Document: 518 U.S. 727116 S.Ct. 2374135 L.Ed.2d 888 DENVER AREA EDUCATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS CONSORTIUM, INC., et al.v.FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION al.Certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for District Columbia Circuit. No. 95-124. Supreme Argued February 21, 1996 Decided June 28, 1996* Syllabus These cases involve three sections Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act 1992 (Act), as implemented by Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations. Both Section(s) 10(a) Act-which applies "leased access channels" reserved under federal law commercial lease parties unaffiliated with cable television system operator-and 10(c)-which regulates "public required local governments public, educational, governmental programming-essentially permit operator allow or prohibit "programming" that it "reasonably believes . depicts sexual activities organs in a patently offensive manner." Under 10(b), which only leased channels, operators are segregate "patently offensive" programming on single channel, block channel from viewer access, unblock (or later reblock it) within 30 days subscriber's written request. Between 1984, when Congress authorized municipalities require create public Act's passage, prohibited exercising any editorial control over content programs broadcast either type channel. Petitioners sought judicial review 10(a), (as implemented) were consistent First Amendment. Held: The judgment is affirmed part reversed part. 56 F. 3d 105, Justice Breyer delivered opinion respect Part III, concluding 10(b) violates That section's ``segregate block'' requirements have obvious speech-restrictive effects viewers, who cannot watch segregated without considerable advance planning receive just an occasional few such programs, may judge program's value through company keeps refrain subscribing out fear will disclose its subscriber list. Moreover, not appropriately tailored achieve basic, legitimate objective protecting children exposure materials. Less restrictive means utilized elsewhere protect material channels indicate overly while benefits speculative. include some provisions Telecommunications 1996, utilizes blocking request, ``V-chips,'' other significantly less means, "lockbox" requirement has been place since 1984. Pp. 23-30. Breyer, joined Stevens, O'Connor, Souter, concluded Parts I II 6-23. 1 (a) Close scrutiny demonstrates properly addresses serious problem imposing, light relevant competing interests, unnecessarily great restriction speech. First, section comes accompanied extremely important child-protection justification this often found compelling. See, e.g., Sable Cal., Inc. v. FCC, 492 U. S. 115, 126. Second, arises very particular context-congressional permission regulate that, but previous Congress, would had no path free operator's control. Amendment interests involved therefore complex, balance between those served themselves (increasing availability avenues expression programmers otherwise them), see H. R. Rep. 98-934, pp. 31-36 (1984), disadvantage (those whom assigned devoted access). See Turner Broadcasting System, 512 ___, ___. Third, analogous "indecent" radio broadcasts at issue FCC Pacifica Foundation, 438 726, struck here commensurate approved case. Fourth, 10(a)'s permissive nature likely restricts speech than, more ban Pacifica. importance interest stake here-protecting depictions sex; accommodation maintaining editing contents their channels; similarity solution Pacifica; flexibility inherent approach permits private make decisions, persuasively establishes sufficiently response extraordinarily involving complex interests. Sable, supra, 128, Turner, distinguished. 6-18. 2 (b) Petitioners' reliance Court's forum" unavailing. It unnecessary unwise decide whether how apply forum doctrine channels. clear should be imported wholesale into common carriage regulation new changing area. although limited forums permissible, yet determined decision limit necessarily subject highest level scrutiny, these do so now. Finally, most important, features acceptable constraint also limitation claimed forum. 18-20. 3 (c) Section definition impermissibly vague. Because language used similar adopted Miller California, 413 15, 24, ``guidelin[e]'' state obscenity laws, appear narrow operators' program-screening authority materials same kind sexually explicit obscene Miller, might "serious literary, artistic, political scientific value" nonprurient purposes, ibid. broad further indicated construction phrase offensive," Pacifica, 748, 750, category late night audience basically adult, fact screen pursuant "written published policy." definition's "reasonabl[e] belie[f]" qualifier seems designed provide legal excuse honest mistake, constrains discretion much protects it. 20-23. 4 Stevens IV 10(c) different four reasons. historically exercised 10(c)'s programmers' capacity speak does effect countervailing removal normally supervisory systems composed both elements, necessary children. existence encourages secures community considers valuable strongly suggests "cable veto" erroneously exclude borderline broadcast, than statute's basic Government shown there significant enough children, justifies 31-37. 5 Kennedy, Ginsburg, concurred regulated franchise authorities, ``designated forums,'' i.e., property government opened expressive activity public. International Soc. Krishna Consciousness, Lee, 505 672, 678. vests power law, defined reference speech, override agreement undercut creates. Where thus excludes basis content, Constitution requires given exacting scrutiny. survive strict Although compelling indecent see, Communications, S., 126, narrowly serve interest, since, among things, record establishing least accomplish purpose. 128-130. Government's argument applying here, cablecasts lower standard applied persuasive, even infringements liberties operators, __, __. There cause rights viewers stake. 2-5, 12-16, 24-31. 6 Thomas, Chief Scalia, agreed constitutionally permissible. generally entitled protection print media. Miami Herald Publishing Co. Tornillo, 418 241, Pacific Gas & Elec. Public Util. Comm'n 475 1, applicable, __ (O'Connor, J., concurring dissenting part), general primacy transmit watch. None petitioners operators; they all representative organizations. scheme expands speaking opportunities underlying constitutional right medium, challenge scheme, it, abridgment "freedom speech." Sections absent regulation. 1-15. 7 announced JJ., joined, I, II, V, O'Connor VI, joined. filed opinions. part, Rehnquist, C. 8 NOTICE: This formal revision before publication preliminary Reports. Readers requested notify Reporter Decisions, States, Washington, D.C. 20543, typographical errors, order corrections made goes press. 9 Souter join, join. 10 present challenges statutory seek broadcasting sex-related television. (1992 Act), 106 Stat. 1486, 10(c), 47 532(h), 532(j), note following 531. what known "public, channels." Two essentially "operator reasonably describes excretory Act, 10(a); 1992: Indecent Programming Other Types Materials CableAccess Channels, Report Order, Rcd 998 (1993) (First Order); In re Implementation 1992, Access Second 2638 (Second Order). remaining provision certain programming, unless requests writing. 10(b); CFR 76.701(g) (1995). 11 We conclude first provision-that channels-is second provision, third applicable violate Amendment, material. I. 12 typically own physical network convey several dozen subscribers' houses. Program sources vary Most carry produced independent firms, including "many national regional networks emerged recent years," ___ (1994) (slip op., 3), well itself affiliate) provide. simply retransmit signals over-the-air stations. Id., 3-4). Certain special issue, called channels," provided gives rights. 13 A channel" reserve parties. About 15 percent system's fall category. 532(b). "[P]ublic, (which we shall call access" channels) years, set aside purposes consideration return install cables city streets use rights-of-way. 531; p. (1984) (authorizing authorities creation channels). 1984 pre-1984 program 531(e) (public access), 532(c)(2) (leased 14 effort conveyed enacted us. two relate says: "This subsection enforce prospectively policy prohibiting manner measured contemporary standards." 10(a)(2), 1486. 16 if permit, rather prohibit, broadcast. tells (FCC Commission) promulgate regulations "programmers inform program[ming] regulations"; place" "on channel"; writing." 10(b)(1). issued defining terms virtually identical already forth, namely descriptions "sexual manner" viewing community. Para(s) 33-38, Rcd, 1003-1004. (say, scrambling). They blocked "within days" request re-block so. 17 instructs 18 "enable use, system, facility contains material, conduct, soliciting promoting unlawful conduct." 19 carrying instruction, promulgated "sexually explicit" almost 76.702 (1995) (incorporating 76.701(g)). 20 upshot is, said beginning, us (the statute regulations) now forbid transmission minimum, 21 Petitioners, claiming provisions, regulations, Commission's Order panel Circuit violated Alliance Community Media 812 (1993). entire Appeals, however, heard case en banc reached opposite conclusion. held 105 Four eleven appeals court judges dissented. others thought one, two, granted certiorari determinations. II. 22 turn initially "indecent") transmitted 10(a). did because prohibits "Congress" (and, Fourteenth "State"), individuals, "abridging freedom "state action," 3d, 113, could meant literally, for, course, attack "abridg[ing] speech") congressional statute-which, definition, "Congress." More likely, viewed "permissive" restricting but, rather, reaffirming pick choose entity, say, broadcaster, absence intervention federal, local, entity. 23 recognize action, ordinarily throw doubt decisions citizens restrict, speech-and where take framework regulatory regime broadcasting. Were so, courts face difficult, potentially restrictive, practical task deciding which, number providing (for example, networks, station owners, editors, producers), "speaker" whose abridged, speech-restricting "censor." Furthermore, held, function aspect "speech," 11-12), court's party, owner, "censor," interfere "censor's" editor. Thus, surprisingly, dealt efforts maintain, broadcaster's programming. Democratic National Committee, 412 94 (1973) (striking restrictions ability refuse advertising); Red Lion 395 367 (1969) (upholding authority); League Women Voters 468 364 restrictions); cf. Consolidated Edison N. Y. Serv. Y., 447 530 (1980) utility using billing envelopes medium); Central Hudson Corp. 557 advertising). 24 Nonetheless, petitioners, conceding point circumstances view, analogy broadcasters inapposite warranting result. As matter, considerably "censor" broadcasters, individual communities one linking providers each community's many subscribers. 8) (only communities; nationally 60% homes subscribe cable, then becomes primary sole source video overwhelming majority homes). concern about exercise originally led government-local federal-to insist 30-31. To supervise private-censorship risk anticensorship avoid. At time, add, characteristics. unusually government, depend upon facilities (streets, rights-of-way) string services. And relatively weak act like newspapers carriers, telephone companies. 25 circumstances, conclude, Congress' actuality, "abridge" treat congressionally imposed, content-based, unredeemed "compelling interest." Simon Schuster, Members State Crime Victims Bd., 502 118 (1991); 126 (1989). analogize forbidden content-based taking forums" streets, parks, buildings dedicated open communication. Cornelius NAACP Legal Defense Ed. Fund, Inc., 473 788, 802 (1985); Perry Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 45 (1983); (identifying electronic equivalent "speaker's soap box"). And, finally, say standard) unconstitutionally Interstate Circuit, Dallas, 390 676 (1968) (rejecting censorship ordinance vague, though was intended children). 26 Like Justices Kennedy Thomas transferring literally categorical standards developed contexts. For carrier, cablecast protected applies, fails test, and, therefore, invalid. Post, 17-20, 27-30. simple owns bookstore owner displays shelves, predominant interest. 6-7, 12-13. approaches suffer flaws: import contexts environment, lack respond problems sacrificing exchange ideas protect. 27 history jurisprudence, continual development, Constitution's command "Congress abridging press," requiring adaptations prior principles precedents. essence except extraordinary need degree care required. Schenck 249 47, 51-52 (1919); Abrams 250 616, 627-628 (1919) (Holmes, dissenting); West Viginia Bd. Barnette, 319 624, 639 (1943); Texas Johnson, 491 397, 418-420 our left powerless address problems. Chaplinsky New Hampshire, 315 568 (1942); Young American Mini Theaters, 427 50 (1976); 726 (1978). 28 Over restated refined principles, adopting them particularly field application. York Times Sullivan, 376 254 (1964) (allowing criticism officials civil libel plaintiff shows actual malice); Gertz Robert Welch, 323 (1974) greater harming individuals officials, still negligence standard); (employing highly flexible scarcity unique broadcast); Arkansas Writers' Project, Ragland, 481 221, 231-232 (1987) (requiring interest" "narrowly drawn" context differential taxation media); 131 (applying interest," "least means," tailored" communications); 16) (using "heightened scrutiny" content-neutral broadcasts); Corp., 566 (restriction "more extensive necessary" "substantial" interest). 29 tradition teaches embodies overarching commitment close thereby enforcing constraints, imposing formulae rigid become straightjacket disables responding Court, contexts, consistently directly problems, resolve declare applications here. But definitive choice analogies (broadcast, bookstore) allows standard, good future media purposes. reject specific formulations standard-they cover vast Rather, aware changes technology, industrial structure, related telecommunications, 110 56; 104-23 (1995); 104-204 (1995), believe definitively words Broadcasting, 102 ("The rendered difficult industry dynamic technological change; solutions adequate decade ago now, today outmoded years hence"); 748 ("We long recognized medium presents problems.") think premature answer questions raise find analogy, deciding, extent can designated forum, compare post, 14-16 (Kennedy, 15-19 (Thomas, judgment); 12-13 (Kennedy J.); viewpoint neutral selective exclusion pre-existing 20-25 must treated 18-19 owners communications always subordinate users 6-7 J.). Rather issues, narrowly, closely scrutinizing assure problem, supra; lead problem. 31 justification, compelling-the 126; Ginsberg York, 629, 639-640 (1968); Ferber, 458 747, 756-757 (1982). 32 11-12). 33 addressed remarkably there. considered materials, us, 34 "`language describes, organs, times day reasonable audience.'" 732 (quoting 2d 94, 98 (1975)). 35 permissible primarily "broadcasting uniquely accessible children" listeners issue-an afternoon 749-750. addition, wrote, "the established pervasive presence lives Americans," id., "[p]atently offensive, confronts citizen, privacy home," sufficient warning recipient avert his her eyes ears, ibid.; "[a]dults feel purchase tapes records go theaters nightclubs" hear performances. n. 28. 36 All factors broadcasting, "accessible Heeter, Greenberg, Baldwin, Paugh, Srigley, Atkin, Parental Influences Viewing Style, Cableviewing 140 (C. Heeter B. Greenberg eds. 1988) (children spend time watching view parents, household subscribes receives air). systems, "have Americans." 748. Jost, Future Television, CQ Researcher 1131, 1146 (Dec. 23, 1994) (63% cable); D'Alessio, Sipes, Noncable Style Comparisons, Cableviewing, 207 (cable households day, average, television, service). "Patently stations "confron[t] citizen" "privacy little warning. 217-218 (while subscribers tend guides difference groups amount planned, fact, tended sample settling program, making more, less, susceptible random unwanted materials). nothing stop "adults need" finding elsewhere, tape theaters. home absolute. Over-the-air direct satellites alternative ways reach home, near future. 56, 201 (advanced services), 205 (direct satellite), 302 (video companies), 304 (availability navigation devices enhance multichannel programming); L. Toward (1994). 37 removes speakers-namely, operators. 13. appear, certainty accompanies ban. glance (nonaccess) distinction theoretical, real. App. 393 (regular Playboy "Real Sex" programming). provision's brings broadcasts, rearrange times, better fit desires adult audiences lessening risks harm 31, 1003 (interpreting respects, taken renders measure appropriate achieving purpose 38 Of reschedule Sometimes, fear, instead. Pacifica's practice, FCC's daytime total ban, depending (programmers, networks) responded show nighttime comparative demand host similarly determine outcomes upshot, cases, uncertainty consequences-of other. makes respect, respects discussed, restrictive. 39 persuades coupled viewpoint-neutral application, way concerned accommodating restoring removed 40 Our disagreement narrow. him, scrutinize greatest care. purports issues. Kennedy's focus analysis forces him disregard 27-28. We, hand, involves (here, partial removal), unlike explicitly "narrow tailoring," play role. Cf. __-__ While agree everything turns 12-13, ignore altogether. application tailoring" test depends ("the cases"), distilled similarities cases. seeking looked themselves. said, provides closest lends support 41 19, 25, argue result cases: 115 (1989), unconstitutional banned messages, stated full protection. 12-16). governmentally imposed communications, service, expose intrusive, allowed 128. furthermore, relied inapplicability spectrum cable. structural "must carry" rules), Those parents intrusive is. differ little, all. 14-15. exclusions 18-21, categories imprecise contextual assessment, tradition, assessing carefully 42 rely 45, "places" "has activity," "by assembly debate." 45. 801 (assuming "private use"). add "enforce exclusion" "necessary drawn." Perry, unjustifiably created form adds satisfy review. 18-21. 43 reasons, unnecessary, indeed, unwise, carriers 18-21 J.), area discussed above, wary notion context, doctrines, compel range 9-12. plain "may purpose." 46, 7; Cornelius, ("[T]he `is indefinitely retain character facility'") 46). determined, dedicate another Must builds band shell park dedicates solely classical music (but jazz)? obvious. 7. But, programmers, same, characterize limits discriminates carriage, content. If consider accept places carrier. 44 Consequently, wishes lens, limiting totally communication material-taking account experience gained "forum." One ask forbids limitation. label alone critical (and not), discussed-the government's statute, medium-sufficiently justify "limitation" challenged too granting authority. Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, 455 489, 498 (1982) (citing Grayned Rockford, 408 104, 108-109 (1972)) (vague laws arbitrary enforcement); Dombrowski Pfister, 380 479, 486-487 (1965) (uncertainty perniciously chill speech). uses previously roughly 46 augmented "programming 48 (reading approximately 10(c)). "guidelin[e]" identifying states obscene. (material lacks protection) 49 "(a) average person, work, whole, prurient ; work way, conduct specifically law; political, value." Ibid. (emphasis added; internal quotation marks omitted). language, attempts identify Stewart described "I know it." Jacobellis Ohio, 378 184, 197 (Stewart, concurring). Miller's qualifiers, seem refer 51 aims sponsors referred-pictures oral sex, bestiality, rape, 138 Cong. Rec. S642, S646 (Jan. 30, 1992) (statement Sen. Helms)-and educational (at done unusual reaction). pointed appears), (not "an expletive"), (a "pig" parlor" "barnyard"). 750. o'clock morning seen mind. 52 Further, against insofar prohibition reflects rational "policy" "offensive" run comparable ways. concede somewhat diminished believes" offensive. added). expand aims, excuse, least) liability attach. Waters Churchill, 511 1) (Souter, concurring) employer's belief employee engaged unprotected excuses liability); Gypsum Co., 422, 453-455, (1978) ("`meeting competition'" defense antitrust based necessity meet competition); Pierson Ray, 386 547, 555-557 (1967) (police officer claim, officers peace actions false arrest, believed violation precipitated arrest valid). contours shield-reasonableness-constrain If, substantially beyond pale overseeing governmental, decides community, hard pressed claim "reasonable." 53 reasons III. 54 differs first, requires, restrict speech-by segregating appearing 10(b). particular, mentioned, 4-5, implementing separate channel; access; reblocking. 76.701(b), (c), (g) Also, up scheduled date. 76.701(d), (g). 55 effects. up-to-30-day delays, along segregation, mean letting entirety invade days, perhaps weeks, time. prevent select (or, "surfing," minute minute); occasionally few, many, reputation, keeps. notice" reputations operator, advertently inadvertently, list wish Lamont Postmaster General, 381 301, 307 (finding recipients Communist literature Post Office it). added costs burdens impose encourage run, night. argues despite adverse consequences, "segregate block" lawful realizing" "protecting psychological well-being minors." Brief Respondents 126). event, "does indecency strictest" "standard review." 57 10. accommodate attain. Nor whether, does, not, lesser 745-748 (opinion J.) (indecent enjoy protection), 761-762 (Powell, judgment) (refusing nonobscene, material). once examines restriction, apparent alternative," objective, necessary." Amendment's "strictest," "strict," requirements. ("compelling means" law); systems); 38) "`no essential'" O'Brien, 391 367, 377 (1968), example "heightened," less-than-strictest, scrutiny); Hudson, necessary"); Florida Bar Went It, 515 5) drawn"); (there "reasonable" "fit" legitimates restriction). reveal caution various verbal formulas reconcile critically compelling, sometimes warrant restrictions. 58 Several thing, recently amended, unleased numerous ordinary, "scramble (unleased) "primarily sexually-oriented programming." 505, 136 honor any, all, he she subscribe. 504, manufacturers, future, sets so-called "V-chip"-a device able automatically violent programs. 551, 139-142. 59 cannot, matter us), issue. force weeks time) none; reputation many; viewer's name inevitably why, adequately ordinary offer well? Alternatively, severe (given programming) yield additional children? questions. explain alone-without access-requests-adequately regular sex-dedicated leased. why phone-call non-sex-dedicated (i.e., far segregate/block/written-access needed (in segregation requirement) indication protections adequate. 60 answers empirical reason believe, mostly) contrary, parties' briefs major guides) examples kinds 61 recognize, Solicitor General points out, deal every once. Semler Oregon Dental Examiners, 294 608, 610 (1935) legislature "strike evils time"); leeway tailoring ends. 102-103. fair tried point, different, treatment "essential" prove helpful). Boos Barry, 485 312, 329 (1988) (existence suggested ordinance, aimed restrictive). 62 record's description discussion alternative-the "lockbox"-leads, route, Policy 63 "upon subscriber, service during periods selected subscriber." 544(d)(2). 64 device-the "lockbox"-would help permitting "lock out" want see. 85-179, 132, Fed. Reg. 18637, 18655 (1985) lockboxes largely disposes issues indecency"). upholding (including, inattentive parents) effectively provisions. 14-15, 1000. understand 65 forth follows: 66 "In lockboxes, discover exist; sale; money buy one; learn lockbox undesired programs; vigilance ensure have, locked whatever view." 37. 67 assume accuracy statement. suggest placed Act. 68 No concede, short absolute assault child. "`"reduc[ing] population children."'" 128 Bolger Youngs Drug Products 463 60, 73 (1983), quoting Butler Michigan, 352 380, 383 (1957)); 130, leaving aside, General's difficulties call, requirements, informational coding readily available equipment (perhaps telephone), cost (who spread subscription fees); defaults sex-dedicated-channels). resemble reason, frailties reinforces conclusion achieve. (We treats restrictively channels.) 69 may, explanations. bothered change introduced responses sort, guesses seriousness legally where, agency convincing explanation, willing stretch plausible, hypothetical nonobvious explanations 130 presented evidence effective ineffective be"); 120; Minneapolis Star Tribune Minnesota Comm'r Revenue, 575, 585-586 (1987). 70 reasonably, "sacrific[ing]" "speculative gain." 127; Voters, 397. IV. 71 regulation, 10(c); differences. 72 historical background. 9-12, traditionally give award franchises. 30. preferred 17-18, reservation easement, dedication land municipality's approval subdivision land. 15-16 Significantly, Unlike restore had, nonexistent, diminished. 13-15 institutional background difference. When lessee, lessee slot. 532(c)(2). sorts, elements. 531(b) (franchising rules procedures [public access] capacity"). Municipalities franchising agreements manager, commonly nonprofit organization, municipality, or, instances, owner. D. Brenner, M. Price, Myerson, Nonbroadcast Video 6.04[7] (1993); P. Aufderheide, Programming, Controversial Speech, Free Expression (1992) (hereinafter Aufderheide), reprinted 61, (surveying manager was: organization 41, official 12, 5, unidentified entity 3); Agosta, Rogoff, A. Norman, Participate Report: Case Study (1990), attached Exh. K Joint Comments al., MM Docket 92-258 (materials hereinafter Record) ("In 88% [of systems] programmed jointly institution university, library, non-profit organization"); 28-32, Record; Association 14, Record ("Operators involvement PEG organizations"). management partly financed funds-through fees payments agreement, municipal funds, 6.04[3][c]; 59-60-and supervision board. Code Ann. 43-1829 (1990 Supp. 1996); Lynchburg City 12.1-44(d)(2) (1988). 74 private, mixed supervising boards managers, approve disapprove police by, indemnification certification compliance standards, advisories, prescreening ("[F]rom comments received, appears organizations statements standards], equivalent, programmers"); Boston 163-164; 69-71; Metropolitan Area Commission, 2, Reply Waycross 4-6, Columbus Access, 329; St. Paul, 318, 325; Erik Mollberg, Coordinator, Ft. Wayne, Ind., 3, Defiance Nutmeg 3-4, Record. Whether locally accountable bodies prescreen merely arise, same: body capable addressing unlikely exposed 127-128; 26. 75 encouraging securing veto managers mistakes, correct power. Balanced potential benefit, mistaken; threatened presentation borderline, targeted audience. 64-66 (describing sex education, health politically marginal groups, artistic experiments). latter threat bulk large publicly responsible 76 examination legislative sense suggests, public/nonprofit avoid, minimize, eliminate child-related concerning anecdotal references isolated instances occurred leased, S650 Wirth) (mentioning "abuses" Time Warner's channel); Manhattan Neighborhood Network, 235, 238 (New noting regularly advertising channels); Warner Amicus Curiae 2-3 (indicating Rec., S649 Fowler) solicitation prostitution); Helms) newspaper headline referring mayor's protest "strip act"); 117-118 (recounting submitted describing complaints Letter Mayor Rancho Palos Verdes, Resolution San Antonio Council, 92-49-40, 77 nationwide pattern. 127-128 "did pose dangers magnitude identified "local respond" issuing `rules procedures' `requirements'"). report 162-163 (noting Notice Proposed Rulemaking, 7709 "inappropriate" actually exists undermine suggestion 10, "only controversial settled producers channel"); Staten Island ("Our air 1986 incident covered law"); ("[I]ndecent [have] never ten year history"); Cambridge 314 hour 15,000 hours CCTV past five year[s] affected Act"); ("CCTV feels needs fixed"); ("ACTV unaware [a authorizing "legally matter"] last years"); Cincinnati Video, App., 316 ("[I]n operations 30,000 ever occurred"); 2-3, eight operation, "there channel"). 78 most, people's differ, others, prohibit. 64-66; 95-124, depiction self-help gynecological examination); Entertainment 252 Austin, Tex., included "nude scenes movie," Indianapolis, "safe sex" program). need, nationally, harmful Compare (justifying "bestiality" "rape"). factual substantiating efficacy proposed cure, redresses op. 40-41). 79 radically programming-related relationships contract. doing greatly increase programs) appear. mechanisms, Having reviewed proceedings below, submissions amici sustain burden showing secure end. 398-399; V. 80 severable question intent: Would passed" "had known" "provision[s were] invalid"? Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 491, 506 (1985). invalidate 769, Thirty-seven Photographs, 402 363 (1971)). 81 express "severability clause," "severability" intention structure fairly stand irrespective fate. concerns Its hence 82 requirement's invalidity difference, effectiveness Together told operator: "either `patently offensive' `segregate block' Without afforded longer bear fewer 83 unseverable. judging segregate-and-block probably standing alone, (though, perhaps, effective) pursuing objective. children), itself. functioning own, helps valid others. VI. 84 upheld 85 ordered. 86 concurring. 87 prohibition. former restores join opinion, emphasize endorse III-B fora. am convinced resolution novel arising this. 377, 426-427 (Stevens, judgment). 88 programmers. S.C. On 532(c)(2), exception: my exception 89 them. best understood spared censorial intervention, flow freely. 90 agree, sidewalks course industry. doing, establish entirely restricted speakers, By facilitating carry, operate must-carry System,. 19-21), 91 opens hands, deserves deference allow. early stage developing industry, put nothing-at-all resources participate marketplace ideas. 92 Just legitimately limit, bounds, confers programmers.1 musical cartoons being telecast-or, debate-I objection extended impartial subjects. contrary ill-serve values dissuading creating altogether.2 93 regulating evade constraints selectively choosing excepted communicated Republicans plain. Educational 806 subtle viewpoint-based limitations Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. Conrad, 420 546, 564 (1975) (Douglas, part). Even singles repression, species discrimination. returning differently reflect Governmental bias particular. 95 argued outlet impliedly contend arbitrarily underinclusive affect channels.Moreover, criteria identifies fully contention suppress "a dislikes," ante, medium. legitimate. (1989); 96 assailed broader ground nevertheless reduces suitable (1957); serves newly unsuitable Butler, criminalized sale books. 381. 97 sum, constitutes reasonable, federally-created Accordingly, affirm provision. explained, owe contracts forged authorities. Ante, 30-32 9, 11, 99 reflects, variety controls that-apart requirement-may types carried. 31-33 Presumably, explains, seldom 100 What me, devices, decided restrict. choice. inject federally censors excluded, speech.3 101 operates enacts define 2-3. entitlement disseminate creation, own. save designation dissemination acts speculation conjecture. 129-131. 103 caused quantum aired communities. 33-37. attempted discretionary harm. Given justification. reversed. 104 stresses worthy well-served categorizing according respective characters expression, Reviewing starch moments daily politics cries loudest said.4 sees anything rule-based fixed strictest, (b), accordingly faults plurality declining precise doctrinal govern hand. security prompts word unwillingness announce Neither nor categorized nearly flat covering periphery, directed easily received impossible immediate supervision. 747 (plurality opinion) ("It characteristic offend `social value' circumstances").5 surprising contextually expressly reviewing there.6 107 ought point; justifying rule Lion, 12-13) Lion's rationale cable), today's rightly observes characteristics threatening intrusion house accessibility 14. seem, then, detailed level-of-scrutiny judgment; considered, subtlety tantamount prescience. 108 presently flux. Recent far-reaching legislation affects technical feasibility parental children's undesirable Pub. 104-104, 139-142 (Feb. 8, 1996) (provision "V-chip" programs), portends fundamental competitive entities bottlenecks information, Title 114-128 (promoting competition services). companies begin wire services, hardly settle assumption remain separable useful cyber-technology Internet World Wide Web receiver, immense, unknown unknowable, others.7 109 charting competition, likelihood protean. confident continue distinguish technologies, technologies enormously alter itself, shy saying final accepted tomorrow. ignorance real possibility "if cyberspace, get fundamentally wrong." Lessig, Path Cyberlaw, Yale J. 1743, 1745 appreciating fluidity nuance old proper existing wisely rule, usefully ones Pacifica.8 reaching method consolation recalling passed, Roth 354 476 (1957), (1973), modern jelled; took Hague CIO, 496 (1939), out; round half-century passed danger (1919), evolved incitement Brandenburg 444 (1969). 111 guess until matured known. technology prospect durability, job today: recognizing wholly incapacitating matters significance high communication, measuring exact attention compiling pedigree subject. familiar responsibilities finality precision, revolution. Maybe obligation shoulder captured older doctor medicine: "First, harm." 112 113 unconstitutional, persuaded, asserted "important differences" striking down 10(c). shared covers withstands 114 interest: well-established Cal. (1968). 13-14, equally easy permissive. outright supra. leave Certainly regard. 116 neither undertake adapt confront precedent offers guide. acceptability 13-16. 117 distinctions relies significant. Much emphasis differences origins sure, product Government, municipalities, ante 30-31, persuaded origin remains allowing option addition 31-33, mind render ill-tailored goal unconstitutional.Given precedent, hold constitutional. Ginsburg joins, 119 upholds adrift. concepts carrier mere labels significance; omission loses sight doctrine. confronted emerging discipline analyze elaborations constant principles. case-by-case ensuring settings. task, declares things fine. implications clearer Though III Court) concur remainder. 120 authorize standards," "indecent known). members school systems. interpreted (FCC), 3-5 discussing interpretive regulations).9 121 flaws. sort vulnerability discrimination permitted. recognizes 6, avoiding mistake 112-121 action lies enactment altering relations persons, withdrawal group acts, regardless attributable State. Hunter Erickson, 385, 389-390 (state Amendment). 122 balks next step, advise conforms tolerate 382 ("Content-based presumptively invalid"); Carey Brown, 455, 461-463 (1980); Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 92, (1972). realm envisions citizen shaping reverse; "governmental restraints arena discussion, putting views voiced hands hope ultimately produce citizenry perfect polity." Cohen 403 (1971). "[E]ach person herself beliefs deserving consideration, adherence. cultural life rest ideal." 16). suppress, disadvantage, content." 17). 123 unusual. deny forms speakers violating Hudgens NLRB, 424 507 (1976), affirmations principle unremarkable. government. obligations. vulnerable applies. However shielding drawn withstand 124 Before engaging complexities explaining thinking start disturbing opinion: evasion (disavowing "declare here"). 125 begins flight assertions nobody disputes. "to purposes," 11. necessary, laws. vein, admonished complicated, simple; review, told, evaded recourse analogies. 9-13, 18. true, foreclose context. Indeed, instance "judicial straitjacket problems," grave indictment settings important. expressed misgivings balancing Burson Freeman, 504 191, 211-212 (concurring opinion); 124-125 (1991) judgment), confines process protective speech; disable sacrifice necessary. 127 claims resistance keeping willingness confronting cites, 10-11, demonstrate supposes: each, specialized stringent demanded them; avoid adherence them, affording unpopular distasteful, central achievement jurisprudence. Standards law's validity, height bar exigencies day. notice predict Yet inequities moment subordinated commitments 115-116; watered whenever strong. ignored altogether considering fours before. distracted 11-12; 3-4 retool (with 10(b)) intricate technologies. straightforward deprive discard jurisprudence answering question. 129 protests favor formulation case: namely, "properly 12. (Though frowns words, likes repeat it; 11). accomplishes clutter adding untested uncertain relationship evaluate bring realizes uttering standard; synonyms. "[C]lose scrutiny," substituted "extremely problem," "extraordinary proble[m]," admonition serves, usual substitutes inferior antecedents. "appropriately tailored," "sufficiently "carefully addressed," 18, hand-anything, evidently, tailored. restatements unfortunate consequences. manipulate. end legalistic ad hoc interests; succeeds after standard. plurality's pushing around synonyms sow confusion bound courts, lawyers field, discern guidance, unprotective outcome reaches comparisons areas responsibility, luxury be. guidance standards-all missing opinion. novelty complexity look license wander uncharted compass opinions policy. Another troubling enact concerned, unsure assess recommends precept "`First, harm,'" 6. question, though, sustaining down. technology's direction, suppressing urgent relief discrimination, dry run. 132 presented, warranted. 133 deliver sources: retransmission stations; purchased professional vendors (including services ESPN Nickelodeon) satellite; itself; (PEG leased), Mueller, Note, Television's Channels: Limits Response, DePaul Rev. 1051, 1056-1057 (1989) Mueller). 3). 134 grew initiatives 1960's 1970's, began Mueller 1061. localities rights-of-way easements minimize disruption traffic laying lines. Meyerson, 3.01[3] (1996) Brenner); 2-3) governing authorities"). oversee negotiate specifying Brenner 3.01; 3.01[4] (discussing displaced regulation). 522(10) (defining authority). franchise, mandatory operating 541(b), authorization, akin license, operation system. 522(8). From 1970's onward, condition franchise. 1061-1062; (1990) Agosta), Exhibit 92-258. 135 entered 1972, servicing country's largest markets (one date certain, requirement. 141, 189-198 Rules Regulations Concerning Channel Capacity Requirements 76.251, 294, 303, 321 (1976) (modifying 1972 rules). 1934. Midwest 440 689, 708-709 (1979). turned "reasonable third-party wide diversity information public-the Amendment-without cable." (1984). declined, mandates Since "[a]lmost governments, schools, groups" instead "continue[d] cities specify franchises use." 137 611 1934, (1984 renewal ones. 531(b). Franchise agreements, 531(c), 531(a). 557(a) (grandfathering remainder term). "require assurance capacity, facilities, financial support." 541(a)(4)(B). Prior passage 544(d), (1988 ed.). substantive tasks comport practice referred statute. 139 My principal P PEG). shows. contrast, E G PEG) speakers. franchises, controlled committed distribute constituents affairs. 1065-1066. petitioned case, none briefed traits. low first-come, first-served basis. 6.04[3][a]-[b], 6-38. programmer complete over, show. Ibid.; 1064. managing aspects scheduling transmission, operator; party runs centers, 6.04[7], 6-48. 141 forums. traditional forums, sidewalks, custom discourse. 45; 496, (1939) Roberts, "The unlimited character-property public." 678 (1992). 142 Required comers, character. House view. characterized speaker's soapbox parallel printed leaflet. opportunity ideas." gathering places, Rosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 8-9), owned 800 jurisdictions, title hands. 10A E. McQuillin, Law Municipal Corporations 30.32 (3d ed. 1990); ("Wherever parks rest, immemorially trust mind, assembly, communicating thoughts citizens, questions"). analogous; holds title. 143 thought, rightful Media, 114. rights, course; entry business Los Angeles Preferred 488, 494 (1986), originating protected, 31-32) (distinguishing editors). disappears terminated. 541(b) offered franchise); 546 (prescribing renewal). 3.07[9][a] (franchise norm); 3.07[15] (typical franchisor expiration transferred another, discretion. transmitting signal, franchise-the government-that allocates reserving access. 144 conduits PruneYard Shopping Center Robins, 74, (1980). had; existed. enacting excluding retaining ratified public-forum discriminated 145 refuses reluctant forum," declared decree. happens lines, bargained lines resists "formal easement." formalities easement. Easements G. Thompson, Commentaries Modern Real Property 331-332 Tiffany, 776 1939). contract, surrenders easement So me activity, creates 146 Treating 20. defines activities, designation, character, "subject "survive Unless 147 Leased distinct pay creative assistance approval. authorization 148 612 percentage (up 15%, size system) "for persons operator." 532(b)(1). Commercial "provision profit." 532(b)(5). seeks price, terms, conditions adversely condition, market development system," 532(c)(1). 76.971 (rules price exceed maximum charged non-access 76.970. Aggrieved district (if repeated violations) terms. 532(d), (e). 149 532(h) (prohibiting modifies no-discretion reject, policy, indecent. 532(h). onto him. 532(j); 76.701 150 whereas (subject limitations), law. away controlled. 708, (federal indiscriminately determinations regarding offering subscribers"). sense, back place. 151 constitutionality 38-40), extinguished, present: discriminate analysis. 152 Laws companies: obliged conduit classification Act) access) 1976: 153 plainly common-carrier obligations rules, nondiscriminatory Operators determining influencing delimit charge equipment." 701-702 (citations footnotes 154 agency's precisely carriers. 702-709. characterizes requirement, Pet. Cert. 139a-140a, 23. 155 authorizes precluding telephonic communications), occasion specified 156 removing common-carriage Making dedicating use; dictate exercised. mandate, nonetheless, ensures open, evident committee findings supporting promote delivery diverse widest possible growth systems." 532(a). Committee reporting bill acknowledged general, prompt recognized, incentives represents social disseminate, competes system." 48. Associated Press 326 (1945), 32-35. functional equivalence designating mandating setting precedents, strict. 157 Widmar Vincent, 454 263 (1981) (university meeting facilities); Madison School Wisconsin Employment Relations Comm'n, 429 167 (school board meeting); (municipal theater). facility, Reasonable place, effectuate 45-46. 158 (1972), unconstitutional. Invoking Amendments strike labor picketing "government grant people finds acceptable, wishing favored views." 96. 159 "Once assembling intend say. Selective justified alone." 160 678, condemned Mosley tolerated 161 acknowledges doctrines 19. newfound aversion analogical reasoning strikes Levi, An Introduction Reasoning 1-2 (1949). suggesting afield dealing depriving 162 events, precedents relieve apply. Except well-settled proscribable V., 382-390, baseline takes dispensation rule. Service 530, 538-539 property, "[w]here acting proprietor, operations, lawmaker license," viewpoint-neutral. 678-679. Here, proprietary own; vital class excluded 163 occurring property. guidance. Common-carrier compels scrutiny; militates normal 164 Perhaps, 19-20, analysis, however. freer hand draw someone dead letter forums; recast Governance Management: History Theory Forum, UCLA 1713, 1753 mailboxes, mailings "organizations engage relevance students"); 263, 267-268, (recognizing university compatible mission education); 167, 175, teacher's meeting, confine meetings matter"). redefine purpose, Rosenberger, 8), 165 District, illustrates point. ordered employees union representatives collective bargaining union. 173. interested individuals." 175. skew debate decisionmakers benefit voices. 175-176. 166 pleases. railroads Equal Clause suspect classes. Bailey Patterson, 369 (1962) (per curiam) (States races). forever, liberty topics serving trouble plurality, wonders "show jazz)." analogy. performed rap music. discriminations strong dislikes, effects, 168 Giving rein dislikes delimiting provisions) pernicious age. Minds changed were. increasing degree, interchanges consciousness occur mass Kokinda, 497 720, 737 expanding entitlements grounds backdrop accustomed. contravenes stops 169 advances side, question-indecent cablecast)-is contends declaring sanctionable). 170 purport, Emphasizing narrowness holding, conducted context-specific hours. (underscoring Pacifica). protection." rejected 171 considerations objectionable "confronts individual's outweighs intruder." young read." 749. standpoint programmer, viewer. confined discrete space; astounding amounts studies). explained messages situations unwelcome dialogue," Hess Indiana, 414 curiam); Rowan Dept., 397 728, 736-738 (1970). true 738 householder [should not] come stopped"). 172 weighty passes justify, blanket proscribed, mark off hesitancy skepticism courts' drawing principled ideas, Cohen, heightened inextricability expression. "[W]e indulge facile running substantial process." forbidding respect. settings, communicative protesting conventional norms giving edge conveying "otherwise inexpressible emotions," graphic (even offensiveness), accurate comprehensive portrayal truth Indecency inseparable viewpoints conveyed, loss derogating marginal. 173 otherwise. enactments 174 minimal forced operator. 31-32); PruneYard, 87. conferred slight. liking remove (racist violent, example) viewers. disdains. 175 749-750 (same). society choices, intervene spare minors. under, assume, 176 nonetheless unprotected. Partial tailoring. 364, 396 (asserted noncommercial partisan editorials, F., 524, 540-541 (selective rape victim's tailored). (1983) "provides incremental asserted" pass muster commercial-speech standards). Put caprice Perhaps drafted banning ill serve. 177 adults deprived "reduce [viewing] children." (1957). pristine. block-and-segregate infirmity 26-27, plausible alternatives fail record, otherwise, means. ___-___ 40-45). 178 classic precision requires. 179 Not strictscrutiny, unpersuasive 180 interferes "can services." 32-33. Replacing schemes would, "greatly appear," "public/nonprofit systems," 34, (nor suggest) center cast status Agosta municipality); Hillsborough County Board Commissioners, Record, (explaining county's inability "[m]ost centers surveyed except, [two named localities], speed run-through quality." (1992), 68. acknowledges, indicates (whether not) "requiring [and] advisories," 33. measures challenged, safeguard measures, "normally programming" wonder invalid, reasoning. 181 regard undermines faithfulness 182 weight "nothing `adults need' [indecent] theaters," 15. restrictions, Ward Rock Against Racism, 781, 791, 556; Schneider (Town Irvington), 308 147, (1939). 183 indecency. obvious, draconian abridgment. available; bans e. g., Forsyth Nationalist Movement, 123, 130-137 (broad county administrator parade adjust fee Amendment); Bantam Books, 372 (1963) (informal threats recommend criminal prosecutions pressure tactics morality commission book publishers 184 speculations, discounts (non-access) espying there, supposes surmise, mildly. Worse, ignores sanguine probable fate tacked Senate floor amendment, strengthened feared disfavored conclusions Commerce, Science, Transportation hearings market, 102-92, (1991), instructive. underused inception determined. economics underutilization, obstinacy prices, blame. 31. 185 clash similar, programmer. compete [operator] controls. rate sense." 186 banish pay. main, showing. 532(b)(4), incentive excess 187 paid, paid much, controversy; reclaim unused 531(d)(1). 188 consequence invited exclusion. sure suppose consequences worse flowing time-segregation 16. Despite assessment" key There, broadcaster wanted question; not. safe harbor late-night permitted suppression follow 189 position reconciled guarantee audience, altogether, commend logic dissent 190 191 disagree failed articulate assiduous openly. 192 text print, media, (1969), frequencies, licensee share frequency himself proxy fiduciary voices necessity, barred airwaves." 389. endowed social, esthetic, moral, experiences." 390. substantial, complete, ("A journalistic newspaper"). 193 interference 241 (1974), instance, invalidated allow, charge, reply candidates personal paper assailed. fostered permissibly 256-258. flatly newspaper's alleged monopoly forcing contravention 256. 194 dubious infancy,10 wasteland regulators alike onerous shouldered (1986) (Blackmun, analysis"). closer nonbroadcast 195 ventures world operators.11 Only Angeles' auction granted. 493. noted communicate "through original [their] repertoire." 494. (Midwest II), 707 (1979) ("Cable include"). likened 494-495. 196 Five later, Leathers Medlock, 499 439 dropped relaxed Lion. subjected State's sales tax, continuing exempt newspapers, magazines, scrambled satellite tax grounds, arguing discriminatorily some, enjoyed news, entertainment "part `press.'" 444. Terms ago, (1994), implied Leathers: 12) rigorous regulation"); 14) ("[A]pplication inapt validity regulation"). disagreed essential inappropriate impermissible media"). 198 paradigm, rejecting governs legitimized emphasized abstract. "[i]t listeners, paramount." After credence preeminent. Tornillo Electric Utilities are, 8-9) conflict, programmer's Drawing author writing book, sold store owner's consent. editor collection essays 199 implicated interfered space 19-20); 1-2) implicitly derivative of, to, free-lance writer publish searching free-standing transmitted. Likewise, would-be Virginia Pharmacy Citizens 425 ("Freedom presupposes speaker. speaker exists, both"). Viewers transmits, Gas, certainly unwilling speak. 200 raises merits petitioners' claims. 5-6; Responsible 95-227, 3; 3. intuitively assert, Breyer's explanation "unwise unnecessary," disregards attempt standard.12 His children," meaningless bearing ordering 202 expansive, "directly heretofore facially subjective openly invites "flexibility" approach, relative rigidity making. 203 shifting "complex" 13, explains how) affirmative acquires ("interests channels"); requirements"). unanswered turn. 204 532(b), "unaffiliated persons." "exercis[ing] control" censor privately use" channels),13 531(a), "any 531(e); 544(d). broadened instructed enabling Note subsequently conduct" indecent, 2640. 206 read expansive enforced bounds decency. given, wrongly, continues intrusions. Certainly, current dial-a-porn messages). protection, statutorily conflict entity.14 challenging scheme. getting cases,15 ineluctably leads 781 (1968)). impositions sustained unrelated 377. 7-9) 208 has, expense apparently accepted, proposition beneficiaries government-imposed purely 209 "[i]n another," 7), supports claims, anything, parts governments) (c)) improper presumption discretion, burdened favors 210 thing right. address, infringed, based. 211 Outside doctrine, infra, 15-21, grants enjoy-and rights-cannot abridgement content-based. 212 right, 20), undoubtedly strictly burdening rights.16 213 challenge, made, burdened. programmer,17 infringed. arguably infringed bookstores sell books politics, entertain Gas. merit gardening assert maximizes minimizes 214 701; service"). obtained Labeling blessing, decline Common Concurring Scalia explained: prevents fashion, utilities 133. Information Providers' Coalition 928 866, 877 (CA9 1991) ("[A] terminate altogether"); Carlin Mountain Telephone Telegraph 827 1291, 1297 1987) (same), cert. denied, 1029 (1988); Communication, Southern Bell 1352, 1357 (CA11 1986) 215 Nothing per se constitutionalizes assertion "should forum." net room independently 216 fora 8-23; prohibitions antecedent 217 designate designated, "[a] exactly first-served, basis."18 disagree. 218 property.19 managed, property," 44, extend belong 681 (evidence rail stations, bus wharves, Ellis "irrelevant sites terminals ownership" original)). "government" "public" property); (designated "consists property"). 219 dictum Educ. (1985), consist use," statement applicability refers formally subdividing estate developments. 1A Antieau Antieau, Antieau's 9.05 11A 33.03 1991). Such dedications transfer title, enforceable 9.15; 33.68. land, government-owned 220 argue, dispositive (streets parks); (1972) (sidewalks adjoining school); 555 (theater long-term city); 460-462 front residence); 267-268 student activities). Pursuant forum.20 221 Similarly, ownership 803; Postal Council Greenburgh Civic Assns., 453 114, (1981). cognizable theater hinted control, entity's Properly construed, outright, designated. 222 suffice speak, message person's behalf. managerial operational state, agreement. fora, shoulders administering openness frequently schedule channel.21 obligated production programming.22 picketer, message. Instead, transmit, "speak," driven 559, fine $10,000 years' imprisonment "transmits obscene." 558 (making immune obscene).23 223 inclined convince indicated, redistribute fail. articulated earlier, 224 oriented premium pay-per-view naturally nonpaying customers forces, 998, 1001, (1993), package. emulate keep (without 225 clearly implicates carry. furthers available. minors" "extends minors influence [indecent speech] (persons "who th[e] responsibility aid discharge responsibility"). uphold contrary. 226 moral upbringing default position. Ginsberg, minors, desire purchasing magazines 639. ineffective. 128-130.24 227 pointing alternatives, reverse-blocking says blocking. methods parents' proper, 1000-1001.25 leased-access "from sources, controlling [its] selection presentation." "especially randomly intermittently non-indecent programs." armed monitor constantly reprogram assuming proficiency lockbox, distinguishing 228 10(b)'s consent," 76.701(b) 76.701(c); 229 Relying 301 (1965), submit Lamont, barring mail "`communist propaganda'" propaganda. 307. desiring communist propaganda, allegations "of channel," puts pure hyperbole. list, other, Government. 551 personally identifiable kept confidential destroy collected. 551. figured prominently 230 specter officially unblocked ascertainable, stigma fact. form, oral, nefarious written, consent.26 Any programming-by method-ultimately identity knowable.27 chilling 231 telephone, slightly bothersome fraud child." 29. denying enterprising, parentally unauthorized, 232 replacement V-chips, reverse-blocking, subscriber-initiated measures. Once methods, home.28 wrong portray screening 43, "watch time," 24; scope setting, infirm 233 "underinclusiveness" evaluation. 387 imposes `underinclusiveness' `content discrimination' speech"). ("Congress once"). tension remedy arguments pressing principle. ., (White, (though "overbreadth redeeming virtue attempting expression," underbreadth "serves desirable function"). 234 nonaccess allege, exclusively "per-program advance, mandated 10(b)." 20.29 contrast package, convert "premium service."30 failure unintended indecency-it level, accordance policies evinced perceived 235 carried demonstrating entirety. respectfully portion * al. court. well-regulated differently. (slip. 8); 31-34, 39) 278 ("I students time-one Mickey Mouse rehearse amateur performance Hamlet-the first"); 394 (approving "matters concern"). canons avoidance litigation success complain assumption. 531(e), quo ante. objects. Blasi, Pathological Perspective Colum. 449, 474 (arguing "courts confining judgments pathological pressures intense"). likewise television); Renton Playtime Theatres, (permitting zoning theatres "secondary effects"); Bethel Dist. Fraser, 478 675, 685-686 school). strand dislike, contextual. right-of-reply context), journalism). Lynch, Speedier Access: Phone Companies Compete, http://www.usatoday.com/life/cyber/bonus/cb006.htm (June 17, modem technology); Gateway 2000 ships Destination big TV-PCs, http://www.gw2k.com/corpinfo/press/1996/destin.htm (April 29, computer TV reception capability). Sunstein, Analogical Reasoning, Harv. 741, 786 (observing "greater Post-Liberal Judging: Roles Categorization Balancing, Colo. 293, 295, "once mode concentrate threshold characterization 506(a), 136, 137, thereof "obscenity, indecency, nudity." amendments, 5). Southwestern 392 406 649 I). gave extent, Curiously, "changes relating telecommunications," standards. recognizes, developments-which coming influx dialtone services-suggest bottleneck negating justifications treating 87-88 (1980), California's compelled mall Following commentators questioned Goodale, 6.04[5], 6-38.6 6-38.7 wake reexamination. clear, rights"); Ugland, Technologies C., Mo. 799, 837 ("PEG original)); Perritt, Infrastructure, Wake Forest 51, "were Turner"). imposition carrier-like Takings 11-12) asserting had," mistakes ibid., diminish forbearance contractual quid pro 12). university's fund, nontangible quite 804 (Combined Campaign forum); 47-48 forum). neverz entitles distinctions. Shapiro, Kurland, Mercurio, "CableSpeech": ("Because operated entities, derived systems"). exclude" persuasive. excepting 544(d)(1), Some states, Minn. 238.11 (McKinney rate, "taken" restriction. Price Brenner). formed perform functions. 43-1829(a) (establishing Corporation 541(a)(4)(B) support"); Conn. Gen. 16-331c contribute advisory councils standards); "establishing minimum supplied programming"); proposal"); 238.084.3(b) "make playback prerecorded programs"). "partly funds," 32, financed" money. 6-48 ("Frequently, operator"); 6.04[3][c], 6-41 financing questioning "forced subsidization 10(d) 558, lifts immunity encouragement meritless. quickly amended again harbor" rules. challenge. Dial Servs. Thornburgh, 938 1535 (CA2 1991), 1072 (1992); 866 promulgating 1000 10(b)"); ("[J]ust `dial-a-porn' services-Congress mandatory, voluntary, essential"). dial-a-porn, voluntary effective. Servs., 1542; Coalition, 873-874. Because, reliance. 26-27. 76.701(c) specially service. unaffected subscriber. examining "sex-dedicated 27, surely nonleased requested. "highly problem." norm 544(d)(2) (by lease) subscriber").

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