Document: 536 U.S. 452 UTAH ET AL.v.EVANS, SECRETARY OF COMMERCE, AL. No. 01-714. Supreme Court of the United States. Argued March 27, 2002. Decided June 20, APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR The Census Bureau derives most census information from forms it mails to a nationwide list addresses. If no one replies particular form or supplied is confusing, contradictory, incomplete, follows up with visits by its field personnel. Occasionally, despite visits, may still have conflicting indications about, e. g., whether listed address housing unit, office building, vacant lot, residence occupied, number persons in unit. then use methodology called "imputation," which infers that unit about uncertain has same population characteristics as those geographically closest neighbor type (i. e., apartment single-family dwelling) did not return form. In year 2000 census, used "hot-deck imputation" increase total count 0.4%. But because this small percentage was spread unevenly across country, made difference apportionment congressional Representatives. particular, imputation increased North Carolina's 0.4% while increasing Utah's only 0.2%, so Carolina will receive more Representative and Utah less than if had simply filled relevant informational gaps counting related individuals zero. brought suit against appellees, officials charged conducting claiming Bureau's violates 13 U. S. C. § 195, prohibits "the statistical method known `sampling,'" inconsistent Constitution's statement an "actual Enumeration shall be made," Art. I, 2, cl. 3. sought injunction compelling appellees change official results. intervened. District found for Bureau. Held: 1. rejects argument lacks standing action "Case" "Controversy," III, federal courts do power "redress" "injury" allegedly "caused" Utah, Lujan v. Defenders Wildlife, 504 555, 561. Because there significant between plaintiff Franklin Massachusetts, 505 788, rejected similar argument, must convince should reconsider Franklin. It done so. argues ordering recalculate numbers recertify result cannot help "entitled" Representatives already certified under statutes require decennial 141(a); mandate results reported President, 141(b); obligate President send Congress showing each State data, 2 2a(a); specify House certificate "entitled." also say once all done, "shall entitled" "certificate" specifies. 2a(b). Unlike Carolina, does read these absolutely barring certificate's revision cases. expressly what occur case serious mistake — say, clerical, mathematical, calculation error data transposition. Guided Franklin, 2a's presence, reads statute permitting such cases error, including court-determined legal leading court-required underlying report. So read, poses bar "redress." Nor Pub. L. 105-119, Title II, 209(b), 111 Stat. 2481, entitles "[a]ny person aggrieved any [unlawful] method" bring "a civil action" declaratory injunctive "relief method." Despite implicitly forbids after census' conclusion, explain why would wish deprive day court learn method's representational consequences until completion hence little, any, incentive precensus action. limitations on jurisdiction narrowly, see, Webster Doe, 486 592, 603, into unexpressed intent previously exercised, supra. neither absolute barrier relief, likely victory here ultimate relief seeks. See id., at 803. Thus, standing. Pp. 459-464. 2. violate "authorize[s] "[e]xcept determination purposes Representatives." differs sampling several critical respects: (1) As nature enterprise, seeks extrapolate features large one, but process fill missing part effort one. (2) methodology, find subset resemble whole through artificial, random selection processes, whereas typically statisticians, assure individual (not "subset"), chosen nonrandomly, other "whole") selected fortuitous unavailability data. (3) immediate objective, sample's population, determine These differences, degree kind, are important enough place outside scope 195's phrase `sampling.'" That using words "known as" quotation marks around "sampling" suggests term art technical meaning. And literature, examined, see Corning Glass Works Brennan, 417 188, 201, contains definitions focus upon sorts differences discussed above. Also, insofar parties rely statisticians' expert opinion, opinion uniformly favors Government. Further, legislative history refers practice Secretary 1958 when wrote law, statutory word apply imputation, consider. Finally, provides satisfactory alternative account meaning Its arguments occurs whenever portion infer population; two methods, virtually identical constituted Department Commerce States Representatives, 525 316, 324-326; Bureau, authorized engage might wide-scale substitution person-by-person counting; methods inaccurate convincing. failed overcome fact long consistently interpreted 195 Congress, aware interpretation, enacted legislation without changing statute. 464-473. Clause, requires Enumeration" State's "within three Years first Meeting ..., Manner they Law direct." seek out prohibit relying text make distinction draw. Rather, uses general word, "enumeration," describing count's methodological details. textual "actual" context enumeration apportioning Third succinctly clarifying constitutionally described basis First Second Congresses. final sentence says take "in itself direct," thereby suggesting breadth authority, rather limitation. See, Wisconsin City New York, 517 1, 19. This understanding supported Constitutional Convention 1787, demonstrates limit proposes, intended distinguish based conjecture deliberately taken count. Further support added contemporaneous usage, exemplified late-18th-century dictionaries defining "enumeration" act numbering over, reference documents, contact taker enumerated individual, almost interchangeably "cause inhabitants ... taken." Indeed, principle efforts since 1800 persons, asking heads households, neighbors, landlords, postal workers, proxies place. can draw Clause's basic purposes: wealth representation, tie taxes representation together, insist periodic recounts manner census. Those matters directly issue detailed before Court. Nonetheless, certain constitutional choices prove relevant. decisions, example, wealth, recounts, suggest strong interest accuracy. accuracy last resort failed. need decide precise limits foreseen Clause. instance, where been reach every household, consist inference, inference involves tiny percent far accurate assessment consequently manipulation highly unlikely, exceeded. 473-479. 182 F. Supp. 2d 1165, affirmed. BREYER, J., delivered Court, REHNQUIST, STEVENS, SOUTER, GINSBURG, JJ., joined, O'CONNOR, joined Parts I II. filed concurring dissenting part, post, p. 479. THOMAS, KENNEDY, 488. SCALIA, 510. Thomas R. Lee argued cause appellants. With him briefs were Carter G. Phillips, Gene Schaerr, Michael Lee, Mark Shurtleff, Attorney General Raymond A. Hintze, Chief Civil Deputy General, J. Ward, Assistant General. Walter Dellinger et al. brief Jonathan D. Hacker, Roy Cooper, James Peeler Smith Tiare B. Smiley, Special Attorneys Solicitor Olson appellees. McCallum, Kneedler, Malcolm Stewart, Stern, H. Levy.* JUSTICE BREYER 1 question us either provision forbidding `sampling'" made. 195; Const., We conclude nor Constitution. * A 3 "Hot-deck way resolved conflicts is, effect, sends mail writes back personal employees (who obtain addresses listed). adequate provided somehow integrated master list. indications, (or newly generated address) represents lot; residential building occupied; occupied contains. uncertainties arise back, agents produced confused responses, who processed responses mistakes. There too little time left further visits. "imputation" practical resolve remaining uncertainties. 4 different kinds depending confusing information. Where, concerns existence speaks "status imputation." Where "occupancy people living "household size case, however, proceeds somewhat way: imputes inferring "nearby sample `donor'" "geographically questionnaire" mail. Brief Appellants 7-8, 11. current prior censuses, "hot-deck," "cold-deck," imputation. 5 1.2 million people, representing population. makes next 0.2%. agree means Representative, instead B 6 After analyzing figures, lawsuit Acting Director whom delegate authority conduct 28 2284. claimed prohibition made, favor. 1165 (Utah 2001). appealed. 1253. we postponed consideration pending hearing merits. 534 1112 (2002). II 7 outset lack hear case. Article Constitution extends "judicial Power" actual "Cases" "Controversies." fall within grant judicial unless, among things, defendant plaintiff. 561 (1992); Allen Wright, 468 737, 751 (1984). And, view, injury claims suffered here. Hence "standing" demands. 8 788 (1992), considered, rejected, claim. private sued Commerce, challenging legality 1990 "arbitrary capricious" contrary specific statutes. Id., 790-791. hoped ultimately lead reapportionment assign additional his own State. 9 Eight Members Four Justices considered law permitted review decisions Administrative Procedure Act. They concluded did. saw obstacle. 807 (STEVENS, judgment). 10 went further. controversy concrete adversary. said: 11 "The certainly defending her policy determinations concerning census; even though she herself reapportionment, litigating accuracy." 803 (opinion J.). 12 that, matter, redress seemed likely. "[A]s contended contrary, assume substantially executive abide authoritative interpretation bound determination." Ibid. 14 potential obstacle 15 (Utah) Both their lawsuits complete. followed legally improper methods. result. reasonably believed Secretary's recertification, new, favorable, Given similarities, 16 deny order Rather points suffers, proper "report" (a document), importantly believes entitled consequence filing document. Whatever said argues, court-ordered beyond and, here, 17 reason i. new document, set forth impossible. "take April" 2000, he report January 2001, transmit 12, "whole entitled," days receiving statement, Clerk "send specifies "until taking effect section subsequent statute." 16, 2001. concludes like) come may. 18 disagree barred matter what. themselves "statement" Clerk's rests turn contain, reflect, mistake. language open flexible reading permit correction rest uncovered actually selected, translates mechanically exercise judgment, mechanical good sense. cases, sent turned valid certificate, being understood newer, version. presence statute, include them Secretarial "report." 19 adds another nonetheless bars our authorizes 2481. authorizing conclusion conclusion. supports pointing finding "be impracticable" provide "after" time. 209(a)(8). 20 postcensus lawsuits. wished complete (as just explained), soon heard quickly enough, necessarily "impracticable." narrowly. 603 (1988); Bowen Michigan Academy Family Physicians, 476 667, 670 (1986). National Railroad Passenger Corporation Assn. Passengers, 414 453 (1974) (special circumstances warrant limiting suit). normally exercised. Franklin; Montana, 503 442 (1992). 21 Neither posing believe Victory mean declaration leading, requiring, substitute old Should contain relative populations calculations consequent apportionment-related steps purely mechanical; months remain post-2000 election. Under circumstances, seem, "substantially ...." S., 22 Moreover, terms precedent, ordered status (that "report"), amount likelihood redresses suffered. circumstances. Federal Election Comm'n Akins, 524 11, 25 (1998) (standing organization "political committee" agency reporting, agency's reporting regardless); Bennett Spear, 520 154, 169-171 (1997) (similar respect lawfulness biological report); Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority Citizens Abatement Aircraft Noise, Inc., 501 252, 264-265 (1991) transfer airport control local unlawful). denied involved significantly speculative obtaining relief. Lujan, 564-565, n. (obtaining "speculative"); Simon Eastern Ky. Welfare Rights Organization, 426 26, 42 (1976) (same). jurisdiction. III 23 claim follows: 24 "Except States, shall, considers feasible, authorize `sampling' 195. 343 (1999). practiced forbidden method. 26 Government "sampling." simplified example Imagine librarian wishes books library. finds statistically sound select (e. contained 10th shelf) extrapolating multiplying 10), determined If, tries book sampling. latter suddenly become librarian, empty shelf spaces, "imputes" space (currently use) goes way, measuring nearby dividing length average shelf. 27 both similarities both, "`information whole.'" 18. 482-483 part), similarity brings phrase. On hand, processes differ librarian's overall approach problem beginning relies collected Declaration Howard Hogan ¶¶ 19-23, App. 257-259 (hereinafter Hogan); focuses sample-selection techniques collect, 29-30, 261-262; Joseph Waksberg 6, 10, 290-294 Waksberg); immediately ¶ 30, 262; David W. Peterson 8, 352 Peterson). 29 By contrast, represent processing (giving value data), collection, 21, 29, 257-258, generally selection, Dept. Decennial Statistical Studies Division, Procedures Operations, Memorandum Series B-17, Feb. 28, 194-196; 290, 293-294; objective determining books, entire 17, 256-257; ¶9, 352. 30 enterprise extrapolation filling cf. (O'CONNOR, part) (suggesting contrary). statisticians seeking processes; Kish, Survey Sampling (1965) ("In literature [sampling] synonymous sampling"). data; "donor" units 31 statute's For thing, surround 201 (1974), sort One text, "[s]urvey sampling, deals selecting observing (sample) inferences population." supra, Another "sample, [statistics] gain population," Henry, Practical (1990), or, words, model ibid. Yet "sampling fraction P. Sukhatme, Theory Surveys Applications (1954). 1953 treatise, refers, broader definition "sample" imprecise, adding "should reserved belief representative aggregate." Yates, Methods Censuses 1.1, (2d rev. ed. 1953) Yates). documents state "professional statisticians" reserve "`sample' instances smaller science." Report Plan (revised reissued Aug. 1997) Congress). 32 easily naturally given nature, objectives. least considerable linguistic squeezing. 33 testified statistics. 18-30, 257-262; 6-10, (former statistician). Their reasons parallel referred. Although presented experts relied testimony knowledge Insofar now 34 mind law. At time, engaged "sampling," subsidiary questions automobiles, telephones, dishwashers, produce national figures automobile ownership. M. Anderson, American Census: Social History 199 (1988) (discussing "long form" survey, 1950 20% population). asked enact clear "practice." Amendment 13, Code, Relating Hearing 7911 Committee Post Office Service, 85th Cong., 1st Sess., (1957) (Statement Purpose Need) (Secretary ability "some efficiently survey basis"). object restriction would, area apportionment. achieve cost savings, responded present limited authority. Rep. 698, ("[P]roper substantial economies taking"); 94-1256, ("use procedures surveys urged sake economy reducing respondent burden"). 35 background considered. restrict expressed objection, past future. 39, 266-267. rationale quite An advance plan saves money, restricts survey's scope. save turns ordinary questionnaires interviews reflects decision spend money avoid placing figure "zero" possible better. 34, 264 ("The goal numerically distributively accurate"). 36 statistics items knows items, know. 9. definitional view could possibly belong better ask worker apparently house occupied. close statistics, ("sampling"). express "information whole" suffers defect. broader, coming description mental itself. While treatise define qualification "layman's" professional speaking technically, speak narrowly precisely. 23; Yates 1-2. 37 arguments. counting. event, imputing occupancy, 458, inaccurate. 38 distinguishable. satisfied criteria ways not. instances, planned extrapolated instance blocks randomly global compare (and adjust) obtained traditional 325-326. second drawn questionnaire nonrespondents tracts tract. closely resembles (about tract) compared nonresponding 30% tract). 324-325. deliberate appropriate sample, so, quantitative (10% tract there; here), kind issue. 39 first, manipulate explained how census-taking fills blanks susceptible favor, seem difficult arrange. O'CONNOR's speculation comes pass decide, having litigated utilized forgo benefits second, method, applied add record, infra, 477, 487-488, gives doubt 40 note hurdle recommended consistently, many years, 41, 43, 46, 47, 52, 266-273. Address List Improvement Act 1994, 103-430, 108 4393; Foreign Direct Investment International Financial Data Improvements 1990, 101-533, 104 2344; Oct. 14, 1986, 99-467, 100 1192. (Indeed, told meeting objection.) delegates content determine." 141(a). deference difference. Chevron Inc. Natural Resources Defense Council, 467 837, 842-845 41 sum, used, sought. explained, degree. lessen significance interpreting faced covers inferences. Since keys operative history: stand requested pass, notice use, suggested otherwise. reasons, cover IV appear changed War (in 43 "Representatives direct Taxes apportioned according respective Numbers State.... (emphasis added); Amdt. 44 individual. doing documentary evidence exists, return, eyewitness evidence, taker. testimonial reports, secondhand thirdhand family member, neighbor, friend. assuming, unknown nearby. 45 (1996). 46 text. Detail draft stating "regulate representatives inhabitants, [Congress] Farrand, Records pp. 178, 182-183 (rev. 1966) Farrand). making minor, irrelevant, changes, Style, which, revising language, Enumeration." 590, 591. dispositive, strongly meaning, Style "had alter meaning" submitted revision. Powell McCormack, 395 486, 538-539 (1969); Farrand 553; Nixon 506 224, 231 (1993). Hence, Framers phrase, substantive equivalent "which [of inhabitants] 183. Style's offers temptation proposes. 47 phrases served Congress. Read conjunction proceedings Convention, original allocation seats "conjectur[e]," 578-579, contrast 3; 602; 106; Founders' 135-136, 139 (P. Kurland & Lerner eds. 1987) Lerner); 448, 15; 498-500 (THOMAS, (describing colonial estimates). What describe process. 48 Contemporaneous usage support. Late-18th-century "act over," methodology. Johnson, Dictionary English Language 658 (4th 1773); N. Bailey, Etymological (26th 1789) ("numbering summing up"); Webster's 759 (1961 ed.) ("the counting," something population)"). strongest letter George contrasting "estimate" "census" demonstrate indeed rough estimate enumeration, intending encompass former anything like clarify individuals. Writings 329 (J. Fitzpatrick 1931); Jefferson 236 (A. Lipscomb 1903) (comparing returns" "conjectures"); 135-136. THOMAS sets forth, same. estimates sources refer taxable polls, militia." Post, 494 (internal omitted). Such show nothing "incompatible arguably incompatible...) gross estimates," 347 (SCALIA, "gross estimates" stake 49 specialized way. itself, later article, "Census Enumeration," 9, 4, indicating intend (directly third parties) marshals implemented try personally, required names households. Mar. 1790, ch. 102. Cf. (noting Acts 1810 workers "visit home person"); part). 50 Of course, limitation expected enumerators household. effort, use. 346-349 deal households enumerate Here sparingly exhausted persons. takers "neighbors, proxies" place, 253. reliance hearsay accurate, inferential, individualized 51 Clause determinations: comparative political reflect wealth; shift years changes; tax base; Wesberry Sanders, 376 9-14, (1964); 35-36, 196-201, 540-542, 559-560, 571, 578-588, 591-597, 603; 2-3, 86-144; Federalist 54, 336-341 (C. Rossiter 1961) Madison); 55, 341-350 58, 356-361 Washington, 329. fundamental Framers' concerns. proves chose combination two, 500-503, him. show, bias prescribed, meant prescribe, because, choice base us. Jack Rakove O. T. 1998, 98-404, 387 ("What principles secondary exactly compiled"). 52 said, disregard has, zero, greater succeeded. Economics Statistics Admin., Informational 110, 445-448 (concluding research confirms appropriately included otherwise excluded). 53 consider "statisticks" referred "`a condition people,'" complex mathematical discipline become. Cohen, Calculating People 150-151 (1982). Yet, however unaware future needs, automobiles transport computers calculation, fully needs dramatically times. optimists surprised Nation founded "processed over 120 147 paper 1.5 billion pages printed material." 251. Consequently, write 54 judgment 55 Affirmed. Notes: Valle Simms Dutcher Lynn Hogue Southeastern Legal Foundation, amicus curiae urging reversal. Nancy Northup Deborah Goldberg Brennan Center Justice NYU School affirmance. 56 part. 57 technique calculate totals apportion Court's process, appellants challenge challenge, thus prohibited Act, seq. Therefore, concur majority's respectfully dissent Part occasion majority IV. 58 To (Bureau) created file attempted Operational VI (Dec. 2000) Plan). conducted list, primarily mail-back questionnaires. IX.A IX.E; ante, 457. name address. V.B. 59 returned questionnaire, attempt six times phone 73, 285 IX.G. "nonresponse followup." Also during followup procedure, appeared marked nonexistent noted deletion. 69, 283, 285. When completed, lacked approximately unable classify "occupied, vacant, nonexistent." 188. Additionally, household 0.2% classified 191. 60 point, employed unsuccessfully address, imputed copying corresponding "`donor'" Ante, 458. donor "`geographically questionnaire' mail." (quoting 11). personally surveyed enumerators, nonresponse procedure 156. associated (although zero nonexistent). 61 imputation-adjusted totals. ibid., did, 338 62 initially enacted, purposes, Commerce] may, deems appropriate, carrying provisions title." (1970 ed.). replaced "may, appropriate" "shall, feasible" amended 1976. 94-521, 90 2464. "might permissive prohibitive regard purposes." 339. Even held maintained "broader context" "over 200 [had] [was] concerned." 339-341. then, 63 answer question, begin connection census: 64 "In common experience, whole[,] [although] [a]mong `sample' 1997). 65 definition, predefined, deterministic group addresses, successfully enumerated. initial means. highlights 66 Next, "population consistent response, 457) efforts. 64, 130 nonresponse); 471 estimating nonresponse). enumerated, 67 counter contends ways. First, quantitatively very small. (contrasting 10% level confined "large" estimates. decided extent irrelevant regardless "`substitute'" "`supplement'" enumeration. 342. 68 acknowledges distinguishable (stating kind" here). constitutes meaningful line nonsampling basis. 69 Second, look "typica[l]," 467, selected. collected. 466. presumes already-collected recognized 128. 70 "to processes." 467. "nearest neighbor" artificial nonrandom dispute nonrepresentative samples Hendricks, Mathematical 239-241 (1956); (1954); Stephan, Uses Modern Procedures, Am. (1948) (all sampling); 17; Jessen, Techniques (1978); Deming, Sample Design Business Research (1960) (together "biased" permissible, preferred, deliberate). unbiased assumed sense construe prohibiting 71 Third, never Along lines, stresses "overall problem," 466, "deliberate decision," 471, Instead, majority, "immediate data," ascertain "individual" units, "extrapolating `donor' 72 objectives, allow characterized else serve some objective. render hollow purposes. allows happen, focusing objective" overlooks estimated end. 73 Fourth, viewed broadly, inference." 470. recognizing broadly. situations attribute attribute. ill defined encompassing. 74 Apart above arguments, relate characterization Congress' `sampling,' time." 469. written think tight gather nonapportionment "purpose utilization implied `census,' except apportionment." 1043, added). broad narrow 75 authorization simultaneously historical departure requirement collect Nation." 336. willing 1957, justify 266-268. 76 notes possibility 472 (citing (1984)). deference, 472, indicate "force law" Christensen Harris County, 529 576, 587 (2000) (explaining "[i]nterpretations force Chevron-style deference"). THOMAS' partial dissent, raises question. precluding deference. Edward DeBartolo Corp. Florida Gulf Coast Building Constr. Trades 485 568, 574-575 (1988). 77 downplays idea results, arguing "manipulation arrange" light "uncertainties favor." 472. resulting apportionment, mere impute source manipulation. averted demand that. past, adjust completed. 10-11, 20-24 78 "better" adjustment all. party cited study improves distributive accuracy, admits numeric "drove process." 264; 34-35, 265 (acknowledging "impossible know priori effects operation accuracy" "[i]n designing reject operations improve affect negatively" added)). therefore resulted importance assessing Wisconsin, preference (even expense numerical accuracy) follow purpose viz., States"). 79 transparent reverse 80 KENNEDY joins, 81 Conducting enormously complicated undertaking. facilitate task, various supplement door-to-door inquiries "counting [of] State" Today hot-deck not, permissible accordance essentially 82 agree, resolution apportions populations; consequently, changes balance them. Mindful calculating precision, requiring opted well estimation leaves room doubt, context, debates accompanying ratification, early confirm imputation," comply 83 1,172,144 0.42 Nation's 443. Utilization Utah: gained lost 84 aptly facts worth noting outset. "estimation." Q-34 Series), 153, "estimation" categories units: (household imputation), unclassified (either vacant) "we exist" (occupancy "either delete" (status imputation). 194-195. category troubling, "for nothing," exist. 85 explains "[f]or defined" preceding types divided groups: single multiunit calls "estimation categories," permits "donors." obtained, neighboring falls categories. 86 Whether passes muster depends evaluation understanding.1 87 constitutionalized decade. doing, precision. Marshall instructed "[a]s men whose intentions concealment, employ ideas convey, enlightened patriots framed constitution, adopted it, natural sense, said." Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. 188 (1824). guided, therefore, "original `[t]he instrument. alter. adopted, now.'" McIntyre Ohio Elections Comm'n, 514 334, 359 (1995) judgment) South 437, 448 (1905)). 88 3, modified Fourteenth Amendment, provides: numbers, State, excluding Indians taxed." Term ten Years, 3.2 89 describes persons" ratification inform understanding. "Actual" founding "really done: Metaphysics, actual, act, real existence, opposite Potential." Universal 1789); Sheridan, Complete (6th 1796) (defining "[r]eally merely potential; speculation"). Sheridan "[e]numeration" "[t]he over" "[t]o enumerate" reckon singly; distinctly." 1773) "enumerate" distinctly; number"; over; out"). "Count" number; tell." 435.3 Webster, (1828) ("To tell ascertaining collection"). SCALIA 346-347 (1999) dictionary "demonstrate `enumeration' counting, number." notion `singly,' `separately,' `number number,' `distinctly,' runs incompatible incompatible, established) estimates." 347.4 imputation.5 91 addition, founding, "conjecture" often contrasted pursuant During debate Madison distinction, "exact division" "assertions conjectures." Constitution). Similarly, document containing returns red ink "conjectur[e]." 229 1903). Mason, observed "doubted much conjectural rule precede just, rendered census." 108.6 92 Historians commentators distinguished enumerations conjectures, demonstrating terms. 1835 separation Great Britain, principally Pitkin, View America 582 Pitkin); 40-41. Prior revolution, British Board Trade Governors populations, Colonies enumerations," Connecticut 1756 1774, others "founded Pitkin 582-583. widely article published England John Rickman enumeration" "must always number," "method (fraught trouble expence) attempts necessary, attainable, fluctuating subject." Rickman's Desirability Taking Census, reprinted Glass, Numbering (1973) Glass). 47. Discussion proposal England, resembling deemed "general inferences" modern registers deficient registers. 111-112. 93 sure, enables prescribe "Manner" taken. implies constraints. 474. dictate conducted,7 unbridled discretion. command point difficulties "attendant obliged perform." 139. 94 places undue weight penultimate version iteration Style. 474-475. earlier version, (1993), presume Committee's reorganization rephrasing accurately captured unadorned language." Carrying "argument logical constrain govern word. odds passed well-established plain best indicator intent." 231-232. draft, 95 discerned examining considering "meaning intention convention proposed adoption conventions states." Rhode Island Pet. 657, 721 (1838). elsewhere, discussions surrounding implementing insight 96 age-old practice. few exceptions, 19th century countries supplemented unenumerated Wolfe, Population Before 357 (1932) Wolfe). contentious otherwise, influenced undertake 358 Biblical Lord's wrath [the `census' David] remained late eighteenth century").8 rampant fiscal gains. 359-370; Alterman 54; 19-20. 97 times, resistance censuses precluded taking. Suspicion government opposition religious grounds, prevented France 18th century. Wolfe 367; 49. "estimates conjectures" frequently century, 1753 Parliament, thought reveal England's "weakness enemies," public misfortune epidemical distemper." 368 omitted).9 98 responsible counts properly administer Colonies. Halacy, 190 Counting (1980) Halacy). encounters 165. According historian, "reason suspect, [that were] intentionally misleading, officials, hand boastful, timid type, exaggeration understatement." Dexter, Estimates Colonies, Proceedings Antiquarian Society (1887) Dexter). 99 Many Americans resisted 1887 inventory Colonies' estimates, "Connecticut pursued hiding strength quietness; truthfulness, preferred exhibit condition." 31.10 1712 York "met opposition, superstitious fear breeding sickness, obtained." (citations Century Jersey, mid-18th comprised "such guesses Royal make, satisfaction superiors." Dexter 36. 1766, Benjamin "supposed 160,000 whites Pennsylvania profess led him, perhaps unconsciously, cautious 38. Georgia "singularly misrepresented, overestimated 1787 nearly half again colonies underestimated considerably, Convention's falling short reality million." experience techniques. Jefferson, running great mathematics numbers. Halacy 33; Cohen 112-113. 1782, Virginia's exhibited awareness Virginia manage full Continental Congress; eight counties Cassedy, Demography Early America: Beginnings Mind, 1600-1800, 228 (1969) Cassedy). incomplete returns, militia rolls, 567,614. facts, counties. available, knew 3,161 1779 1780. He five assumptions, age equal estimate. 168-169. 101 elaborate undertaken Governor Massachusetts 1763, Colony's "`rateable polls'" males eligible vote. poor pay poll tax, females. four. calculated houses. houses averaged occupants "preferred half," giving none figures" higher. Cassedy 73. "[s]ince low side." familiar impediments successful completion. taxation, met resistance. 1775, ascertained costs Revolutionary War. 583. 30-31 ("Debts incurred hastened standard ordered, complied, ways"). Hampshire complained high. "caused appeared, inhabitants" 20,000 lower petitioned taxation. Hampshire's vain, "refused proportion account." Provincial Papers 580 (reprint 1973) ("[T]he [proportion assigned 1781] high 1775 selectmen Towns Parishes Return Oath large"). 102 skewed financial Debate focused creating chicanery. extensively discuss taking, desire bind "shackle" legislature Congresses able let biases influence 103-104. explained: 103 respect, establishment measure taxation salutary effect. depend, degree, disposition, co-operation feel swell reduce Were share alone governed rule, exaggerating inhabitants. alone, prevail. extending objects, interests requisite impartiality." 340-341 1961). Alexander Hamilton likewise noted, discussion "[a]n furnish circumstance effectually shuts door partiality oppression." 36, 220. 105 revealed keen absent fixed standard, subject Gouverneor Morris appears opponents "fettering Legislature much," mode "unfixt defeat object: perpetuate inequality." believed, "[i]f can't expect come." 104. Edmund Randolph, dangers "real, advantage pressing moments, reason, tying hands sacrifice trust momentary considerations." 103. 106 periodical census," Mason "did ratio prevail outset" "considered Revision permanent essential fair representation." 102-103. "From man," observed, give retain it. Contrary it." 107 Some discretion minds listening others. Roger Sherman, "was leaving wholly Legislature; convinced observations (Mr. Randolph Mr. Mason) periods Representation ought fixt Constitution." Ghorum perceptively comparatively biassed views perplexed, How hereafter biass views, settle standard." Reid continued shackled." "[it] Religious Creeds, embarrassing conform dissatisfaction Scism, harmony union." continued, iterations clause concern establish resistant Story "apportion[ing] states recommendation simplicity uniformity operation, acceptable liable fraud evasion, other, devised." Commentaries 327, 238 (R. Rotunda Nowak 1987). C constructions provisions, "early enactments `provid[e] "contemporaneous weighty evidence" meaning.'" Printz 521 898, 905 Myers 272 175 (1926) ("This repeatedly laid down exposition founders framers actively participating affairs, acquiesced fixes construction provisions") (collecting cases). Accordingly, Acts, adopting 109 From directed people. 335. series requirements accomplish mention estimation. described, deputies) pay, falsifying papers, August completed nine months. 45. Marshals assistants oath affirmation" "`truly perfect resident [their] district[s].'" Wright 925. 110 aggregate allowing "assistants" could, family, member family. assistant true 926. No permissible. failure triggered heavy monetary penalties threat prosecution. §§ 1810, "`the inquiry dwelling-house, head district, otherwise.'" 335 565-566). visit governing censuses. 335-336, (surveying Acts). widespread entirely accurate. confronted problems, confusion regarding belonged districts, danger roads, unwillingness citizens information, superstition, connected 45-46. 1791 dated complete, given, acknowledged accurate: 112 my letters you gave probably large. Gentlemen natural) looking thro' magnifying glass greatest extent, probability reaching. Returns tolerably formed others, hardly four millions; thing exceed, greatly, them." 1931). 113 Apparently concerned foreign sending abroad, "I enclose copy black ink, conjectured, near truth. Making allowance omissions, great, safely millions." 229. disappointed Ibid.11 suggestion, "conjectures" Woolsey, Republic 221 (1876); 205. "Despite deficiencies, factual scholars needed." asserts "strong accuracy," 478, stronger suggestion placed higher preventing 114 history, count, sophisticated available today familiarity constitutionalize arduous task am persuaded estimation, 115 recent decades, whether, of, administration administration. Departing practice, 1960 then. Plaintiffs' Statement Undisputed Facts, 44; Response Material 222. 1970 900,000 occupancy combined Hogan, 268-269 Hogan). 1980, shifted seat Indiana Florida, apportionment.12 116 earliest, although 45-46, 4; 223 imputation"). Regardless, impact 4. specifically "Secretary's administrative declining scheme assumptions mostly guesswork.'" Petitioners 1995, Nos. 94-1614 etc., 8. "large-scale [this method] `abandon hundred tradition "statistical tampering future." 10-12 117 Though experimentation bears preratification enumerations. speculate decisionmaking evident Framers, abuse, preclude availability 118 questioning "`neighbors, proxies'" 477. flawed respects. with, 16. "obliged division, account, required, knowledge, belonging respectively pain forfeiting twenty dollars, recovered assistant." Estimation allowed members caught providing false fines. 119 Questioning neighbors 1880 "living nearest abode." 1879, 937. Again, families account" "willfully fail[ed] refuse[d]" "guilty misdemeanor" "pay sum exceeding dollars." 938. computation house, Burea[u] records," 255, compiled away residence, another. categorizes "Donees" nothing." proxy, assist analysis judge constitutionality includes "actually" counted, afoul reflection produces question), go uncounted. Accuracy dispositive factor consideration. persons." Disappointment following prompt dictates 121 takes position 476. derive comfort "`gross estimates.'" neglects boundaries begging "gross" be? nonchalantly comments "sparingly," "inference trivial. reduced another's fortified. shifts "only" seats, continue defend method? Today, guide, surely challenges. accepting opened door, continually another.13 122 123 manipulation, requirement. nations counts, maintaining democracy mandating French statistician noted: presents phenomenon initiated country government, regulated, instrument, citizens, rights, destiny people." 164. Well structure. undermines decision, vulnerable 124 stated above, inDepartment 316 (1999), Commerce's need, "prohibits 340. STEVENS weighed matter. 362-364 dissenting); originally Adoption Sixteenth removed taxes. lay incomes, whatever derived, enumeration") "count" "enumeration." parenthetical construing doubt. SeeHouse 346 "uses `enumeration,' details,"ante, 474, materially founding. of: COUNT," another: LIST." Ninth Collegiate 416 "Enumeration" now, individually admit methodologies. "conjectural rule," Alterman, People: Alterman) describedinfra, 503-504, variety ways, taken" appoint establishing timeframe setting payment assistants. Growth (prepared Senate Census), Doc. 194, 56th 925 (1900) Wright). delegated measures "an extensive advertising campaign, automation, things facilitated development maps geographic files objection "sin David, plague Israel `numbering' (2 Sam. 24:1-25, Chron. 21:1-30)." 256, (1982) Cohen). governors blamed inability fear, unclear reflected sentimentIbid. bill contemplated Parliament received publicity attention. 17. overseers "go parishes, recording dwelling twelve preceeding hours."Id., Labor, Growth: Twelfth, 1790-1900, (1909) Century) manifested seeing themselves, fearing authorities disadvantage") disappointment "largely due exaggerated 205 ("Many historians believe, hinted hopes born won independence, unrealistic population") "no longer affected Censuses." 224 349 prospect reviewing future, obviously creates distortion allowed, happy one"). 125 dissenting. 126 823-829 (1992) (concurring briefing holding suit. 127 acknowledges, standing, "have [federal appellees] caused [them]." 459 succeed redressed "unless accepts accordingly, issues 824. fatal appellants' tried, act," 826. enjoys refuse Congress: "[H]e adhere report." 799; 800. displays disrespect obediently advice subordinates Secretary, recommending determination. 824-825 "standing unfettered independent actors legitimate predict," 562 omitted), 128 weaker Redress alleged injuries President's discretion, 435 Senators two-thirds agree), equally powerless acts. 129 Section enforce, legislation, article." Pursuant authorization, transmits requires, 2a(a), "[e]ach entitled, shown [that] statement," entitlement altered: census;1 interim. wanted 2011 unless reapportionment. realizes conceivable hinged driven assert says. "do[es] say" flawed; "makes sense" judicially decreed "mechanical revision" error" 462. astonishing raw power. clearly (including report) renders worthy revision: all, enacts thinks appropriate. "expressly" infinite altered means, States' "entitle[ment]" presidential prescribed text: "until" events occurs, undeniably wild embraces: x y, "make listed. 131 subscribe application deformed canon "clerical uniquely insusceptible plausible predictable demonstration count? responsibility remedying grasping hands, commits flagrant violation powers. 132 excuse precedents today's holding. "found circumstances," 464. night similar. Two them, (1998), 252 (1991), inapposite plaintiffs' be) court, President) disrespectful course action, much, explicit statute.2 154 (1997), (Fish Wildlife Service) depended (Bureau Reclamation) came coerce other: "[I]t suffice," "if court." 169 brackets "while [Service] theoretically serves advisory function, powerful coercive agency." citation "coerced" Secretary. Not mention, again, explicitly 133 vacate remand instructions dismiss want thenew Presidential seek, "reapportionment section" occurred. effecting transmitted "[o]n day, week thereafter, regular session" 2a(a) deadline passed. inMetropolitan enjoined challenged automatically 2456(h)).

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