Document: 127 S. Ct. 2553 (2007) Jay F. HEIN, Director, White House Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives, et al., Petitioners, v. FREEDOM FROM RELIGION FOUNDATION, INC., al. No. 06-157. Supreme Court United States. Argued February 28, 2007. Decided June 25, *2558 Paul D. Clement, Washington, D.C., for Petitioners. Andrew J. Pincus, Respondents. *2559 Solicitor General, Giovanna Shay, New Haven, CT, Charles A. Rothfeld, Elizabeth G. Oyer, Mayer, Brown, Rowe & Maw LLP, DC, Richard L. Bolton, Boardman, Suhr, Curry Field LLC, Madison, WI, Justice ALITO announced the judgment delivered an opinion in which THE CHIEF JUSTICE KENNEDY join. This is a lawsuit it was claimed that conferences held as part President's Initiatives program violated Establishment Clause First Amendment because, among other things, President Bush former Secretary Education Paige gave speeches used "religious imagery" praised efficacy faith-based programs delivering social services. The plaintiffs contend they meet standing requirements Article III Constitution because pay federal taxes. It has long been established, however, payment taxes generally not enough to establish challenge action taken by Federal Government. In light size budget, complete fiction argue unconstitutional expenditure causes individual taxpayer any measurable economic harm. And if every could sue Government expenditure, courts would cease function law be cast role general complaint bureaus. Flast Cohen, 392 U.S. 83, 88 1942, 20 Ed. 2d 947 (1968), we recognized narrow exception rule against standing. Under Flast, plaintiff asserting claim authorizing use funds way allegedly violates Clause. present case, Congress did specifically authorize or challenged. Instead, were paid out Executive Branch appropriations. Appeals, have taxpayers with money appropriated Congress. question presented here whether this broad reading correct. We hold not. therefore reverse decision Appeals. I A 2001, issued executive order creating within President. Exec. Order 13199, 3 CFR 752 (2001 Comp.). purpose new office ensure "private charitable community groups, including religious ones ... fullest opportunity permitted compete on level playing field, so achieve valid public purposes" adhere "the bedrock principles pluralism, nondiscrimination, evenhandedness, neutrality." Ibid. charged task eliminating unnecessary bureaucratic, legislative, regulatory barriers impede such organizations' *2560 effectiveness ability equally assistance. Id., at 752-753. By separate orders, also created Department Centers several agencies departments.[1] These centers given job ensuring groups eligible financial support without impairing their independence autonomy, "not direct assistance inherently activities, worship, instruction, proselytization." 13279, § 2(f), p. 260 (2002 To end, directed "[n]o organization should discriminated basis religion belief administration distribution under service programs," id., 2(c), 260, "[a]ll organizations receive services prohibited from discriminating beneficiaries potential belief," 2(d), 260. who sued official capacities, are directors various Centers. No congressional legislation authorized creation Rather, "created entirely branch Presidential order." Freedom From Religion Foundation, Inc. Chao, 433 F.3d 989, 997 (C.A.7 2006). Nor enacted appropriating these entities' activities. activities funded through For example, Education's Center Education, while Housing Urban Development's Department's salaries expenses account. See Accountability Office, Initiative: Improvements Monitoring Grantees Measuring Performance Could Enhance Accountability, GAO-06-616, 21 (June 2006), online http://www.gao.gov/new. items/d06616.pdf (as visited 2007, available Clerk Court's case file); see Amended Complaint 04-C-381-S (WD Wis.), ¶ 23, App. Pet. Cert. 71a-72a. B respondents Inc., nonstock corporation "opposed government endorsement religion," 5, 68a, three its members. Respondents brought suit States District Western Wisconsin, alleging petitioners organizing "are singled being particularly worthy funding..., God extolled distinguishing services." 32, 73a. further alleged content sent message believers "that insiders favored members *2561 political community" nonbelievers outsiders" full community." 37, 76a. short, designed promote, had effect promoting, over secular ones. only asserted Congressional appropriations advance promote religion." 10, 69a; ¶¶ 7-9, 68a-69a. capacity taxpayers, sought expenditures conferences, which, contended, C dismissed claims lack Towey, Wis., Nov. 15, 2004), 27a-35a. concluded 947, limited challenges constitutionality "`exercises power taxing spending clause Art. I, 8.'" 31a (quoting supra, 102, 1942). Because acted "at request behalf" "charged program," challenged `exercises power'" sufficient provide Flast. 33a-34a. divided panel Appeals Seventh Circuit reversed. 989. majority read granting grounds "financed appropriation." F.3d, 997. concluded, even where "there no statutory program" "from administrative expenses, officials degree discretionary power." 994. According majority, anything done agency officer marginal incremental cost tax-paying violation establishment clause" greater than "zero." 995. dissent, Judge Ripple opined majority's reflected "dramatic expansion current doctrine," 997, "cuts concept loose moorings," 998. Noting "[t]he can do nothing budget Congress," 1000, he criticized overstepping Flast's requirement "plaintiff must bring attack disbursement made exercise Congress' power," 1000 (emphasis original). denied en banc review vote seven four. 447 988 Concurring denial rehearing, Chief Flaum expressed doubt about decision, but noted obvious tension evolved area jurisprudence... resolved Court." granted certiorari *2562 resolve question, 549 ___, 722, 166 559 (2006), now reverse. II limits judicial resolution "Cases" "Controversies," "`Article standing... enforces Constitution's case-or-controversy requirement.'" DaimlerChrysler Corp. Cuno, 547 126 1854, 1861, 164 589 (2006) Elk Grove Unified School Dist. Newdow, 542 1, 11, 124 2301, 159 98 (2004)). "`No principle more fundamental judiciary's proper our system constitutional limitation federal-court jurisdiction actual cases controversies.'" Raines Byrd, 521 811, 818, 117 2312, 138 849 (1997) Simon Eastern Ky. Welfare Rights Organization, 426 26, 96 1917, 48 450 (1976)). "[O]ne controlling elements definition controversy III" ASARCO Kadish, 490 605, 613, 109 2037, 104 696 (1989) (opinion KENNEDY, J.). requisite well established: "A allege personal injury fairly traceable defendant's unlawful conduct likely redressed requested relief." Allen Wright, 468 737, 751, 3315, 82 556 (1984). constitutionally mandated inquiry especially important like one, seek "to laws application own distinct suffered citizens." ASARCO, 2037 defined unconditioned authority determine legislative acts." Valley Forge Christian College Americans Separation Church State, 454 464, 471, 102 752, 70 700 (1982). empowered strike down governmental act deem repugnant Constitution. sit "solely, decide rights individuals," Marbury 1 Cranch 137, 170, 2 60 (1803), "`refrai[n] passing upon unless obliged performance function, when raised party whose interests entitle him raise it.'" Forge, 474, Blair States, 250 273, 279, 39 468, 63 979 (1919)). As 80 years ago, another involving standing: "We per se annul acts ground unconstitutional. may considered justification some threatened, presenting justiciable issue, rest .... invokes able show statute invalid sustained immediately danger sustaining result enforcement, merely suffers indefinite common people generally." Frothingham Mellon, decided Massachusetts 262 447, 488, 43 597, 67 1078 (1923). *2563 matter, interest seeing Treasury spent accordance does give rise kind redressable "personal injury" required Of course, collection specific tax assessment unconstitutional; forced real immediate taxpayer. See, e.g., Follett Town McCormick, 321 573, 64 717, 938 (1944) (invalidating preaching grounds). But assert here. that, having lawfully collected into point, continuing, legally cognizable those consistently type too generalized attenuated Frothingham, mothers' children's health, arguing involvement intruded reserved Tenth "increase burden future taxation thereby take [the plaintiff's] property due process law." U.S., 486, 597. lacked particularized "[I]nterest moneys Treasury... shared millions others; comparatively minute indeterminable; taxation, funds, remote, fluctuating uncertain, afforded appeal preventive powers court equity. "The statute, produce additional imposed vast number extent liability constantly changing, essentially matter concern." 487, are, essence, public-at-large, deciding based solely "would be[,] controversy, assume position co-equal department, plainly possess." 489, 597; Alabama Power Co. Ickes, 302 478-479, 58 300, 374 (1938). Doremus Board Hawthorne, 342 429, 433, 72 394, 475 (1952), reaffirmed principle, explaining treasury indeterminable, uncertain indirect furnish manner expenditure." rejected state taxpayer's school teachers Bible grievance plaintiff] litigate dollars-and-cents difference." 434, 394. doing, basic "a raising government claiming harm his citizen's laws, seeking relief directly tangibly *2564 benefits largedoes controversy." Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 573-574, 112 2130, 119 351 (1992).[2] carved prohibition taxpayer-plaintiff schools Elementary Secondary Act 1965, aid set two-part test determining expenditure: "First, logical link between status enactment attacked. Thus, will unconstitutionality exercises 8, incidental Secondly, nexus precise nature infringement alleged. requirement, exceeds limitations simply beyond delegated 8." 102-103, 1942. satisfied both prongs test: plaintiff's "constitutional [was] spend welfare," she *2565 Clause, "operates conferred 103-104, falls exception, cover "expenditure Clause." Brief 12. fails observe rigor ought applied." 481, 752. issue pursuant express mandate appropriation. disbursements 79 Stat. 27. That expressly sum $100 million fiscal year 1966, 201(b), 36, local educational education low-income students, 86, receiving "ma[k]e provision special arrangements (such dual enrollment, radio television, mobile equipment)" students enrolled private elementary secondary participate, 2, 30-31. addition, recipient "library resources, textbooks, instructional materials" grants "be provided equitable children schools," 203(a)(3)(B), 37. then, appropriation disbursed (including religiously affiliated schools) unambiguous mandate.[3] Indeed, taxpayer-plaintiff's premised contention Government's actions "`within intent Act, void.'" 90, reviewed concerned "if challenged] constitutes `law respecting religion' `prohibiting free thereof'" Amendment. Gardner, 271 Supp. (S.D.N.Y. 1967). Given undertaken mandate, taxpayer-plaintiffs established "logical [their taxpayer] attacked." *2566 words, "[t]heir welfare." later noted, "limited `only [at] Taxing Spending 479, supported missing appropriation; nor ask invalidate legislatively fund day-to-day activities.[4] authorize, direct, mention complain. Those resulted discretion, action. never found circumstances. Health, Welfare] transfer parcel property" college action." fact, connection closer here, "particular action" least "arguably authorized" Property Administrative Services 1949, surplus entities. n. Nevertheless, 1942).[5] Similarly, Schlesinger Reservists Comm. Stop War, 418 208, 94 2925, 41 706 (1974), contended Incompatibility Members holding commissions Armed Forces Reserve. "did rather permitting maintain Reserve status." 228, 2925. though reclaim reservist received Memberspay presumably Forces: "Such follow invalidity paying persons reservists, statutes *2567 Reservists." Ibid., 17. Richardson, 166, 175, 2940, 678 (1974) (denying compel publication accounting Central Intelligence Agency `logical nexus' failure require supply detailed report agency"). Bowen Kendrick, 487 589, 108 2562, 101 520 (1988), rely heavily, contrary. mount as-applied Adolescent Family Life (AFLA), organizations. notwithstanding fact funding ha[d] flowed administered" official. 620, 619, 2562. key conclusion recognition AFLA heart powers," plaintiffs' "call[ed] how [were] AFLA's mandate." 619-620, 2562 added). grant-making, contemplated might go projects groups. 595-596, 2562; 623, (O'Connor, J., concurring) (noting "partnership institutions AFLA").[6] Unlike Kendrick involved "program powers" "Congress created," "authorized," "mandate[d]." attempt paint Kendrick-style challenge, effort unavailing simple reason cite challenge. best point unspecified, lump-sum "Congressional appropriations" Branchthe allocation "is a[n] traditionally regarded committed discretion." Lincoln Vigil, 508 182, 192, 113 2024, (1993). Characterizing "as-applied challenge" stretch meaning term past breaking point. cannot legal implicates underlying *2568 When criminal defendant charges agent carried unreasonable search seizure, view Bureau Investigation. why similarly no-strings, appropriations, viewed differently.[7] outside exception" Frothingham." 618, enactment, respondents' power, thus lacks nexus" "and IV "arbitrary" distinguish course situations very targeted Flast exacted taxpayers." 13. below agreed, observation much ways forbidden clause." focused action, decline invitation extend encompass expenditures. itself distinguished "incidental statute," subsequently "extends `the whole, regardless work particular instance,'" 484, 20, Moreover, repeatedly emphasized "narrow precedent," S.Ct., 1865, "slightly lowered" bar standing, 173, applied "rigor," significant four decades since creation, *2569 largely confined facts. declined lower suits violations apart Tilton 403 672, 91 2091, 29 790 (1971) (no Free Exercise Amendment); 2940 Statement Account I); Schlesinger, 2925 1865 Commerce Clause). refused permit implicate power. 479-482, IV); Columbia Common Cause Columbia, 858 F.2d 3-4 (C.A.D.C.1988); re Catholic Conference, 885 1020, 1028 (C.A.2 1989). effect, adopted forth Powell concurrence Richardson "limit[ed] citizen absence authorization outer boundary drawn results ...." 196, 2940. While different extractions, equivalence: "It statute." almost all activity ultimately appropriation, extending purely effectively subject actionbe conference, proclamation speechto court. wide swathe proposed cover, one need look amended focuses presentations officials. 73a (challenging officials' "support national regional conferences"); 33, 73a-75a speech Education); 35, 76a speeches); 41, 77a "public appearances" "speeches"). Such ignore first prong test, requires [taxpayer] serious separation-of-powers concerns. recognized, little weight framing terms dispute adversary context form capable resolution, "failed recognize doctrine component, keeps certain traditional bounds vis-á-vis branches, concrete adverseness not." Lewis Casey, 518 343, 353, 3, 116 2174, 135 606 (1996); Respondents' *2570 position, adopted, repeat compound mistake. jurisdictionincluding III essential ingredient separation equilibration powers." Steel Citizens Better Environment, 523 101, 118 1003, 140 210 (1998). "Relaxation related lowering significantly alter level, shift away democratic government." 188, (Powell, concurring). propose enlist superintend, behest taxpayer, speeches, statements, myriad daily President, staff, quite odds promise transform forums taxpayers' `generalized grievances'" government, 106, 1942), "open Judiciary arguable charge providing `government injunction,'" 222, deputize "`virtually continuing monitors wisdom soundness action,'" most emphatically, judiciary." Allen, 760, 3315 Laird Tatum, 408 92 2318, 33 154 (1972)). Both implicitly unqualified far, neither identified workable limitation. conceded taxpaying Applying rule, favorable reference State Union address costs associated mentioned Moses John Stuart Mill." There Appeals' intended zero-marginal-cost literally, court, apparent Paige's speech, went agree speech. 996. literallyi.e., zero sufficestaxpayers (and perhaps many) speeches. Easterbrook observed: total presidential proclamations Cabinet officers touch (Thanksgiving holidays) surely $500,000 annually; Air Force One send Secret Service detail single speaking engagement." 989-990 (concurring rehearing banc). At minimum, approach (asking exceeded zero) create difficult uncomfortable line-drawing problems. Suppose writer staff member extra time doing research *2571 attends speaks prayer breakfast otherwise work. somewhat approach, contending manageable "fairly violate argue, "scree[n] challenge[s to] example address, violation." 21. find comfort vague ill-defined test. initial fail explain (often substantial) attend, less "traceable" statements concede lawsuits de minimis amounts pass "traceability" 6. inquiry, depending framed, appear prove either much. If somehow traced general, answer always yes: Almost specific, turn financed receipts. If, hand, contributions taxpayer-plaintiff, no: indeterminable... changing." parade horribles occur extended say, build house worship hire clergy denomination them spread faith. Or make bulk purchases Stars David, crucifixes, depictions star crescent offices employees public. none things happened, previously expanded urge. unlikely event place, quickly step in. improbable abuses possess Over years, defended others. us reconsider precedent. apply Flast; necessary concomitant stare decisis precedent limit logic. then-Justice Rehnquist took *2572 overrule it. leave SCALIA says His "[in]sane," inconsistent "rule law," "utterly meaningless." Post, 2573-2574 concurring judgment). wrong. seriously (1) spoke "legislative enactment[s]" "exercises (2) decided, expenditure. case. Relying resolving "Controversies" before us, hand. * reasons, ordered. concurring. design implemented, means, III's resulting 559-560, (1992). applying it, interpreted acknowledging principles, cases, accommodate Amendment's expresses concern freedom conscience compromised religion. my reached correct called question. reasons ALITO, instant matter. join full. promoted Bush's Initiatives. 73a-77a. allegation pointed officers, references. 73a-76a. relies sole points Branch. 71a-73a. (1988). circumstances boundless. events call open discussion self-government. free, discover ideas, understand pressing demands, creative responses exchange ideas Governments manifold, diverse constituencies sustains society. Permitting prototypical operations dialogues *2573 lead intervention far exceeding boundaries there arise oversight duties. discovery ascertain justified potentially innumerable risk altering information. constant supervision place soon editors communications planners meetings hold. reluctant expand requiring intrusive unremitting management performs allow "permanent sound federalism Garcetti Ceballos, 1951, 1961, 689 (2006); Cheney 367, 382, 2576, 459 (2004) "separation-of-powers considerations inform appeals' evaluation mandamus petition Vice President" "mandamus standards enough... prevent interfering coequal branch's discharge responsibilities"). explained concerns "counsel[ed] recognizing restructuring apparatus fulfill duties." 761, same applies intrusion realm explains detail, precedents so. implicated regulation reinforce interpretation framework. Cf. (relying "on interpret `fairly traceable' component requirement"). remembered parties sue, Legislative Branches excused making determinations regular conscious obey then conform principled determinations. SCALIA, whom THOMAS joins, judgment. Today's is, respect, consistent previous addressing Unfortunately, consistency lies utterly meaningless distinctions hand come differently, possibly (in sane world) comes differently. hands, surrender logic choose sides: Either (at minimum) revenues *2574 limiting repudiated. me, choice easy. wholly irreconcilable restrictions confirmed embodied taxpayer-standing notoriously inconsistent: inconsistently described element "irreducible minimum standing," consists "concrete particularized" "`injury fact'" (3) decision. 560-561, alternately relied two conceptions convenience "Wallet Injury" "Psychic Injury." Wallet Injury expect suit, namely, higher be, stumbling block challenging conventional predictable. satisfy traceability redressability what bill made, speculative will, response adverse manner. Psychic Injury, liability. mental displeasure extracted focus eliminates improper enjoined, injunction affects purse. following teaching invoked peculiarly restricted version Restricted not, conceptualizing conflicts squarely familiar proposition violated. unanimously just Term: "`We governmentclaiming controversy.'" Lance Coffman, 1194, 1196, 167 (per curiam) Lujan, 2130). demonstrates, initially *2575 above. flaw twofold: insufficient denied, however limited, III. Two pre-Flast critical importance. (1923), Maternity 1921, 476-477, 597 (argument Frothingham), 479-480 Court). After emphasizing [Treasury] funds" "remote, uncertain," [of review] generally," describing problems rejecting second (1952). public-school beginning each day. 430, 394.[1] extensively increased running schools, reaffirming generally, "grievance plaintiffs] difference," ibid. addition reiterating Frothingham's description unavoidable obstacles recovery theory unmistakable terms. opinion's deprecation mere contrast "dollars-and-cents injury," understood flat disapproval funds. thought permissible sufficed dissenting Justices suggested, 435, 394 Douglas, J.)) *2576 Sixteen after Doremus, pivotal turn. expended parochial schools. 85-87, They argued proscribed 87, Purportedly stake interest" III, two-pronged invented. 101-102, "establish enactment." meant follows: "[A] statute. state-taxpayer Doremus...." alleged." elaborated [to] mind "one evils feared by" Framers favor generally. 1942 exclusively Madison's famous Memorial Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments). newly minted satisfied, conclusion, success merits reduce Frothingham. "injury" "his protections problem: regard litigation ultimate liability, similar basis? Enter magical often out, refuted, criteria unrelated purported goal *2577 "stake outcome 121-124, (Harlan, dissenting); 107, (Douglas, concurring); 183, truth, goal. Each disqualify prior contradict Did proffer particularized, traceable, (whatever means)? Not all. evaded, was. reality, material difference concerned: upset government's giving disapproved Bible.[2] dispatching via marginally disingenuous. relationship bearing concreteness particularity Part infra, existence genuinely impossible contained spend. cl. provides: shall lay collect Taxes ..., Debts Defence States." (Emphasis added.) Though unmentioned precisely purposes Mrs. relied. Appellant O.T.1922, 962, 68 ("[T]he words `provide defence welfare States' power"); 26-81 (discussing length). Coherence candor fared better cases. containing lengthy warrant analysis. dismissively unpersuasively 13 *2578 77-acre tract property, worth half dollars, organization. Court, adhering strict letter satisfied: Rather attacking Congress's IV, 2. 479-480, achieved seemingly impossible: surpassed high irrationality Like dissenters 511-512, Brennan, J.); 513-514, STEVENS, J.), fathom enables obtain estate check instead buying transferring title. Forge's unpersuasive, trying hide ball. Its forthrightly resounding rejection Injury: "[Plaintiffs] identify consequence error, psychological produced disagrees. confer disagreement phrased evident firmly church measured intensity litigant's fervor advocacy." 485-486, omitted). keeping become shameful tradition inadequacy combined notable silence doomed. six later, resuscitated facial scheme nonprofit combat premarital adolescent pregnancy sex. 593, grantees selected Health Human recipients. 620-622, General prong, really decisionmaking, 618-619, contention, still *2579 administered Secretary. obviously make, showing Injury. relying perfectly revealed incompatibility Doremus. Just care anyway  different, cared salary once classroom conduct. Kendrick's acceptance fundamentally Forge. Which brings me final mention. Last Term, concisely franchise credit. 1864. analogy denying `injury' `extract[ion] spen[ding]' `tax money' plaintiff. redress injury, lawmakers dispose savings benefit personally." (citation omitted; alterations What Cuno's conceptualization reveals routes Court. provisions power; overturn plurality today avails option. accepting General's primary submission, "expressly Ante, 2568. offers intellectual limitation, except "[i]t logic." 2571. true enough, purport engaged reasoned precedent's seen narrowing readjustment relevant situation fore; flawed, deserves facts begot justifications. first, explanation factual differences material. virtually admits vel non redressed. ante, *2580 2568-2569. dissent correctly contends belabor, post, 2585-2586 SOUTER, indistinguishable Whether allocated absolutely relevance traceability, redressability. Yet unwilling acknowledge (its rationale) wrong, Despite acknowledgment, plausible plurality's indifference "distinguishing" material, determination "`resul[t],'" 2568-2569.[3] Why, pick breathe life preserving disreputable disarray jurisprudence? Why 1965 standing? That, suppose, repudiation impediment pose minimalism. express-allocation line mooring tripartite invites demonstrably absurd results. deny discrete explicitly purpose, everyone knew informally negotiated entire 2568, 7 (holding nonstatutory earmarks requirement). Branch's added vice violating restrictions. instructs disburse hospitals deems worthy, gives Church, [would be] missing." 2565-2566. taking word, insulate Flast-based codifying truism Any last pretense minimalismof declining "extend" itis swept flatly contradicts Kendrick. whole Secretary, Congress, chosen inappropriate grant involve, *2581 sense, attacks discretion decision: taxpayers. share dissent's bewilderment, 2586-2587 fixates amount enjoys issue: 2572 (focusing involves expenditure" added)). plurality, means wish impression coherent. use, rests emphasize extraction 28. refuse admit argument logically implies, already discussed, concession run headlong cryptic assertion 21, 7. makes sense. On attenuated. consisted psychic frustration caused Bible, remedied expenditure.[4] hollowness demonstrated counsel's game submission oral hiring guarded during trips, responsibilities corresponding taxpayer-funded compensation) protective detail. Tr. Oral Arg. 38-39. finds Nation's history. whenever So, Marshal paid, part, courtroom proclaiming "God Save Honorable entails, blinks reality conclude otherwise. *2582 prevail, endorse ideologically motivated "roam country wrongdoing reveal discoveries court," transforming "ombudsmen welfare" respect issues. Ultimately, arguments opinions colleagues serve confirm adoption addressed head-on. Minimalism admirable trait, disingenuous sure engendering future. ill served forcing lawyers judges deaden soul law, reason. correct, accorded dictates, abandoned entirety. turn, finally, Is ever sufficiently no. outset, "consisten[t]" 2130. evidence affirmed understanding, reasoning Ex parte Levitt, 633, 493 (1937) (dismissing Black's appointment Ineligibility 6, 2), disclose CIA's Accounts 9, 7), (rejecting military Reserves 2). 573-577, reasoning, grievances particularized. Lance, 1196-1197.[5] Injurythe suffices "nexus" *2583 metcure deficiency. produces tax-payer's angst change flaw. remains seeks "relief large." conceivable originally conceived whatever say barred considering slim reed novel 1968, unique inflicted personalized remedy. damaged goods, fanciful irrelevant test's supposed objective, cavalier treatment rested underestimation requirement's erroneously idea perform crucial function: person force, interference areas branches arise, all, substantive issues adjudicated. jurisdiction, adjudicated historically resolution." 100-101, perceptive Frenchman, visiting Warren wrote perceived false. censure, exercised legislation, distinction sort clearly formulated calls case." Tocqueville, Democracy America 97 (H. Mansfield Winthrop transls. eds.2000) crabbed judge-empowering) understanding plays separated repudiated: "To complainant abstract abuse process, distort Legislature injunction.'" 179-180, 2940; 752; 576-577, twice failed vital aspect *2584 Spencer Kemna, 11-12, 978, (1998); (1996). bear, is: contradiction propositions "is, solely, affecting large remedy process. Overruling precedents, nevertheless undertaking, impulse minimalist approach. laying honoring beating pulp sending weakened, denigrated, incomprehensible ever, yet technically alive. Even devised today's chance. proceedings below, well-respected hear banc, unimportant lawless in, second-guessing panel. 2006) (Flaum, C. banc); (Easterbrook, banc) (describing "arbitrary," "illogical," lacking "comprehensiveness rationality"). erase blot jurisprudence, smudged My imposition chaotic met snappy epigram logic: experience." O. Holmes, Law (1881). experience shown theoretical underpinning rendered jurisprudential disaster appellate know engendered reliance interests, arrange affairs eye random irrational. think few warranting respect. timeit timeto end. overruled. GINSBURG, BREYER join, dissenting. "demonstrate requirements." Here, controlling, declares apply, suggestion up empty: finding, closes door Branch, injury. precedent, respectfully dissent. repeated "`injury' *2585 spending" 1942; said importance deep historical roots going back ideal liberty James Assessments, society "force contribute pence establishment" Writings Madison 186 (G. Hunt ed.1901) (hereinafter Madison), quoted 103, translated practical right Religion... man left conviction man; dictate." 184; Zelman Simmons-Harris, 536 639, 711, 22, 122 2460, 153 604 (2002) (SOUTER, dissenting) ("As protection central objective Clause"); Locke Davey, 540 712, 1307, 158 ("Since founding country, popular uprisings procuring leaders, hallmarks `established' religion"); N. Feldman, Divided God: America's Church-State ProblemAnd Should Do About (2005) ("The advocates ban consciences told support"). identifiable cause split off another. conscience, accurately classified raises hackles policy supported, 2577 (SCALIA, Stewart "every taxed institution," air 114, promoting 2571-2572 (plurality opinion), sums purposes, authorizes thing, suffer enquiry: indisputably spending, "likely prohibiting (1984); ("[A]n injury"). *2586 decisions, 2569-2570, Judicial one. owe latter, suggested applicability uses money. draw chapel weekly it), good reason: accomplish exactly melt away.[1] So equivalence "claim improperly [was no] Secretary," "we questioned challenges, questions administratively grants." grantmaking" groups." 2567. true, indication face turned implementation, Bowen, "congressional mandate" "executive discretion" other, arbitrary hard manage: constitutional, complaints discretion," today.[2] *2587 class itself, mistake flesh Cognizable takes account protected, incorporates concepts concededly susceptible definition," leaving mechanical exercise." 3315. ultimately, "too abstract, appropriate, judicially cognizable." 3315.[3] physical harms, "injury fact" straightforward. strays enquiry subtle. Are esthetic harms uneven field race (without loss resulted), living racially gerrymandered electoral district? injuries one's dollars religion, Friends Earth, Laidlaw Environmental (TOC), 528 167, 120 693, 145 610 (2000) (esthetic injury); Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors Jacksonville, 656, 666, 2297, 586 (1993) `injury fact' inability equal footing bidding contract"); Hays, 515 744-745, 115 2431, 132 635 (1995) (living district). intangible evaluated case.[4] (shared today) spends "judicially cognizable," Madisonian *2588 reflects Founders' pragmatic "conviction stripped tax, support, assist religions," Everson Ewing, 330 504, 711 (1947), realization modern day favoritism "`sends nonadherents outsiders, community,"'" McCreary County American Civil Liberties Ky., 545 844, 860, 125 2722, 162 729 Santa Fe Independent Doe, 530 290, 309-310, 2266, 147 295 (2000), quoting Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 688, 1355, (1984) omissions original).[5] affirm. NOTES [1] 13198, 750 Comp.); 13280, 13342, 180 (2004 13397, 71 Fed.Reg. 12275 (2006). [2] 1862, ("Standing rejected" `concrete particularized,' `suffers generally'" 560, 2130)); 616, J.) ("[G]eneralized citizens courts"); 483, (1982) ("[A]ssertion conduct, acting alone III"); 174, ("[A] `employ forum System'") (1968) (Stewart, internal quotation marks omitted); 217, ("Respondents conformity Constitution], nonobservance, alone, adversely affect governance, injury"); (1923) generally"). [3] around passed great nonpublic church. 1965-1966, 91.1 percent 78.2 affiliated. Dept. Welfare, Statistics Nonpublic Schools 1965-66, (1968). [4] 2472 (appropriating $53,830,000 President"). [5] rationale: 8. 480, additional"and redundan[t]," ibid.basis foreclosed [6] sex approached variety integrated adolescents families" organizations," 42 U.S.C. 300z(a)(8)(B) (1982 ed.). federally "emphasize family members, organizations, voluntary associations, 300z(a)(10)(c). demonstration "shall systems" 300z-2(a), applicants describe "involve organizations" projects, 300z-5(a)(21)(B). [7] "earmarked" portions H.R.Rep. 107-342, (2001). `Congress appropriates statutorily restricting clear inference arises intend impose binding restrictions, indicia committee reports history expected on' agency." Lincoln, 2024 LTV Aerospace Corp., 55 Comp. 307, 319 (1975)); TVA Hill, 437 153, 191, 2279, 57 (1978) ("Expressions committees dealing requests equated Congress"). text so: "At five verses portion Holy known Old Testament read, comment, classroom, presence pupils therein assembled, teacher charge, opening day... ." N.J.Rev.Stat. 18:14-77 natural respond teachers' corresponded minimis. decency seize Doremus: Having justify simultaneously admonition "`the force establishment, whatsoever,'" Remonstrance; emphasis suffice who, unlike openly avowedly lose opinion). He affirms propositions. begin comprehend amorphous motivate him, 2572-2573, bear grounded oblique involve "identifiable amoun[t]" 2585 persuasive. consult CPA realize fraction salaries. inconsequential, probably pence. supra. occasionally dicta prudential bar. fountainhead dicta, Warth Seldin, 422 490, 95 2197, 45 343 (1975), statement naked citation Levitt. 499, 2197. considerations, analysis confirms. warns "ultimately 2569. posited sometimes 996 2006)), mean prevail suits. frivolous merits, dismissing jurisdiction. meritorious, fear many compelling reason, keep heard. indicated barrier (1982), "an 3." discussed "perhaps redundantly," Although draws today, other. 17, funds). "generalized," 2563, "public-at-large," properties strip would-be Election Comm'n Akins, 524 24, 1777, 141 10 (1998) ("Often widely association invariable, concrete, shared, fact'"). Outside context, 2568-2569 (citing examples). competitors indeed appears competitor here),

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