Document: 370 U.S. 114 82 S.Ct. 1196 8 L.Ed.2d 368 C. D. CALBECK, Deputy Commissioner, etc., et al., Petitioners,v.TRAVELERS INSURANCE CO. al. T. J. DONOVAN, v. AVONDALE SHIPYARDS, INC., No. 532. Argued April 23, 1962. Decided June 4, Solicitor General Archibald Cox for petitioners. Charles Kohlmeyer, Jr., New Orleans, La., respondent, Avondale Shipyards, Inc. Louis V. Nelson, Beaumont, Tex., respondents, Travelers Ins. Co. and Levingston Shipbuilding Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered the opinion of Court. 1 Section 3(a) Longshoremen's Harbor Workers' Compensation Act provides that compensation shall be paid only injuries occurring on navigable waters 'and if recovery * through workmen's proceedings may not validly provided by State law.'1 In each these cases petitioner is a Commissioner who based an award under findings employee was engaged at time his injury in work completing construction vessel afloat waters.2 2 Before passed, this Court has sustained validity state statute as applied to suffered completion launched waters, Grant Smith-Porter Ship Rohde, 257 469, 42 157, 66 L.Ed. 321, but had made clear statutes could not, constitutionally, employees repair completed vessels waters.3 The court below interpreted § adopting distinction so set aside both awards, thus holding shipyard worker's right Act, incurred vessel, depends whether also rather than construction. Donovan, 5 Cir., 293 F.2d 51; Insurance Calbeck, 52. We granted certiorari because importance interpretation administration Act. 946, 389, 7 342. reverse judgments Appeals affirm District Courts sustaining awards. 3 Appeals' would, correct, have effect excepting from Act's coverage while ship any other injuries—even though within reach Congress—for which law could, provide compensation. But incorrect. history particular, contravenes it; our decisions construing rejected it. Our conclusion Congress invoked its constitutional power all waters4 or particular might been law. 4 passed 1927. enacted it would preferred leave laws matter boundaries. However, 1917 decided Southern Pacific Jensen, 244 205, 37 524, 61 1086, York gangplank between wharf.5 It held outside cognizance exclusively federal maritime jurisdiction, since hold otherwise impair harmony uniformity grant Federal Government admiralty meant assure. While acknowledged 'it difficult, impossible, define with exactness just how far general changed, modified, affected legislation,' U.S., 216, 529, appeared foreclose application remedy injury. Jensen decision deprived many thousands benefits twice attempted deal situation legislation expressly allowing operate. October 6, 1917, 40 Stat. 395; 10, 1922, 634. struck down unconstitutional delegations States legislative Congress, tending defeat purpose Constitution achieve Knickerbocker Ice Stewart, 253 149, 438, 64 834; Washington W. Dawson & Co., 264 219, 44 302, 68 646. 6 Meanwhile handed number modify permitting apply their some injuries. we must candidly acknowledge 1926 produced no reliable determinant valid coverage. Western Fuel Garcia, 233, 89, 210, 1921, upheld jurisdiction United entertain libel damages death longshoreman wrongful statute. reasoned subject 'local character' 'will material prejudice characteristic features law, nor interfere proper international interstate relations.' 242, 90. Just month later supra, where, before us, shipbuilder's injured new waters. He recovered judgment admiralty, although Oregon thereunder exclusive claims against employer account This reversed judgment, accident among those 'certain local matters regulation (by States) law.' 477, 158. No dependable definition area—described 'maritime local,' 'of concern'—where ever emerged dealt lower courts. surest said area concern', depending upon peculiar facts. numerous situations acts were considered inapplicable they particularly work.6 On hand, awards wherein often difficult distinguish found purview laws.7 9 Thus, problem confronted 1927 two facets. One failure Congress' attempts shelter rendered certain available. course judicial created substantial working uncertainty turned uniform instrument dealing Indeed, invited such consideration, saying: 'Without doubt alter, amend revise embodying will judgment. power, think, permit enactment Employers' Liability Law provisions compensating employees; delegated several States.' 227, 305. 10 proposal act unqualified support employers representatives. Workmen's gained wide acceptance throughout country after enacting it.8 hard battles fought committee floor Houses over form bill introduced Senate, S. 3170, became basis 11 There emerges complete history9 congressional desire waters; every case, is, where seemed preclude statute's framers adopted scheme assure existence injury,10 without leaving mercy uncertainty, expense, delay fighting out litigation fell concern' doctrine. 12 gravity emphasized when 3170 original discussion Senate Hearings. That version provided: 'This employment performed place States, except concern direct relation navigation commerce; master member crew vessel.' (Emphasis supplied.) Chairman Committee perceived create exemption 'employment threatened perpetuate very uncertainties wished avoid.11 danger underlined objections behalf large groups. They expressed about practical problems line repair, Hearings, 92—93, broader implications wording: provision indefinite. exception commerce' vague continual litigation. Innumerable become legal questions requiring determination courts.' 95. 13 are privy deliberations drop language substitute now think reasonable inference concluded objective avoiding progeny. 14 action House Committee, revised came it, discloses similar preoccupations. rewrote omit substitute.12 A parliamentary obstacle unrelated issue led Committee's finally accepting version.13 15 sum, appears designed ensure existed avoid source, federal, remedy. should, then, construed purposes. Plainly, interpretation, fixing boundaries outer limits competence left pre-1927 decisions, does them. 16 first place, contours concept remained necessarily uncertain. never method staking them cases. 17 second conclude extends 'may' constitutionally provided, mean that, contrary purpose, compensable vacuum exist which, domain concern,' fact covered restriction short avoided defeating assuring case actually order accomplished result, withdraw coverage, wherever 'may be' 'is' provided. Even properly read meaning 'is,' reading make depend legislature taken action—an intention plainly imputed whose recent efforts entirely power. 18 Finally, there imaginable carving greatest possible States. price included adoption whatever seemingly anomalous distinctions courts developed articulating well risk total realm And event, maximum business negate demarcation static one fixed decisions. Such require, rather, expand recede harness developments scope compensate raising raise dimension, implies; equally premised denial like situation. cannot imposed burden perpetuating confusion generated Jensen. To dispel chief purposes 19 used phrase 'if law' sense consistent delineation reaching By reiterated reached questionable availability remedy.14 brought law.15 20 previous conclusion. Parker Motor Boat Sales, Inc., 314 244, 62 221, 86 184, seller small boats, supplies outboard motors, hired primarily janitor porter, drowned boat he riding capsized James River off Richmond, Virginia. belonged customer fellow testing employer's motors boatowner prospective purchaser. Fourth Circuit, 116 789, employee's 'so Virginia act, dependents reversed. noted doubted kind question statute' light 3(a). 248, 224. did exclude 'There can specific referred (in Report—Jensen, Knickerbocker, Dawson—) placed beyond states. proviso manner purpose.' 249—250, 225. 3(a)'s 'subtraction Act,' id., 249, 224, limit concern.' 21 Davis Department Labor, 317 225, 87 246, structural steel worker dismantling bridge across river cutting stowing dismantled barge into drowned. His sought applied. result predicated ground Rather viewed 'twilight zone' applicability 'extremely difficult' determine, resolved doubt, course, favor constitutionality At same time, indicated circumstances supportable, pointing adopts 'the demarcation.' 256, regard local' implies rejection 22 Marine Ways, Henderson, 346 366, 74 100, 98 77, available killed then physically located land, marine railway. Since railway 'dry dock,' satisfied requirement occur 'upon waters,' defined 'including dry dock.' did, physical sense, little See Industrial Commission Nordenholt Corp., 259 263, 473, 933. Nevertheless, affirmed per curiam opinion. 23 consistently views herein Fifth Circuit present Judge Hutcheson De Bardeleben Coal Corp. 142 481, 483—484: 24 'Before court, Continental Casualty Lawson, 802, 804, announced view should liberally cover occurred rule (Jensen) admiralty. said: 25 "The tort asserted states, important Rohde passage (the Act) largely disappeared. elaborate prior Congressional Supreme Court, leaves room intended exercise fullest extent subject-matter. *' 26 'The substantially *. As pointed out, necessary redetermine correctness vel non (its) brood sufficient say co-extensive authority relinquishment part field occupy save condemnation, making intend legislate powers. therefore, broadest permits taken. yielded falling principle merely went effect, here little, chip whittle mass conflicting contradictory advanced doctrine remediless, remedies afforded what Lawson supra. 27 turn raised Donovan Shipyards. contends accepted Louisiana constitutes election bars prosecution claim payments administrative proceeding. filed years three months rate checks bore notation face act. addition sum credited future payments. medical expenses excess liability entered full amount award, impermissible double possible. constitute precluding Nothing requires result. agree do finding binding look solely recovery. Massachusetts Bonding 149 853; Newport News Dry Dock O'Hearne, 192 968; Building O'Leary, 198 409.16 28 affirmed. 29 ordered. 30 Judgments 31 FRANKFURTER took consideration case. 32 STEWART, whom HARLAN joins, dissenting. 33 U.S.C. §§ 901—950, U.S.C.A. carefully disability 903(a), 903(a). Now, thirty-five later, concludes really said. I join legerdemain. still means says, always thought mean—namely, confer today desirable one, simply provides. 34 seriously statutory ignored name effectuating supposed 'Congressional desire.' Be may, reflect Court's barred laws. squarely held, knew, workers who, cases, 35 culmination series events beginning stevedore unloading Within five give rights State.' 395. declared invalid attempt delegate 834. statute, 634, approach first, Dowson 36 Meanwhile, backing away somewhat recognizing activities connected character, nature, redress disturbing doctrine, connection uncompleted, 321.1 Against background third ultimately successful remedies. Seizing suggestion attention direction circumvent belief best supplied obvious depart basic approach, either applicable apply, giving choice informed fill gap 38 materials fully repeatedly obtain relief 'If longshoremen avail themselves laws, occasion legislation; but, unfortunately, excluded reason character employment; more once occupation.' S.Rep.No. 973, 69th Cong., 1st Sess., 16. recommends humanitarian speedily class workers, practically benefit compensation, protection *.' H.R.Rep.No.1190, 3. chairman subcommittee conducting hearings categorically stated 'we proceeding theory people compensated Hearings Subcommittee Judiciary 84. Similar statements spoke during proposed legislation.2 Several witnesses categories involved repair,3 classes denied followed it.4 39 hardly deemed impression. times. All commentators agreed.5 administrators specifically respect construction.6 harsh results sometimes produce, 63 twilight zone. Wash.2d 349, 121 P.2d 365, widow workmen drawbridge. Relying 903(a) 'Congress whenever Id., 252—253, 227. note harbor clearly protected 'employees decedent here, shadowy undefined undefinable point, compensation.' 'show neither encroach occupied other.' 255, 229. 'jurisdictional dilemma' determine side fell, obtained all. facts given line, great weight presumption arising statutes. Because claimant allowed her remedy.7 41 Whatever else decision, rested precisely opposite today. today's worked travail Davis. For holds existed. Yet recently 1959 began topic sentence: 'By terms, law." Hahn Ross Island Sand Gravel 358 272, 79 266, 292. Today removes 'terms' Act.8 my correct. almost forty unequivocally recognized employed us Texas pending allowed. Gonzalez, Tex.Civ.App., 351 S.W.2d 374. These stretch imagination terms inapplicable. 43 affirm. 1424, amended, comprised 3(a), reads: '(a) payable chapter employee, (including dock) of— '(1) person load unload eighteen tons net; '(2) An officer agency thereof foreign government, political subdivision thereof.' Calbeck Roger McGuyer, welder employ Company owns operates Sabine River, Orange, Texas, Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana. McGuyer uncompleted drilling floating superstructure Minus Aizen, welder. operated shipyards near Orleans. Aizen work. welding oil Mississippi being completed. Great Lakes Dredge Kierejewski, 261 479, 418, 67 756; Gonsalves Morse Repair 266 171, 45 39, 69 228; Robins Dahl, 449, 372. Baizley Iron Works Span, 281 222, 230—232, 50 306, 307—308, 819. use term 'employees' excludes special described subsections (1) (2) see 1, supra; assumes 'employer' 2(4), 902(4), 904(4), i.e., 'an employment, whole part, dock).' respects Term. Central R. White, 243 188, 247, 667. Iowa upheld. Mountain Timber Washington, 260, 685; Hawkins Bleakly, 678. See, e.g., 933; Millers' Indemnity Underwriters Braud, 270 59, 46 194, 70 470. Larson, Compensation, 4.10 5.30. Sess.; S.Rep. H.R.Rep. 1767, 2d Sess. 1190, (accompanying H.R. 12063); 9498, 16: stead liability, commonly known 'longshoremen.' men mainly loading, unloading, refitting, repairing ships; remarked loading unless wharf bring neighborhood 300,000 entire country. deems unnecessary comment modern change establishing systems distinguished liability. Nearly Union negligence contributory employee. If occupation. (Southern 205 (37 1086); (40 834); (W.C.) 219 (44 646)). 'It way hardworking men, hazardous justice statute.' 3: employments principal wage earners Next repairmen—carpenters, painters, boiler makers, etc. owing thereunder. protection, come universally interest social employee.' 20, makes desirous whereby 'discharge obligation providing receive afford nearly Union.' following colloquy Chairman, Senator Cummins, spokesman testifying: CHAIRMAN. (employment concern) probably, application, mean? 'Mr. BROWN. Unless something qualifies thing, understand means. another proposition, man docks. Some friends seem docks, witness quoted Nordenholt, 7, (259 U.S.) 276 (42 473)): pertinent feature certainly find describe protect, am sure most accurate found. true. you prescribe accurately, devised eminently satisfactory everybody (an) incorporate are, perhaps, behind this.' 57. redrafted 2, follows: 'Sec. performed— Upon including dock; '(b) barge, lighter, tug, dredge, ocean, lake, river, canal, harbor, craft owned citizen Rules until amended seamen Cong.Rec. 5410, 5412. rewrite again version. 5403 5404, 5412, explaining reports, reference applying explain limitations Dawson. attach significance Opinion September 1927, Employees' (now Bureau Compensation) stating take longshoremen's comply secures payment dock ways.' foreclosed instant changing error. Automobile Club Michigan 353 180, 77 707, 746. 905, 'exclusive representative anyone entitled recover During period principles prohibited existing vessels. 372; 756. 118; 22, 25—27, 31, 38, 85. 141; 44, 119; 80. places heavy reliance deletion so-called objected apparent possibility 'except accurately difficulty easily removed 'validly Gilmore Black, Admiralty, 346; Robinson, 110; Rodes, Maritime Employees: Obscurity Twilight Zone, Harv.L.Rev. 637, 638 639; Morrison, Law, Yale L.J. 472, 500; Comment, 1205, 1210—1211. Commission, discussed n. opinion, p. 127, S.Ct., 1203. ruling 1959, span thirty-two years. require ignore Act—s 905—which applicable. 184. why. 'a subtraction Act.' contrary. trary. Moreover, Davis, explained twilightzone rule. 257,

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