection. leave party structure whatever way produce maximum consistent relevance. choose carrying greatest threat influence, equally worst fear sustaining occurred, fall back substitute strange rule. odd recognize confer degree autonomy temptation, are odd. 23 Rather, companions commentaries Congress, clear counts value'' distinct ''relevance,'' calculated comparing alternatives. explicitly say concession pertinent court's conceded. concession, according Notes, ''call [the] opponent mentioned, rulings ''such 403) Ibid. then up stating considers ''whether ''availability appropriate factor.'' gets reprise 404(b), given dual legitimate illegitimate character: ''No mechanical solution offered. view 403.'' 404, 861. Thus notes confers providing ''may'' excluded, discretionary informed assessing item's twin tendencies, placing result assessment alongside assessments 782, n. 41 (suggesting signifies ''marginal case); C. Wright K. Graham, Practice Procedure 5250, pp. 546-547 (1978) (''The worth bit obviously scarcity abundance point''). 24 defendant. vary reasons given, substantial Where gun pending especially obvio us, significant respect alone, added weight charge him.8 25 Court's consideration motion Government. Although formal was, strictly, enter agreement acceptance proposal amounted satisfied, 801(d)(2)(A). 26 would, merely conclusive statutory language couched shows congressional concern necessary broad category qualifying felonies, clearly meant qualify, stipulating ''that proven essential elements offense.'' consequence, although Logic, seems side 27 considered before supply carried invokes familiar, standard choice, or, exactly, force chooses it. authority usually cited Parr 255 86 (CA5), 358 824, 79 40, 64 (1958), Fifth explained ''reason permit 'to picture events relied upon. naked rob weight.' F.2d, 88 (quoting Dunning Maine Central R. Co., 91 Me. 87, 39 352, 356 (1897)). unquestionably true matter. ''fair weight'' conventional individual thoughts amounting tangible things satisfies offense, tells colorful story descriptive richness. Unlike abstract premise, whose depends preci sely course reasoning, piece address number separate elements, striking hard just once; shooting establishes causation tell triggerman's motive intent. linear scheme together gains momentum, power support conclusions sustain willingness jurors draw inferences, they be, reach honest verdict. concrete often satisfy obligations places them. Jury duty unsought resisted, difficult suddenly face findings send another human prison, conscientiously acquittal. When juror's seem hard, done accomplish set statements ever could, significance, implicate law's moral underpinnings sit judgment. fairly jurors, guiltiness inference convince morally discrete fault. Gilliam, 994 97, 100-102 (CA2), 510 927, 114 335, 126 280 (1993). 29 something interest resisting replace admissions stipulations, allegations give life claims, lies particularity jurors' expectations proper be. Some demands bring courthouse, assuming, prosecutor who fails one, failure, concerned about. [jurors'] triers penalize disappoints drawing negative party.'' Saltzburg, Special Aspect Relevance: Countering Negative Inferences Associated Absence 66 Calif. L.Rev. 1011, 1019 omitted).9 Expectations minds itself. use witnesses describe train naturally raise prospect learning every ingredient way. presents occurrence series differently, announcing saying, ''never mind what's behind door,'' well wonder kept knowing. responsible cloaking apprehension, prudently demur defense request interrupt flow usual 30 sum, rests sense. syllogism story, proposition courtroom match robust People hear interrupted gaps abstraction puzzled missing chapters, asked momentous story's truth feel upon responsibility knowing heard. convincing tale told economy, economy becomes break assurance link really never best. 31 recognition persuasion needs depth continuous has, status, dependent independently behavior him. eventful proposition, propositions slightly varying abstraction, either saying occurred statement admitting thing naming substituting normally arises proving deprive multiple utility; if, indeed, justification receiving (i.e., ''motive, opportunity, intent, preparation, plan, knowledge, identity, absence mistake accident,'' 404(b)), guarantees nourishment sense vindicate public interest. details attention disclosed. plain distinctions generic felonies do count purpose; alone ''A falls virtue [qualifying] ranging short lobsters, 3372, aggravated murder.'' F.3d, 4. gun, readily underscored instructions. Finally, obvious remote goes ou tside Proving exactly why imposed leaves gap subsequent criminality, neither displaces chapter nor comes across officious substitution, confuse offend provoke reproach. 32 Given peculiarities felony-convict component prefer For purposes weighing other. likely ground, available.10 What issue, prosecutor's survive seeks substitution creating coherent actions perpetrating tried. 33 reversed, remanded proceedings opinion.11 34 ordered. 35 THE JUSTICE, SCALIA, THOMAS join, dissenting. 36 today announces misapplies upsets, explanation, longstanding precedent prosecutions. I agree reveals brought ''unfairly'' prejudices newly minted accept thereby precluding therefore dissent. 37 provides m ay things, ''its Certainly, hurt excludable ''an basis.'' 860; see, Munoz, 1229, 1233 damage exclusion; 'one ''unfair'' prejudice-not alone' '') (citations omitted), denied sub nom. Martinez 513 ----, 115 1164, 130 1120 (1995); Dollar Long Mfg., N. C., Inc., 561 613, 618 (C.A.5 1977) ('' '[U]nfair equated adverse opposing party. Virtually isn't material. 'unfair' ''), 435 996, 98 1648, 85 (1978). tendered case-the reflecting petitioner's sentence injury, 1153 113(f) (1988 ed.)-directly proved petitioner committed Perhaps damaged discovered previously heard direct envisioned enacted prohibit ''a Section ''felons,'' convictions. excludes coverage misdemeanors less. Within crime'' metaphysical concept. short, connotes felon, engaged conduct. fundamentally, our system justice, felony.'' specified always violated prohibition. words Title §§1153 113(f).'' 18. variety satisfied detract inseparable 40 principle illustrated offense-possession ''firearm.'' submitted possessed 9mm semiautomatic pistol. petitione r's weapons requirements did. vein, consider murder case. Surely submit establishing victim's though, strictly speaking, ''need'' name, victim particularly loved figure. logic govern able prove, came coverage. explains precisely constitutes directly conclude find currently With nod says ''[e]vidence therewith,'' writes: 42 ''There 'improper basis' Ante, __. 43 few pages later, leaps ''no defendant.'' 44 Yes, end there. expressly contemplates purposes, motive, accident.'' list plainly exhaustive, where, here, simple: ''show tenders does, misreads defies 45 Any incremental harm properly mitigated limiting 105 purpose, another, ''the court, request, shall restrict accordingly.'' Indeed, instructed 'consider trial.' Brief 32. presumed followed cautionary instruction, Shannon 512 573, 2419, 129 459 (1994), instruction offset arisen 46 holds vi olating concedes ''tainted considerations.'' ante, Left unexplained what, cause improperly. (which nowhere sets out) stated, part: 47 ''And plea Count above-entitled cause, to-wit: 18th day Browning, Montana, exterior boundaries Blackfeet Indian Reservation, country, person, 48 60 months' imprisonment, supervised release. 49 Why, precisely, considerations''? Is learn assaulted someone caused injury? means, so, sort be? object gave specifics date, location, name? perhaps finds risks considerations'' joined charging violence, 924(c), committing weapon, 113(c) ed.)? nebulous prosecution, questions. troubling still retreat fundamental sees fit. general, because, story.'' ''virtually him.'' concludes real ''evidentiary significance'' follows 51 terms, together. ''missing chapter'' conceding illegal, lawful ownership Staples 511 600, 610-612, 1793, 1800-1802, 128 608 (1994). 'Doubt criminality [the ] conduct influence element.' Barker, 957, 960 (1993) Collamore, 868 24, 1989)), modified, 365 1994). 52 Second, misapprehends ''it seriously suggested [a defendant] compel try stipulation.'' Singer 380 35, 783, 790, 630 (1965). story'' accept. ----. important oblige Constitution doubt. Gaudin, 515 2310, 132 444 (1995) Sullivan Louisiana, 508 275, 277, 113 2078, 2080, 124 182 (1993)); County Ulster Cty. Allen, 442 140, 156, 99 2213, 2224, 777 (1979) (''[I]n cases, test device's constitutional validity remains constant: device undermine factfinder's based adduced State, doubt''). simple guilty, Crim. Proc. 11, puts Mathews 485 58, 64-65, 108 883, 887, 54 (1988). Further, tactical contest remove Estelle McGuire, 502 62, 69, 112 475, 480-81, 116 385 (1991). element; others; nothing all. Whatever each 53 principles consideration. stipulations much: ''When attorneys both sides regard proved. You facts.'' E. Devitt, Blackmar, Wolff, O'Malley, Instructions 12.03, 333 ed.1992). Obviously, here. agreement, reached Does applies attempts offense? runs counter Constitution: doubt, re Winship, 397 358, 361, 90 1068, 1070-71, 368 (1970), strategic ''agree'' relieve burden, Estelle, supra, 69-70, 480-81. Because bears accorded leeway choosing Also overlooked ''conceding'' trying f rom altogether effectively entering partial endorsed. Criminal 23(a) waive unless consents, upheld provision constitutional. Singer, 37, 791. recognizes adversary determining Government, litigant, seeing believes warranted tried tribunal regards result.'' U.S., 36, 790-91. Unless agrees waiver, afoul Singer. III 55 manufactures new Like chose Moreover, names; indeterminate, unspecified ''crime.'' read obviate principle, grounded precedent, forced respectfully syllabus prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Detroit Timber Lumber 200 321, 337, 282, 287, 499. review applicable discretion. Abel, 469 45, 54-55, 465, 470-71, 83 450 (1984). Proposals instructing perilous. discuss theory, revision dispel ambiguity. year ''crime year,'' instead determined predicate statute's categorical exceptions, ''state less'' ''business'' artless proposed, rule, discussed permits defective law. charged, ''You believability witness. trial.'' 31. invited confusion. First, applied literally acquittal wrong reason: for, offenses, felon felon. remainder referred prior-offense impeachment, 609, testify trial; impeachment consequently suggestion fault error apparently sought withdrew jury. ''All provided Act rules, rules prescribed pursuant authority. admissible.'' 402. Viewing n o dwell entire (here, conviction) sub-units received). impediment determination, sections others Petitioner suggests refusal adequate narrow prosecutorial misconduct. pursuit convictions, victory foul, ethical situation depend construction anticipate lapses once settled.PCW1 reviewing perspective indulge hindsight. See, O'Shea, 724 1514, 1517 (C.A.11 1984), where appellate approved pretrial impose corresponding stage grounds. discussion wording limited decision, discretion, rely far removed potential minimal. unfairly. extremely old relatively minor nevertheless qualifies strike many foolish convicting upstanding member community possession. formally bear nullification, drive decision. Green, Whole Truth?'': How Make Lawyers Deceitful, Loyola (LA) 699, 703 (1992) (''[E]videntiary predicated large measure distrust juries [can] unintended, ironic, encouraging lawyers. fostering perception lawyers deliberately withholding evidence'' (footnote omitted)). y, party, recognized Amendment, supposes venerable history privilege self-incrimination, recall accused avow innocence plea. Lakeside Oregon, 333, 340, 10, 1091, 1095, 319 assumption contrary inferences undergirds demand forbidding inference. yet besides obligate redacted frequently mentioned. will, require (just read). presumably revealed year's shown count, Hence, consent, remaining might, propose admit, indeed received remanding, imply possibility harmless error, passed below.

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