Document: 468 U.S. 364 104 S.Ct. 3106 82 L.Ed.2d 278 FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSIONv.LEAGUE OF WOMEN VOTERS CALIFORNIA et al. No. 82-912. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Jan. 16, 1984. Decided July 2, Syllabus The Public Broadcasting Act 1967 (Act) established Corporation for (CPB), a nonprofit corporation, to disburse federal funds noncommercial television and radio stations in support station operations educational programming. Section 399 forbids any that receives grant from CPB "engage editorializing." Appellees (Pacifica Foundation, corporation owns operates several broadcasting receive grants CPB, League Women Voters California, an individual listener viewer public broadcasting) brought action Federal District challenging constitutionality § 399. granted summary judgment appellees' favor, holding violates First Amendment. Held: 399's ban on editorializing Pp. 374-402. (a) Congress, acting pursuant Commerce Clause, has power regulate use broadcast medium. In exercise this power, Congress may seek assure through medium balanced presentation information views issues importance otherwise might not be addressed if control were left entirely hands owners operators stations. At same time, since broadcasters are engaged vital independent form communicative activity, Amendment must inform give shape manner which exercises its regulatory power. Thus, although industry under restrictions imposed upon other media, thrust these generally been secure public's interest receiving diverse matters concern. As result, absolute freedom advocate one's own positions without also presenting opposing viewpoints—a enjoyed, example, by newspaper publishers—is denied broadcasters. Such have upheld only when they narrowly tailored further substantial governmental interest, such as ensuring adequate coverage issues. 374-381. (b) restriction is specifically directed at speech—the expression editorial opinions—that lies heart protection, defined solely basis content suppressed speech. singles out denies them right address their chosen audience importance. 381-384. (c) broad all every far exceeds what necessary protect against risk interference or prevent assuming editorials represent official view government. impermissibly sweeps within it wide range speech wholly private topics do take directly partisan stand nothing whatever with federal, state, local 386-395. (d) patent overinclusiveness underinclusiveness undermines likelihood genuine preventing groups propagating via broadcasting. does controversial matters; instead, merely bars labeling those management. 396-399. (e) cannot justified Congress' spending simply determining will subsidize editorials. Regan v. Taxation With Representation Washington, 461 540, 103 1997, 76 129, distinguished. Since 1% income barred absolutely editorializing, no way limiting noneditorial activities, and, more importantly, using even finance activity. 399-401. 547 F.Supp. 379 (D.C.Cal.1982), affirmed. Samuel A. Alito, Jr., Asst. Atty., Newark, N.J., appellant. Fredric D. Woocher, Los Angeles, Cal., appellees. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 Moved widely felt need sponsor sources programming alternative commercial broadcasting, set promote development noncommercial, A keystone program was 1967, Pub.L. 90-129, 81 Stat. 365, 47 U.S.C. 390 seq., Broadcasting, authorized Act, amended Amendments 1981, 97-35, 95 730, "noncommercial Corporation" case, we called decide whether imposing restriction, passed "law . abridging speech, press" violation Constitution. 2 * 3 history old itself.1 first efforts made special provision Under Radio 1927 Communications 1934, subject licensing requirements counterparts. rapidly expanded during 1930's, however, percentage licenses held began shrink. 1939, recognizing potential effect pressures stations, Commission (FCC Commission) decided reserve certain frequencies radio, CFR §§ 4.131-4.133 (1939), 1945, allocated 20 new FM spectrum exclusively use, FCC, Report Proposed Allocations 77 (1945). Similarly, 1952, advent television, FCC reserved channels Television Assignments, 41 F.C.C. 148 (1952). Helped part allocations, variety some funded state governments others donations foundation grants, developed period.2 4 It until 1962, provided direct financial assistance This step taken passage Educational 87-447, 64, former Department Health, Education, Welfare (HEW) distribute $32 million matching over 5-year period construction facilities. 5 Impetus involvement came Carnegie sponsored commission review Finding prospects system rested "the vigor stations," but hobbled chronic underfinancing, Government supplement existing local, financing so could realize full true I, 33-34, 36-37.3 fashioning legislative proposal carry vision, recommended creation nonprofit, nongovernmental "Corporation Television" provide including funding production, operations, establishment satellite interconnection facilities permit nationwide distribution programs wished them. Id., 37-38. 6 Commission's report met widespread approval, proposals became blueprint basic framework today. Titles I III $38 continued HEW study instructional television. Title II created (CPB Corporation), governed 15-person, bipartisan Board Directors appointed President advice consent Senate.4 given fund production national regional distribution," 396(g)(2)(B) (1976 ed.), make would "aid costs 396(g)(2)(C), assist 396(g)(2)(E).5 Aside conferring powers Corporation, adopted measures designed both ensure autonomy control. For agencies, officers, employees prohibited "exercis[ing] direction, supervision control" 398, itself forbidden "own operate station," 396(g)(3), required "carry purposes functions ways most effectively maximum content" 396(g)(1)(D). B 7 Appellee Pacifica Foundation five major metropolitan areas.6 Its licensees received presently therefore terms 399, originally enacted recently amended.7 April 1979, appellees suit Central California October informed addition include Congressman Henry Waxman, who regular provided: 8 "No engage oppose candidate political office." II, 201(8), 368. 9 Although statutory language remained same, redesignated 399(a) 1973 subsection (b), requiring "retain audio recording each broadcasts issue discussed," added. 93-84, 87 219. Because filed complaint initially 399(a). Subsection found unconstitutional Appeals Columbia Circuit, Community-Service Mid-America, Inc. 192 U.S.App.D.C. 448, 593 F.2d 1102 (1978), deleted 1981. XII, 1229, 730. 10 Also 1981 amendments, revised confining separately prohibiting endorsements stations; current provides full: 11 subpart C editorializing. No Houses had defend statute.8 Senate then resolution directing counsel intervene amicus curiae Counsel appeared subsequently obtained dismissal lawsuit want justiciable controversy because enforce statute. While appeal disposition pending before Ninth administration announced remanded case Court; permitted withdraw litigation, finding concrete now presented, vacated earlier order dismissal. Court, already mentioned, see n. 7, supra, making endorsements, irrespective funds. Subsequently, reflect change, editorializing.9 favor appellees, violated (1982). court rejected contention "§ serves compelling government become propaganda organs government." 384-385. Noting protections built into remain free influence, FCC's fairness doctrine guard one-sided issues, concluded asserted fear sufficiently warrant 386. interfere 387. appealed 28 1252. We postponed consideration question our jurisdiction merits, 460 1010, 1249, 75 479 (1983),10 affirm. 12 begin considering appropriate standard review. acknowledged decisions applied different regulation than areas, after characteristic media application less stringent survive constitutional scrutiny served "compelling" interest. F.Supp., 384. Claiming drew wrong lessons prior concerning regulation, contends demanding required. argues may, consistently Amendment, "special characteristic" scarcity—a shared media—which calls exacting regulation. Government's view, includes authority restrict ability broadcasters, editorialize. Brief Appellant 31. Moreover, unique role source "programming excellence diversity sector produce," id., 33, entitled impose concludes urging essential means furthering "important" interests, 34, 35, 39, leaves open possibility can expressed 13 glance, course, appear correct standard. plainly importance, repeatedly explained, communication kind degree protection. E.g., Minneapolis Star & Tribune Co. Minnesota Commissioner Revenue, 575, 585, 1365, 1371-1372, 295 (1983); National Bank Boston Bellotti, 435 765, 776-777, 98 1407, 1415-1416, 55 707 (1978); Buckley Valeo, 424 1, 14, 96 612, 632, 46 659 (1976); Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 101-102, 60 736, 744, 84 L.Ed. 1093 (1940). Were similar newspapers magazines, hesitate strike down violative Mills 384 214, 86 1434, 16 484 (1966). But, correctly notes, involves considerations, cases followed precisely approach never gone demand regulations serve interests. think argument loses sight concerns important area thus misapprehends meaning reach communication. 14 fundamental principles guide evaluation well established. First, long recognized scarce valuable resource. distinctive feature oversight satisfy "public convenience, necessity" license frequencies. 309(a).11 Second, allowed respect print media. Miami Herald Publishing Tornillo, 418 241, 94 2831, 730 (1974), "differences characteristics justify differences standards them." Red Lion 395 367, 386, 89 1794, 1804, 23 371 (1969). distinguishing that, adjustment analysis "[b]roadcast resource [that] portioned among applicants." System, Democratic Committee, 412 94, 101, 93 2080, 2086, 36 772 (1973). taught scarcity, sense fiduciaries "those voices representative [their] community otherwise, necessity, airwaves." Lion, 389, S.Ct., 1806. observed "[i]t purpose preserve uninhibited marketplace ideas truth ultimately prevail, suitable access social, political, esthetic, moral, experiences [through broadcasting] crucial here [and it] constitutionally abridged either FCC." U.S., 390, 15 Finally, substantial, have, clear area. Unlike common carriers, "entitled 'the widest journalistic consistent [duties].' " CBS, 453 395, 101 2813, 2829, 69 706 (1981) (quoting 110, 2090). See Midwest Video Corp., 440 689, 703, 99 1435, 1442, 59 692 (1979). Indeed, fully served, necessarily rely large initiative bear trust. 124-127, 2097-2098. Our illustrate principles. "fairness doctrine"—which requires fairly accurately reflects views—because advanced presentations limited yet posed threat "broadcaster [would permission] particular publish his views." 396, 1809.12 candidates 312(a)(7) "makes significant contribution enhancing present, receive, effective operation democratic process," 2830, "limited 'reasonable' access" discretion present type programming" impaired. 396-397, 2830 (emphasis original). affirmed refusal require accept paid advertisements. argued requirement additional approach, tend transform carriers intrude unnecessarily 123-125, 2096-2097. ruling, therefore, helped advance grounded preserving obligations," guarding enlargement discussion issues." 126, 2090, 2098.13 17 restraints result restrictions, publishers soapbox orators—is attest, satisfied e.g., 377, 1799. 2830; 110-111, 2090; 1809. Making critical examination interests light circumstances case. 438 726, 3026, 57 1073 (1978). 18 turn consider restraint satisfies permissible Before assessing proffered justifications statute, two central features examined, help illuminate stake 19 speech—namely, opinion—that construing explained "although licensees, management speaking behalf propagation licensee's permitted, prohibition should construed inhibit controversal importance." Accuracy Media, Inc., 45 F.C.C.2d 297, 302 (1973) added). interpretation highlights fact statute forecloses "controversial reiterated NAACP Claiborne Hardware Co., 458 886, 102 3409, 73 1215 (1982), "expression 'has always highest rung hierarchy values.' 913, 3426 Carey Brown, 447 455, 467, 100 2286, 2293, 65 263 (1980)). And emphasized: "The press guaranteed Constitution embraces least liberty discuss publicly truthfully concern previous subsequent punishment. Freedom discussion, fulfill historic function nation, embrace about needed enable members society cope exigencies period." 744. 21 traditionally played informing arousing public, criticizing cajoling hold office launch solutions problems time. Preserving opinion, parcel "a profound commitment debate uninhibited, robust, wide-open." New York Times Sullivan, 376 254, 270, 710, 721, 686 (1964). (1966), place jurisprudence press, indisputably part, Paramount Pictures, 334 131, 166, 68 915, 933, 92 1260 (1948), carries historic, dual responsibility reporting bringing affairs. pivotal satisfying FCC; past 35 years actively encouraged affairs programming.14 appears Framers Bill Rights anxious protect—speech "indispensable discovery spread truth"—we especially careful weighing precision crafted. Whitney 274 357, 375, 641, 648, 71 1095 (1927) (Brandeis, J., concurring). 22 scope "by behalf," F.C.C.2d, 302, Examples forms daily announcements station's schedule over-the-air appeals contributions listeners. Consequently, determine statement constitutes "editorial" proscribed enforcement authorities examine message conveyed Ibid. STEVENS Consolidated Edison Service Comm'n, N.Y., 530, 2326, 319 (1980), however: "A motivated desire curtail point general purest example 'law press.' one group persons selected 'controversial policy' regulation." 546, 2338 (opinion concurring judgment); accord, 537-540, 2333-2334 (majority opinion). just enacting sought, much attempted utility company bill inserts struck Edison, limit agenda debate. Since, "[t]he Amendment's hostility content-based extends viewpoints, entire topic," 537, 2333, particularly wary impermissible attempt "to allow [to] search truth." 538, 2333.15 24 seeking urges aimed principal threats overall success 1967. According argument, necessary, first, being coerced, financing, becoming vehicles propagandizing objects influence; second, keep convenient targets capture wishing express viewpoints.16 By safeguard prevention bias, objectives are, broadly goals identified cases. sharp contrast room editors microphone, prohibits broadcaster fair manner. insists, hazards "special" great indispensable disagree. 25 (1) 26 When expansion concerned agreed pressured forums devoted acceptable Government. That alert dangers doubted. sought fashion sufficient foster growth while tradition community-orientation.17 cardinal objective "facilitate afford protection extraneous control." 396(a)(6) ed.). 27 intended achieving purposes, clear. finds antecedent report, model aspects Act. administration's original proposal. included version Senate. amendment House. House Committee frankly admits, added thought vitality rather "[o]ut abundance caution." H.R.Rep. 572, 90th Cong., 1st Sess., (1967), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News p. 1810.18 More scheme character demonstrates substantially extent creates lose independence bewitching largesse, elaborate structure insulate interference. mandated private, structure, 396(c)-(f), limitations powers. owning operating station, adhere strictly "objectivity balance" disbursing 396(g)(1)(A), contributing supporting office, 396(f)(3). second layer coercion "assure [of stations] activities," 396(g)(1)(D), expressly "any department, agency, officer, employee supervision, grantees contractors .," 398(a) Subsequent amendments confirmed principle "bedrock system," guaranteed. These long-term appropriations allowing depend yearly appropriations, 396(k)(1)(C), amended, 1227, 727; appropriated disbursed 396(k)(3)(A)-(B); criteria used station. 396(k)(6)(A)-(B), 396(k)(7). insist pass specified portions greater defining uses put. unifying theme various provisions reduce judgments restricting stations' speak concern.19 29 Even insufficient task, suppressing category restricted likely, system, influence put pressure An underlying supposition regard likely forcefully ultimate funding, tempted retaliate recognized, suggests speculative best. There literally hundreds communities scattered throughout territories, 1983-84 Directory 20-50, 66-86 (Sept. 1983). Given fact, seems reasonable infer prove distinctive, varied, idiosyncratic represent. focus expected largely affecting community.20 Accordingly, absent showing contrary, jeopardy pressing suppression 30 pose kinds hypothesized addressing produced, often truly commentary contain, impact trigger congressional response kindle resentment. potentially programs; is, leveled management, smaller audience, impact, confined contrast, imposes substantive normal balance fairness, produce nationally distributed programs. encourage broadcast.21 31 Furthermore, manifest imprecision reveals proscription harms seeks broadcasters' grip infinite related affairs, candidacies, elections. breadth human imagination permits. But explains how, say, improvements town's parks museums infuriate officials future imperiled unless suppressed. Nor how alone retaliation able labeled own. infra, 25. 32 recognize flaws focuses instead suggestion governments, many commissions stations.22 runs, favorable purse strings. proves too much. applies organizations controlled clearly indicates "assur[ing] complete influence." 1967: Hearings S.1160 Subcommittee Commerce, (1967) (remarks Sen. Pastore) added).23 Consistently concern, refused create federally owned forbid 396(g)(3). aware did extend indeed, ensured insulated stations.24 certainly audiences led broadcaster's government, restrictive readily available. To disclaimer time editorialize represents funding. disclaimer—similar nature—would communicate reflected disclaimers virtue clarifying responses opponents position, know certainty responding position. 33 sum, (2) 34 Assuming "privileged outlet ideological opinions managers," legitimate, substantiality dubious. "undermines [governmental] interest" 793, 1424. If true, contends, free, despite selection, select interviewed, news reports 41, doubtful said genuinely keeping aired very communicated commentator guest appearing invitation interview, ibid.; "provides ineffective remote government's purpose." Hudson Gas Electric Corp. Comm'n 557, 564, 2343, 2350, 341 (1980). Cf. 45, 647; 1424.25 short, communicating vigorous assures us, affirmatively selection programs, accomplishes thing—the virtually nothing, outlets narrow views. What applies, equal force here: "sacrifice [of] gain warranted. ." 127, 2098. lopsided secured drastically "journalistic freedom" 2090. doctrine, instance, apply alike, maintain reasonably inclined so. considered justification invoked today 399: balance, "station unfettered air whom agreed." 392, 1808. solution problem offered opposite remedy prescribed endorsed Lion. Rather subjects account met, silences beyond accomplish Government, fails 37 crafted exist abridgment worked provision's suggested goals. "paramount right" diminish augment volume quality coverage" 393, reason deny fears adverse reactions IV 38 Court,26 belatedly Relying recent decision 129 (1983), has, proper determined "will editorials." 42. Representation, could, refuse lobbying activities tax-exempt charitable tax-deductible efforts. holding, [tax-]deductible nonlobbying activit[ies]." 545, 2001. organization create, 501(c)(3) Internal Revenue Code, 501(c)(3), affiliate conduct contributions, establish, 501(c)(4), separate pursue contributions. 544, 2000; 552-553, 2004-2005 (BLACKMUN, alternative, "Congress infringed rights regulated activity; [it] pay TWR's lobbying." 39 unlike situation faced Therefore, appellee segregate according noneditorializing 40 Of adopt establish "affiliate" nonfederal funds, mechanism valid reasoning Representation. known nonfederally funded, losing activities. 2000. absence authority, reject controlling here.27 V conclusion, emphasize rests proposition. content, timing, Rather, specific freedoms jealously protects. 42 Affirmed. WHITE: 43 Believing endorsement fall together confident condition abstaining join REHNQUIST's dissenting opinion. 44 REHNQUIST, THE CHIEF JUSTICE WHITE join, dissenting. All three paragraphs Court's lengthy scenario "Big Bad Wolf," "Little Riding Hood." Big Wolf cruelly Little Hood her grandmother food she carrying basket. Only delineate truer picture litigants, wherein basket himself, told accepted abide conditions. shall "editorializing" candidate. believe anything prevents choosing spend moneys Perhaps analogy Faust Mephistopheles; Pacifica, receipt money, nonetheless money avoid conditions legitimately attached country, spotty best ago. Beginning late (FCC) frequencies, assistance, 1962 there 50 air, two-thirds population S.Rep. 67, 87th (1961). year aid 126 operating. vision forum educational, cultural, unable unwilling furnish. seq, Government-chartered President. network, chose whereby others, systems. 48 intent CPB's subsidies "programs high quality, diversity, creativity, excellence, innovation, sources, available telecommunications entities, strict adherence objectivity series nature." 396(g)(1)(A). Understandably leave creature roam world, passing authorization entities organizations, 397(6), (7), selling whatever—including presentations. 397(7), 399a; 73.503(d), 73.621(e) (1983). recipient serving managers. insisted subsidized endorsing candidates. 49 three-paragraph why reexamined retained me utterly unpersuasive. rationally bulk taxpayers whose prefer promulgate taxpayer expense. Accordingly Last Term, Code deprives eligible status engages lobbying. squarely though lobby protected. legislature's infringe right." 549, 2003. notion chooses judicial scrutiny. 547-548, 2001-2002. 51 primarily concurrence majority pointing minor fraction grants. reasons Congress; goes "only grants" "even activity." Ante, 400. 52 distinction between Oklahoma CSC, 330 67 91 794 (1947). 12(a) Hatch totally employed activity partial total taking One denounce exercising speak. surprisingly succinctly stating: 53 "While with, regulate, officials, fix allotments states disbursed." 143, 553.a1 54 CSC Letter Carriers, 413 548, 2880, 796 (1973); Workers Mitchell, 75, 556, 754 (1947) (rejecting attack applicable employees). actually subsidizes cover expenses believes isolated expenses. ignores economic reality. unrestricted salaries, training, equipment, promotion, etc.—financial expenditures benefit programming, management's impossibility compartmentalizing meaningful way, airing on-the-air withhold 100% subsidy editorializes, decision. Surely facts, subsidy, hand, 20-30% involved here, 379, 385 (CD Cal.1982), trivialization. 56 say attach largess; allocate find rational relationship providing ' "aimed dangerous ideas." Cammarano States, 358 498, 513, 79 524, 533, 462 (1959), quoting Speiser Randall, 357 519, 78 1332, 1338, 1460 (1958), American Assn. Douds, 339 382, 402, 70 674, 686, 925 (1950). politics. appearance sponsorship neutral. bent. prevented documentaries, interviews, etc. dealing subjects, endorse viewpoint. foregoing so-called "unconstitutional condition" cases, stated "may person infringes protected interests—especially speech." Perry Sindermann, 408 593, 597, 2694, 2697, 570 (1972). content-neutral strained subsidizing illustrative difference. California's property tax exemption veterans declare work overthrow regarded content. unrelated conferred difficult argue 58 Here, my monies enact neutral, makes unconstitutional. reverse STEVENS, jester mocks King choose words care. artist paint flattering portrait patron. child wants toy preface request comment fat mother is. Newspaper listen advertising Elected remember elections financed. invalidates today, sophisticated legislators pervasive powerful mass heard raucous voice Adolf Hitler Berlin appreciate 61 prohibitions rest foundation. stronger basis" weakened buttressed insidious evils favoring points view. maintaining neutrality market ideas—of avoiding subtle censorship propaganda—outweigh results terminating reducing transgression. 62 explain assessment majority's description impact. 63 relevant facts briefly stated. organization, enlist "editorial support" causes. App. 8. desires hear opinions" 9. stations—the percent Nation's population—wants "broadcast label management." 9-10. 64 Waxman radio; chance convince broadcasts. realized broadcasts, views—labeled such—via operates. provides: 66 399.1 challenged validity editorializing.2 assumes severable section constitutional.3 difference based apparent rationale premise predicate expressions tell us endorses worthy iterate reiterate opinion" "is protection." 375-376; ante, 380 13, 381, 383, 384.4 Neither regulates nor identify significance statute's Three relevant. prohibit expressing avenue except support. eliminates channel itself, thereby advantage speakers, exclude ideas. commentators participate Pacifica's agrees disagrees Third, greatest me, completely neutral operation—it drawn matter expressed.5 violate citizen's conditioned sovereign's agreement speaker intends say.6 On principle—to speakers rewarded penalized saying things to—or offensive to—the sovereign.7 underlie itself. arena overriding field electronic communication, persuasive, licensed Government.8 surely legitimate safeguards sure cross threshold separates 72 Instead, respects 388-390. indication strength here—Congress evil avoided grave. Organs antithetical heritage, understandably acted caution area.9 answer "substantially concern." 390. selecting relatively amorphous. foolproof; dispensed "objective" guarantee. Individuals allocating exerted outright fund-cutoffs. Members Judiciary, live world conclude real danger considerations influencing dispensing safeguards, respect. 74 magnitude admittedly judges disagree.10 agree removed. remains suppress opinions. small immediate be, theoretical influenced ever tie strings, strings pulled. "One knows he dissent somehow consents dissent." H. Arendt, Crises Republic 88 (1972), citing 1A. de Tocqueville, Democracy America 419 (1945).11 describes "defined speech," analogizes condemned manipulates labels perceiving behind class affected York's consisted utilities nuclear written statements inserted customers' monthly bills. phrased obviously spokesmen offensiveness utilities' messages audiences. classic viewpoint-based prohibition. ground heterogenous view.12 sensible viewpoint restriction—or, favorite phrase, condemn "content-based"—because equally shades "offensiveness" term Edison. disagree, subsidy—not legitimates justification. forestalling respectfully dissent. S. Frost, Education's Own Stations 464 (1937). Television, Television: Program Action 21-29 ("Carnegie I"); Future Trust 33-34 (1979) II"). 93-123, pp. 2-6 recommendations later well, television." coined authors distinguish "private" larger comprising "instructional" cultural defined. 1. modified 10, members. 396(c), 1225(a)(1), 726. accordance formally 1969 (PBS) created. Today, PBS membership elected membership, consists located States. Amici Curiae (NPR) 1970 performs analogous service Attorney General Civiletti explained: "After consideration, [399] guarantees mindful duty laws Congress. determined, deliberation, arguments statute." Benjamin R. Majority Leader Robert C. Byrd (Oct. 11, 1979), 13-14. complaint, challenge "support[ing] oppos[ing] party sentences inseverable reviewing other. "[n]ew reinforce severability setting forth sentences," confines extending Defendant's Supplemental Memorandum 15, 1981). sentence 788, 26, 1422, (1978) (noting "our corporation's implies comparable quite context participation campaign election office"—a case). Griggs Provident Consumer Discount 459 56, 400, 225 (1982) (per curiam), contend lack notice motion amend still pending. Griggs, plain Rule Appellate Procedure 4(a)(4), [a 59(e) motion] effect. measured entry disposing motion. 61, 403. comes U.C.A. 1252, vest appellate turns 11.3. 4(a)(4) dispositive equivalent 11.3, "if petition rehearing timely ., filing runs date denial judgment." terms, pendency observed, alter "suspend[s] finality [original] judgment," "until [the lower court's] restores" finality. Communist Party Indiana Whitcomb, 414 441, 445, 656, 660, 635 (1974). emphasized rule suspension judgment's postjudgment reconsideration "alteration adjudicated" court's judgment. Banking Nebraska Pink, 317 264, 266, 233, 234, 254 (1942) curiam); FTC Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator 344 206, 211, 245, 248, 97 245 (1952) ("mere previously entered reentered immaterial toll sought"). permits "an interlocutory final unconstitutional." 1252 departs significantly policy minimizing mandatory docket "unambiguou[s] mandat[e]" call doubt Acts McLucas DeChamplain, 421 21, 31, 1371, 699 (1975). following August unconstitutional, collateral recover attorney's fees costs. Prior decision, briefed discussed parties; nevertheless, court, sua sponte, award "reasonable attorneys' costs" Recognizing briefing, motion, restore quo ante briefing. November striking order, advisement. White Hampshire Dept. Employment Security, 455 1162, 325 "award fees] uniquely separable cause action" settled post-judgment Rules Civil Procedure. 452, 1166. concede, "uniquely separable" "holding unconstitutional," asked "alter adjudication parties," consequently reviewed "was suspended." 234. properly calculated initial rendered, 2101(a). frustrate "prompt determination last resort disputed questions acts Congress," 212, 75th (1937), unconstitutional" delayed having bearing taken. Citizens 436 775, 799-800, 2096, 2114, 697 387-390, 1805-1806, (1969); 190, 216, 997, 1009, 1344 (1943); Nelson Bros. Bond Mortgage 289 282, 627, 635, 1166 (1933). prevailing scarcity come increasing criticism years. Critics, incumbent Chairman charge cable technology, obsolete. See, Fowler Brenner, Marketplace Approach Broadcast Regulation, Texas L.Rev. 207, 221-226 prepared, reconsider longstanding signal technological developments revision note observing "[i]f exists [fairness doctrine] rules impeded, furthered, objectives, repeal warranted alone," tentatively rules, chilling proposed Notice Rulemaking re Repeal Modification Personal Attack Political Editorial Rules, Fed.Reg. 28298, 28301 discretion, modify abandon legality course. shown "[has] net enhancing" forced upholding containing "indecent" afternoon George Carlin monologue, There, focused physical specifically, medium's presence renders impossible warning listeners offended indecent language, ease children medium, daytime hours, exposed parental supervision. 748-749, 3039-3040. reduction risks timing "indecent broadcasting" outweigh 750, 3041. expression, core protections, claim "nuisance" Foundation. 1949, personal [not] intrinsically abuse issues," overt licensee "it exercised conformity paramount responsible viewpoints" "consistent interest." Editorializing Licensees, 1246, 1253, 1258 (1949). underscored identifying "major elements usually meet needs community." Programming Statement, 7295 (1960). regularly enforced practices renewal proceedings. Greater 143 444 841, 860 (1970); Evening 316, 332 (1971); RKO General, 149, 219 Bolger Youngs Drug Products 463 60, 65, 2875, 2879, 469 462-463, 2291, (1980); 784-785, 1420; Police Chicago Mosley, 92, 95-96, 2290, 212 answered 90-93, 668-670, (1976) curiam). appropriation involve object. 91-92, 669. Nevertheless, mean enjoin expenditures. And, Wooley Maynard, 430 705 (1977), life serious belied under-inclusiveness concedes—indeed insists—that sorts objectionable suppression. angry really central, animating go enough substantial. "There being, resources judgments. entity supported pressures. entity." 222, 1772. "Your committee considerable Act] enacted. wish strongest possible intention themselves broadcast." 11. Pastore). echoed concerns: "Every witness Directors, none employees, insulation expenditure funds." 1805. "[L]ocal retain opportunity feel communities. arrangements. 18. surrounding lay supporters permitting subjected undue propaganda, 113 Cong.Rec. 26383 Rep. Staggers), criticize officials. Representative Springer, chief ranking minority member reported due "[t]here strong feelings editorialized against." H.R.6736 Interstate Foreign Sess. 641 ("House Hearings"). 26391 Joelson). hearings bill, Some witnesses inappropriate, see, Hearings, 513-514 William Harley, President, Association Broadcasters), took explaining civic 391-392 McGeorge Bundy, Ford Foundation); 640-642 Dr. Gould, Joint Council Telecommunications). After H.R.6736, Senate, disagreeing requested Conference receded disagreement "when representing that] preclude balanced, fair, H.R.Conf.Rep. 794, 1835. out, periodic reconsiderations modifications 1973, 1978, 25-27; supra. easily aside "[d]eference inquiry stake. definition check nullified." Landmark Communications, Virginia, 829, 843-844, 1535, 1543-1544, considerably attenuated portion income. Income: Fiscal Year 1982, Table (Final Report, Dec. 1983) 23.4% stations). vast foundations, businesses, contributions; noted, remarkable," 1982 Annual decentralized secured, improper enhanced advisory boards "diverse station[s]." 396(k)(9)(A). sample Fang Whelan, Survey Editorials Ombudsman Segments, J. 363 E. Routt, Dimensions Congressional experience reaffirmed schedules occurred produced distribution, 1972, claiming centralization usurping Nixon vetoed establishing 2-year 41-43. addition, "Bill Moyer's Journal" "Washington Week Review," controversial. Canby, State Editor: Implications 1123, 1156-1157 events prompted undertake thorough enactment firm developing long-range interference," "increase [in] amount stations" "[in ensure] predictable level [i.e., unrestricted] grants." 93-324, themes carried forward 95-567, 307, 2415, 727. brief, commissions, governor legislature, universities school municipal authorities. Appellant, 20, nn. 43, 44; 5-8, S.1160, Hyde); Special Message Congress: "Education Health America," Papers Presidents, Lyndon B. Johnson, Feb. 28, 250 ("Noncommercial America, programming"); 26384 Staggers); 18-19 (1967); 7-8, (1967). 1977 administration, "mak[e] instrumentalit[ies]" entities. President's 6, 1977), reprinted 95-1178, 5345, 5353. House, went H.R.12605, which, things, deleting retaining endorsements. 124 19937 form. 30081 conference, retained. 95-1774, Whether muster decide. 1949 fact: "It gives him insure presented licensee." F.C.C., advocacy contrary "these misdirected stem confusion name licensee, broader insuring listening differing viewpoints good prestige, where exists, weight follow excluded air. Assurance achieved, exclusion microphone available, 1253-1254 Points Authorities Opposition Plaintiff's Motion Summary Judgment (July 22, 1981); Support Dismiss Second Amended Complaint effort prop up position relying 7324 misunderstanding (1947), (1973), 9(a) Act—a differs respects: "active campaigns," accordingly, "[e]xpressions, personalities proscribed, 2886; job performance 564-565, 2890; finally, evolved century alternatives proved inadequate 557-563, 2886-2889. suppresses importance; independent, employees; means. neither lesser involved. reliance post, 405-406, misplaced. Oklahoma's invaded State's sovereignty Tenth officers coercive sums relied state." 142, 553. proposition employee's matters, 553, disbursed. proceeded case." 553 rejecting cited Just intimated mere uphold Act's relaxed standards. a1 takes pains show argument. 401-402, 27. Without belaboring point, reading quoted refer one, Pub. L. Appellees' abandonment merits comment. perplexing, Brown Hartlage, 456 1523, 732 (1982); Monitor Patriot Roy, 401 265, 272, 621, 625, (1971), escape declining Viewed perspective stake, suspect (1964), "profound wide-open, vehement, caustic, sometimes unpleasantly attacks 721. candidates, apparently "wide-open" issues—it longer asserts "vehement, officials" event, litigants abandoned seemingly tactical reasons, continue challenge. raises issue. aversion practices. domestic dissemination "educational" stations—was viewed extremely troubling. line education indoctrination cross. caution," shows deemed necessary. concerns—potential censorship, giving louder privileged few owners, agree—as insufficiently weighty enough. once again obvious speech—that worth fighting not—a today's interpret "as aberration" Young Mini Theatres, 427 50, 87, 2440, 2460, (dissenting opinion) ("The 'offensive' 'important' 'ideas social significance,' terminology, [427 2448]—does protection"). implies. speaks sort species 375-376. confuses typical topic imaginable. "forecloses importance.' 381. limited. matter. accepts convey, cf. Linmark Associates, Willingboro, 431 85, 96-97, 1614, 1620, 155 (1977); 649, am troubled "daily listeners," curtailing issues; vehicle propaganda. Paradoxically, attacked essentially underinclusive "controversial" Here recognizes programs," 391, substance all. Next, overinclusive grounds—because content-neutral—since "potentially elections." 393. Hence, content-based, non-content based, applying opinion—such "urging museums," ibid.—which pose, least, realistic emerged expense others. 72, 2883, 535-536, 2332, 63-65, 67-68, 2448-2449, 2450-2451, (plurality opinion); (1972)." City Angeles Taxpayers Vincent, 466 804, 2118, 2128, 80 (1984). ironic indeed 'to truth' ", (citation omitted), object truth. "all Government." listener's payments causes opposes. short shrift observes leaps conclusion here. 385, 16. manifestly premise, significant. adhered guiding claims repeating length: "Where individuals allocate, idle posit unabridgeable speak, write, publish. ". monopolize frequency. "By token, better refused. holds frequency fellow citizens. share himself proxy fiduciary obligations airwaves. "[T]he people whole collective ends viewers listeners, paramount. countenance monopolization market, licensee. here." 388-390, 1461 (prohibiting International Communication Agency—successor Information Agency—from disseminating States). concededly perceive organ stating "does 395. laughable Orwellian: all! doctrine" Government-funded will, overall, pro-Government slant distortion guarantee disagree determines "fairly" "the" argue, institution 15. magnifies avoided, parroted curry benefactor. mean, "that represent," effects 416-417

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