Document: 112 S.Ct. 2072 504 U.S. 451 119 L.Ed.2d 265 EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY, Petitionerv.IMAGE TECHNICAL SERVICES, INC., et al. No. 90-1029. Argued Dec. 10, 1991. Decided June 8, 1992. Syllabus After respondent independent service organizations (ISOs) began servicing copying and micrographic equipment manufactured by petitioner Eastman Kodak Co., adopted policies to limit the availability ISOs of replacement parts for its make it more difficult compete with in such equipment. Respondents then filed this action, alleging, inter alia, that had unlawfully tied sale machines parts, violation § 1 Sherman Act, monopolized attempted monopolize machines, 2 Act. The District Court granted summary judgment Kodak, but Appeals reversed. Among other things, appellate court found respondents presented sufficient evidence raise a genuine issue concerning Kodak's market power markets, rejected contention lack must be assumed when is absent market. Held: 1. has not met requirements Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 56(c) an award on claim. Pp. 461-479. (a) A tying arrangement—i.e., agreement party sell one product condition buyer also purchases different (or tied) product, or at least agrees he will purchase from any supplier—violates only if seller appreciable economic 461-462. (b) have arrangement defeat motion. reasonable trier fact could find, first, are two distinct products light indicating each been, continues some circumstances be, sold separately, and, second, would third parties they agreed buy ISOs. 462-463. (c) For purposes determining market, Court's precedents defined as force purchaser do something competitive ordinarily inferred existence seller's possession predominate share P. 464. (d) entitled under trial their claim unwanted based control over excluded competition, boosted prices, forced unwilling consumption service. 464-465. (e) satisfied substantial burden showing that, despite evidence, inference unreasonable. theory primary precludes—as matter law—the possibility derivative aftermarkets rests factual assumption raised prices above levels, potential customers simply stop buying does accurately describe actual behavior, since there no assertion sales dropped after prices. offer forceful reason discrepancy: significant information switching costs create less responsive connection between aftermarket sales. It plausible infer respondents' chose gain immediate profits exerting where locked-in customers, high costs, discriminatory pricing limited perhaps eliminated long-term loss. 465-478. (f) Nor persuaded legal presumption because risk deterring procompetitive conduct. Because policy appears always almost enhance balance tips against judgment. 478-479. 2. issues whether markets 480-486. Respondents' controls nearly 100% 80% 95% readily available substitutes, survive first element monopoly offense, power. law, single brand can never relevant contravenes cases constitute separate instances. proper definition case determined inquiry into commercial realities faced owners. 481-482. As second claim, willful use power, took exclusionary action maintain used strengthen Thus, liability turns valid business reasons explain actions. However, none asserted justifications—a commitment quality service, need inventory desire prevent free-riding capital investment—are prove law. 482-486. 903 F.2d 612 (CA9 1990), affirmed. BLACKMUN, J., delivered opinion Court, which REHNQUIST, C.J., WHITE, STEVENS, KENNEDY, SOUTER, JJ., joined. SCALIA, dissenting opinion, O'CONNOR THOMAS, Donn Pickett, San Francisco, Cal., petitioner. James F. Rill, Washington, D.C., amicus curiae A. Hennefer, respondents. Justice BLACKMUN Court. This yet another concerns standard antitrust controversy. principal here defendant's aftermarkets. Petitioner Company manufactures sells photocopiers 18 early 1980s subsequently 3 instituted United States Northern California alleging were unlawful both §§ 15 U.S.C. truncated discovery, Kodak. Ninth Circuit markets. importance issue, we certiorari. --- ----, 111 2823, 115 994 (1991). 4 * 5 comes us motion judgment, "[t]he [respondents] believed, all justifiable inferences drawn [their] favor." Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 242, 255, 106 2505, 2513, 91 202 (1986); Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 574, 587, 1348, 1356, 89 538 (1986). Mindful version disputed thus presumed correct, begin basis claims. See Arizona Maricopa County Medical Society, 457 332, 339, 102 2466, 2470, 73 48 (1982). 6 complex machines—as here, high-volume photocopier micrographics equipment.1 unique; software programs operate example, compatible competitors' machines. App. 424-425, 487-489, 537. manufacturers' equipment, vice versa. id., 432, 413-415. although expensive new, little resale value. 358-359, 427-428, 467, 505-506, 519-521. 7 provides customers. produces itself; rest made order original-equipment manufacturers (OEMs). 429, 465, 490, 496. complete system original lifetime price. Instead, initial warranty period either through annual contracts, include necessary per-call basis. 98-99; Brief 3. charges, negotiations bidding, 420-421, 536. 430. 8 Beginning 1980s, repairing They reconditioned Their federal, state, local government agencies, banks, insurance companies, industrial enterprises, providers specialized copy microfilming services. 417, 419-421, 492-493, 499, 516, 539. provide price substantially lower than does. 414, 451, 453-454, 469, 474-475, 488, 493, 536-537; Lodging 133. Some ISO was higher quality. 425-426, 537-538. 9 ISOs' own hire 144-147. Others choose supply parts. keep purchased sources, primarily OEMs.2 99, 415-416, 490. 10 In 1985 1986, implemented selling buyers who repair 6; 91-92, 98-100, 140-141, 171-172, 190, 442-447, 455-456, 483-484. 11 part same policy, sought access sources OEMs fit anyone 428-429, 447, 468, 474, pressured owners distributors 419-420, 483-484, 517-518, 589-590. addition, steps restrict 465-466, 510-511, 520. 12 intended, these policies, 106-107, 171, 516. succeeded. unable obtain reliable see 496, many out business, while others lost revenue. 422, 458-459, 464, 475-477, 482-484, 495-496, 501, 521. Customers switch even though preferred 420-422. B 13 1987, present Act.3 14 before initiated discovery. permitted file set interrogatories requests production documents, take six depositions. Without hearing, favor Pet. Cert. 29B. provided 32B-33B. court, however, did address here. allege concluded "natural name," unilateral refusal those violate 16 Circuit, divided vote, (1990). With respect existed them fact. Id., 615-616. Having might exist, considered question decided Court: "an material [parts] restrain competition appreciably [service]." 616. possessing refused uphold grant "on theoretical basis" "market imperfections theories about how consumers act mirroring reality." 617. Noting record fully developed declined require conduct analysis pinpoint specific withstand judgment.4 "It enough events conclude . [equipment] not, reality, curb market." Ibid. three justifications proffered restrictive policy: (1) guard inadequate (2) (3) investment copier industry. find pretextual alternative achieving quality-related goals. 618-619. justification, preventing profiting investments legally insufficient. 619. 17 support finding implementation "anticompetitive" "exclusionary" "involved intent monopolize." 620. held come forward purposes, disprove justifications. dissent Appeals, accepted argument "necessarily precludes 622 (emphasis original). monopolization entirely apart considerations, justification "submitted extensive undisputed marketing strategy high-quality service." 623. II 19 supplier." Pacific R. States, 356 1, 5-6, 78 514, 518, 545 1958).Such violates Act "appreciable power" affects volume commerce Fortner Enterprises, Inc. Steel 394 495, 503, 1252, 1258, 22 495 (1969). 20 dispute interstate commerce. It, challenge activities constituted "tying arrangement" exercised We consider turn. 21 arrangement, able products, products. consumer demand so efficient firm separately Jefferson Parish Hospital Dist. Hyde, 466 2, 21-22, 104 1551, 1563, 80 (1984). Evidence indicates been past still self-service owners.5 Indeed, development entire high-technology industry efficiency service.6 23 insists cannot 15, n. By logic, cameras film, computers software, automobiles tires. That make. "We often arrangements involving functionally linked useless without prohibited devices." Parish, U.S., 19, 30, S.Ct., 1562, 30. 24 incorrect matter. At consumers, service.7 Enough doubt cast unified should resolved 25 Finally, tie ISOs.8 26 feature illegal arrangement: Market "to 14, 1559.9 "the ability output." 1259; E.I. du Pont de Nemours & 351 377, 391, 76 994, 1005, 100 L.Ed. 1264 (1956). predominant 17, 1561; Grinnell 384 563, 571, 86 1698, 1704, 778 (1966); Times-Picayune Publishing 345 594, 611-613, 872, 881-883, 97 1277 (1953). 27 contend certain exclusively assert manufacture. According ISOs, deny taken 28 switched driven policies. Under our prior precedents, entitle 29 counters concedes actually exercise violation. so, according exists market.10 argues level charged increase offset corresponding loss purchasing attractive costs. 30 data urges adoption substantive rule "equipment aftermarkets." 33. satisfy moving "that fact" issue.11 56(c). 31 Legal presumptions formalistic distinctions rather generally disfavored resolve claims case-by-case basis, focusing "particular facts disclosed record." Maple Flooring Mfrs. Assn. 268 579, 45 578, 583, 69 1093 (1925); Pont, 395, 22, 1007, 22; Continental T.V., GTE Sylvania 433 36, 70, 2549, 2568, 53 568 (1977) (WHITE, concurring judgment).12 specifically "responsiveness changes other," 400, 1010; 394-395, 400-401, 1010, examined closely reality issue.13 32 contends examine warranted situation, "simply makes sense," absence deter behavior. Matsushita, 1356; 594-595, 1360. 33 analogizes group American corporations electronic alleged Japanese counterparts engaging 20-year conspiracy below cost hope expanding sometime future. several years detailed defendants moved 577-582, 1351-1353. every incentive engage required sustain losses decades foreseeable profits, "absence rational motive conspire." 597, 1361. context, plaintiffs' predatory practical sense, "speculative" "reasonable." 588, 590, 593, 595, 1357, 1359, 1360, Accordingly, jury return verdict plaintiffs appropriate unless came persuasive theory. 587-588, 595-598, 1360-1362. 34 requirement sense introduce special facing cases. hold enunciates supporting regardless accuracy reflecting demands nonmoving party's reach jury, invented, merely articulated, decision.14 If plaintiff's economically senseless, favor, granted. 35 then, bears show increased To determine burden, unravel assumptions underlying proposed necessarily 36 extent prevents exploitation depends change response another, i.e., "cross-elasticity demand." Areeda L. Kaplow, Antitrust Analysis ¶ 342(c) (4th ed. 1988).15 cross-elasticity aftermarkets: "If Perhaps short term strategy, devastating long interests."16 12. accept, "basic realit[y]," 24, aftermarkets.17 37 Even cent losing sales, monopolist reduced goods price, compensates &Par; 340(a). charging "a short-run game," 26, false dichotomy charged—a ruinous one. But easily middle, optimum revenues higher-priced compensate imposes restraint means disproves 340(b) ("[T]he substitution event further increases current tell defendant already exercises power") contrary assertion, immutable physical law—no reality"—insisting coexist 38 next narrowly question: Does behavior aftermarkets, impossible, unreasonable?18 Cf. supra. review theory, lead disastrous drop Presumably, theory's corollary effect low dramatic expected advantage lower-priced opportunity expand consciously designed eliminate devastate faith Yet, record, done neither. Service risen dropped. 39 attempt reconcile results describing "marketing spreading time total equipment." Amicus Curiae 18; 18. words, charge subcompetitive up difference supra-competitive resulting overall explanation descriptive failings—if it. subcompetitively recoups comparably competitors, intends divisions profitable. 159-161, 170, 178, 188. Moreover, hypothetical inconsistent toward underpricing hoping lock recover afford sum, revealed record. 40 why intuitively appealing, may durable goods: These 41 service-market affect demand, inform themselves "package"—equipment, parts—at purchase; is, accurate lifecycle pricing.19 Lifecycle complex, costly. arrive acquire amount raw undertake sophisticated analysis. quality, needed operate, upgrade, well including estimates breakdown frequency, nature repairs, length "down-time" incurred down-time.20 42 Much difficult—some impossible purchase. During life companies develop advanced features, decreased repair, new warranties. likely customer-specific; vary customer type degrees use, down-time. 43 acknowledges information, suggests, again evidentiary support, needs competitors 11. fact, information. competitor serve. clear interests providing consumers. D. Turner, Law, 404b1 (1978).21 44 capable acquiring processing body so. Acquiring expensive. small relative concerned capabilities cost-efficient compile Similarly, Federal Government, systems "package" State governments treat operating expense expense, delegating department. governmental entities lowest National Association Purchasing Officials al., Amici Curiae; Ohio 429-430. notes, large-volume, purchasers comparative studies insist, patronage, knowledgeable down package 23, 9. There reasons, ensure unsophisticated purchasers, too. matter, number relatively small, gained supracompetitive profitable let elsewhere. More importantly, company price-discriminate uninformed. varying equipment/parts/service package, developing warranties, offering discounts components. 46 Given potentially assume, equipment-purchasing decisions assessment machine.22 47 practices price-discrimination refusing third-party companies. Companies staff users, whom most worthwhile pricing. factor undermining product. 519a.23 high, "locked-in," tolerate service-price changing brands. scenario, profitably purchasers. 49 below-marginal recoup charges packages life-time warranties agreements 50 offered heavy outlay combined works very existing And confirms varies 51 foil simple pure complements another.24 52 conclude, failed demonstrate unreasonable, consequently, clearly drive direct so.25 plausible, discussed above, longterm Viewing favorable respondents, allegations "mak[e] sense." 1356. because, Plaintiffs "through rebates price-cutting activities." cutting essence competition," mistaken "especially costly," "chill laws protect." Monsanto Spray-Rite 465 752, 763, 1464, 1470, 79 775 (1984) (permitting concerted "deter penalize perfectly legitimate conduct"). just opposite. conduct—higher foreclosure—is facially anticompetitive exactly harm aim prevent. defendant. 54 appearance anti-competitiveness, favors pursue innovative plans allow effectively 40-41. making easier finance purchase.26 enhanced various options, bundling maintenance actions run afoul laws.27 challenged eliminating far clear.28 55 decide effects outweigh effects. note therefore warrant impact. case, weigh proceeding go unpunished, 56 foregoing affirm denial claim.29 III 57 "The offense elements: acquisition distinguished growth consequence superior acumen, historic accident." 570-571, 1005. 58 element, resolved. noted, triable "power exclude competition" Monopoly requires, course, greater Fortner, 502, 1258. stringent Collegiate Athletic Board Regents Univ. Okla., 468 85, 112, 2948, 2966, 82 70 1704 (87% monopoly); Tobacco 328 781, 797, 66 1125, 1133, 90 1575 (1946) (over 2/3 monopoly). 59 disagree. choices 1562. interchangeable Kodak-equipment owner's perspective composed 404, 1012 (the interchangeability").30 proposition instances Assn., 101-102, 111-112, 2960, 2965; International Boxing Club New York, 358 249-252, 245, 249-251, 270 (1959); Business Machines Corp. 298 131, 701, 1085 (1936).31 "commercial realities" 572, 1704. 60 foreclose advantage, destroy competitor." Griffith, 334 100, 107, 68 941, 945, 92 1236 (1948). scheme violated 1703-1704; Aluminum America, 148 416, 432 (CA2 1945); Aspen Skiing Highlands 472 585, 600-605, 105 2847, 2856-2859, 467 (1985).32 61 recounted Liability turns, "valid reasons" 605, 2859; F.2d, 432. actions: "(1) promote interbrand allowing stress service; improve asset management reducing costs; free riding 6. Factual questions validity sufficiency claimed inappropriate. 62 asserts using "it [can] best equipment" avoid being "blamed malfunction, problem result improper diagnosis, ISO." 6-7. 139-140, 705 (rejecting IBM's cards "injury reputation good of" IBM proof cards); Salt 332 392, 397-398, 12, 16, (1947) Salt's salt protect leased equal quality). 63 thesis policy. exclusive-service contract otherwise blame breakdowns inferior simultaneously subtle lifecycle-pricing decisions, too obtuse distinguish due bad informational sophistication circumstance other. (their own) willingness casts agree "have pretextual." 618. 64 justification—controlling argue, appear rates, rates perform repair. fails OEMs, owners, brokers 65 final "exploit[ing] development, manufacturing away revenues." 7-8. invest training workers inventory. enter understanding caselaw.33 contrary, evils proscribed creation entry barriers requiring simultaneously. 1559; 509, 1261. None justifications, "entitled law" Fed.Rule.Civ.Proc. IV 67 end, arguments correct. components discipline priced competitively overall, anti-competitive outweighed conclusions law sparse. denying ordered. THOMAS join, dissenting. describes it, "another controversy." Ante, 454. Rather, presents narrow—but extremely important—question law: Whether, applying per se condemning "ties," exacting rules governing would-be monopolists, manufacturer's conceded somehow consistent "market," "monopoly," wholly my view, supplies erroneous answer question, I dissent. 71 Per illegality reserved situations logic experience injury pronounced needless wasteful usual judicial behavior's benefits See, e.g., 350-351, 2476, character produced [behavior applies] presuming unreasonableness necessity context [behavior] found." 9, 1556, rule: Where conditions precedent application met, backed "tying" adjudged practice's welfare. Jerrold Electronics 187 F.Supp. 545, 560 (ED Pa.1960), aff'd curiam, 365 567, 81 755, 806 (1961) (accepting affirmative defense allegation). 72 Despite intense criticism doctrine academic circles, see, Bork, Paradox 365-381 (1978), stated rationale varied years. When product—the output—the enables him extend enhancing each. addition: "[T]ying evade clandestine transfer profit product; counting device discrimination; full line extract unique line." 513-514, 1264, (1969) (Fortner ) dissenting) (footnotes omitted). 74 explained draws distinction hand, attempting impose restraints other." 1559. 75 Our Section doctrines similarly directed discrete his threatens forestall corrective forces thereby agglomeration 1703-1704, (1966). maintains lens: Behavior concern laws—or viewed procompetitive—can connotations practiced monopolist. Law 813, pp. 300-302 (1978) (hereinafter Turner). concerns, led courts heightened scrutiny "exclusionary conduct" subject prohibition, completely participants former, [very] conduct," monopolist, ". [is] predicated power." p. 301 (1978); Walker Process Equipment, Food Machinery Chemical 382 172, 177-178, 347, 247 (1965) (fraudulent patent procurement); Standard Oil N.J. 221 75, 520, 619 (1911) (acquisition competitors); Turner 724, 195-197 (vertical integration). tying, recognized coerced hand serve functions facilitating Brown Shoe 370 294, 330, 1502, 1526, 510 (1962), permitting "clandestine fear retaliation few producers dealing market," I, supra, dissenting), assuring control, Cal. 337 293, 306, 1051, 1058, 93 1371 (1949), related, reduc[ing] economies joint distribution." dissenting). "Accordingly, [only] condemned [under rule] ability—usually called 'market power'—to 13-14, 1558-1559. 77 today finds typical inherent equipment—over distinctive example—the sort "monopoly bring sledgehammer play. And, surprisingly insight, labels single-brand permit plaintiff invoke tying. sense. holding causes venerable selective proscription beyond point reasoning supports leaves off. possessed manufacturer release torrent litigation flood intimidation much enforcement competition. shall explain, Parts III, respectively, neither nor alone compels, prohibition level. On appeal having waived "rule reason" arguing construed them, (1986), supported Image Technical Services, 612, 615, 1990). observes, bore proffering possesses ante, 464; deciding monopoly, photocopying 10; Oklahoma City Tuttle, 471 808, 816, 2427, 2432, 85 791 (1985). did, complaint allegation posited markets; particular, "tie" 22-23. Though apparently abandoned pursuit focused (about later), think helpful analyze fared rule. Had Kodak—from date markets—included machine, tests enunciated Nevertheless, immune (we assume) influence quantity. 1558-1559; 429 610, 620, 861, 867, ); 6-7, 519, (1958). obtain, think, entry—consistently pursued announced limiting manner bought knowledge obtained foreclosure illustrations undeniably complete—as described complaint. Nonetheless, inquire ask company's practices. end insofar concerned. Areeda, 1709c5, 101-102 (1991); Klein Saft, Economics Franchise Tying Contracts, J.Law Econ. 345, presented. Interbrand render powerless additional class discriminate "system" system's value customer, 829d, 331-332. hypothetical, removed case. consistent—in large part—with least, anything prospective. 17. summarized proffer below: "Under cut off this, Additionally, became obsolete, population "new (post April models), all." 360. 83 copiers, broader foundation: Considered Anderson, 2513 suggests inception, applied alike. post-1985 like aware thing lacking (accounting vast bulk here) squarely within hypotheticals concrete known. approach vel non determinative versus reason) examined. quite anomalous functioning exempt bundles parts-and-service, treatment what similar phenomena call today's decision question. 84 sidestep impediment posed invocation zeroing "aftermarkets" identified unquestionably near-monopoly share: uniquely associated 1560. holds facial vibrant defense. 470-471. curious form premise proscription. enjoyed virtually unique, goods. H. Hovenkamp, 525.1, 563 (Supp.1991). "[S]uch maker holder unimportant added).1 analysis, now ties effected insignificant players forecloses minimis 1257. seems me wrong. "forced" implicates leveraging discrimination behind foremarket derivatives, which—as explained—would condemnation.2 implemented, implicated truth-in-advertising protection suggest prohibition. Town Sound Custom Tops, Chrysler Motors 959 (CA3 1992) (en banc). connote amicus, out, considering inevitably support. "[B]oth expenditures services." 13. spare services offsetting reduction turn systems. Grappone, Subaru England, 858 792, 796-798 (CA1 1988). True, are—as 474-475—the occasional irrational hardware (a category regrettably includes whose "purchasing system," told, assigns entities). premised common denominator consumer. 87 attempts counter own. says "information costs"—the inconvenience life-cycle machines—that "could sales." 473. truism none. "Information costs," or, accurately, gaps pervade real-world "rough cut" judgments circumstances, zones suppliers overprice share. suggested commonplace deficiencies (and, thus, bands apparent indifference) laws. "While [such] factors generate power' abstract kind justifies condemnation tying." 27, 1566; 88 raising remain abusive "locked in" agrees; indeed, goes suggesting general "lock-in" phenomenon. "[A] aftermarket," explains, "if purchasers." 476. speculating latter possibility, essentially repudiating bound viz., whatsoever levels sales—and itself exploiting ever-dwindling aftermarket, circulation passed disuse. narrower point, true. who, "will brands," 476; true "every product." 525.1b, 563. "circumstantial" leverage created regularly crops smoothly functioning, competitive, most—if all—of manifestations, malfunctioning refrigerator (which measured consumer's reluctance walk device) degree swimming pool contractor discovers 5-ton boulder customer's backyard sum money remove it; airplane airline "standardized" fleet around models; drill press built lines particular style press; invested company-specific paraphernalia; mobile home park owner tenants, homes except great Yee Escondido, 503 1522, 118 153 (1992). Leverage, circumstantial plays role relationships; attributable dominant plainly work brief perturbation conditions—not worry about." Elec. Motors, Sterling Elec., 866 228, 236 (CA7 1988) (Posner, correctly observes natural project " 'exploi[t] position empire next.' 480, (quoting 611, 882, (1953)). uses single-branded "leverage" invariably consequence, perfect identity (those equipment). exists, exploit (and fully) tie. Cf., Bowman, Arrangements Leverage Problem, Yale L.J. 21-27 (1957). embraces: amounts 479-481, 29, derivatives—but coupled "counting devices" measure intensity usage, enabled discrimination, (1947); (1936); 258 363, 708 (1922). enduring unavailable manufacturer—like Kodak—that lacks derivatives nothing rents consumers.3 appeals (save panel below) invoking Virtual Maintenance, Prime Computer, 957 1318, 1328 (CA6 ("Defining chosen supplier account designated sole source place"); 798 ("[W]e dealer [in facilities products] translate ultimately consumers"); A.I. Root Computer/Dynamics, 673, 675-677, 1986) (competition "small computer" precluded computer computer); General Systems North Philips 699 965, 977 1983) ("To pressure [aftermarket hardware] hastened surrendered market"). 233 (law-of-the-case compelled engine). related contexts deterrent intrabrand exceedingly reluctant apply restraints. instance, vertical nonprice "because simultaneous stimulation 51-52, 2558, (1977), law." 52, 19. entering restrictions induce competent aggressive retailers labor distribution unknown consumer," "[e]stablished promotional products." 55, 2560. Sharp 485 717, 726, 108 1515, 1520, 99 808 (1988). assumptions, govern solely multitude purposes: facilitate efforts remains operable reputation, F.Supp., 560, (1961); implicit financing supracompetitively-priced purchases, Oxenfeldt, Pricing Practices 378 (1951); may, resultant activity, "yield valuable component design weaknesses materially contribute improvement," 733c, 258-259; id. punish interest, not—under guise rule—condemn brand. 94 instead evaluate reason, tie's together benefits, captured 41, 1573 (O'CONNOR, judgment). Disposition examination, rule-of-reason reverse Circuit's outright. 95 considerations equally An fortiori warrants allegedly asking points "100% "no substitutes," 481, statistics fend made, explained, differentiated upon unexceptional demonstration merchandise, transforms mechanism responding extraordinary agglomerations threatened agglomerations) all-purpose remedy run-of-the-mill torts. 96 vibrant, enlist 2's machinery police infinitely precise rewarding welfare punishing unfavorably 725, 1520; 54, 2559. believe Appeals. respectfully four areas. capture microfilmers scanners, compact image microfilm. microfilm viewers viewer/printers. retrieve images. Computer Output Microform (COM) recorders, data-processing peripherals computer-generated onto fourth Assisted Retrieval (CAR) systems, utilize locate 156-158. addition strip useful resell stripped 419, 517; 38. states part: "Every contract, combination trust otherwise, conspiracy, trade among foreign nations, declared illegal." states: person monopolize, combine conspire persons, deemed guilty felony, conviction thereof, punished fine exceeding million dollars corporation, person, hundred thousand dollars, imprisonment years, said punishments, discretion court." Specifically, denied request discovery opposition motion: "For requested depose sign statements Not decision, district request." 617, found: "Kodak's separated briefs attest magnitude business. Network Sales Dealers Association, Office Machine Curiae. involve installation Post, 494-495, concurrence (1984), footnote, practice deal, 4. Assuming, arguendo, characterized not. "[T]he essential characteristic invalid lies want all, elsewhere terms. 'forcing' present, merits item restrained violated." 1558. oral argument, argued figures computer-assisted retrieval micrographic-capture 16-18, 32-33; Tr. Oral Arg. 28-31. contest shares indicated believed "do markets." 616, Opposition Petition Certiorari, acknowledged rested disputing 8. Recognizing novo relying courts' understanding, Diebold, 369 654, 655, 993, 176 decline petition, invitation. (1985): "Our certiorari represents scarce resources view petition." objections attention petition certiorari, namely, se, rebut conclusion 30-31 ("There overcome power"); (discovery "pointless" once "dispositive conceded); (Kodak's "dooms profits" imperfect market); (it "impossible" overcharging service). second-best alternative, meet 56(c); shift "prove normal apply." States' position. 10-11. 723-726, 1519-1521, (1988); FTC Indiana Federation Dentists, 476 2009, 2018, 445 100-104, 2959-2962, (1984); 59, 2562, (1977). 26-29, 1565-1567; Connecticut Bank, 418 656, 661-666, 2788, 2792-2795, 1016 (1974); 571-576, 1704-1707, 250-251, 250, 37, 6, 1555, concurring) (citing careful consideration gives power). 248, 2510, (1986) ("summary lie party"); 768, 1473, (to "reasonably tends prove" theory); First Bank Cities 391 253, 288-289, 1575, 1592, 569 (1968) (defendant meets Rule "conclusively show[s] [the plaintiff] relied susceptible interpretation give them"); Southern Photo Materials 273 359, 375, 684 (1927). H.L. Hayden Siemens Systems, 879 1989) ("only party") original); Arnold Pontiac-GMC, Budd Baer, 826 1335, 1339 1987) (Matsushita directs 'to reasonable' "); Instructional Development Aetna Casualty Surety 817 639, 646 (CA10 (summary reasonably motivated"). What constrains elasticity defendant—the fall rises." Courts usually relationship defining share, determines Pitofsky, Definitions Relevant Assault Antitrust, Colum.L.Rev. 1805, 1806-1813 focus directly included definition. Whether conceptual definition" power," ultimate significantly echoes argument: implausible Buyers regard sellers recognize true, claims, "cannot impact 20. zero proves nothing; profits. Although repeatedly relies T.V. inapposite. restricting effect. noted negative product) checked generic substitute Unlike relationships chain. competitors; horizontal. provision petitioner's effort, repeating mantra "interbrand transform dealers rubric Craswell, Requirements Competitive Markets: Consumer Protection Issues, B.U.L.Rev. 661, 676 (1982); Beales, Craswell Salop, Efficient Regulation Information, 491, 509-511 (1981); capabilities, residual longevity trade-in willing forgo reap anticipate informing hopes gaining future cause cancelling gains leaving worse sellers, adopt 177 (Kodak, Xerox, market). patronage corrected beliefs shared competitors. Econ., 503-504, 506. Salop Stiglitz, Bargains Ripoffs: Model Monopolistically Price Dispersion, Rev.Econ.Studies 493 (1977); Information Structure—Information Monopolistic Competition, Am.Econ.Rev. 240 (1976); Stigler, J.Pol.Econ. 213 (1961). exact whenever ready substitute. F.M. Scherer Ross, Structure Economic Performance 16-17 (3d disagrees lacking" dissent, "is known." 492. dissent's "only crucial lacking—evidence. treated identically exertion Far "anomalous," post, precedent. 13, (finding goals achieved). pursuing strategy. 1558 ("Buyers attractive; effectively—conduct Act"). Yates DiResta, Software Support Hardware Maintenance Practices: Considerations, Lawyer (1991) (describing laws). Two largest Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance radical departure "inherent" 489-490, proposal immunity competing growing sector economy Leaving aside authority jurisprudence assuming, possess immunize times patent, copyright, acumen rise exploits next." (1953); (1958); Paramount Pictures, 915, 1260 (1948); Leitch Mfg. Barber 302 458, 463, 288, 290, 371 (1938). occasions manufacturers, exception treating reject proposal. Patterson McLean Credit Union, 491 164, 172-173, 109 2363, 2370, 132 (1989) ("Considerations stare decisis area statutory interpretation, unlike constitutional legislative implicated, Congress alter done"). exemption "does tie." 498. Beyond obvious difficulty explaining achieve conveniently means, protected 475-476. bottom, whatever mere conjecture. Neither refuting discrimination. While predicts, harms plain accept win erroneously notion substitutes available. 393, 1006. Club, 249-250, 250. Here substitutes. Other Logistics Group, Ltd. 884 904, 905, 908 (parts cars market), cert. denied, 494 1066, 110 1783, 784 (1990); Dimidowich Bell Howell, 803 1480-1481, 1986), modified, 810 1517 (1987) (service Howell re F.T.C. 554, 584 (1982) (crash Heatransfer Volkswagenwerk A.G., 553 964 (CA5 1977), 434 1087, 98 1282, 792 (air conditioners Volkswagens refuse deal right absolute; refusal. 602-605, 2857-2859, free-rider argument. applicable. 2560, Monsanto, 762-763, distribute retail televisions herbicides. investing relying, instead, retailers. applicable market; exist innumerable firms industries automobile industry, Automotive Warehouse Distributors 2-3, detract point. exercised. Manufacturers disadvantage level, way refutes self-evident taking. confounds sound suggest, do, 5, 10% thing, contracting manufacture constituent suggestion analysis—that chooses branded contractors merchandise—is unprecedented. observe, unlikely incrementally exploited Most "service" inherently involved incorporating items tend demanded fixed proportions (one unit install part). situation obtains, revenue derived setting 426(a), 706 (1957)). observations strongly installing purposes. 39, 1572 judgment) ("For distinct, must, minimum, wish ") original) (footnote omitted); Single Product Issue Tying: Functional Approach, Emory 963, 1009-1010 (1974). enable 29. identify relies, suggestion, apparently, facilitates sophisticated, "high-volume" users counterparts. (who, presumes, equipment) are—through imposition tie—compelled both. superficially bottom coherence. hardware) exceeds levels. distributes 2097. employing vehicle incremental exploitative consumers—sophisticated not—who supposed misfortune desired wretched pressing brands barely exceeded retaining remaining practices, tie, alone. Since helpless one, former. desired, accomplished indirectly, 2(a) Robinson-Patman 13(a), giving "where lessen commerce, injure, destroy, grants knowingly receives benefit them. ." Ibid.; Falls Industries, Vanco Beverage, 460 428, 434-435, 103 1288, 174 (1983). occurs price-discriminated (i.e., another). E.g., Trade Commission Morton 47, 822, 828, 1196 600, 923 (1988) ("Secondary-line arises Act] powerful decisive pay supplies"). rarely where, businesses consumption.

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