Document: 410 U.S. 719 93 S.Ct. 1224 35 L.Ed.2d 659 SALYER LAND COMPANY et al., Appellants,v.TULARE LAKE BASIN WATER STORAGE DISTRICT. No. 71—1456. Argued Jan. 8, 1973. Decided March 20, Syllabus Appellee district exists for the purpose of acquiring, storing, and distributing water farming in Tulare Lake Basin. Only landowners are qualified to elect district's board directors, votes being apportioned according assessed valuation lands. A three-judge District Court, against challenge by appellants, held that limitation franchise comported with equal protection requirements. Held: 1. Restricting voters who may or not be residents does violate principle enunciated such cases as Reynolds v. Sims, 377 533, 84 1362, 12 506, Kramer Union School District, 395 621, 89 1886, 23 583, governing bodies should selected a popular election which every person's vote is equal. Pp. 726 730. (a) The activities appellee fall so disproportionately on group it unreasonable statutory framework focuses land benefited, rather than people such. 726—728. (b) Although has some governmental powers, provides none general public services ordinarily attributed body. 728—729. 2. Since assessments sole means expenses paid, irrational repose but residents. 730 731. 3. exclusion lessees from voting Equal Protection Clause since short-term lessee's interest substantially less landowner and, exercisable proxy, other negotiate have included their leases 731—733. 4. Weighting evade wealth no relation voter qualifications where, here, expense well benefit proportional land's value. 733—735. 342 F.Supp. 144, affirmed. Thomas Keister Greer, Rocky Mount, Va., appellants. Robert M. Newell, Los Angeles, Cal., appellee. Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 This another line Court had occasion consider limits imposed Fourteenth Amendment legislation apportioning representation state local establishing representatives. 506 (1964), constitutional standard apportionment legislatures. Later cass Avery Midland County, 390 474, 88 1114, 20 45 (1968) Hadley Junior College 397 50, 90 791, 25 (1970), extended rule county junior college district, respectively. We here presented issue expressly reserved Avery, supra: 2 'Were (county's body) special-purpose unit government assigned performance functions affecting definable groups constituents more constituents, we would confront question whether body ways give greater influence citizens most affected organization's functions.' U.S., at 483—484, S.Ct., 1120. 3 particular type whose organization challenged grounds this case storage organized pursuant California Water Storage Act, Calif. Code § 39000 seq. peculiar problems adequate supplies faced western third Nation been described Sutherland, was himself intimately familiar them, Oregon Power Co. Beaver Portland Cement Co., 295 142, 156—157, 55 725, 728, 79 L.Ed. 1356 (1935): 4 'These states territories comprised United States; vast empire extent, still sparsely settled. From east Mountains almost Pacific Ocean, Canadian border boundary Mexico, an area original thirteen states, lands capable redemption, main, constituted desert, impossible agricultural use without artificial irrigation. 5 'In beginning, task reclaiming left unaided efforts found way painful effort its inhospitable solitudes. These pioneers, emulating spirit many others gone before them similar ventures, difficult problem wresting living creating homes raw elements about threw down gage battle forces nature. With imperfect tools, they built dams, excavated canals, constructed ditches, plowed cultivated soil, transformed dry desolate into green fields leafy orchards. . .' 6 Californians, common West, State's rivers streams natural present paradox feast famine. melting snow high mountains spring, small became roaring freshets, fed carried potential destructive floods. But end rainy season early farmers depended entirely upon until again began fall. Long time, however, ran bank full spring reduced bare trickle water. 7 It enough, therefore, individual build irrigation canals ditches operation flow these streams. dams impound reservoirs flood stage later release during regimen For construction major facilitate large areas, resources State frequently Federal Government were necessary.1 8 costly projects restricted geographic area, either unable unwilling pledge credit resources. Legislature, authorized number instrumentalities, including districts provide response problems. 9 Some history experience Western States distribution contained Fallbrood Irrigation Bradley, 164 112, 151—154, 17 56, 60—61, 41 369 (1896), constitutionality California's Wright Act sustained claims denial due process under Constitution. While apparently first deal distribution, only one. General authorizes creation, districts, conservation control appellee.2 10 consists 193,000 acres intensively cultivated, highly fertile farm located Its population 77 persons, 18 children, whom employees one four corporations 85% district. 11 Such plan execute approved 'for acquisition, appropriation, diversion, storage, conservation, ..' 42200 seq.3 Incidental power, 'acquire, improve, operate' any necessary works drainage reclamation connected therewith, generation hydroelectric power provided for.4 Id., §§ 43000, 43025. They fix tolls charges collect all persons receiving proportion rendered. 43006. costs accordance benefits accruing each tract separate ownership. 46175, 46176. And benefited withdrawn petition. 48029. Governance undertaken directors. 40658. Each director elected divisions within id., 39929, must take official oath bond. 40301. elections directors odd-numbered years. 39027, 41300 13 qualification appellants claim invidiously discriminates similarly situated. Appellants landowners, landowner-lessee, appellee's brought action 42 U.S.C. 1983, seeking declaratory injunctive relief prevent giving effect certain provisions Code. allege 410005 410016 unconstitutionally deny laws guaranteed Amendment, permitted elections, those land. court convened 28 2284, submitted factual statements parties briefs, testimony oral argument. majority both statutes dictates Clause, appealed judgment directly 1253. 14 In Williams Rhodes, 393 23, 5, 21 24 (1968), Ohio legislative scheme regulating electoral challenged, said: 15 '(T)his firmly established make minor difference application different violation our also times 'invidious' distinctions cannot enacted Clause. determining law violates facts circumstances behind law, interests protecting, disadvantaged classification.' 30, 10. 16 therefore turn now determination Amendment. * argued 41000, limiting unconstitutional nonlandowning much operations Particularly, pointed out damaged floods boundaries, may, appellant Ellison, cause lose jobs. Support position said come recent decisions striking various limited Phoenix Kolodziejski, 399 204, 1990, 26 523 Cipriano City Houma, 701, 1897, 647 (1969), Free 583 (1969). Kramer, confronted gualification statute school otherwise (1) owners taxable real property (2) spouses owning qualifying property, (3) parents guardians children enrolled specified time preceding year school. Without reaching limit exercise primarily interested given unit, above classifications did meet statearticulated goal excluded distinct direct meeting had, best, remote indirect interests. 632—633, 1892—1893. 19 Similarly, supra, decided same day, Louisiana gave taxpayers right called approve issuance revenue bonds municipal utility declared violative systems virtually resident city, just 40% registered taxpayers, financed tax revenue. 705, 1900. rationale expanded include obligation municipalities supra. there noted great approving disapproving improvements, contributed through taxes indirectly increased rents servicing bonds. 210—211, 1994—1995. involved 'one person, vote' units governments exercising term defined (1968). powers which, 'while fully broad County Commissioners, certainly show trustees perform important think enough sufficient impact throughout justify conclusion applied here.' 53—54, 794. 22 careful that: 'It course possible might elects functionaries duties far removed normal affect compliance Reynolds, required, see nothing indicates fit category. Education traditionally vital function trustees, opened voters, officials relevant sense term.' 795. conclude reason special disproportionate group, sort exception laid quoted language Hadley, decision contemplated. case, although vested typical powers,7 relatively authority. primary purpose, indeed existence, Basin.8 schools, housing, transportation, utilities, roads, anything else App. 86. There towns, shops, hospitals, facilities designed improve quality life fire department, police, buses, trains. Ibid. Not what thought 'normal governmental' authority, actions landowners. All assessors received. Likewise, rendered collectible services. When delinquent payment, delinquency payments assessments, become lien Calif.Water 47183, 46280. short, economic burdens can qua residents, boundaries.9 27 Under circumstances, quite understandable peopel Missouri nor exceptions, New York reside it, entitled traditional political election. do enfranchisement nonresident corporate purposes Thus, sustain contention accorded result merely delineated class, instead engraft onto wholly new class addition enfranchised statute. hold, requirements succeeding inapplicable District. II 29 Even though derive lines cases, are, course, determine while granting 'wholly irrelevant achievement regulation's objectives,' Kotch Board River Port Pilot Commissioners Orleans, 330 552, 556, 67 910, 912, 91 1093 (1947). No doubt activities. argument proves too much. cost doing business ultimately passed along consumers produce, food shoppers away metropolitan areas extent likewise 'affected' Constitutional adjudication rest 'house Jack built' foundation, however. Legislature could reasonably concluded amounts acreage consent organize subjected possibly very substantial unless dominant voice control. subjection owners' liens basis obtain financing, proposed practical matter attract support. Nor, unfair inequitable Landowners bear entire burden costs, rationally they, charged responsibility operation. conclude, precluded totally excluding III 30 assert even if vote, indistinguishable Like increasing available because express agreement rentals, costs. 31 Lessees undoubtedly analogous respects. us, lumped together enacting question, 'if conceived justify' McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 426, 81 1101, 1105, (1961). 32 'lessees' embrace holders wide spectrum leasehold land, month-to-month tenant holding lease, hand, long-term lessee carefully negotiated written other. system short easily lend itself manipulation part ease create loyal employees. And, apart fear manipulation, felt join forming fortunes long run tied affairs 33 administration allowed pose significant difficulties. Apparently, assessment rolls federal lists used boards voters. 41016. lists, obviously, disclose longor leaseholds. reference made appropriate conveyancing records existence recorded, terms need recorded order preserve lessee. Calif.Civil 1214. 34 Finally, note remedy his disenfranchised state. Sections 41002 41005 proxy. To entering lease duration, thereby likening status landowner, feels import him, he bargain negotiates lease. longer becomes akin presumably willing lessor will assign right. Just contract required reimburse acquire IV 36 last 41001, weights unconstitutional. point fact several smaller per person whereas J. G. Boswell Company 37,825 votes, place reliance resident-voter equality evaded. See, e.g., Gray Sanders, 372 368, 83 801, 821 (1963); Harper Virginia Elections, 383 663, 86 1079, 169 (1966). 37 Appellants' ignores realities formation 1926, put multimillion-dollar projects. project two laterals Basin Aqueduct capital $2,500,000. Three having aggregating somewhat $100 approval project. Company, owns 61,665.54 $3,782,220 cast By token, commissioners determined uniform affected, equally acreage. acre $13.26 three pay total $46, company $817,685 part.10 found, 'the value land.' 146. say permit based. 38 Accordingly, affirm hold based, 39 Affirmed. 40 DOUGLAS, BRENNAN MARSHALL concur, dissenting. vices fourfold. First. farmlands, franchise. 43 Second. Residents own live face perils supposed disfranchised. 44 Third. weighted, hundred dollars 41001 Fourth. saddle. 46 189 up 80 each. represent 2.34% Appellant Salyer Land operator, West Farms South operators. largest Of these, commands greatest 37,825, As result, permanently Almost strong 1947, making little provision year. 47 calamitous who, landless, ephemeral corporation. 48 209, 1994, 523, set following test schemes selectively distribute franchise: 49 'Presumptively, when subject referendum, Constitution weighted franchise.' 50 Provisions authorizing selective disfavored, 'always danger denying effective lives.' 627, 1889, 583. overcome presumption, shown compelling exclusion, exclusions promote articulated goal. supra; 647; See Police Jury Vermillion Parish Hebert, 404 807, 92 52, 39; Stewart St. Charles, D.C., 310 1172, aff'd, 400 884, 136, 129. my view, showing invoke principles, presumption thus overcome. 51 Assuming, arguendo, portion electorate 'primarily affected' outcome election, 632, 1892, upheld demonstrated 'all (franchise) includes.' concludes 'there boundaries.' 52 But, respect, distortion. arid seeks drought fights flood. One manage That policy.1 stated governs districts.2 Supreme ruled years back complementary aspects problem.3 53 inception repeated Four rivers, Kings, Kern, Tule, Kaweah, enter Buena Vista Lake. past, protect storing Kern former. how protected menacing 1952. done 1969 flood, 88,000 respondent flooded. dominated big Co.—voted 6—4 table motion machinery divert waters flooding interfered planting, growing, harvesting crops next season. 54 rose 192.5 USGS datum. lives landowner. residence 1/2 feet below level crest 1969. levees; broken, damage houses loss imminent. 56 Landowners—large small, nonresident, landlords, sharecroppers4 owners—all say. irrigation, building levees, control, implicate community. granted 57 I discuss below, involves clothed paraphernalia government. weighting one's hostile bachelor matters education, prospective victims mismanaged nonlandowners, lessees, 10,000 acres. Moreover, regardless holdings, comes polls basis. 58 majority, distinguish 'units over served body,' Tex., 485, 1120, 45, contemplated 'a constituents.' significantly liberalized 45. At college. said, 59 '. (S)ince levy taxes, restrictions, hire teachers, contracts, fees, supervise discipline students, pass petitions annex condemnation, college, equivalent, purposes, exercised Avery. (T)hese (Emphasis added; footnote omitted.) 60 Measured test, surely performs 'important functions' 'have district' principle. 61 classified reclamation, districts.5 agencies 'are considered exclusively governmental,' 'held purpose,' 'proprietary sense.'6 'public entity,' 'any subdivision.'7 explicit ways. '(a)ll rights' 'within given, dedicated, uses district.'8 Directors officers state.'9 possesses eminent domain.10 taxed.11 carries immunity suit.12 relate water, drainage, energy.13 62 Whatever parameters alluded escapes restraints relative unit. 63 discussed malapportionment talked people—of population, 'qualified vote,' (id., 554, 1377) suffrage,' 555, 1378) comparison man's vote. 559, 1382. 64 'Legislators people, trees Legislators farms cities ours representative form government, legislatures instruments legislators free unimpaired fashion bedrock system.' 562, 65 grotesque people. Corporations 'persons' Due Process Amendment14 Clause.15 Yet, unthinkable American tradition admitted Could allot rights corporations, corporation? Or follow corporation, vote? radical revolutionary step take, change whole concept takes allowing matters16 entail functions. corporation outvote individuals choose, leaving inhabitant weak, ineffective voice. kingdom undreamed wrote Central Valley Project recounted Gerlach Live Stock 339 70 955, 94 1231 (1950). Waters Rights 345.3 (R. Clark ed. 1970). actual adoption involved. After undertakes project, Department Resources. report estimated Treasurer, independent investigation declaring abandoned report. 42275 If approved, 'special election' called. 42325 finally adopted, it. 42355—42550. evidence engages generation, sale, power. 41000 provides: 'Only title election.' 'Each precinct owned him situated ($100), fraction thereof, worth exclusive minerals, mineral therein, precinct.' employ discharge regular staff 43152. condemn private projects, 43530—43533, cooperate (including contract) agencies, federal. 43151. Both interest-bearing warrants authorized. 44900—45900. strongly urge to, do, engage obvious destroyed jobs disappear. 43151 entered appeataining beneficial assertedly gives support activities, 44000, simply 'may States' 'flood control.' 44001. incident distribution. 1969, received $250,000 funds like citizens, paid share money Cf. (1970). bears citizen seem citizenry large. n. 3, crippling resulting dual taken approval, approve. constitute smallest Calif.Stat.1921, c. 914, 58. Tarpey McClure, 190 Cal. 593, 213 P. 983. 1938, sharecroppers regulations defining 'farmers' referenda concerning marketing quotas Agricultural Adjustment Act. 'Farmers engaged production commodity. respect tobacco, extra staple cotton, rice peanuts phrase 'farmers commodity' includes crop commodity, proceeds thereof shares risks owner, landlord, tenant, sharecropper (landlord return fixed amount produced excluded) planted workmanlike manner harvest: Provided, failure harvest conditions beyond shall farmer crop. addition, producer commodity allotment regarded applicable regulations.' CFR 717.3(b). 39060. Glenn-Colusa Ohrt, Cal.App.2d 619, 623, P.2d 763, 765. Calif.Govt.Code 811.2. Section 43158. 39061. re Madera 296, 322, 272, 278. 43530. 43508. 811.2, 815. 42200, 43025, Minneapolis & Louis R. Beckwith, 129 26, 28, 207, 585. Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Milling Pennsylvania, 125 181, 188—189, 737, 740—741, 650; Santa Clara Southern 118 394, 397, 1132, 118. 41004.

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