Document: 531 U.S. 288121 S.Ct. 924148 L.Ed.2d 807 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.BRENTWOOD ACADEMY, PETITIONERv.TENNESSEE SECONDARY SCHOOL ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION et al. No. 99-901. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Argued October 11, 2000 Decided February 20, 2001 Syllabus Respondent not-for-profit athletic association (Association) regulates interscholastic sport among Tennessee public and private high schools. Most State's schools members, representing 84% Association's membership. School officials make up voting membership governing council control board, which typically hold meetings during regular school hours. The Association largely funded by gate receipts. staff, although not state employees, join retirement system. sets standards student eligibility rules has power penalize member violates those rules. State Board Education (State Board) long acknowledged role regulating competition schools, its members sit as nonvoting bodies. When penalized petitioner Brentwood Academy for violating a recruiting rule, sued executive director under 42 U.S.C. 1983 claiming rule's enforcement was action violated First Fourteenth Amendments. District granted summary judgment, enjoining enforcement, but Sixth Circuit found no reversed. Held: regulatory activity owing pervasive entwinement structure, there being offsetting reason see acts way. Pp. 5-17. (a) only if such "close nexus between challenged action" seemingly behavior "may fairly treated itself." Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Co., 419 345, 351. No one fact necessary condition finding action, nor set circumstances sufficient, some countervailing against attributing government. facts can bear on an attribution's fairness-e.g., nominally entity actor when it entwined with governmental policies government management control, Evans Newton, 382 296, 299, 301-unequivocally show legal entity's character determined neither expressly characterization statutory law, law's failure acknowledge inseparability from recognized agencies. In National Collegiate Athletic Assn. Tarkanian, 488 179, this anticipated could organization whose all within single State. 6-9. (b) necessarily fact-bound inquiry leads conclusion here. overborne institutions composition workings, substantial claim unfairness applying constitutional it. To extent membership, represented their acting official capacity provide integral element secondary schooling, athletics. There would recognizable without officials, who overwhelmingly determine perform purely ministerial acts. Only 16% minority memberships keeps total identities totally indistinguishable. complement bottom up, provided top down: ex officio bodies employees participate Entwinement degree shown here requires charged judged standards. 9-13. (c) also answer several arguments instant support various criteria, e.g., function test, Rendell&nbhyph;Baker Kohn, 457 830, distinguished. 13-15. (d) Although showing outweighed name value at odds accountability circumstances, Polk County Dodson, 454 312, 322, present fear reversing judgment will trigger epidemic federal litigation unfounded. Save Circuit, every Appeals consider statewide like actor, been explosion jurisdictions. Nor should have dispensation merely because themselves actors suit Title IX Amendments 1972. 15-16. 180 F.3d 758, reversed remanded. CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR SIXTH CIRCUIT Souter, J., delivered Court, Stevens, O'Connor, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Thomas, filed dissenting opinion, Rehhquist, Scalia Kennedy, Opinion Justice Souter Court. 1 issue whether incorporated regulate regarded engaging enforces rule school. question includes most located State, through representatives, draws officers them, dues income received stead, historically seen lieu Education's exercise own authority. We association's structure association, 2 * Secondary corporation organized belong forced join, authority actually athletics, enjoys almost (some 290 them membership), far outnumbering 55 belong. A school's team play scrimmage another member, absent dispensation. 3 rulemaking arm legislative council, while board tends administration. each these nine-person committees limited bylaws principals, assistant superintendents elected administrators so serve attend staff paid they eligible system employees. Member pay Association, though bulk revenue receipts teams' football basketball tournaments, many held arenas rented Association. 4 constitution, bylaws, students games. Each school, example, regulated awarding financial aid, coaches must teaching license, players meet minimum academic hew limits employment. Under "in matters pertaining relations his school," App. 138, principal responsible "to suspend, fine, otherwise violation just cause," id., 100. 5 Ever since 1925, Tennessee's (to use words) corporation's functions providing standards, regulations Tennessee," 211. More recently, cited authority, Tenn. Code Ann. 49-1-302 (App. 220), adopted language expressing relationship Board. Specifically, 1972, went adopt "designat[ing]" "the supervise activities junior senior basis." Education, Administrative Rules Regulations, Rule 0520-1-2-.26 (1972) (later moved 0520-1-2-.08). herein shall remain effect until revoked" instructed Board's chairman "designate person persons ex-officio [Association's bodies]." That same year, specifically approved regulations, reserving right review future changes. Thus, occasions over next 20 years, reviewed, approved, reaffirmed approval case. 1996, however, dropped original 0520-1-2-.08 designating regulator; substituted statement "recogniz[ing] participation athletics [the Association] coordinating competition," "authoriz[ing] voluntarily maintain Association]." Id., 220. 6 us responds 1997 proceeding brought petitioner, Academy, parochial prohibiting "undue influence" athletes, wrote incoming parents about spring practice. accordingly placed Brentwood's program probation four declared boys' teams ineligible compete playoffs two imposed $3,000 fine. penalties were imposed, administrators. 7 court Rev. Stat. 1979, entered enjoined enforcing Rule. 13 F. Supp. 2d 670 (MD 1998). holding Amendment, had delegated characterized symbiotic, emphasized predominantly leadership. relied 193, n. (1988), suggesting associations actors, cases organizations uniformly color law. 8 758 (1999). It test identify actions applied three criteria derived Blum Yaretsky, 991 (1982), Lugar Edmondson Oil 922 Rendell-Baker 830 them. said mistaken seeing symbiotic traditional exclusive responding compulsion, gave short shrift Tarkanian relied. Rehearing en banc later denied dissent judges, criticized panel decision creating conflict courts, inconsistent lacking "functional" analysis required West Atkins, 487 assessing significance cooperation actor. 190 705 (CA6 1999) (Merritt, denial rehearing banc). 9 certiorari, 528 1153 (2000), resolve conflict1 now reverse. II 10 Our try plot line Amendment scrutiny conduct (however exceptionable) not. supra, 191; 349 (1974). judicial obligation " 'preserv[e] area individual freedom limiting reach law' avoi[d] imposition responsibility control," 191 (quoting Lugar, 936-937), assure invoked "when specific plaintiff complains," Blum, 1004 (emphasis original). If displaced, therefore, ambit cannot simple people operating outside formally organizations, deed ostensibly sometimes caused performed. we say if, Jackson, 351.2 11 What attributable matter normative lack rigid simplicity. From range point toward behind face, across action; absolutely See U.S., 196; 312 (1981). 12 identified host fairness attribution. have, results "coercive power," 1004, provides "significant encouragement, either overt covert," ibid., operates "willful participant joint agents," 941 (internal quotation marks omitted). controlled "agency State," Pennsylvania Directors City Trusts Philadelphia, 353 230, 231 (1957) (per curiam), cf., 56; Edmonson Leesville Concrete 500 614, 627-628 (1991), "entwined policies" [its] 301 (1966). Amidst variety, examples best teachers, our unequivocal law Lebron Railroad Passenger Corporation, 513 374 (1995), Amtrak Government purposes, regardless congressional designation private; attain objectives directed appointees. privately endowed Gerard College founder's limitation admission whites because, consistent terms settlor's gift, college's directors agency established Ostensibly converse situation occurred trustees whom city transferred park nonetheless barred racial segregation, served purpose community recreation, municipality remain[ed] [and] 301. 14 These separate trusts corporations foreshadow case, itself supra. arose undoubtedly University Nevada, suspended coach, comply recommendations (NCAA). coach NCAA arguing university NCAA, clothing latter apply university's rules, result making 15 sure, strict points view part NCAA. see, hand, setting NCAA's Nevada gone traditionally personnel. 190. But side, shaped alone, hundred institutions, having connection exhibiting 193. Since difficult collective surrogate organization's too insubstantial ground claim. 196. 16 dictum pointed contrary ours, "The would, course, different [Association's] consisted entirely created sovereign." 13. surmise, approvingly cases: Clark Arizona Interscholastic Assn., 695 F.2d 1126 (CA9 1982), cert. denied, 464 818 (1983), challenge kept boys playing girls' volleyball Arizona; Louisiana High St. Augustine School, 396 224 (CA5 1968), attack racially segregated maintained association. instance, B 17 Just foresaw "necessarily inquiry," 939, 18 natural own, total. faculty vote selecting principals superintendents. 19 findings prior opinions case include express act scope duties represent rational, nature involvement number ways. obviously education Tennessee, where nearly spends money competitions pickup games do, need mechanism produce competition. composed select representatives (all time here), turn enforce work. giving jobs belonging sensibly exercising responsibilities. Unsurprisingly, then, record indicates half documented hours, support. small portion comes tournaments Unlike mere buyers contract services, payments services rendered do convert service providers into Rendell-Baker, 839-843, obtain give sources thus exercises charge games; does receive schools' moneymaking own. sum, schooling. tangible, exists practical terms. prevents 21 down. assigned 22 is, true past close attested frankly. As mentioned, regulator deleted year after Federal "caused, Education," Graham TSSAA, 1:95-CV-044, 1995 WL 115890, *5 (ED Tenn., Feb. 1995).3 23 removal affected nothing words. Today member-designees continue continues welcome scheme. confirmed preamendment reviewed (including Brentwood), continued willingness allow satisfy physical requirement taking sponsored evidence once freely winks nods.4 amendment 1996 candor "momentum" spoke "custom practice," parties materially changed" connections TSSAA [being] still entwined." 2d, 681. 24 down therefore unmistakable, overwhelming. ought standards; C 25 offered persuade cases. beside point, simply justify criterion entwinement, sense unsettled satisfied facts. 26 places great stress, application exemplified (1982). There, apparently special needs finish record, failed tradition unable cope cared (or ignored) according choice. districts practice referring paying tuition, disputed instruction aimed proper objective conferred benefit. performance did permit unless performed exclusively public, argues here, assume, arguendo, would. more than anything 27 For reason, avails stress coerced encouraged complained of. "Coercion" "encouragement" "entwinement" kinds characterizing instead. Facts address significant, applied. When, relevant overlapping identity, implication pointing out might loom large test. D 28 officials' criterion, other, further potential issue, raises Even suffice (or, standing require finding) circumstances. County, defense lawyer's deemed even she employed county her duty defender. Full-time employment conclusive 50, accord, 935, 18, employee doing primary job; defender "not ac[t] behalf State; he adversary." 323, state-action doctrine opponents virtual agents. 29 assertion nub remaining arguments, which, persuades us. suggests, first, somehow unprecedented litigation. Brief Respondents 35. counted good call private, alarm majority began shape decisions approvingly, 9, (and six years here). one, Not put fine it, Courts previously Graham, *5; Crocker 735 753 1990), affirmance order, 908 972, 973 evident wave working way reversal portends harmony outlying precedent uniform. 30 think contention treat 86 373, 1681-1688. 30. pushing edge class possible defendant argument social utility expanding least nowhere near margin really asking less itself. Its position boils saying dressed clothes concededly are; raising find courthouse open. Pleas treatment hard sell, not, imply merits complaint; properly names defendant, win 31 reversed, remanded proceedings opinion. ordered. NOTES: courts actors. Griffin Illinois 822 671, 674 (CA7 1987); 1126, 1128 (1983); re rel. Missouri Activities 682 147, 151 (CA8 1982); 224, 227-228 1968); Oklahoma Bray, 321 269, 272-273 (CA10 1963); Indiana Carlberg, 694 N. E. 222, 229 (Ind. 1997); Mississippi Inc. Coleman, 631 So. 768, 774-775 (Miss. 1994); Kleczek Rhode Island League, Inc., 612 A. 734, 736 (R. I. 1992); Moreland Western Penn. 572 121, 125 (CA3 1978) (state conceded). defendant's satisfies constitutes "under law" purposes. 922, 935 "[t]his delegation sufficient actor" "state compulsion test," understood coercive significant covert, choice *4-*5 (citing 991, (1982)). nods seems dissenters' departure rest drawing public-private line, dissenters emphasize clarity appointment College's trustees, ___, post, preference reliance certainty operation bylaws. Similarly, formality statute defining Amtrak's ties Government, contrast reality organizers structured relationships officialdom education. formalism sine qua non vanish ease inevitability evasion, never controlling. symbiosis (which accept, ___ ) looks form underlying reality. 32 Chief Justice, Scalia, Kennedy dissenting. 33 based upon "entwinement." Until today, constitute function; created, coerced, government; acted majority's holding-that (TSSAA) action-not extends beyond permissible encroaches realm meant protect. I respectfully dissent. 34 Like excludes coverage "merely conduct, however discriminatory wrongful." American Mfrs. Mut. Ins. Co. Sullivan, 526 40, 50 (1999) "Careful adherence 'state action' requirement" "preserves power." 936 promotes important values federalism, "avoid[ing] control." (1988). used tests common purpose. goal "can attributed State." (1982); Mfrs., 52. 35 Regardless dictates TSSAA's action. formed 1925 organize sponsor Any signing agreeing decisions. currently compose percentage and, indeed, TSSAA. enforced comprises superintendents, none work Of happened officials. However, representative region 36 create fund employees.1 fact, 4% schools; budget sponsors. state-owned facilities discounted fee, exempt taxation. authorizes coordinate empowers State.2 pronouncement acknowledging existence permits choose.3 Moreover, particular taken case: using guardians secure retain purposes." 115. indication ever interest how choose recruiting.4 arises solely voluntary signs, accordance 37 approaching Court's tests, same: course place burden persuasion plaintiff, 49-50; 42, 48 38 "traditionally reserved 352 sports States. Widespread administration contests begin 20th century. M. Lee, History Physical Sports 73 (1983) (explaining what little 19th century "came closing decade pupil inspired, controlled, coached"); 68, 146 (stating 1896, group teachers Wisconsin committee contests, "[i]t idea caught states"). Certainly, 47 orchestrating throughout acquiesced assume Cf. 1004-1005 ("Mere acquiescence initiatives party . ."); Flagg Bros., Brooks, 436 149, 164-165 (1978). doubt serves particularly provision render function. 842 39 obvious fulfilling objective, 374, 394 (1995). 230 curiam) (holding actor). Indeed, claims played creation 1925. designed fulfill objective-the tournaments-that contemplated, much pursued. And account constitution. 40 addition, "exercised encouragement [to TSSAA], promulgated sports, suggests rule. funding dues, conditioned enactment rules.5 Likewise, dependent 90%, instead 4%, dependence 1011; 840; Moose Lodge 107 Irvis, 407 163, 173 ("The held, discrimination violative Equal Protection Clause receives sort benefit ."). Furthermore, "joint participation," 941-942, signs. 41 Finally, "symbiotic relationship" Lodge, 175; cf. Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715 (1961). Contrary assertion, ante, 10-11, "fiscal contractors performing government." 843. service-the tournaments-in exchange fees, vendor sell refreshments events. Certainly refreshments, yet option transform contractor Also, suggestion that, Burton, profits Because believe affirm. 43 considered existing theories presents new theory. theory, holds combination factors identifies evidences converts Ante, 7-8. define "entwinement," meaning term altogether clear. whatever theory entail, lacks jurisprudence. asserts cases, rested alone. 44 Two relies word Lebron, 374; Trusts, 230. concerned status Amtrak, Congress achieving (namely avert threatened extinction passenger train States). 383, 386. Without discussing notion creates furtherance objectives, retains permanent appoint corporation, purposes Amendment." 400. addressed 231. legislature passed operate orphans. Ibid. mentioning agency, 45 third 296 (1966), lends Trusts. uses "entwined," 299 ("Conduct 'private' become impregnated limitations action"), discuss distinct concept, let alone On contrary, recognition dispute, park, "public function," fire department police department. 302. noted, facility" "serves community." 301-302. severed hands, "municipal nature," analogous given rise action: streets company town Marsh Alabama, 326 501 (1946), elective process Terry Adams, 345 461 (1953), transit Public Utilities Comm'n Pollak, 343 451 (1952). functions, actors.6 46 speaks all, broad majority.7 suggest label else. defines unclear. fortunate, fact-specific bearing develops affect foster activities, extracurricular schools-not diverse areas agriculture, mathematics, music, marching bands, forensics, cheerleading. extend of, by, entities, firefighters, policemen, cities, counties. am prepared entities everything does, jurisprudence reached far. developed truly citizens hearing actions. 49 retired allowed system, employer contribution associations, along Boards statutorily permitted 8-35-118 (1993). first acknowledgement occur resolution stating "recognizes designates TSSAA] invited altered following adoption appears accurate: season contests. event, revoked 1996. reference revocation "winks nods," 12, repeal 1972 impact passage. cites "[e]ver 'in Tennessee.' 3. provides: recognizes Association." Comp. & Regs. 0520-1-2-.08(1) (2000). "top-down" exert emphasizes joining "give association" allowing games." 10-11. equally whenever contracted entity: presumably profit, chose. admission. Or nursing homes individuals stay there. ability chosen buy hardly provider "entwined" Gilmore Montgomery, 417 556, 565 (1974), cite. Gilmore, grant groups. 566. city, determined, "engaged elaborate subterfuge" circumvent desegregating city's recreational facilities. 567. agreement run program. quoted loose today. certainly evade unconstitutional 179 foreshadowing 8, conclusion. ironic imagine change institution virtually organization.

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