Document: 453 U.S. 280 101 S.Ct. 2766 69 L.Ed.2d 640 Alexander M. HAIG, Jr., Secretary of State the United States, Petitioner,v.Philip AGEE. No. 80-83. Argued Jan. 24, 1981. Decided June 29, Syllabus Respondent, an American citizen and a former employee Central Intelligence Agency, announced campaign "to expose CIA officers agents to take measures necessary drive them out countries where they are operating." He then engaged in activities abroad that have resulted identifications alleged undercover intelligence sources foreign countries. Because these revoked respondent's passport, explaining revocation was based on regulation authorizing passport determines citizen's "are causing or likely cause serious damage national security policy States." The notice also advised respondent his right administrative hearing. Respondent filed suit against Federal District Court, seeking declaratory injunctive relief alleging invoked by has not been authorized Congress is impermissibly overbroad; violated freedom travel First Amendment criticize Government policies; failure accord him prerevocation hearing Fifth procedural due process. Granting summary judgment for ordering restore Court held exceeded Secretary's power under Passport Act 1926, which authorizes "grant issue passports, passports be granted, issued, verified diplomatic representatives States . such rules as President shall designate prescribe. ." Appeals affirmed, holding required show either express delegation implied approval "substantial consistent" practice, no authority had shown. Held: 1926 pursuant challenged regulation, being "sufficiently substantial compel conclusion approved it; constitutional applied. Pp. 289-310. (a) Although does terms authorize revoke deny application, neither it expressly limit those powers. It beyond dispute he reasons specified statutes, and, concedes, if may application certain reason, same ground. 289-291. (b) In light broad rulemaking granted Act, consistent construction must followed courts, absent compelling indications wrong. This especially so fact statute deals with security, congressional silence equated disapproval. 291-292. (c) Absent evidence any legislative intent repudiate prior similar 1856 preserving nonstatutory withhold grounds, concluded enacting adopted construction. Moreover, Executive consistently construed work change practice. 292-300. (d) A 1978 making unlawful without even peacetime amendment providing "[u]nless law," absence war armed hostilities, imminent danger travelers, geographically restricted, weighty interpretation particularly set forth regulation. 300-301. (e) An practice though occasions invoking limited. pattern actual enforcement one indicator policy, suffices openly asserted at issue. Kent v. Dulles, 357 116, 78 1113, 2 1204, distinguished. 301-303. (f) protection accorded belief standing alone very different from conduct. Here, beliefs speech only part campaign, presents officials security. 304-306. (g) language permits cases involving likelihood "serious damage" claims merit. hold subordinate considerations, subject reasonable governmental Assuming arguendo protections reach our boundaries, claim foundation. See Near Minnesota ex rel. Olson, 283 697, 716, 51 625, 631, 75 L.Ed. 1357. To extent operates inhibit him, inhibition action, rather than speech. And record this case, hearing, since there result holder's abroad, action ensure holder exploit States' sponsorship travels. Constitution's process guarantees call more what here: statement opportunity prompt postrevocation 306-310. 203 U.S.App.D.C. 46, 629 F.2d 80, reversed remanded. Sol. Gen. Wade H. McCree, Washington, D.C., petitioner. Melvin L. Wulf, New York City, respondent. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented whether President, acting through State, ground States. * A. 3 Philip Agee, citizen, currently resides West Germany.1 From 1957 1968, employed Agency. key positions division Agency responsible covert gathering course duties Agee received training clandestine operations, including methods used protect identities employees overseas. served assignments came know many other persons supplying information relationships people highly confidential; still gathering. 4 1974, called press conference London announce "campaign fight wherever operating. declared operating."2 Since has, own assertion, devoted effort program, traveled extensively order carry out. identify personnel particular country, goes target country consults local circles whom knows service Government. recruits collaborators trains techniques designed "cover" sources. repeatedly publicly identified individuals organizations located agents, employees, sources.3 reveals divulge classified information,4 violate Agee's contract make public statements about matters clearance Agency,5 prejudiced ability obtain intelligence,6 episodes violence identified.7 5 December 1979, explanatory Germany. states part: 6 "The Department's predicated upon determination made provisions [22 CFR] Section 51.70(b)(4) your are, summary, follows: early 1970's stated intention conduct continuous disrupt operations carrying you travelled various (including, among others, Mexico, Kingdom, Denmark, Jamaica, Cuba, Germany), caused Your continue threatens additional kind."8 7 hearing9 offered Germany days' notice. 8 once Secretary.10 Secretary, 22 CFR § (1980), invalid; process; liberty interest policies. sought relief, moved promulgate claims. For purposes motion, conceded factual averments11 were States.12 statutory powers U.S.C. 211a,13 ordered passport. Vance, 483 F.Supp. 729 (DC 1980). B 9 divided panel affirmed. Muskie, 80 (1980). Zemel Rusk, 381 1, 12, 85 1271, 1278, 14 179 (1965). court found revocation. perceived case promulgated five instances actually denied "even arguably reasons." U.S.App.D.C., 51-52, F.2d, 85-86. took note reliance "a series regulations, proclamations, orders advisory opinions dating back 1856," but declined consider authorities, reasoning "the criterion establishing assent inaction imposition sanctions mere assertion power." Id., 52-53, 86-87. sufficient "Agee's considered some border treason," "[w]e bound law we find it." 53, 87. regarded material most authorities dealt Branch "during time emergency"14 respect "engaged criminal conduct."15 52, 86. 10 We certiorari sub nom. Muskie 449 818, 69, 66 20 stayed until disposition grant certiorari.16 II 11 principal before us regulation.17 12 historical background develop later important, begin statute. e. g., Universities Research Assn. Coutu, 450 754, 771, 1451, 1461, 67 662 (1981); Zemel, supra, 7-8, S.Ct., 1275-1276. provides pertinent 13 prescribe behalf person grant, issue, verify passports." 211a (1976 ed., Supp. IV). unchanged its original enactment 1926.18 15 words confer Nor, matter, denials applications.19 Neither, however, statutes. example, 1204 (1958), recognized acquiescence policies refusing applicants "participating illegal conduct, trying escape toils law, promoting frauds, otherwise engaging would laws 127, 1119. weightiest considerations security" restrict Cuba Cuban missile crisis. U.S., 16, 1280. concedes ground.20 16 Particularly "broad rule-making [1926] Act," courts " 'unless wrong.' E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. Collins, 432 55, 97 2229, 2234, 53 100 (1977), quoting Red Lion Broadcasting FCC, 395 367, 381, 89 1794, 1802, 23 371 (1969); see 11, 1278. areas disapproval.21 Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 304, 57 216, 81 255 (1936), volatile nature problems confronting defense underscored: 17 "In vast external realm, complicated, delicate manifold problems, speak listen representative nation.. As Marshall said great argument March 7, 1800, House Representatives, 'The sole organ nation relations, nations.' 319, 220. 18 Applying construction, observed: 19 "[B]ecause changeable explosive contemporary international immediately privy cannot swiftly to, evaluated by, acted legislature, Congress—in giving over affairs—must necessity paint brush broader customarily wields domestic areas." 17, 1281 (emphasis supplied). Matters intimately related rarely proper subjects judicial intervention. Harisiades Shaughnessy, 342 580, 72 512, 96 586 (1952), observed relating relations exclusively entrusted political branches government largely immune inquiry interference." 589, 519; accord, Chicago Southern Air Lines, Inc. Waterman S.S. 333 103, 111, 68 431, 436, 92 568 (1948). 21 is, sense, letter introduction issuing sovereign vouches bearer requests sovereigns aid bearer. G. Hackworth, Digest International Law 268, p. 499 (1942). Very early, "[A passport] document, which, object, addressed powers; purporting request, pass safely freely; character recognised, countries, citizen; usage nations, fact." Urtetiqui D'Arcy, Pet. 692, 698, 276 (1835). With control legislation generally requirement abroad,22 added characteristics. Most important present purposes, means can lawfully leave return it—absent Presidentially exception—is 1185(b) both proof identity allegiance Even statute, remains sense document 24 history controls earliest days Republic shows recognition basis policy. Prior 1856, when subject, common perception issuance committed discretion exercise interests States.23 derived accepted view province responsibility Executive.24 outset, endorsed underlying premise specific passports. Early Congresses enacted statutes recognizing passports.25 25 first provided "shall 23, Stat. 60.26 permissive worked passports; nor intended do so. passed centralize Government27 specifically State.28 all respects, 26 "merely confirmed already possessed exercised State. ancillary citizens necessarily incident general affairs Executive." Senate Committee Operations, Reorganization Functions Department 86th Cong., 2d Sess., (Comm. Print 1960). 27 preserve their grounds. Thus, emergency measure 1861, issued prohibiting going entering denying who military unless bonded; absolutely "on errands hostile injurious peace dangerous Union." J. Moore, 920 (1906); U. S. Dept. 49-54 (1898).29 1869 Attorney General Hoar granting "obligatory case." Op.Atty.Gen. 89, 92. elaborated 1901 Knox, stated: 28 "Substantial exist use word 'may' connection Circumstances conceivable inexpedient 509, 511. 29 1903, Theodore Roosevelt rule "[t]he refuse will towards anyone who, reason believe, desires further improper purpose."30 Subsequent Orders between 1907 1917 cast doubt position.31 enforced years whose "likely embarrass States"32 "disturbing, endeavoring disturb, countries."33 30 By 1918,34 clear expectation curtail prevent american contrary 1918 fear "renegade Americans" engage "transference information" entitled it.35 left exceptions hands Executive, articulating standards. Unless apply criteria decisions, purpose Travel Control plainly frustrated. 31 Against background, while effect, 1926. sparse. However, identical (supra, 294), amended,36 clearly awareness policy.37 There longstanding construction.38 evidence, conclude Congress, Lorillard Pons, 434 575, 580-581, 98 866, 869-870, 55 40 (1978). 32 interpreted denial grounds Indeed, unbroken line Orders,39 regulations,40 instructions consular officials,41 notices holders,42 single decisions. regulations instructive. 1952 version "[i]n promote assuring free Fed.Reg. 8013 (1952). 1956 should 33 "activities would: Violate States; prejudicial orderly relations; 51.136 (1958). 34 remained effect continuously 1966. 35 communicated routine promulgation presentations, 1966 reports regulation43 1960 Staff Report precedent vested traveling best Nation."44 36 1966, State45 case. §§ 51.70(b)(4), 51.71(a) Closely paralleling national's States."46 37 sometimes nothing face 1278; Udall Tallman, 380 16-18, 792, 801-802, 616 (1965); Norwegian Nitrogen 288 294, 313, 350, 357, 77 796 (1933); Costanzo Tillinghast, 287 341, 345, 152, 154, 350 (1932). inference "is supported inaction." 11-12, 1278-1279. Twelve after aboard peacetime. IV).47 Simultaneously, amended provide war, restricted.48 Title IV) read pari materia Act. 1278-1279; 2A C. Sands, Sutherland Statutory Construction 51.03, (4th ed. 1973); cf. Erlenbaugh 409 239, 243-244, 93 477, 480, 446 (1972).49 38 amendments interpretation, regulations. Despite officially 1978, "though again completely untouched earlier Act." NLRB Bell Aerospace Co., 416 267, 274-275, 94 1757, 1761-62, 134 (1974).50 39 argues way establish implicit claimed power: showing proposition, relies Kent, 127-128, 1118-1119.51 contention frequent few cases. occasions—or few—to into play, wholly irrelevant. emerges relation situation, continued validity diluted simply because need it. 41 situations arisen, Perhaps notable example surely could escaped attention 1948 Member go support movement Greece overthrow existing government.52 Another 1954 man arms groups taken States.53 1970, two site airplane hijacking.54 Note, 61 Yale L.J. 170, 174-176 42 applied consistently, anomalous fault "openly asserted" 9, 1277; id., 10, 1277. 43 contrary. There, shown consistently. stressed "as respects Communists scattered rulings pattern." 128, words, allowed Communists, Kent. doubts reality definite acquiesced. contrast, failed enforce others turn head say record, lacks deal problem encountered.55 44 contends diminished weight concern wartime. argument. History eloquently attests grave limited times formally war.56 45 Relying "illegal conduct" were, "so far relevant here, [grounds] fairly argued practice," 1118-1119, enumeration exclusive controlling here. correct. 46 occasion individual damaging involved solely protection. Aptheker 378 500, 84 1659, 992 (1964). finding unnecessary merits problem, emphasized beliefs, associations, ideological matters." 130, 1120 particular, noted 47 "being refusal subjected associations. They seek Communists. But assuming curtailing across borders yet become effective. therefore strange infer pending effectiveness silently larger, pervasive satisfy himself associations." Ibid. (footnote omitted). 48 like unconstitutionally "establishes irrebuttable presumption members will, given inimical 511, 1666. legitimacy objective safeguarding "obvious unarguable." 1665. explained least restrictive alternative available: prohibition tenuous relationship bare organizational membership activity proscribe." 514, 1668. 49 Beliefs CIA." contrasts markedly facts Aptheker.57 No presumptions, rebuttable otherwise, involved, security.58 50 1279. III attacks three grounds: first, burdens travel; second, penalize deter criticism practices; third, 52 Revocation undeniably curtails travel, "letter introduction" form considerations; such, plain outside distinguished within underscored Califano Aznavorian, 439 176, 99 471, 474-475, 58 435 (1978): 54 "Aznavorian urges basically equivalent interstate years. Edwards California, 314 160, 62 164, 86 119; Twining Jersey, 211 78, 97, 14, 18, 97; Williams Fears, 270, 274, 129, 186; Crandall Nevada, Wall. 35, 43-44, 744; Passenger Cases, How. 283, 492, 702 (Taney, J., dissenting). often pointed crucial difference internationally travel. virtually unqualified. Guest, 383 745, 757-758, 1170, 1177-1178, 239 (1966); Griffin Breckenridge, 403 88, 105-106, 91 1790, 1799-1800, 338 (1971). contrast "right" aspect "liberty" protected Due Process Clause Amendment. "right," held, regulated bounds process.' (Citations omitted.) Torres, n. 6, 906, 908 65." 56 unarguable" Nation. 1665; Cole Young, 351 536, 546, 76 861, 868, 1396 (1956); 13-17, 1279-1281. Protection importance, neatly compartmentalized. Measures secrecy Government's serve interests. Snepp 444 507, 3, 763, 765, 704 protecting appearance confidentiality essential effective operation service." 511-513, 766-767. Corp. properly emphasized: "[The President] confidential information. diplomatic, officials. Secrecy gathered necessary, premature disclosure productive harmful results." 320, 221. 59 Accord, 436; Federalist 64, pp. 392-393 (Mentor 1961). 60 Not jeopardized endangered States59—thereby creating Restricting although perhaps activities, avenue open activities.60 Assuming, arguendo, rests content speech: specifically, repeated disclosures names personnel. Long ago, "[n]o might obstruction recruiting publication sailing dates transports number location troops." 1357 (1931), citing Z. Chafee, Freedom Speech (1920). disclosures, things, obstructing Constitution. render law. "it action," 16-17, 1280-1281 passport—always course, limits rights virtue Government.61 supra. 63 On federal "sensitive" "where bring discernible adverse effects Nation's suspended presuspension 546-547, 868-869. reasons, travels "[W]hile Constitution protects invasions rights, suicide pact." Kennedy Mendoza-Martinez, 372 144, 83 554, 563, 644 (1963). hearing.62 64 reverse remand proceedings opinion. 65 Reversed BLACKMUN, concurring. force, I feel, BRENNAN's observations, post, 312-318, today's decision reconciled fully (1965), particularly, cutting somewhat silentio. preferred disavow forthrightly aspects suggest area probative authorization. Nonetheless, believing done, join BRENNAN, MARSHALL joins, dissenting. Today purports rely decisions believe fundamentally misplaced, instead departed holdings dissent. 70 residing Germany, current critic (CIA). writes speaks goal disrupting CIA. Part apparently involves identification situated throughout world. 71 Consul Hamburg, letter1 notifying That combination States."2 follow procedures available attack brought Columbia cross-motions facial therefore, fell coverage 48, 82 (1980); App. 11. argued, inter alia, revoked. Both Circuit requested. 73 complicated twice articulated mode analysis determining delegated hardly confusing, expect faithfully it, affirm below. 74 reviewed challenge Communist associations refusals file affidavits concerning past Party. Observing personal included guaranteed Amendment, 125-127, infringement "be law-making functions Congress," delegations narrowly, 1120. 1926—the here—did examined determine argued" category "adopted practice." unable unauthorized. Cuba. could, Kent: "We reaffirm today, history: restrictions 'which practice.' So limited, constitute invalid delegation." 17-18, 1281-1282. reaching decision, relied numerous restricted areas: Belgium 1915; Ethiopia 1935; Spain 1936; China 1937; Yugoslavia late 1940's; Hungary 1949; Czechoslovakia 1951; Albania, Bulgaria, China, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Rumania, Soviet Union 1952; portions Korea, Vietnam 1955; Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Syria 1956. here Ante, 290.3 Therefore, remaining exists "with regard sort [revocation] [here], sufficiently warrant implicitly 1279 added). page applies test disavowed latter. states: 'sufficiently consistent' [85 1279]." 306 observes [the Act] ' "unless wrong." 291 79 holds action. demonstrated; unequivocally matter how consistent—is sufficient.4 passage worthy full quotation: "Under predecessor large body precedents grew up repeat 'a discretionary act' scholars, Attorneys General, said. long-continued executive enough, said, Allen Grand Aircraft 347 535, 544-545, 750-751, 933; Allen-Bradley 352 306, 310, 343, 347. see, manner exercised, discretion." 124-125, 1117-1118 (footnotes omitted) Court's Executive's opposed possession understood preference strongest knew acquiesced authority. presence sensitive questions context cautions applying normal constructions weight. Cf. 801, Only maintained revocations—where parties presumably object loudly, legal discretion—can sure aware actions discretion. lack precision definition concrete applications cases.5 register overall disapprove categories ignore Kent-Zemel deemed irrelevant noting [Passport] grounds," ante, 295, reaches "Congress, statute," 297-298. quotes General. cited examples Compare 295-296, 125, 1118, similarly four buttress position, inapposite inquiry. 296, 31, 124, 1117, 10.6 Where discounted General," decides evident "an Orders, officials, holders." 298, 1117 omitted).7 abjured becomes understandable appreciates paucity recorded practice—the permit reliance—with revocations individual. itself identifies reasons. 302.8 Yet, 1979 alone, 7,835,000 Americans abroad. Commerce, Bureau Census, Statistical Abstract 253 (101st defensively, comments: encountered." 303. Of "faulting" seen fit point make, touches fraught "construe narrowly dilute them." delegate overcome delegation, consistent." Secretary. suspect prime adage "bad bad law." model attempted disposal, stop statements. just popular unpopular speech, likewise travelers. remember harming merely disagree views.9 allocates lawmaking function handed too much Executive. permitting traveler CIA, professes on, departs from, area, always easier oneself safe haven stare decisis boldly overrule several decades' standing. myself reconcile silentio overruling cases, dissent.10 deported Great Britain, France, Netherlands. Dirty Work: Western Europe 286-300 (P. Wolf eds. 1978). 1974 87 "Today, new main functions: First, operating; secondly, abolished. 88 time. (Today's) list compiled small group Mexican comrades trained comings goings Mexico City. "Similar lists appropriate. invite participation strive social justice dignity." Cert. 107a. 90 P. Exposing 80-1125 (CADC), 76-79 (hereinafter CA App.). incidents books published period, hundreds 108a-111a; Inside Company: Diary (1975); 17-43 1978), 66-79. Introduction, Work 2: Africa (E. Ray, W. Schapp, K. Van Meter, 1979). latter contain "Who's Where" sections listing country-by-country Who" containing detailed biographical persons. Affidavits Deputy Director 112a, 114a; 5, infra. condition employment contracted consideration my undertake publish participate generally, during term Agency." 65. clause 508, 764, separate lawsuit wherein agreement, "Agee flagrant disregard requirements Agreement." noted: "There flouted submit writings speeches approval, expressed reveal harm agency personnel." 500 506, 509 1980) Affidavit 112a. 1975, Richard Welch murdered article English-language newspaper Athens naming Station. July 1980, Jamaica collaborator Kinsman Station Kinsman's house strafed automatic gunfire. Four conference, men approached home another officer. Police gunfire exchanged. Ambassador 125a-127a. January 1981, Institute Free Labor Development, previously front discussed book Diary, assassinated El Salvador. N.Y. Times, 15, A10, cols. 4-5; A1, col. 3-6. assert incited commit murder. CIA's Operations purported "thinly-veiled invitations violence," circumstances, someone's death," "markedly increased victims violence." 111a, 116a-118a. One ultimate program depends groups, expected physical surveillance, harassment, kidnaping, extreme murder 116a-117a. 120a. suggested immediate impetus special significance crisis following seizure Embassy Iran November 4, 1979. 1980); 47, captors citizens, diplomats agents. contact captors, urged demand documents, analyze documents. 117a; Dec. 5. affidavit mentions, vouch accuracy of, report invited "Revolutionary Tribunal" hostages. 51.80-51.89 exhaust remedies. initially defended Tr. 5-6 (Jan. (see infra), did counsel certified "[t]here aren't disputes case" motion "I concede charge Government] want[s] him." 2, 13. Statement Undisputed Material Facts, 35. kinds things established Mr. proceeded direction. F.Supp., 730. infra, 290. response (n. 8, supra), Carter emergency. Exec. Order 12170, 457 President's contains finding, Emergency Economic Powers 1701-1706 III), "that situation constitutes unusual extraordinary threat economy never justify months 12211, Accordingly, depend declaration indicted. dicta, 51.70(a)(1) withholding applicant outstanding felony warrant. 87, represents canceled papers Oral Arg. exception "direct 51.70(a) scope delicate, plenary field relations—a require act every power, subordination applicable Constitution." 319-320, 220-221, (1936). fact, changed 1874. 26, provision, impose geographic 300, 48. originally owe 212; 1118. provision diminishes eligible 33. provides, 51.70 revoking, restricting, limiting involve prosecution; accordingly, strict required. War 1812 Civil War, 25, mandatory 1918. 296-297. nonemergency 699 (1835), regulating directing declaring effect. understood, citizenship required, This, entirely See, 320-321, 221; 392-396 Feb. 1803, ch. 205, prohibited knowingly aliens, 1815, 199, enemy territory "without obtained officer same." 1874 replaced phrase to" "may." Rev.Stat. 4075. change. relevant, supports position case; "may" recognizes 511 (1901). confusion state relic colonial period. 36-42 (1898). Senator Mason, sponsor bill became "[I]t leave, pertains placed Cong.Globe, 34th 1st 1798 (1856). widely publicized restricting eligibility 1866 re-enacted noncitizens. May 30, 1866, 102, 54. Rules Governing Issuing Passports Sept. quoted 902 (1906) 654 (1907); 2119-A (1915); 2362-A (1916); 2519-A (1917). 498-499 (1942), discussing promotion "gambling immoral houses" developed scandal. Papers Relating Foreign Relations States—1907, 1082, Egypt slandering diplomats. 22, 1918, 81, 1-2, 559. that, Presidential wartime proclamation, shall, except limitations prescribe, depart enter attempt bears valid passport." Unlike 1815 then-current "when war" proclamation. R. Rep. 485, 65th (1918). focused recently returned having, knowledge Government, done neutral German strong suspicion purpose. Nevertheless impossible exclude now leaving saw known institution prosecution, event difficulty securing place easily imagined." 3. Validity Passports: Hearings H.R.11947 Affairs, 69th 10-11 (1926) (1926 Hearings). Besides incorporating fees maximum 2. Assistant Carr, "more familiar else entire subject," section recognize empower consuls, addition officers, counties. 4800 (1928); 5860 (1932); 7856, 681 (1938). 5821, 6069-6070, 6349 (1941); (1952); Laws Precedents, Office Instructions, Code 7.21 (Nov. 1955), excluding "[p]ersons States," endanger 1955, notified bearers "interfere[nce] countries" Information Bearers 1948, eds.). Hearing Right Subcommittee Constitutional Rights Judiciary, 85th pt. 59-61 (1957); Proposed Controls, 3243 Investigate Administration Internal Security Other 89th (1966). Pursuant 301, 11295, 570 (1966-1970 Comp.). 5170(b)(4) reason. 51.71(a), setting incorporates reference. changes Oct. 707(b), 993. provides: "Except enter, 215 Immigration Nationality 1952, 1185. Under version, 971, Act: "Unless designated hostilities progress, health safety travellers." "achieving greater compliance Final Conference Cooperation (signed Helsinki August 1975)." 971. S.Rep.No.94-1168, 32-33 (1976). stronger itself. presumed 870, 288. N. Y. Apr. E9. Brief Petitioner 39; Developments Law—The National Interest Liberties, Harv.L.Rev. 1130, 1150-1151, (1972). Sirhan Rogers, Civ. 3965 (SDNY, 1970), appeal dism'd, 35364 (CA2, 1970) (denying plaintiff's request relief). considered, enact, proposals spell standards Hearings, supra 37, 4-5. enact restrictions, considerable supra); (nn. 19, supra). true Dayton 1127, 1221 companion Dayton, refused physicist India experimental research. applicant's 'connection Science Victory association communists,' 'association suspected Rosenberg espionage ring apartment allegedly microfilming government.' 146, 1128. reserving "[w]hether undisclosed adequate sustain "Decision Findings" showed "only today impermissible," 150, 1130. Findings," Appendix opinion, 150-154, 1130-1132; cite instance Dayton's movement" 283-287, nn. 1-8. deportation Britain grounded, "disseminating Kingdom," "aid[ing] counsel[ing] obtaining Kingdom." Wolf, 289. injunction comply agreement. 36-39. ignores stake. enforceable 39. falls core contend vague overbroad. 11-12 agree. Parker Levy, 417 733, 755-756, 2547, 2561-2562, (1974). event, subterfuge punish evidenced "national precisely subject. (1956). Nor discriminatory enforcement. concentrate scarce resources decide constitutionally 1970's, kind." Quoted (1980) allows revocation, restriction, limitation treated identically. IV), lower trouble understanding Zemel. Lynd 128 399, 404-405, 389 940, 945-946 (1967); Woodward 344 974, 985 1972), summarily aff'd, 159 57, 486 1317 (1973). instance, petitioner cites 1903 purpose." 28. thought communicate contours discretion; indeed little embellishment 39, 10. correct legislation, construe Acts give referred unqualified 114, 117 (1876); 397, 398 (1871). Indeed 4110, 103(6), Sess. (1958); 2770, 3998, 4137 Relations, H.R. 14895, 205(e), suggests below total six 51, Two occurred 1950's, years, Judge MacKinnon's dissenting petitioner's brief readily admits: "Because files name disposition, compile comprehensive statistical data regarding grounds." 22. wonders, then, argue unavailable slim MacKinnon termed test. excerpt portion oral revealing: "QUESTION: supposing Salvador, asked journey, say, denounce Salvador supporting junta. says, Do think previous cases? "MR. McCREE: yes, can. vest these—The working charged conducting Nation, enjoy domestically context." 20. potentially staggering. issues parts whirlwind treatment merit comment, oversimplifications doctrine mistaken views "To 'it action,' Government." 309 rationale, suppose 40-year prison sentence imposed criticized food stamp represent "inhibition action." After all, remain albeit jail cell. "was harass, penalize, practices, violation Amendment." 112. answers: 308-309. seems misunderstand undoubtedly outweighed makes, consideration, obviously implicate chilling speak, balance contravenes add convincing "must inevitably, directly, occurrence kindred imperiling transport sea" apply. Times 713, 726-727, 2140, 2147-2148, 822 (1971) (BRENNAN, concurring). concession trial challenging known, majority less idea fall Near. 95 Second, agree overbroad 309, 61. untenable nowhere lacked vagueness overbreadth. At most, pages Gesell "Your client, conceding, somebody isn't persuasive me." holding, mention vagueness, transcript overbreadth reserved future consideration. 16. admittedly nevertheless wide sweep affects another's activity. Gooding Wilson, 405 518, 520-521, 1103, 1105-1106, 408 (1974), detracts doctrine. concludes raise claims, infirm doctrines. me, highlighted Solicitor General's comments

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