Document: 426 U.S. 833 96 S.Ct. 2465 49 L.Ed.2d 245 The NATIONAL LEAGUE OF CITIES et al., Appellants,v.W. J. USERY, Jr., Secretary of Labor. State CALIFORNIA, Appellant, v. W. Nos. 74-878, 74-879. Argued April 16, 1975. Reargued March 2, 1976. Decided June 24, Syllabus [Syllabus from 834 intentionally omitted] Fair Labor Standards Act was amended in 1974 so as to extend the Act's minimum wage and maximum hour provisions almost all employees States their political subdivisions. Appellants (including a number cities States) these cases brought an action against appellee challenging validity amendments seeking declaratory injunctive relief. A three-judge District Court dismissed complaint for failure state claim upon which relief might be granted. Held: 1. Insofar operate directly displace States' abilities structure employer-employee relationships areas traditional governmental functions, such fire prevention, police protection, sanitation, public health, parks recreation, they are not within authority granted Congress by Commerce Clause. In attempting exercise its Clause power prescribe wages hours paid sovereign capacities, has sought wield fashion that would impair "ability function effectively federal system," Fry United States, 421 542, 547, 95 1792, 1795, 44 363 n.7, this congressional does comport with system government embodied Constitution. Pp. 840-852. 2. may regulate commerce force choices how essential decisions regarding conduct integral functions made. supra, distinguished; Maryland Wirtz, 392 183, 88 2017, 20 1020, overruled. 852-855. 406 F.Supp. 826, reversed remanded. Calvin L. Rampton, Salt Lake City, Utah, Charles S. Rhyne, Washington, D.C. appellants. Sol. Gen. Robert H. Bork, D.C., appellee. Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 Nearly 40 years ago enacted Act,1 required employers covered pay hourly wage2 them at one one-half times regular 2 [Amicus Curiae Information page 835 rate worked excess during work week.3 By were keep certain records aid enforcement Act,4 comply specified child labor standards.5 This unanimously upheld valid under Darby, 312 100, 61 451, 85 L.Ed. 609 (1941), observing: 3 "Whatever motive purpose, regulations do infringe some constitutional prohibition plenary conferred on Clause." Id., 115, S.Ct., 457. 4 original passed 1938 specifically excluded subdivisions coverage.6 1974, however, most recent series broadening Act. extended employed various include individual National League Cities, Governors' Conference;7 Columbia challenged amendments. They asserted effect when apply virtually across board municipal governments it "infringed prohibition" running favor As States. gist conditions employment beyond scope had those been private sector but established doctrine intergovernmental immunity consistently recognized long our affirmatively prevented manner chose 5 * beginning 1961 began types employees. Act8 coverage persons who "enterprises" engaged or production goods commerce.9 And 1966, amendment definition Act, exemption heretofore removed respect hospitals, institutions, schools.10 We nevertheless sustained combined two 1020 (1968). 6 again broadened Stat. 55. "employer" now "includes agency," 29 U.S.C. § 203(d) (1970 ed., Supp. IV). addition, critical "(e)nterprise(s) commerce" expanded encompass "an activity goes specify 7 "(t)he enterprise is agency shall purposes subsection deemed commerce, handling, selling, otherwise working materials have moved produced commerce." 203(s)(5) 8 Under "(p)ublic agency" turn defined including 9 "the Government States; subdivision thereof; any Postal Service Rate Commission), State, State; interstate agency." 203(x) 10 amendments, then, entirely previously afforded subdivisions, substituting only general executive, administrative, professional personnel, 213(a)(1), supplemented excluding individuals holding elective office serving officeholder several specific capacities. 203(e)(2)(C) thus imposes requirements restricted commerce. These essentially identical imposed employers, although attempt make provision without counterpart sector, presented protection law personnel. See 207(k) 11 Challenging Court, appellants both amendments' application them, court accordingly convened pursuant 28 2282. That court, after hearing argument parties, Labor's motion dismiss stated "troubled" appellants' contentions intrude performance functions. 826. went say considered 12 "substantial well Supreme will feel appropriate draw back far-reaching implications (Maryland supra ); decision can make, Federal district we obliged Wirtz stands." Cities Brennan, 828 (D.C.1974). 13 noted probable jurisdiction order consider important questions 420 906, 1554, 43 772 (1975).11 agree substantial. Indeed full consideration question decided "far-reaching implications" should overruled, judgment must reversed. II 14 It peradventure Art. I Constitution grant Congress. is, words Chief Marshall Gibbons Ogden, Wheat. 1, 23 (1824), regulate; rule governed." 196. 15 When considering applications wholly activity, made clear 16 "(e)ven purely intrastate character regulated Congress, where like others similarly situated, affects among foreign nations." (1975). 17 Congressional over endeavor, even pre-empt express state-law determinations contrary result commended itself collective wisdom held limited requirement means chosen (Congress) reasonably adapted end permitted Constitution." Heart Atlanta Motel 379 241, 262, 348, 360, 258 (1964). 18 no way challenge establishing breadth power. Their contention, contrary, seeks activities transgresses affirmative limitation akin other limitations contained enactments fully legislative nonetheless invalid because found offend right trial jury Sixth Amendment, Jackson, 390 570, 1209, 138 (1968), Due Process Fifth Leary 395 6, 89 1532, 57 (1969). Appellants' contention while undoubtedly Clause, encounter similar barrier applied employers.12 19 never doubted there limits override sovereignty, exercising powers tax example, took care assure "ample prevent . 'the utter destruction entity,' " feared. U.S., 196, 2024. Appellee case, his brief oral argument, agreed definite See, E. g., Brief 30-41; Tr. Oral Arg. 39-43. Fry, declaration Tenth Amendment: "While Amendment characterized 'truism,' stating merely 'all retained surrendered,' 21 124, 462, significance. expressly declares policy impairs integrity ability system." 1795 n.7. 22 New York 326 572, 66 310, 90 (1946), Stone, speaking four Members eight-Member Court13 rejecting proposition could impose taxes did nondiscriminatory manner, observed: "A may, individual, own real property receive income. But view former hardly non-discriminatory estate (apportioned), income laid citizens alike constitutionally State's capitol, State-house, school houses, parks, revenues lands, though citizen taxed." 587-588, 317, 326.14 24 expressions more trace earlier recognizing role government. Chase, perhaps particular time he occupied office, occasion than once speak point. Texas White, Wall. 700, 725, 227 (1869), declared Constitution, provisions, looks indestructible Union, composed States." Lane County Oregon, 71, 101 said: 25 "Both existed before people, through instrument, perfect union national government, acting, ample power, citizens, instead Confederate acted powers, greatly restricted, many articles necessary existence and, proper spheres, independent distinctly recognized." 76. 26 Metcalf & Eddy Mitchell, 269 514, 46 172, 70 384 (1926), likewise observed "neither destroy nor curtail substantial powers." 523, 174. 27 argues sweeping exercises pre-empted regulation already curtailed sovereignty quite much agree. t thing recognize enact laws regulating businesses necessarily subject dual Nation reside. another uphold directed, repeatedly attributes attaching every impaired lack reach matter, prohibits manner. Coyle Oklahoma, 221 559, 31 688, 55 853 (1911), gave example attribute: "The locate seat determine changed place another, funds peculiarly powers. thirteen states shorn act moment entertained." 565, 689. One undoubted attribute whom employ carry out what work, compensation provided called overtime. resolve here, whether 'functions separate existence,' 580, 695, quoting 76, abrogate them. 30 advanced estimates costs Since complaint, take well-pleaded allegations true, appears appellee's submissions resolution factual disputes disposition case. Judged solely terms increased dollars, show significant impact functioning bodies involved. Metropolitan Nashville Davidson County, Tenn., increase providing service current salary levels, $938,000 per year. Cape Girardeau, Mo., estimated annual budget anywhere $250,000 $400,000 figure $350,000. Arizona alleged additional expenditures if continue provide services total.$2.5 million. California, devote portions fire-suppression endeavors, practices necessitate between $8 million $16 32 Increased not, course, adverse effects compliance visit local governments, depend governments. intervention, California overtime (approximately $750,000 year) Highway Patrol cadets academy training program. reported forced reduce program 2,080 960 hours, compromise importance whose safety welfare preparedness Patrol. 33 type relinquishment further reflected complaint's allegation city Inglewood, Cal., opportunities men women interested career enforcement. Inglewood department abolished trainees split week on-the-job classroom. contractual obligations trainees, concluded circumstances too financially burdensome permit continuance classroom Clovis, put choice internship cooperation university. According interns' brings purview decide eliminate substantially beneficial aspects doing away interns. 34 Quite apart displaces policies delivery require. Qua requires extremely minority rates currently matter economic desirable just requirements. cannot gainsaid supplants elected officials administrators wish scales employment. little training, casual basis, reason possess requirements, less federally prescribed wage. offer part-time summer teenagers wage, unable decline all. forbid "discretion" left either revenue meet financial burden paying congressionally existing complement employees, increasing revenue.15 35 dilemma restrictions seem immediately different faced find ways gross higher maintaining earnings. difference, factor "shifting arrangements" economy, Kovacs Cooper, 336 77, 95, 69 448, 458, 93 513 (1949) (Frankfurt, J., concurring), coordinate element Framers governing Union. 36 degree FLSA interfere seen clearly examining require premium whenever exceeds given period. disincentive using period appellee: 37 "This avoided (State) uses work. This, effect, tends discourage spread employment, intended." 43. 38 doubt salutary result, sufficiently rational relationship validate employers. But, vice here penalizes choosing hire impose. 39 displacement restructure arranged affairs. Although point actual proposed remain dispute enough satisfactorily anticipated outline discussion import. imposing employee's workweek, likely coercing periods areas, commonly accepted Nation. represents cash, rather compensatory off, unless taken same Supplemental 9-10; see Dunlop Jersey, 522 F.2d 504 (C.A.3 1975), cert. pending sub nom. Jersey Usery, No. 75-532. too, highly disruptive demand perform jobs short notice unpredictable critical. Another displacing area practice volunteer firemen, source manpower crucial smaller towns' existence. appellee, indeed "volunteers" "employees" courts. 49, n. 41. saying contemplate reduction assistance past drawn operation Our examination satisfies us impermissibly bodies. disagreement parties precise application. believe particularized assessments issue presented, however. For accept concerning significantly alter recreation. typical performed discharging administering furnishing services.16 Indeed, created provide, traditionally citizens. If withdraw fundamental systems rest, think 'separate existence.' Coyle, 695. Thus, overestimated levels patterns dispositive attempted capacities doing, Fry,17, 1796 hold insofar freedom operations I, 8, cl. 3. III 41 final attention. vigorously urged cannot, Court's him here. examine today, not. 42 With regard disagree There Economic Stabilization 1970 temporarily freeze intrusion protected case Wirtz. emergency measure counter severe inflation threatened economy." 548, 1796. today consistent Fry. enactment occasioned serious problem endangered well-being component parts forestall. selected carefully drafted very limited, time. across-the-board authorized moreover, displaced structured, remake themselves. Instead, themselves maintained emergency. Finally, operated pressures budgets factors distinguish statute inflexible preclude temporary tailored combat "(A) lthough call into life lived, afford exertion living enjoyed." Wilson New, 243 332, 298, 302, 755 (1917). conclusion. Both thought rejection claims. Appellants, turn, advance arguments seek facts Courin distinctions situations, conclusions expressed reasoning longer regarded authoritative. 45 relied heavily 297 175, 56 421, 80 567 (1936). quotes following language case: '(We) look marking boundary restriction taxing deny individual.' 183-185, (421), 424." 198, 2025. 47 reaffirmed stand footing corporation Congress' dicta18 simply wrong.19 assertions unchecked, indeed, Douglas cautioned dissent allow (to) devour essentials sovereignty," 205, 2028, therefore transgress bounds While obvious differences schools hospitals involved departments affected each provides portion citizens.20 persuaded 48 reversed, remanded proceedings opinion. So ordered. 50 BLACKMUN, concurring. 51 dissents indicate significance litigation bears am untroubled possible suggested read despairingly my Brother BRENNAN. view, correct. misinterpret opinion, seems me adopts balancing approach, outlaw environmental interest demonstrably greater facility standards essential. Ante, 852-853. understanding part join it. 52 BRENNAN, WHITE MARSHALL join, dissenting. 53 concedes, course must, exclusive 3, "(t)o surprising Brethren choose bicentennial year independence repudiate principles judicial interpretation settled since John Marshall, discarding postulate contemplates restraints lie process process. 152 enunciated principle which, until successors faithful. 54 "(T)he vested absolutely single having constitution discretion identity influence constituents elections, sole relied, secure abuse. people often rely solely, representative governments." 197, (1824) (emphasis added).1 Only ago, Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 120, 63 82, 87, 87 122 (1942), "(a)t emphatic embracing penetrating nature (Congress' commerce) warning effective proceed processes." My successfully obscure today's patent usurpation reserved purported discovery restraint derived "prescribed constitution," restrain Parden Terminal R. Co., 377 184, 191, 84 1207, 1212, 233 (1964); Katzenbach McClung, 294, 305, 377, 384, 290 114, 457, (1941). Thus liberties First Mabee White Plains Publishing 327 178, 511, 607 (1946); (1969); based requiring permitting Constitution; last century half explicitly rejected power.2 said 424, (1936), example: diminished extent grants (T)he subordinate power." echoed emphasized Marshall: 58 "If command universal assent mankind, expect supreme sphere action. nature. all; delegated all, acts 59 supreme; pursuance constitution, form land, 'any notwithstanding.' McCulloch Maryland, 316, 405-406, 579 (1819). 60 "(It) controversy equals" "is asserting interests nation state." Sanitary 266 405, 425-426, 176, 352 (1925). commensurate needs." North American Co. SEC, 686, 705, 785, 796, 945 (1946). reserves "only with, opposed to, room scheme assertion hostility Minnesota Cases, 230 352, 399, 729, 739, 1511 (1913). framers intended incapable disposing subject-matter committed charge." re Rahrer, 140 545, 562, 865, 869, 572 (1891). manufactured abstraction substance, founded neither precedent. An profoundly pernicious consequences characterizing legislation directed "States 847. 845, 854. Of "commerce" stand, Santa Cruz Fruit Packing NLRB, 303 453, 466, 656, 660, 82 954 (1938), sense entity.' 2024, (1968).3 Brethrenake "commerce"; overrule historic reaffirmed: "(W)hile limits, cease engaging validly persons, conform regulation." 196-197, Clearly, therefore, also repudiating line precedents finding unreasonably role. "Let legitimate, let appropriate, plainly end, prohibited, consist letter spirit constitutional." 421. 62 reliance (a sovereignty) limitation," 842,4 suggests address astound scholars early decisions, Wheat., 196; 404-407; Martin Hunter's Lessee, 304, 324-325, 97 (1816), nothing constitutes F. Frankfurter, Taney Waite 39-40 (1937). Rather, Amendment's recently summarized: truism surrendered. history adoption suggest purpose allay fears new granted, able 64 "From construed depriving resort end." 462 added).5 65 purport support novel state-sovereignty concurring Stone 586, misplaced. mineral water business taxation denied lay tax. "a discriminatory affect being taxed, unduly government." 587, 316. addressing implied other: undue interference Marshall's day sovereignties other." Ibid. contrast, apposite Term implies Case Bowles, 92, 438, 552 Emergency Price Control sale Washington timber growing lands common schools. contended "there 'doctrine state, free other' (and) 'for gaining education citizens.' 101, 443. emphatically joined reasoning: 67 "Since war (State's) depends 'essential' use criterion measuring Constitutional proved unworkable, reject guide field Cf. pages (421) 423, 567." Ibid.6 68 footnote statement dichotomy nonessential "proved unworkable" referring opinions (New 572) 310 (90 326)." 7, Even citation concerned supporting precluded Safety Appliance owned railroad. argued "that operating railroad profit, facilitating port, net proceeds harbor improvement, performing capacity subjected act." 423. unanimous His rationale complete refutation holding: "That (the State) acting doubted. need whatever capacity, subordination analogy instrumentalities taxation, (California) relies, illuminating. equally other. Its reasonable extending subjects Hence individual." 424 added).7 71 Today's repudiation unbroken firmly Brethren's ill-conceived transparent cover invalidating disagree.8 analysis remotely resembling adopted dealing ultimately provoked crisis 1930's. Carter Coal 298 238, 855, 1160 (1936); Butler, 312, 477 Hammer Dagenhart, 247 251, 529, 1101 (1918). Stern, Economy, 1933-1946, Harv.L.Rev. 645 tend forget invalidated Great Depression, primarily Amendment. eventual abandonment overly restrictive construction spelled defeat Court-packing plan, preserved institution, 682, see, (1941); Mulford Smith, 307 38, 648, 83 1092; NLRB Jones Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 615, 81 893 (1937), transparently trying cut recognition approach far dissenting averted crisis. 51, 653 (Butler, dissenting); 630 (McReynolds, dissenting).9 72 precedent justifies particularly awkward extension conclusively distinguished "narrowly limited" represented Congress," Helvering Gerhardt, 304 416, 969, 973, 1427 (1938) (Stone, J.) judicially enforceable on10 jurisprudence.11 "(W) keeps violates going founding days Republic, interfere." 384. 73 To argue, Brethren, States," "displac(e) require," 847, "directly penalize(e) impose," 849, precisely unsuccessful Bowles California. are, legitimate slightest restrained cognizable pertinent squarely definitively establish. Moreover, "in (any areas) activities." 854 18. standard meaningless doctrine, logic (1964), Employees Missouri Public Health Dept., 411 279, 284-285, 1614, 1617-1618, 251 (1973). recall instance covering span discarded roughshod done justification rejected, renders ipse dixit reflecting displeasure judgment. 74 treatment (1975), illustrates paucity legal justifying result. "displace(d) freedom," 852 disturbed enforced alleviated country's fiat strike down countervailing considerations, remains undisturbed because, balance, considerations freedom. sophistry "displaced choices," ante, 853, do, 848. Obviously absurd distinction curbs lower minimum. 75 patently derogation Can engage competing then come courts arguing withdrawing evades commerce? 582, 314 (opinion J.). No meaningful content precludes that. suggestions position reflect concern. (1968); immune Merely status." added). "(b)y empowering surrendered Supra, 192, 1212; 286, 1618. Employment relations participating regulable regulation. Taylor, 353 553, 568, 77 1037, 1045, 1034 (1957). Plainly gotten "too late (in agencies." 320 577, 357, 322 (1944). 76 Also devoid policies." objectives fix objectives. boldly assert "undoubted why. disclaim reaching 846, 851. enable conclude that, however insignificant th cost, "will relationships." Ante12, T mean "essential" (whatever mean), newly discovered constraint flat absolute portent ominous jurisprudence leave incredulous. Certainly paradigm laws. Is signaling unchallenged "can, chooses, Clause"? Bethlehem Board, 330 767, 780, 1026, 1033, 91 1234 (1947) sometimes invalidates silent. (1824); 426, 178. ouster obviously curtails prerogatives respecting "State State" Supremacy dictates 852. 78 aside longstanding rejects More alarming startling restructuring system, create therein judiciary. liberty erect mirror conception structure. "vice," STEVENS surely "merely resolved branches questions."Post, 881. repeating (of power) 87. 79 unacceptable superior area. Judiciary play unreasonable "commerce." BLACKMUN controlling supervision diminishes decision. Such thinly veiled rationalization Judicial recognizes structured protect whole, premises. constituted representatives Senate House Elected Federalist 45, pp. 311-312 (J. Cooke ed. 1961) Madison); 46, 317-318 Madison). Decisions intervention affairs redistribution tenet federalism determined Wechsler, Political Safeguards Federalism: Role Composition Selection Government, Col.L.Rev. 543 (1954). suppose enacting 197 extensively obliterate so. Surely presumption contrary. Any realistic assessment dominated yields conclusion unlikely ever motivated disregard totally concerns States.13 319. premise authoritatively explicated founded. processes. Perhaps concern Judiciary's preserving better focus protection. States,, J.); 973. enormous gained reference budget. largest estimate cost $1 billion pales comparison Government. fiscal 1977 President's recommends $60.5 loans. Office Management Budget, Special Analyses: Budget Fiscal Year 1977, p. 255. complain departments, outlays $716 258. Concern about students Government's "summer youth program" $400 670,000 jobs. Given demonstrated obtain needed services, adequate safeguard sovereignty.14 long-settled painfully cavalier Without passing Stare decisis, Term, 1796, good 283, 1617 raw effort told outset 'far-reaching implications' overruled," 840; later "reasoning "authoritative," restate test "therefore" 855-856. reached correct flaws reasoning, differences" 855.15 Are silently balanced, 853? best 1966 struck overruled basis conceptually unworkable essential-function test; inability articulate state-operated railroads, 854-855 18, departments. catastrophic body blow accomplish conditioning standards, cf. Oklahoma CSC, 127, 144, 544, 554, 794 disruption implicit mischievous dissent. STEVENS, 86 holds inherent substandard janitor capitol. rests difficult perceive. believe, impartially hires fires janitor, withhold paycheck, observe job, burning soft coal capitol furnace, dumping untreated refuse adjacent waterway, overloading state-owned garbage truck, driving truck Governor's limousine miles hour. qua unwise described price commodity quantity consumed readily understand. concern, applies economy exclusion marginally employable greatest harm events, reflects views questions. complexities adjusting sort control concerned, presume tailor-made soon solve pressing problems. After adversely validity. On market embrace identify invalidate unquestionably permissible, valid. Accordingly, great deal sympathy holding. 1938, 1060, 201 Et seq. (1940 ed.). 206(a) 207(a)(3) 211(c) 212 Title ed.): 'Employer' includes person indirectly employer relation employee ." 74-878 Conference, Arizona, Indiana, Iowa, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, Hampshire, South Carolina, Dakota, Texas, Wyoming, Lompoc, Utah. appellant 74-879 fact claimed unconstitutional, organizational standing Bankers Assn. Shultz, 416 21, 44-45, 94 1494, 1509, 812 (1974). Pub.L. 87-30, 65. §§ 203(r), 203(s), 206(b), 207(a)(2) (1964 831, II). October set reargument, 986, 1988, 475 BRENNAN's intimates, Post, 858, guarantees enforce reasons "Congress themselves." 876. Precisely meant phrase "are themselves" language; indisputable constituency voters elects Governor Senators. Seventeenth Senators dependent legislators election. event intimation used incorrect. Myers 272 52, 160 limit President remove officer Executive Branch appointed him. Buckley Valeo, 612, 659 (1976), members Elections Commission officers Representatives Senate, appointments President. cases, stronger bills signed President, consented becoming violated Just contends ," 876, armed mandate veto interests. Nonetheless, trenched Branch. Frankfurter 573, 310. BRENNAN fails add attracted adherent. hand, three dissenters advocated protective Stone. 590-598, 318-322, (Douglas, dissenting). 863-864. distinction, escapes us. power: genesis 8. Nor "implied immunity" "immunity" concomitant barriers presents authority. recited prohibited Constitutions incurring debts Those ceilings percentage taxed units. App. 36-37. examples exhaustive catalogue numerous results sections spending Fourteenth quoted text, today. California's activities. was, "common carriage rail 182, reasons, despite claims holdings (1957), unimpaired note asserts. decision, direct noting state's sales prices war." 102, ground sustaining "impair prime government's establishment." Nothing addresses 17, Supra. Brennan's leaves discussion, 876-878, individuals. venture conclusion, reach, "startling .," 875. Secretary, defending extreme position. denomination "political subdivision" implies, units bring derive respective Interference arms itself. ought contain requisite accomplishment objects care, execution trusts responsible; control, people." 31, 195 (A. Hamilton). Some reluctance interpret federal-state balance Dept. Welfare, 285-287, 1618-1619, (1973); Bass, 404 336, 349, 92 515, 488 (1971). Rather canon face statutory ambiguity normally considers taking Part Two, 883, 946 suggestion unaware issue. creation quote context. 842. paragraph reaches 'commerce nations states.' 660. passage follows is: "But clear, power" limiting relies 547 subscribe reading departing, analysis, remained unquestioned 150 years. significance," Ibid., meaning clear: constraint, import invade "drastic invasion sovereignty." 548 author "by terms" restrict 557, 1800 (Rehnquist, first-quoted paragraph, Darby cited Elliot, Debates 123, 131 (2d 1787); 450, 464, 600; 140, 148; Annals 432, 761, 767-768 (1789); Story, Commentaries 1907-1908(2d ed.1851) ("It plain, intention give abridgment implied, incidental. design exclude interpretation, assumed granted"). Sperry Florida ex rel. Bar, 373 379, 403, 1322, 1335, 428 (1963); 143, (1947); 443, Fernandez Wiener, 340, 362, 189, 116 (1945); Phillips Atkinson 313 508, 534, 1050, 1063, 1487 Sprague, 282 716, 733-734, 220, 222, 640 (1931). creating applicable inadequate purpose. intimate properly viewed establishment" 855 fact. Virginia initiated movement 'to trade relative situations states; uniform commercial permanent harmony' universally necessary, relinquished." P. Hood Sons, Inc. Du Mond, 525, 533-534, 657, 662-663, 865 (1949); 532-535, 662-664. gone unchallenged. discriminate discrimination immunities taxes. share applicability laid." 312. He eroded first Collector Day, 113, (1871). Graves O'Keefe, 306 595, 927 (1939), overruling supra; Mountain Producers 376, 623, 907 (1938); Fox Film Corp. Doyal, 286 546, 1010 (1932). significantly, pointed vague notions, inconsistent 314. puzzling least. unique historical setting decided, 844, pointedly ignore events days. During tenure War Between fought preserve supremacy won; Amendments, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, enlarging concomitantly contracting Ex parte Virginia, 100 339, 345, 676 (1880); variety Reconstruction restricting sovereignty. empowered republican Wall., 729. constitute nation, invested, supreme." opinions, faithful importantly, one. arrive theory defiance plain differentiating people" apparently wording latter, consonant distribution "however socially goals , advancing freewheeling non-elected judiciary democratic society." Rehnquist, Notion Living Tex.L.Rev. 693, 699 (1976). Compare Cantor Detroit Edison 579, 605, 3110, 3124, 1141 (1976) (Blackmun, judgment), Id, 614, 3128 (Stewart, danger hypothesizing monitored recognized: "Another (for narrowly tax) allowance expense Enlargement involves diminution enlargement necessity protecting thrown benefit privileged class taxpayers. (1926). Thomson Union Pacific Railroad, 588, 590, 792 (1870). steady expansion fields undertaken known adopted, management enterprises conducted exclusively complex society burdens dealings states, tend, capable measurement, economically serve it, infringement evident devised shield curtailment exercised beginning, become ready striking nation. Carolina 199 437, 454-455, 110, 261 (1905). Once excessive, restoration secured legislatures; inducements waive excessive." 416-417, 973 (footnote omitted). Eleventh overridden Fitzpatrick Bitzer, 427 445, 2666, 614 (1976); overcome explain why protections erroneously overcome. tell 843-844, 14, 854-855, Kleppe Mexico, 2285, distinguishing provided. advisable. "Such matters raise issues policy. relate wisdom, need, effectiveness project. courts." 527, 1060. 284, 1617, present exaggerated misinterpretations executive president deposition "most compliance." 124. volunteers unfounded. proscribes regulates way. Department payments below level presumptive evidence status; above status circumstances. CFR 553.11 federalism, rationally maintains misconceptions permeat impact, account exemptions IV), profitable, adequately method calculating costs. operation. 1973 vetoed bill objections "(e)xtension unwarranted prerogatives." 119 Cong.Rec. 28743 sustained. 30266, 30292. moderated form, compromise: "S. 2747 extends Federal, domestic workers, coverage. reduced social disruptions cause police, fire, correctional services." Weekly Comp. Presidential Documents frequently remand powerless invoking doctrines standing, justiciability, remedies. Warth Seldin, 422 490, 2197, 343 residents Rochester, N. Y., "not overlook availability normal process," 2210 suburban zoning ordinance voice suburb's entities representation lost battle, enter repeat branches, welcomes open arms, embraces cause, overrides measures light although, noted, amounts 872. adhered ; rendered "even intrusive" "quite

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