Document: 438 U.S. 59 98 S.Ct. 2620 57 L.Ed.2d 595 DUKE POWER COMPANY, Appellant,v.CAROLINA ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY GROUP, INC., et al. UNITED STATES NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION al., Appellants, v. CAROLINA Nos. 77-262, 77-375. Argued March 20, 1978. Decided June 26, Syllabus The Price-Anderson Act (Act), having the dual purpose of protecting public and encouraging development nuclear energy industry, imposes a $560 million limitation on liability for accidents resulting from operation federally licensed private power plants, requires those indemnified by fund established under to waive all legal defenses in event substantial accident, further provides that accident involving damages excess amount aggregate Congress "will take whatever action is deemed necessary appropriate protect consequences disaster such magnitude." Appellant Duke Power Co. (Duke), an investor-owned utility which constructing plants North South Carolina, appellant Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), were sued appellees (an environmental organization, labor union, number individuals who live near question) sought declaration unconstitutional. After finding, inter alia, "immediate" adverse effects upon included thermal pollution lakes vicinity, emission non-natural radiation into appellees' environment, also there was "substantial likelihood" would not be able complete construction maintain "but for" protection provided Act, District Court held had standing challenge Act's constitutionality their claim could properly adjudicated. court then went hold violated Due Process Clause Fifth Amendment because recovery rationally related potential losses, tends encourage irresponsibility matters safety protection, no quid pro quo limitation; and, offended equal component forcing victims incidents bear burden injury, whereas society as whole benefits existence power. Held: 1. jurisdiction over complaint against NRC 28 U.S.C. § 1331(a) (1976 ed.) rather than 1337, jurisdictional base pleaded. complaint, fairly read, raised two basic challenges both are derived Amendment. Appellees' cause directly Constitution sufficiently sustain jurisdiction; question whether generally recognized need decided this record. Pp. 68-72. 2. Appellees have constitutionality. That several found harm sufficient satisfy "injury fact" prong constitutional requirement standing. And finding causal connection between satisfies second test standing, exercise court's remedial powers redress claimed injuries. 72-81. 3. ripe adjudication, since parties adversely affected decision defer definitive resolution validity vel non Act. To extent "issues ripeness involve, at least part, 'Case or Controversy.' " Regional Rail Reorganization Cases, 419 102, 138, 95 335, 355, 42 320 (1974), fact will immediate injury disputed redressed relief requested requirement. 81-82. 4. does violate 82-94. (a) record supports imposition statutory limit industry participation hence bears rational relationship Congress' concern stimulating industry's involvement production electric energy. P. 84. (b) Assuming, arguendo, insure full conceivable circumstances, it follow therefore irrational violative due process. When appraised light extremely remote possibility exceed commitment "take of" proportions, congressional fix ceiling within permissible limits 84-87. (c) Court's cannot withstand careful scrutiny, nothing liability-limitation provision undermines alters rigor integrity process involved review applications license construct operate plant, since, itself probably suffer largest damage. 87. (d) reasonably just substitute common-law state tort law remedies replaces, more required Clause. assurance recovery, accompanied fair reasonable uncertain magnitude manufacturer whose resources might well exhausted early stage. And, minimum, statutorily mandated waiver establishes threshold right injured compensation without proof fault eliminates delay uncertainty litigate after accident. 87-93. (e) There violation, general rationality limitation, particularly with reference exploitation energy, ample justification difference treatment injuries other causes. 93-94. 5. withdraw Tucker remedy, U.S.C.A 1491, thus Just Compensation must fail. taking matter appropriately left another day. 94 n. 39. 431 F.Supp. 203, reversed remanded. Steve C. Griffith, Jr., Charlotte, N. C., No. 77-262. Sol. Gen. Wade H. McCree, Washington, D. appellants William B. Schultz, appellees. Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 These appeals present may, consistent Constitution, impose 2 [Amicus Curiae Information pages 62-63 intentionally omitted] Federal Government. 3 * A. 4 passed Atomic Energy 1946, contemplated Government monopoly. See Aug. 1, ch. 724, 60 Stat. 755. Within decade, however, concluded national interest best served if encouraged sector become atomic peaceful purposes program federal regulation licensing. H.R.Rep. 2181, 83d Cong., 2d Sess., 1-11 (1954). 1954, 30, 1073, 68 919, amended, §§ 2011-2281 (1970 ed. Supp V), implemented policy decision, providing licensing construction, ownership, commercial reactors strict supervision (AEC).1 Reactor Development Electrical Workers, 367 396, 81 1529, 6 924 (1961), rev'g remanding, 108 U.S.App.D.C. 97, 280 F.2d 645 (1960). 5 Private responded 1954 experimental plant constructed auspices consortium interested companies. It soon became apparent profits accompanying risks substantial. Green, Power: Risk, Liability, Indemnity, 71 Mich.L.Rev. 479-481 (1973) (Green). Although AEC offered incentives investment, remained path various problems—the risk potentially vast sizable being major obstacle. Notwithstanding comprehensive testing study, uniqueness form made impossible totally rule out extensive confident occur, but very meant remained, dwarfed ability insurance companies absorb risk. Hearings before Joint Committee Indemnity Licensees Contractors Against Hazards, 84th 122-124 (1956). Thus, while repeatedly stressing remote, spokesmen informed they forced field limited legislation. Id., 9, 109-110, 115, 120, 136-137, 148, 181, 195, 240. 1957 passing 576, 2210 Supp. V). "protect[ing] . encourag[ing] industry." 2012(i). In its original form, single incident2 $500 plus available market—some $60 1957. purchase maximum privately underwritten insurance, exceeded coverage, indemnify licensee "persons indemnified"3 million. actual coverage Government's indemnification obligation totaled 7 Since enactment, has been twice first occasion eve expiration 1966.4 amendments extended provisions 10 years, added effect requiring accident.5 This based dealing unsettled some way insuring common standard responsibility jurisdictions—strict liability—was needed. A thought preferable approach entailed less interference enactment statute prescribing liability.6 S.Rep. 1605, 89th 6-10 (1966); U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.Code 1966, p. 3201. 8 1975, again until 1987, continued liability. However new requiring, incident, each reactor owners contribute $2 $5 toward cost compensating victims.7 2210(b) ed., same level, "deferred premium" reduce contribution pool.8 explicitly "in incident [the] liability, thoroughly particular ." 2210(e) 9 Under presently stands, causing spread follows: $315 paid contributions licensees 63 operating plants; $140 come (the now available); remainder $105 borne Government.9 B Co., one Carolina Carolina. Power, along NRC, appellees, organizations—Carolina Environmental Study Group Catawba Central Labor Union—and 40 close proximity planned facilities. commenced 1973, sought, among relief, unconstitutional.10 11 engaged discovery, evidentiary hearing questions issues adjudication determined standi g unconstitutional respects: allowed occur assuring adequate victims; 12 We noted probable jurisdiction11 these appeals, 434 937, 426, 54 297 (1977), we reverse. II 13 As matter, address subject-matter claims, despite none issue did consider it. Liberty Mutual Ins. Wetzel, 424 737, 740, 96 1202, 1204, 47 435 (1976). alleges 1337 ed.), district courts "any civil proceeding arising any regulating commerce trade restraints monopolies." Our reading pleadings,12 indicates claims do "arise under" language interpreted prior decisions. Peyton Railway Express Agency, 316 350, 353, 62 1171, 1172, 86 L.Ed. 1525 (1942). 14 Specifically, read making Act—both find moorings First, contend protects them arbitrary governmental affecting property rights Act—which creates source underlying therefor—constitutes action. second, contending "taken" compensation. instrument record, it, Implicit assumption exists vindicate through suit executive agency charged enforcement administration allegedly statute.13 depends interpretation itself, instead "upon application Constitution," Smith Kansas City Title Trust 255 180, 199, 41 243, 245, 65 577 (1921). Hence, hear all, federal-question statute, 1337—the pleaded.14 15 For determining resolve decide alleged "on [appellees] actually recover." Bell Hood, 327 678, 682, 66 773, 776, 90 939 (1946). Instead, 'the so patently merit justify dismissal want jurisdiction.' Hagans Lavine, 415 528, 542-543, 1372, 1382, 39 (1974) quoting supra, 683, S.Ct., 776. (Emphasis added.) Oneida Indian Nation County Oneida, 414 661, 666, 772, 778, 73 (test "so insubstantial, implausible, foreclosed decisions Court, otherwise completely devoid involve controversy"). decisions, example, Bivens Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 388, 91 1999, 29 619 (1971) admonition "where protected invaded alert adjust grant relief," U.S., 684, 777, conclude allegations 1331(a).15 16 here. implicate our jurisdiction, see below, briefed, addressed during oral argument. last Term similar context, sort should resolved inadequate record; leaving unresolved bar consideration merits. Mt. Healthy Bd. Educ. Doyle, 429 274, 278-279, 97 568, 571-572, 50 471 (1977). enough colorable 1331(a).16 III 17 Judge four days hearings ripeness; his factual findings basis analysis issues. 18 essence inquiry seeking invoke "alleged personal stake outcome controversy assure concrete adverseness sharpens presentation largely illumination difficult questions." Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 82 691, 703, 663 (1962). refined subsequent reformulation, "personal stake" understood require only "distinct palpable injury," plaintiff, Warth Seldin, 422 490, 501, 2197, 2206, 45 343 (1975), "fairly traceable" challenged conduct. Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 252, 261, 555, 561, 450 Simon Eastern Ky. Welfare Rights Org., 426 41-42, 1917, 1925-1926, 48 (1976); Linda R. S. Richard D., 410 614, 617, 93 1146, 1148, 35 536 (1973). Application standards persuades us Art. requisites satisfied 19 turn kinds suffered. discerned categories resulted dangerous living working environment. included: small quantities invade air water; "sharp increase" temperature used recreational use lake waters produce steam cool reactor; normal River; threatened reduction prop rty values land neighboring "objectively reasonable" fear apprehension regarding "effect increased radioactivity air, water property, genetic descendants"; (f) continual threat "an uncontrolled release large even radioactive material" resultant 209. Into category placed "which may result CORE MELT OR OTHER MAJOR ACCIDENT IN THE OPERATION OF REACTOR 209.17 20 inquiry, determine putative identified generated future uncertainty, requirements. Compare O'Shea Littleton, 488, 669, 38 674 United States SCRAP, 412 2405, 37 254 Conservation Society Southern Vermont AEC, Civ. Action 19-72 (DC Apr. 17, 1975). Certainly aesthetic vicinity type harmful cases standard. supra. Cf. Sierra Club Morton, 405 727, 734, 92 1361, 1365, 31 636 (1972).18 environment seem direct given generalized about exposure flowing health emissions like concededly emitted plants.19 21 step establishing can traced defendant," 41, 1926, put otherwise, 43, 1926. unconstitutional, "and view them." F.Supp., 219. Particularizing link facts instant case, "there likelihood McGuire Plants Act." 220. 22 findings, which, accepted, likely elaborated Simon,20 grounds. argued evidence presented hearing, contrary conclusion reached indicated completed operated contended not, essential sense, chosen pursue monopoly 1946 1954. reject arguments. 23 neither nor absent rested part testimony corporate officials (JCAE) 1956-1957 when considered 1975 renewal discussed. During hearings, utilities producers parts expressed categorical unwillingness participate guarantees 215. 486, 490-491.21 By tenor changed slightly. While somewhat equivocal failure renew entail smaller architects engineers whom building generating plants—considered critical variable 216-217. letter urging extension cited recent experiences suppliers contractors inclusion cancellation clauses contracts eliminated. 217. Report JCAE, discussing stated: 24 "Nuclear planning design phases receive permits 1977-1978. Thus indemnity. manufacturers architect-engineers already escape permit unlimited provided. prevent disruption plans power." H.R.Rep.No.94-648, (1975). 25 Nor evaluation primary trial judge, odds impression drawn legislative history. Executive Vice President Lee simply echoed views others is, although themselves respect factors proceed shareholders expected cautious view.22 expert essentially effect. Considering documentary say "the definite firm conviction that" clearly erroneous; hence, bound accept Gypsum 333 364, 395, 526, 541 (1948). 26 attack warrants brief attention. Essentially argument understand claim, passed, undertaken own accrued Government-operated ones. Whatever ultimate accuracy speculation, responsive simple proposition nuclear-powered injuring occurred implementation Nothing party negate kind speculative hypothetical possibilities suggested order demonstrate effectiveness judicial relief. 27 addition conduct, asserted. nexus said origin Flast Cohen, 392 83, 88 1942, 947 (1968), where taxpayer considered: "The demanded taxpayers aspects establish logical status attacked. Secondly, precise nature infringement alleged." Richardson, 418 166, 174-175, 2940, 2945-2946, 678 (1974). Price-Ande son injuries, continues, supply predicate standing.23 decline 30 difficulty implicitly assumes formulated context suits applicability types brought courts. No outside asserted alleged, aware none.24 Schlesinger Reservists Comm. Stop War, 208, 225, 2925, 2934, 706 rejected broad compass requirement: "Looking 'to substantive issues' stated 'appropriate necessary' relation express 'whether [taxpayer] adjudicated.' 102 [88 1942]. citizen applicable taxing spending challenged. 32 continue contention that, taxpayers' suits, litigant something "case controversy" III.25 33 have, acknowledged "other class persons courts' decisional powers," 499, 2205, derive prudential concerns "about proper—and limited—role democratic society." 498, 2205. 221-227, 2932-2935. declined amounts grievance shared citizens substantially measure. narrowly circumstances give assert another. "[E]ven plaintiff meet 'case controversy' requirement, interests, rest interests third parties." Raines, 362 80 519, 524 third-party arguably suggests bearing resemblance urged us. 34 good reasons implicated avoidance wish assert, most effective advocate champion them. Singleton Wulff, 428 106, 113-114, 2868, 2873-2874, 49 826 satisfactory applying course. Where champions rights, particularized prevented requested, practical doctrine met. See, e. g., Act.26 C 36 long detain Controversy,' "Regional 356, appear considerations embodied argue strongly prompt presented. true yet occurrence eliminate much existing scientific surrounding subject, view, significantly advance deal aid resolution. However, delayed foreclose suffered appellees—relief b forthcoming prevail Similarly, frustrate key Act—the elimination doubts concerning scope short, persuaded "we better position later now" question, id., 143-145, 359, adjudication. IV contravened "[t]he losses"; ."; finally "[t]here limitations. 222-223. An violation "places [nuclear power] arbitrarily segment society, catastrophe." 225. relevant principles forces holdings sustained. begins discussion review. portraying balancing economic urge accorded traditional presumption regulations upheld arbitrariness irrationality Congress. Ferguson Skrupa, 372 726, 731-732, 83 1028, 1031-1032, (1963); Usery Turner Elkhorn Mining 15, 2882, 2892, 752 Appellees, elevated ground jeopardized "are far important business-oriented cases" invoked. Brief 36. intermediate applied Craig Boren, 190, 451, 397 (1976) (equal males older females beer) New York Jersey, 1505, 52 (1977) (Contract repeal covenant security bondholders) recommended history, clear remove impediments stimulate simultaneously catastrophic incident. 296, 85th 1st (1957); U.S.Code, 1957, 1803. emerges classic example regulation—a effort structure accommodate burdens life." 2892. "It [such] Acts constitutionality, complaining legislature acted way." Ibid. accommodation struck profound far-reaching consequences, suggestion, reason judgment unless demonstrably irrational.27 examined review, passes muster. fully enterprise power; different view. Rather figure million, aptly summarized position: losses. Abundant shows catastrophe place certain likely, nevertheless, territory located, damage life generations many, many times places liability." 222. 43 circumstances28—and hard truth ever know—it means history arrived supposition alone necessarily guarantee conceived "starting point" hypothesis.29 reasonableness statute's assumed predicated corollary considerations—expert appraisals exceedingly recognition enact extraordinary provide additional accord practice. 44 "[T]his detract afforded place, occurring exceeding sum financial indemnity albeit theoretically possible. Perhaps important, magnitude, obvious problem natural man-made disasters, Texas out. serves primarily device facilitating situation, public." 883, Sess. 6-7 (1965). 21; 94-648, pp. 12, 46 Given general, limiting acceptable method utilize power, candor acknowledgment selected will, necessity, sense choice imponderables here always characterized. flaws terms limitation30 disaster, U.S.C V),31 stage "tends builders owners" 222, scrutin recently outlined multitude detailed steps Yankee Corp. NRDC, 526-527, n.5, 1197, 1203-1204, 55 460 (1978); Moreover, perhaps damages. obviously compared loss human health, possible bankruptcy incentive avoid irresponsible cavalier conduct attributed remaining objection fails abrogates. Initially, legislatively enacted scheme either duplicate remedy.32 does, replaces. White, 243 188, 247, 61 667 (1917); Crowell Benson, 285 22, 285, 76 598 (1932).33 mechanism reflects determination reliance state-court procedures unsatisfactory accidents, time nuclear-produced remarks Chairman Anders illustrative expectation efficient vehicle unlikely incident: defect alternative [nonrenewal Act], afford secure funds plants. theory assured obtaining Price-Anderson. Establishing depend case procedures, no-fault let multiple protections equitable pre-structured nationally protective system uncertainties, variations lengthy delays recovery. emphasized, moreover, collecting judgment, filing lawsuit, counts. Even waived law, defendant "unlimited" unable pay once obtained. defendant's assets earlier judgments, claimants uncollectable awards. prospect inequitable distribution race courthouse door contrast orderly compensation." H.R. 8631 Energy, 94th 69 51 differ appraisal They argue, greater 2210(n) idle gesture strictly liable principles;34 claim-administration procedure expedites individual recovery; vary damaged. short statutes limitations omnibus35 save equally fairer plan disagree. commitment, ccident, manufacturer, raises serious approaching million—the guaranteed Act.36 mandatory benefit claimants. never been, knowledge, covered apply speculative. At Further, routinely applied, subject exceptions acts God parties37—two emphasized course arguing admitted. All belie suggestion leaves disadvantageous remedies—not known modern speed economy. 53 objections briefly treated. ceiling, 15% distributed pending approval account "possible latent discovered time." 2210(o )(3) supp. v). althoUgh somE DELAY MIGht compliance procedure, doubt routine litigation caused accident.38 insures injury—both latent; route, proverbial "first crack" diminishing tortfeasor, fairness sacrificed individualized thinly disguised version inadequate, rejected. adjudicating Workmen's 201, observed Fourteenth recover enactment. "[H]e entitled moderate speedy remedy expense negligence proving damages." logic renewed force reasonable, prompt, level net recoverable litigation. contains explicit exceeded. panoply replaced contravene "equal Amendment," 224-225, relied arguments track support claim. event, violation. energy—is Speculation arrangements ways course, pertinent analysis. Mourning Family Publications Service, Inc., 411 378, 1652, 1665, 318 (1973).39 56 Accordingly, reversed, remanded proceedings opinion. Reversed 58 STEWART, concurring result. With difficulty, I 1331 here, Commission, responsible allegation enforced, deprive One sole cognizable one, state-created impinges accidents. But sheer speculation occur. think justiciable controversy, initiate On relies "present" temperatures low-level emissions. assuming exist believe follows Apart loosest concept, jurisdiction. Surely challenge, successful, existence. plaintiff's 450; 687-690, 2415-2417, 254; 617-618, 1148-1149, 536. local bring unrelated as-yet-to-occur reasons, remand instructions dismiss complaint. 64 REHNQUIST, STEVENS joins, judgment. willingness reach merits thereby cast statute. doing, ignores carefully defined cases. Because preservation run jurisprudence however too reverse Montana-Dakota Utilities Northwestern Public Service 341 246, 249-250, 692, 694-695, 912 (1951). Giving conclusory liberal reading, purport grounds declaratory requested. deprives irrationally courts.1 Second, works covers protec ing 67 "arising Their vicinity. App. 32, ¶ 21. "give rise redress. arises wrongful act created 'any slight,' plaintiff." 221 (W.D.N.C.1977) (citations omitted). state, federal, becomes defense mere anticipation Louisville Nashville Mottley, 211 149, 42, 126 (1908), plaintiffs compel specific performance contract railroad granted free life. presence forbidding railroads passes. inapplicable unconstitutional: settled words ['arising under'], conferring laws statement Constitution. anticipated action, asserts invalidated States. show litigation, arise, suit, Constitution." 152, 43. 70 Mottley arose Kentucky law. construed ed.). seek Declaratory Judgment 2201 well-pleaded merely expands expanding current indubitably State vindicated State-created, fe eral law." Skelly Oil Phillips Petroleum 339 667, 673, 876, 880, 1194 (1950). Texaco 125, 1002, 209 (1974); Wright, Miller, E. Cooper, Practice Procedure 3566, 437-438 (1975).2 72 grants proceeding. arise setting up deny Indeed, independent Duke. Ante, 16. states joint tortfeasor administrator implied obtain statutes. hardly crystal clarity 74 More importantly, taken all. Duke, enter agreement "to $125,000,000 $560,000,000." 31, 13. Neither actions gist unconstitutionality Duke's separate apart authorized execute 2210(d) liability; hands ) dIstrict suit.3 75 make Commission. quite controversy. Muskrat States, 219 346, 361-362, 250, 255-256, 246 (1911). damaged "challenged defendant" traced." Wel- fare 1925, If unconstitutionality, party, defendant. 505, 2208, describe aspect central destruction 'taking' term Amendment." 62. makes itself. Jurisdiction extends vindicating Switchmen National Mediation Board, 297, 300, 95, 96, (1943), General Missouri-Kansas-Texas 323, 337, 146, (1943). maintained takings compensation, 1337. 77 1346(a)(2) $10,000.4 "But authorizing money judgments States." Richardson Morris, 409 464, 465, 629, 631, 647 incontro ertibly Claims ibid., King, 395 89 1501, (1969). 78 79 STEVENS, string contingencies supposedly holds together delicate me. told financing parties, appellees; asked possibly future, injure significant injury. remarkable series speculations standing;* occurs JUSTICE REHNQUIST demonstrates, place. serve removing cannot, therefore, criticize statesmanship country advisory subject. Nevertheless, my proper function court, ore limited. statesmen; judges. duty so. whenever expediency engage business giving advice, chip away foundation independence strength. join REHNQUIST'S 1974, 5801 seq. (NRC) regulatory authority. "nuclear incident" causing, bodily sickness, disease, death, radioactive, toxic, explosive, hazardous properties source, special nuclear, by-product material 2014(q). 'person indemnified' (1) person executed 2014(t). originally licenses issued August 1967. 4, 2210(c). incorporated agreement. negligence, contributory charitable immunity occurrence, are, degree, 891, 2210(n)(1). C.F.R. 140.81 140.85, 140.91 140.92 amended 1966 transfer court. 2210(n)(2). finds payments approves parties. empowered choose $2-$5 range, set assessment Fed.Reg. increases, deferred premium yield ceiling. predicted 1985 138 operating, Office President, Plan $690 market. automatically increases secondary (deferred premium) exceeds figure. witness testified homeowners catastrophes absorbed entire capacity markets insurance." 293-294. AEC's pendency Appeals Columbia Circuit permits. 166 416, 510 796 dismissed counts except relating invoked 1252 appeal invalidating agencies, officers, employees part: "19. losses approximately 21/2% would, 32. Mr insofar denial process, stating emerge state-law "well-pleaded" regardless upon. (1908). poses assertion ingredient asserting infra. Previously minimum 1976 amendment eliminated "brought thereof, officer employee thereof official capacity." Pub.L. 94-574, 2, 2721. permitted specification Andrus Charlestone Stone Products 436 604, 608 n.6, 2002, 2005 570 (1978). fatal n.6. "taking" 1331(a), adjudicated 1491 taking, Claims, requesting such, tracks closely petitioners O.T.1974, 74-165, 74-166, 74-167, 74-168, 161, 367. expand remedies. Here allows uncompensable established, absence authority award explanation core melt, 206-207. "We 'injury fact' lay Aesthetic well-being, ingredients quality 1366. rely erroneous accepted "A 'clearly erroneous' reviewing mistake committed." 525, 542, 746 persuade accepted. showing 262, 38, 1924, ("MHDC shown 'likely favorable decision' "). 504, 506-507, 2207, 2209-2210, situation 1965-1966, 10-year considered. H.R.Rep.No.883, Green 493. "From what know recommendation point how perceive undertaking advised firms supplier .. exist, evaluate disappearance marketplace arriving recommendation." 368-369. possess (1973), nontaxpayer denying appellant's nonenforcement Texas' desertion nonsupport Upon denied unlikelihood 618, 1149. qualitative broader 's advocate. Scott, Standing Supreme Court—A Functional Analysis, Harv.L.Rev. 645, 660-662 Both formulation, 130-131, 1962, 1968-1969 (Harlan J., dissenting), recently, 196 18, 2948, 2956, (POWELL, concurring), constitutionally limitation. undertakes sever executing agreements infirmities—particularly provisions. Careful examination separation execution triggers terms, applies indemnified." licensees, object, play. fact, coupled built operated, justiciability 44-46, 1927-1928. League Cities Usery, 833, 2465, 245 (1976), encroaches government augmented warranted. studies indicate, considerable 210-214. Safety published 20,000 chance (per year) $100 minor effects. contrast, reduced range billion year), approached $14 billion; 3,300 fatalities 45,000 illnesses predicted. Study, Assessment Accident Risks U. Commercial 83-85 (Wash.-1400, Oct. thorough criticism EPA, (Wash.-1400): Review Final (June 1976). "What thinking seemed didn't happen recognize happen. wanted work from." Possible Modification Extension Insurance Ind mnity Order Proper Planning Continue Without Delay, 93d (remarks Rep. Holifield) (emphasis added). probabilities lower severe previously," factor increase 1975. 94-454, Admin.News 2251, 2262. past emergency assistance 1955, Explosion Relief 707, explosion ammonium nitrate fertilizer 1947. took Dalehite 346 956, 1427 (1953), holding Tort incurred legislation flood collapse Teton Dam Idaho. 94-400, 1211. Secretary Interior deaths, dam. improvement efforts "[a] vested interest, Second Employers' Liability 223 50, 169, 175, (1912), Munn Illinois, 113, 134, (1877). "Constitution forbid creation abolition old ones attain object," Silver Silver, 117, 122, 57, 58, (1929), "otherwise expectations" upset thereby. 16, Arizona 250 400, 419-422, 553, 555-556, 1058 (1919). relatively commonplace consistently enforced supra (automobile guest statute); Providence S.S. Hill Mfg. 109 578, 379, 1038 (1883) (limitation vessel owner's liability); America Pan American Airways, 338 (SDNY 1944) (Warsaw Convention international travel). Thomason Sanchez, 539 955 (C.A.3 1976) (Federal Driver's Act). outset differs Put argument, proceeds premise right, Clause, advantage inhibited accept. visited sources. regard substitution insist requires. Rylands Fletcher, L.R. I. (H.L.1868). W. Prosser, Law Torts 79, 516 (4th 1971); Cavers, Improving Financial Protection Hazards 644, 649 (1964). 3, country, accumulate $200 reaching insolvency. 393-397. amount, reorganization, delayed. Issues Activities Selected Materials Legislation, 110 (Comm. Print 1974). n.34, 520-521. "payments to, of, following incident." 2210(m). Unlike damages, conditioned victim. destroyed unnecessary constitute precedents 125-136, 349-354. concede 56. abandoned so-called "since duplicative arguments." 26. today undermine "that supposed allege tortfeasor. then, obtained 1331. felicitous member $10,000. prerequisite Zahn International Paper 291, 511 Despite assurances, today's erosion doctrine. Had joined defendants ephemeral according though binding Railroad. Innumerable affect daily undoubtedly appreciate rendered hope opinions suing verges frivolous. true, remarks, ante, "absent [indemnity] play." connection, Commission's invocation events, concludes, contend, "arises cites "when sub silentio, brings us." 535 5, 1378, Cases cite validity. embraces superfluous, cf. Testan, 392, 404, 948, 114 $10,000 previously litigated Claims. Such expansion accomplished briefing. almost projects, private. Statutes facilitate abound—from tax prohibiting fraudulent securities transactions. assume, neighbors legality utility's financing. Blue Chip Stamps Manor Drug Stores, 421 723, 539.

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