Document: 405 U.S. 56 92 S.Ct. 862 31 L.Ed.2d 36 Donald LINDSEY et al., Appellants,v.Dorothea M. NORMET al. No. 70—5045. Argued Nov. 15, 1971. Decided Feb. 23, 1972. Syllabus Appellants, month-to-month tenants of appellee Normet, refused to pay their monthly rent unless certain substandard conditions were remedied, and threatened eviction. Appellants filed a class action seeking declaratory judgment that the Oregon Forcible Entry Wrongful Detainer (FED) Statute was unconstitutional on its face, an injunction against continued enforcement. attacked principally (1) requirement trial no later than six days after service complaint security for accruing is provided, (2) limitation triable issues tenant's default, defenses based landlord's breach duty maintain premises being precluded, (3) posting bond appeal, with two sureties, in twice amount expected accrue pending appellate decision, this be forfeited if lower court decision affirmed. The District Court granted motion dismiss complaint, concluding statute did not violate Due Process or Equal Protection Clause. Held: 1. Neither early-trial provision nor litigable invalid face under Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Pp. 64—69. (a) time preparation unduly short where issue simply whether tenant has paid held over, continuance irrational oppressive. 64—65. (b) are denied due process because rental payments suspended while alleged wrongdoings landlord litigated, as may treat undertakings those independent covenants. P. 68. (c) foreclosed from instituting suit litigating right damages other relief action, have they shown excludes any 'available' limited questions at FED suit. 65—66, 69. 2. 69—74. State power implement legitimate objective achieving rapid peaceful settlement possessory disputes between by enacting special provisions applicable only such disputes. 70—73. Absent constitutional mandate, assurance adequate housing definition landlord-tenant relationships legislative function. 74. 3. double-bond prerequisite appealing does it arbitrarily discriminates wishing appeal adverse decisions. It heavily burdens statutory defendant necessary effectuate State's purpose preserving property issue. 74—79. Affirmed part reversed part. John H. Clough, Portland, Or., appellants. Theodore B. Jensen, appellees. Mr. Justice WHITE delivered opinion Court. 1 This case presents question Oregon's judicial procedure eviction nonpayment violates either 2 material facts stipulated. Normet1 $100 month use single-family residence Oregon. On November 10, 1969, City Bureau Buildings declared dwelling unfit habitation premises.2 requested make repairs which, one minor exception, do. who had rent, December until improvements been made. Appellee's attorney wrote letter 15 threatening 'get Order out matter' accrued immediately paid. 3 January 7, 1970, however, before procedures begun courts, appellants federal district 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (hereinafter sometimes FED) Statute, Ore.Rev.Stat. (ORS) §§ 105.105—105.160,3 A three-judge convened 28 2281, temporary restraining order issued enforcement ordered into escrow account during pendency proceeding. lengthy stipulation agreed upon, number exhibits depositions submitted, then appellee's complaint,4 Amendment.5 promptly appealed, we noted probable jurisdiction.6 4 * establishes intended insure entry upon real 'shall made peaceable manner without force.' 105.105. bring possession whenever failed within 10 date, when holding contrary some covenant lease, terminated arrangement proper notice remains expiration date specified notice. 105.115. Service must less more four 105.135; obtain two-day continuance, but grant longer conditioned payment accrue, plaintiff ultimately prevails, period continuance. 105.140. tried judge jury, allegations true, 105.145, 105.150. award recover restitution possession. 105.155. loses he obtains sureties will provide plaintiff, value commencement final judgment. 105.160.7 5 Appellants' principal attacks8 leveled three characteristics Statute: provided; 105.145 construed, said limit default preclude consideration premises; decision. These asserted both Clauses Except (see Part IV, infra), reject these claims. II 6 We unable conclude In recurring cases fails holds over his tenancy ensuing litigation cannot declare allows preparation. Tenants would appear much access relevant landlord, can know terms premises, received quit, necessary. Particularly where, here, admittedly deliberately withheld demand made, claims prejudice early unpersuasive. posts means defendants, unlike appellants, deny require prepare litigation, forced interim. hardly customary advance, simplicity typical usually extended thus making large deposit unnecessary. Of course, possible applied so deprive hearing specific situations, there showing infirmity situations render face.9 7 Nor law restricting actions honored covenants assumed, fairly fully litigated procedure. barred raising also claiming back asserting tenant.10 own action.11 8 'Due requires opportunity present every available defense.' American Surety Co. v. Baldwin, 287 156, 168, 53 98, 102, 77 L.Ed. 231 (1932). See Nickey Mississippi, 292 393, 396, 54 743, 744, 78 1323 (1934). do deny, litigate cognizable Their claim litigated.12 see barrier insistence lessor.13 9 permissible segregate arising same factual situation assert valid legal equitable counterclaims. Grant Timber & Mfg. Gray, 236 133, 35 279, 59 501 (1915) (Holmes, J.), upheld attack Louisiana provided sued could establish title brought conclusion.14 Bianchi Morales, 262 170, 43 526, 67 928 (1923) considered Puerto Rico's mortgage which summary foreclosure allowing defense except payment. concluded 'exclude all ultimate actions,' id., 171, S.Ct., allow set up separate annul mortgage. Underlying appellants' assumption recognizes failure operative excuse rent. Constitution federalized substantive relations, nothing forbid treating rather dependent Likewise, authorize us term otherwise expired damage litigated. relations differs widely various States. jurisdictions, argue unrepaired building code violations, implied warranty habitability, fact evicting him reporting violations exercising rights.15 Some States enacted statutes authorizing withholding situations.16 claims, all, tort, contract, civil rights suits. There (physical possession, forcible withholding, possession) III 11 agree true suits differ substantially longer,17 broader range considered. But follow invidiously defendants actions. 12 potentially applies tenants, rich poor, commercial noncommercial; faulted over-exclusiveness under-exclusiveness. And classifying differently purposes offend equal protection safeguard 'only classification rests grounds wholly irrelevant achievement objective,' McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 425, 81 1101, 1105, 393 (1961), itself beyond achieve, Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 125, 110 (1960); N.A.A.C.P. Alabama ex rel. Flowers, 377 288, 84 1302, 325 (1964); Douglas California, 372 353, 83 814, 811 (1963). readily apparent prompt well resolution end sought statute.18 clear simplification closely related purpose. respect depends validly single especially settlement. inquiry 'presumed acted (its) despite that, practice, laws result inequality.' supra, U.S., 425—426, 1105. 13 At common law, ejectment, 'relatively slow, complex, expensive procedure.'19 But, recognized, permitted 'enter expel force, liable tort damages, assault expelling tenant, uses force necessary, do(es) wanton damage.' Smith Reeder, 21 Or. 541, 546, 890, 891 (1892). relationship few areas self-help recognized most States, implementation fraught 'violence quarrels bloodshed.' Entelman Hagood, 95 Ga. 390, 392, 22 S.E. 545 (1895).20 An alternative remedy prevent breaches peace appeared overriding necessity many legislators judges. 14 Hence, 1866 alter obviate resort violence. statute, protect landlords, speedy, judicially supervised proceeding settle manner: 'But (the landlord) forcibly enter expels guilty violation detainer act, designed public peace; him, reason regard good society, permit person, quiet land, disturbed even lawfully entitled possession.' 546—547, P., 891. 16 Before evicted determination legally 'The benefit whose invaded.' Taylor Scott, 483, 485 (1883). ample historical explanation support. tenant. 17 unique justify treatment inapplicable litigants. is, definition, landlord; mechanism what swift repossession himself, able income incident ownership refusing preventing sale someone else. Many expenses continue pays not. Speedy adjudication desirable subjecting undeserved economic loss unmerited harassment dispossession lease agreement gives undisturbed property. Holding proved virulent source friction dispute. think powers providing 18 argue, stringent standard mere rationality should challenged stated They contend 'need decent shelter' 'right retain one's home' fundamental interests particularly important poor trenched demonstrates superior interest. invoke classifications unalterable traits race21 lineage22 inherently suspect justified 'overriding purpose.' rely burdening infringing constitutionally protected required 'necessary promote compelling governmental interest.'23 19 denigrate importance decent, safe, sanitary housing. remedies social ill. perceive document guarantee dwellings particular quality, recognition occupy agreement. legislative, judicial, functions. forget expressly protects confiscation private therefrom. 20 Since since rationally purpose, repugnant IV laws. To Oregon, ordinary litigant file undertaking, covering 'all costs disbursements awarded appeal.' ORS 19.040.24 secure stay execution, money, appellant satisfy or, property, commit waste and, time. wishes give 'in addition undertaking now appeal,' 'from rendered action.' 105.160. (Emphasis added.) event affirmed, automatically rents proof actual amount. Priester Thrall, 229 184, 187, 349 P.2d 866, 868 (1960). Scales Spencer, 246 111, 113—114, 424 242, 243 (1967), Supreme explained rationale requirement: 'Inasmuch include appears obvious requiring That double was, doubt, frivolous appeals delay. If added cost restriction ousted regardless justification. assumed additional compensate lieu unlawful over.' 23 earlier expeditious initial six-day securing Similar imposed 19.040, raise serious least statute. Section 105.160, imposes requirements our bear reasonable state discriminate decisions 24 full fair merits Amendment review, Griffin Illinois, 351 12, 18, 76 585, 590, 100 (1956); Columbia Clawans, 300 617, 627, 57 660, 663, 843 (1937); Ohio Bryant Akron Metropolitan Park District, 281 74, 80, 50 228, 230, 74 710 (1930); Reetz Michigan, 188 505, 508, 47 563 (1903); McKane Durston, 153 684, 687—688, 913, 914—915, 38 867 (1894), continuing validity here. When afforded, litigants capriciously others violating supra; Bennett, 365 708, 895, 39 (1961); Lane Brown, 477, 788, 892 (1963); Long Iowa, 385 192, 87 362, 290 (1966); Gardner 367, 89 580, 601 (1969). Cf. Coppedge United 369 438, 82 917, (1962); Ellis 356 674, 974, 1060 (1958). 25 appeal. While properly take steps post preserve issue, guard already here unrelated sustained landlord. unnecessary assure pursuant general 19.040(1)(b), cover 'the occupation . delivery thereof,' 91.220.25 Moreover, occurring 19.040(1)(b) remain operates screen unpersuasive, bars nonfrivolous meritless afford bond. impact unavoidable: entire forfeited; recovery incurred appellee, owed, suffered. No subject automatic assessment unproved damages. discern landlordtenant warrant discrimination. 26 procedural cf. National Union Marine Cooks Stewards Arnold, 348 37, 75 92, 99 46 (1954), discourage patently insubstantial appeals, rules reasonably tailored achieve ends uniformly nondiscriminatorily applied. broad authority treble illegal conduct regards reprehensible, though doubly triply difficult be. us, right-fully judgment.26 Instead, doubled stakes seeks action. discrimination bond, obvious. For them, practical matter, foreclosed, matter how meritorious nonindigent confronted substantial faced arbitrary irrational, 105.160 27 affirmed 29 POWELL REHNQUIST took case. 30 DOUGLAS, dissenting I denies affected wrongful (called guaranteed 32 appeal.'1 execution provide: money personal (or value), partition lien, 33 By contrast, appeal'2 34 onerous placed 242. Yet protection.3 deserves Ibid. double-rent occurs prior to, during, germane Drawing line saddling bonds owners seems me obviously invidious 37 taken sole delaying long possible. lien desire aimed legislature select seek place condition like sum, legislation, evenly weighted proprietary interest tenants. Over third population lives apartments rented housing.4 home owned—is very heart privacy modern America. Marshall Hall Beals, 396 45, 52, 90 200, 203, 214 (dissenting), spoke afforded 'fundamental interests' came legislatures. franchise. Race category (McLaughlin Florida, 379 85 283, 222); wealth (Douglas 811; Harper Virginia Bd. Elections, 383 86 1079, 169); procreation (Skinner Oklahoma Williamson, 316 535, 62 1110, 1655); interstate travel (Shapiro Thompson, 394 618, 1322, 600). Classifications burden, impinge, interests5 'highly suspect.' McDonald Board 802, 807, 1404, 1407, 739. Modern man's retreat solace home. Whether owned, sanctuary. Being uprooted put street traumatic experience. Legislatures can, landlords. weight scales backed 'compelling interest,' Kramer Free School 395 621, 1886, 1889, 583. interest' underlies scheme. 40 estate, 41 agree, remainder satisfies law. am satisfied addresses remaining destitute, start courts. decided panel distinguished lawyers Judge Goodwin Solomon practiced sat years. Kilkenny well-known practitioner Pendleton, coming bench. men roots deep outsiders unfamiliar it. local-law deferred judges come practice local MacGregor Mutual Life Assur. Co., 315 280, 281, 607, 846; Huddleston Dwyer, 322 232, 237, 64 1015, 1018, 88 1246; Bernhardt Polygraphic 350 198, 204, 273, 277, 199; Magenau Aetna Freight Lines, 360 n. 2, 79 1184, 1189, 1224 (Frankfurter, J., dissenting). appropriate occasion honor tradition. occasional abstention Bozanich, 397 82, 68), Court's doctrine again having financed course way likely exhaust 44 all-Oregon issue: 45 'It unlikely application change posture issues. administrative involved. thoroughly briefed argued merits, presented complete record. ripe Only (to Court) needed question. courts capable applying levels F.E.D. system. state-court still necessarily 'Closely element economy. Cases sort tax counsel. Until finally resolved, produce expense, uncertainty, frustration. Delay produces balancing benefit, comity clarity state-federal relations.' Agreeing view, 48 my defects go essence litigant's black white. 49 problem starts Wright's statement Javins First Realty Corp., 138 U.S.App.D.C. 369, 372, 428 F.2d 1071, 1074: 'When city dwellers, 'shelter' today, known package goods services—a includes merely walls ceilings, heat, light ventilation, serviceable plumbing facilities, windows doors, sanitation, maintenance.' 51 vital stake may, tested so-called proceedings. apply entails 'to sue defend courts,' described force' organized society. Chambers Baltimore R. 207 142, 148, 34, 35, 52 143. comes down defend. Armstrong Manzo, 380 545, 1187, 62; Mullane Central Hanover Bank Trust 339 306, 70 652, 94 865. 'not days'6 summons trial. Friday, following Monday. 'unless sufficient security' trial.7 slum tenants—not mention middle class—this kind mean actuality heard. Finding lawyer days, acquainting facts, getting witnesses theoretical heard interpose promise empty words. indeed, meaningless presence attorney.8 lucky find lawyer, need plead9 prove10 items win judgment: description entered them 'with force,' unlawfully force,'11 (4) 55 Affirmative motivation retaliation report apparently precluded. reflects ancient notion conveyance 'estate land,' respective covenants—a repair—were deemed each other. approach feudal culture evolved.12 law—rooted needs agrarian society—has realistic years,13 replaced eminent authorities 'a predominantly contractual' analysis leasehold interests.14 led Wright U.S.App.D.C., 373, F.2d, 1075, hold 'that leases urban units interpreted construed contract.' takes view treats contract. Baumann, 239 410, 398 119; Eggen Wetterborg, 193 145, 237 970. Housing Code life, health, welfare occupants residential buildings.15 forbids anyone used provisions. Id., 8—204. certainly embrace legality, significance. scheme plainly landlords litigation. Menefee Lumber Abrams, 263, 709; Friedenthal 146 640, 643. justification denial process, drastic devices protecting case, 381 67, 1083 proposed 'an excellent protective procedure' form raises affirmative discriminatory practices, became due.16 Bell Tsintolas 139 101, 430 474. employed similar 58 Appellees mentioned posed Act. represent level relevant, What Since, legality operation seem ambit embraced concept resolved contrary. suggests questions. quite me. complain protected. re Quarles, 158 532, 959, 1080. evicted, exercised officials about disrepair apartment, presented. Edwards Habib, 130 126, 129—137, 687, 690—698 (1968). 60 implies hold, adopted modern, contractual analysis. confronts compelled, whether, once gone far contract-type Shapiro 627 6, 1327, 600; Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 404—406, 1790, 1794—1795, 965. 61 Normally bifurcate trials, deciding, say, another. 928; 231. home, embracing. setting slums, are. culprit deprives Then controversy, given promises somehow, somewhere, basic 63 sanctioned bifurcated rural Rico, contest mortgagor mortgagee, insufferable ghetto. obtained otherwise, levy suit.17 past covered cases. As noted, proceedings summary. Making through device manifest process. 65 dissent affirmance 66 BRENNAN, erred declining availability actions.* circumstances withhold assertion if, duty; recognizes, breach, term, 68 exposes fallacy conclusion 'clear' '(i)t issues.' App. 73. cites actions, ante, 11, conjecture 'apparently' category. confidently therefore, defenses, suit, how, suits, Clearly, susceptible 'construction avoid modify question.' Zwickler Koota, 389 241, 249, 391, 444 (1967); (1970). remitted authoritative interpretation respects adjudicating attacks Statute. 69 vacate dismissal remand direction declaring Clause, jurisdiction reinstate account, fixed Court, institute thereunder. original behalf Edna Lindsey, seven named plaintiffs (one whom intervenor), persons similarly situated. Permission granted, 33, further defined. raised essentially Lindseys, hereafter termed 'appellants.' Appellee Normet owner seller's purchaser's performance contract sale. assignee found, filed. 71. stipulated inspectors found rusted gutters, broken windows, plaster, missing rea steps, improper Portland Code, posted vacated show cause why occupancy. 43. entirety, provides: 'Forcible '105.105 lawful only. person shall tenement force. '105.110 Action detainer. county situated thereof circuit court, justice county. '105.115 Causes causes meaning 105.110 105.125: '(1) refuses holds, deliver days. '(2) renewed, month, year year, quit 105.120, written '105.120 Notice cases; waiver notice; effect advance maintained subsection 105.115, terminate served prescribed 91.110 91.060 91.080 leasing farming agriculture, Any entering estate another waive giving section. '(3) advance. '105.125 Complaint. complaint: convenient certainty; force; '(4) premises. '105.130 How conducted. 105.135 conducted state. '105.135 return summons. returned day appointed court. '105.140 Continuance. therefor party security, approved defendant. '105.145 Judgment evidence concludes disbursements. finds favor part, only, taxed deems just equitable. '105.150 Verdict jury. jury verdict defendant; guilty; forth find, according verdict. '105.155 Form execution. rendered, form: County _ ss. sheriff constable county: Whereas, detention, detention) wit: _, lately above wherein defendant, A.D., sum $_ _; name you are, hereby commanded chattels forthwith removed same. thereafter authorized empowered safe storage. You disbursements, aforesaid, costs, writ. Witness hand official seal (if record) _. peace, clerk '105.160 Additional thereof, gives, party, bail arrest, adjudged Civ. 70—8, Sept. D.Ore. 341 F.Supp. 638. Reprinted 72. correctly declined abstain considering constitutionality since: clear. record.' created involves duplication effort expense attendant delay, England Medical Examiners, 375 411, 418, 461, 466, 440 (1964), emphasized 'where uncertain,' Harman Forssenius, 528, 534, 1177, 1182, (1965), narrowly 'special circumstances," 248, 395, (1967) (citing Propper Clark, 337 472, 492, 1333, 1344, 93 1480 (1949)). years, body interpretative 402 941, 91 1624, 109 (1971). initiated instead de novo 46.250, 53.090. not, anything trial, above, dual system rights. Brief 63. conclusory argument allege 'unlawful impermissible vagueness. 58—59. 105.115 adequately defines 3, rejected argument. Dairy Products 29, 32, 594, 597, 561 Raines, 362 17, 22, 80 519, 523, 524 16.220(1)(i) provides joins due, answer, plead, due.' 91.220 recovered 'action law' pleading enumerated 16.010 procedures. Leathers Peterson, 195 62, 244 619 (1952) (mental incompetence); Crossen Campbell, 102 666, 202 745 (1921) (forfeiture lease); 643 (1934) (reformation 709 (1931) (lessor's business competitive lessee—tried stipulation), 16.460 interposed, stayed matters determined. Apparently, explicitly 'For Plaintiffs following: Defendant-Landlords refrain taking retaliatory measures compel repair premises.' 24. permitted, (unconstitutionality proceeding, illegality consideration, fitness unclean hands them. 44. sufficiently pretrial parties, including judge, desired press unavailable accurately reflected circumstances, abstain. 5, supra. oral argument, conceded remained paying might deprived law: 'Q: didn't (rent litigation), counter-suggestion compensation? 'Mr. Clough: course; correct. accept invariable maintaining possession? Yes, we'd that.' Tr. Oral Arg. 14. surprising extension prohibit universal best distinctions mediaeval From exceptio spolii Pseudo-Isidore, Canon Law Bracton assize novel disseisin principle wide disturbance righted listened to—or up; Kant Ihering philosophising grounds. speculations consider eternal useful survival. views points.' 134, (1915). N.Y. Real Property Actions Proceedings Law, McKinney's Consol.Laws, c. 81, 769—782 (Supp. 1971—1972); Brown Southall A.2d 834 (D.C.Ct.App.1968); S.D.Comp.Laws Ann. 43—32—9 (1967). Pines Perssion, Wis.2d 111 N.W.2d 409 Earl Millikin, Inc. Allen, 497, 124 651 Cal.Civ.Code 1941 (1954 Supp.1971). prohibitions kinds evictions, Ill.Rev.Stat., 71 (1971); Mich.Comp.Laws 564.204, Pub.Acts 1968, Mich.Stat.Ann. 26.1300 (204) (1970); 687 (1968), cert. denied, 1016, 560 (1969); Bruce, 353 474 (CA5 1965); Beaty, 288 653 (CA6 1961). Multiple Residence 61—B, 305—a (Supp.1971—1972); 11—23 Mass.Gen.Laws Ann., 239, 8A (Supp.1971); Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 1700—1 (Supp.1971). generally Comment, Rent Withholding Improvement Substandard Housing, Calif.L.Rev. 304 (1965). serving files 105.135, 105.140, declares policy that: 'No One although criminally battery filing accomplishes exertion occupant opposes resists entry. Coghlan Miller, 106 46, 54—56, 211 163, 166—167 (1922). Casner W. Leach, Text 451 (2d ed. 1969). Annot., Right Landlord Dispossess Tenant Without Legal Process, A.L.R. 313 (1926), 517 (1927), 280 (1929), 101 476 (1936), A.L.R.3d 177 (1966). McLaughlin 222 Loving Virginia, 388 1, 1817, 1010 Korematsu 323 214, 193, 194 (1944); Takahashi Fish Game Comm'n, 334 1138, 1478 (1948); Oyama 332 633, 269, 249 Levy Louisiana, 391 68, 1509, 436 (1968); Glona Guarantee Liability Insurance 73, 1515, 441 634, 1331, 600 (1969) (emphasis omitted) (right travel). 668, 1082, 169 (1966) vote). Skinner 1113, 1655 (1942). '19.040 appeal; proceedings; proceedings, '(b) decree appealed thereon, commit, suffer committed, exceeding therein specified, ascertained thereof. instrument, instrument executed deposited allowed abide dismissed, decree, enforced parties decree.' peace. 19.040 justice's 53.040 taken. However, delay Cohen Beneficial Industrial Loan 1221, 1528 (1949), distinguishable instant There, shareholder wished shareholder's derivative owned 5% corporation's stock worth $50,000 precondition bringing expenses, attorney's fees, defendants. corporation injured 'strike suits' harmed claimed protecting. 19.040(1). (Ore.Rev.Stat. 19.040(1)), (circuit court). 105.110, jurisdiction. novo, 53.040. inadequate landlords' answers two. First, prerogative greater Second, district, circuit, 1970 Census Advance Report HC (V. 1), p. 11. 'rational' test strictly (United Maryland Savings-Share Ins. 400 4, 16, 4; 809, 1408, 739) 105.135. majority stresses 'fact' right, guarantees discretionary '(t)he citizen rest basis discretion.' Roller Holly, 176 409, 414, 520. 105.125. 105.145. 'Unlawful defined occur circumstances: 'fails due' agreement, days,' receipt 105.120) year-to-year 'is lease' 'without agreement.' 'Under tenure, recent times, largely land primarily production crops. stood main, incidental, major emphasis till soil crops supply livelihood. holder years; effect, term. wanted live comfort, livable, roof watertight, shape, whatever facilities were, adequate. 'waste'—destruction leave productive it—the owed obligation assist buildings livable condition. 'If anything, ran way, intentional grossly negligent destruction Thus, beginning, went control. gave control years leasehold, owner, reversionary interest, fee. Initially, dependence capacity retained non-rural well.' Remedies Violations, Commission Urban Problems, Research 14, pp. 110—111 pertaining leaseholds unreal anachronistic increasing urbanization 19th century, reliance multi-unit houses, shelter areas' growing industrial labor population. sense keep house owner. hand, relatively transient assume rooms plumbing, heating, fixtures interconnected parts all.' 111-112. Powell Rohan, 179 8—102. serves function: defendant.' Abstention 242

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