Document: 476 U.S. 267 106 S.Ct. 1842 90 L.Ed.2d 260 Wendy WYGANT, et al., Petitionersv.JACKSON BOARD OF EDUCATION, etc., al. No. 84-1340. Argued Nov. 6, 1985. Decided May 19, 1986. Rehearing Denied June 30, See 478 1014, 3320. Reversed. Syllabus The collective-bargaining agreement between respondent Board of Education (Board) and a teachers' union provided that if it became necessary to lay off teachers, those with the most seniority would be retained, except at no time there greater percentage minority personnel laid than current employed layoff. After this layoff provision was upheld in litigation arising from Board's noncompliance provision, adhered it, result that, during certain school years, nonminority teachers were off, while less retained. Petitioners, displaced brought suit Federal District Court, alleging violations Equal Protection Clause federal state statutes. Dismissing on cross-motions for summary judgment, Court constitutionality holding racial preferences granted by need not grounded finding prior discrimination but permissible under as an attempt remedy societal providing "role models" schoolchildren. Appeals affirmed. Held: judgment is reversed. 746 F.2d 1152, (CA6 1984), Justice POWELL, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR, concluded violates Clause. Pp. 273-278. 1 (a) In context affirmative action, classifications must justified compelling purpose, means chosen State effectuate purpose narrowly tailored. 273-274. 2 (b) Societal alone insufficient justify classification. Rather, convincing evidence governmental unit involved before allowing limited use such discrimination. model" theory allow engage discriminatory hiring practices long past point required any legitimate remedial purpose. Moreover, does bear relationship harm caused practices. discrimination, without more, too amorphous basis race-conscious action imposing racially classified remedy. 274-276. 3 (c) If claims, constitutionally valid require make factual determination had strong its conclusion necessary. No has ever been made. 277-278. 4 JUSTICE accomplishing purposes otherwise may legitimate, sufficiently Other, intrusive similar purposes—such adoption goals—are available. 279-284. 5 WHITE Education's policy same effect equally violative integrating work force discharging whites blacks until latter comprise suitable force. 294-295. 6 O'CONNOR "narrowly tailored" achieve asserted because acts maintain levels set goal relation remedying employment 293-294. 7 J., announced delivered opinion, which BURGER, C.J., joined, all Part IV joined. filed opinion concurring part post, p. 284. WHITE, 294. MARSHALL, dissenting BRENNAN BLACKMUN, JJ., 295. STEVENS, 313. 8 K. Preston Oade, Jr., Birmingham, Mich., petitioners. 9 Jerome A. Susskind, Jackson, respondents. 10 POWELL REHNQUIST joins, joins. 11 This case presents question whether board, consistent Clause, extend preferential protection against layoffs some employees their race or national origin. 12 * 1972 Jackson Education, tension community extended schools, considered adding Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) Association (Union) protect who members groups layoffs.1 Union eventually approved new Article XII CBA, covering layoffs. It stated: 13 "In event becomes reduce number through Board, district shall will given notice possible positions eliminated. Each teacher so affected called back reverse order he certificated maintaining above balance." App. 13.2 14 When 1974, evident adherence CBA tenured probationary status Rather complying XII, retained thus failing existed Union, together two court, id., 30 (Jackson Assn. v. I) (mem. op.)), claiming failure adhere violated Fourteenth Amendment Title VII Civil Rights Act 1964. They also urged take pendent jurisdiction over state-law contract claims. answer denied argued conflicted Michigan Teacher Tenure Act. 33. Following trial, sua sponte lacked case, support plaintiffs' claim engaged 1972, 35-37, plaintiffs fulfilled jurisdictional prerequisite filing charges Employment Opportunity Commission. dismissing declined exercise 15 taking appeal, instituted 77-011484CZ Cty.Cir.Ct.1979) II ), raising essence claims raised I. entering plaintiffs, court found breached did violate rejecting argument 1964, "ha[d] established board discriminated minorities representation faculty discrimination." 43. "[t]here history overt parties contract." Id., 49. Nevertheless, held permissible, despite effects 16 II, XII. As result, 1976-1977 1981-1982 petitioners here, VII, 42 U.S.C. § 1983, other On dismissed petitioners' 546 F.Supp. 1195 (E.D.Mich.1982). With respect equal claim,3 Instead, decided schoolchildren, provision. 17 Sixth Circuit affirmed, largely adopting reasoning language Court. 1152 (1984). We certiorari, 471 105 2015, 85 298 (1985), resolve important issue race-based public employers. now reverse. 18 Petitioners' central they violation Amendment. Decisions faculties administrators schools based ethnic origin are reviewable Amendment.4 "consistently repudiated '[d]istinctions citizens solely ancestry' being 'odious free people whose institutions founded upon doctrine equality,' " Loving Virginia, 388 1, 11, 87 1817, 1823, 1010 (1967), quoting Hirabayashi United States, 320 81, 100, 63 1375, 1385, L.Ed. 1774 (1943). "Racial distinctions sort inherently suspect call exacting judicial examination." University California Regents Bakke, 438 265, 291, 98 2733, 2748, 57 750 (1978) (opinion J.). 19 recognized level scrutiny change merely challenged classification operates group historically subject Mississippi Women Hogan, 458 718, 724, n. 9, 102 3331, 3336, 73 1090 (1982); supra, U.S., 291-299, S.Ct., 2748-2752; see Shelley Kraemer, 334 22, 68 836, 846, 92 1161 (1948); Bickel, Morality Consent 133 (1975). favor minorities, therefore constitutes race. "Any preference criteria necessarily receive searching examination sure conflict constitutional guarantees." Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 491, 100 2758, 2781, 65 902 (1980) C.J.). There prongs examination. First, "must interest." Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, 432, 104 1879, 1882, 80 421 (1984); 1823; cf. Graham Richardson, 403 365, 375, 91 1848, 1853, 29 534 (1971) (alienage). Second, tailored achievement goal." Fullilove, 480, 2776. decide supported accomplish III 20 Appeals, relying Court's interest role models students, alleviate embodied F.2d, 1156-1157. discerned more students. 1156. 21 never sufficient insisted showing Hazelwood School 433 299, 97 2736, 53 768 (1977), illustrates relevant analysis cases involving proof statistical disparity focuses disparities demonstrate absent 'nondiscriminatory representative composition population hired.' 307, 2741, Teamsters 431 324, 340, 20, 1843, 1856, 52 396 (1977). 1160 (Wellford, concurring) ("Had presented data qualified labor market show defendant black years equalled figure, I believe well have . ."). Based reasoning, proper comparison determining existence actual "between [the school's] teaching staff market." 308, 2742. demonstrates focus justification for, limitation on, State's remedies. Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg 402 1267, 28 554 (1971). 22 Unlike Hazelwood, model logical stopping point. allows Indeed, tying requires just year-to-year calibration stated unnecessary Swann, 31-32, 1283-1284: 23 "At these authorities others like them should achieved full compliance decision Brown Neither nor courts year-by-year adjustments student bodies once duty desegregate accomplished official eliminated system." 24 24, 1280. 25 practices, actually could used escape obligation justifying small reference States District, 392 1276, 1286-1287 (ED Mo.1975), rev'd, 805 (CA8 1976), rev'd remanded, Carried extreme, idea students better lead very system rejected 347 483, 74 686, 873 (1954) (Brown ). 26 resultant typify indefiniteness. numerous explanations faculty, many completely unrelated kind. fact, apparent connection groups. combined irrelevant comparisons indisputable statement predicated classifications. one doubts serious country. But legal remedies innocent people, expansive. absence particularized findings, uphold ageless reach into past, timeless ability affect future. B 27 Respondents argue teachers. Public employers, operate interrelated duties. clear command starting 349 294, 75 753, 99 1083 (1955), eliminate every vestige segregation schools. Pursuant goal, North Carolina 43, 46, 1284, 1286, 586 hand, including act accordance "core Amendment" "do away governmentally imposed discriminations race." 1881-1882. These related duties always harmonious; reconciling employers extraordinary care. particular, employer ensure embarks affirmative-action program, warranted. That is, Evidentiary warranted crucial when program employees. example, contended trial XII—had instituting F.Supp., 1199 Mich.1982). ultimate burden remains unconstitutionality program. unless made, appellate reviewing challenge cannot determine Despite fact spawned three separate lawsuits, Although position different, precise litigated both suits. Both general Board. contends another opportunity, establish seems belated proceedings, we consider since conclude below legally appropriate achieving even purpose.5 examined test "reasonableness." standard decisions demonstrated above, our stringent standard—however articulated validity purposes. See, e.g., Palmore, 1882 ("[T]o pass muster, [racial classifications] 'necessary accomplishment' purpose") (quoting McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 196, 283, 290, 222 (1964)); 2775 C.J.) ("We recognize careful evaluation assure employs objective present goal").6 Under strict specifically framed C.J.).7 simply pernicious permit exact classification." 537, 2805 (STEVENS, dissenting). 31 recognized, however, account. Nation's dedication eradicating persons "When effectuating properly cure 'sharing burden' impermissible." 484, 2778, Franks Bowman Transportation Co., 424 747, 777, 96 1251, 1270, 47 444 (1976).8 statute least percent works funds contracts minority-owned business enterprises. requirement within powers Congress "actual 'burden' shouldered firms relatively light." 2778.9 32 Significantly, none discussed layoffs.10 Here, contrast, laying retain seniority. previously expressed concern preferential-layoffs scheme imposes parties. Firefighters Stotts, 467 561, 574-576, 578-579, 2576, 2585-2586, 2587-2588, 81 483 Steelworkers Weber, 443 193, 208, 2721, 2730, 61 480 (1979) ("The plan discharge white workers replacement hirees"). goals, borne individuals diffused considerable extent among society generally. Though goals individuals, do impose kind injury impose. Denial future opportunity loss existing job. 33 Many involve plans typically heavily dependent wages day-to-day living. Even temporary adverse financial psychological effects. A worker invest productive job city expectation earning stability security point, rights expectations surrounding up what probably valuable capital asset 'owns,' worth equity his home." Fallon & Weiler, Conflicting Models Racial Justice, 1984 Rev. 58. Layoffs disrupt settled way not. 34 While diffuse burden, often foreclosing only several opportunities,11 entire equality particular resulting disruption lives. intrusive. hold tailored.12 For reasons, selection satisfy demands Clause.13 V 35 accordingly Circuit. 36 ordered. 37 judgment. 38 us define apply agency agrees give making specific posed MARSHALL puts "whether Constitution prohibits local developing apportions determined preserving policy." Post, 300 (dissenting). here interpretation application 1964; accordingly, resolve. 39 applicable disadvantage "nonminorities" various ways. --- - ---- (MARSHALL, that: (1) 'compelling interest,' (2) tailored." Ante, 274. reflects belief, apparently Members subjected "strict scrutiny," however defined. J.) ("Any guarantees"); dissenting) ("Racial classification"); examination"); 361-362, 2784 BRENNAN, JJ.) ("[O]ur review strict—not ' "strict" fatal fact,' stigma causes fatality—but nonetheless"). Justices seem formulation authored, Bakke: "remedial serves 'important objectives' 'substantially objectives.' 301-302 dissenting), 359, 2783 JJ.). 40 subscribe POWELL's mirrors consistently applied examining contexts. my view, 41 "the [a racial] vary appears acceptable individual importance outcome analysis, itself change." (1982). viewed suggested tests preclude fair measure consensus. regards interests commonly relied formulating programs, distinction "compelling" "important" negligible one. whatever employed, actor weighty warrant carefully constructed accompanied contemporaneous findings accepted firm believing required. infra, ----; ante, ----. Additionally, although contours uncertain, promotion diversity "compelling," higher education, considerations furthering interest. 311-315, 2759-2761 dissenting); And certainly nothing said today forecloses possibility find lower passed sustain policies. 43 appears, then, true source disagreement lies much defining efforts degree "fit" ends pursued meet standards. 280, nn. 7. Yet forged unanimity; agreed instances identified deemed tailored," "substantially related," correction actor. 289; 277-278; 305 44 final diverse formulations writings put forth difficult reflect intractable fragmentation core principles. Ultimately, accord employer, Constitution, undertake designed further implements disproportionate interests, unnecessarily trammel rights, directly adversely plan's preference. 45 Respondent argues advanced desire correct avoiding litigation. Brief 15-17. Defendant's Support Motion Summary Judgment Dismiss Civ. 81-8173249 Mich.), (hereinafter cited Brief). Commission allegations though reduced formal (Union), voluntarily chose perceived violation. Among measures here; reasoned gains made ongoing contained collective bargaining eviscerated 46 unquestionably evaluating "societal discrimination" withstand scrutiny. agree plurality agency's "societal" traceable own actions, muster 2757 concur plurality's assessment error.* Thus, clearly erred attention rectifying error can explained primary cross motions competent body institution 1195, 1199-1200 Plaintiff's Opposition pp. 5-13; 11-15. ruled particularized, assumption specific, finding, addressed termed "societal." 1199. false antecedent employer's voluntary plan. 48 statutory requirements arise finding; arises wrong committed. Contemporaneous serve absolutely truly attempting unlawful conduct adopts plan, rather wrongs suffered 498, (POWELL, concurring). Such obviously desirable provide evidentiary safeguards value itself, court. precondition efforts, relative advantages diminish, secured sacrifice vitally values. 49 imposition illegal programs severely undermine employers' incentive civil obligations. 364, 2785 Cf. 210-211, 2730-2731, (BLACKMUN, odds Congress' emphasis objectives law." JJ.); Albemarle Paper Co. Moody, 422 405, 417-418, 95 2362, 2371-2372, 280 (1975); Alexander Gardner-Denver 415 36, 44, 94 1011, 1017, 147 (1974). doubly acts, example responsibility sets remediation unique importance. S. Rep. 92-415, (accompanying amendments extending coverage States) ("Discrimination government destructive exclusion effective participation bureaucracy promotes ignorance problems community, creates mistrust, alienation, hostility toward process government"). Imposing produce anomalous private forbidden transgressions. 50 results cannot, incremental safeguard. illustrated trapped competing hazards liability taken nonminorities taken. Where presumably fully aware law potential so, information gives concluding necessary, 51 previous recognizing States' Jewish Organizations Williamsburgh, Inc. Carey, 430 144, 165-166, 996, 1009-1010, 229 (1977) (reapportionment); McDaniel Barresi, 39, 1287, 582 (school desegregation). recognition responsible actor's competency steps assumed continuing unconstitutional 15, 1275, (1971); Green New Kent County 391 430, 437-438, 88 1689, 1693-1694, 716 (1968). Of course, notes, sensitive great care; challenged, reliable benchmarks determination. demonstrable school's pool prima facie pattern practice lend authority implementation To sure, unassailable. subsequently employees, prove articulated. However, suggests, automatically discrimination; mean upheld. "reverse suits, suit, demonstrating violated. upholding allocation nature asserted. instance, easily introduces thereby supplying appropriate, incumbent case; continue persuading inference Only meeting defeat presumption assertedly justified. 54 sum, think infirm Commission, upon. inquiry legitimacy purpose; instead, scrutiny, failed isolate 55 inquire record, vulnerable yet ground: "reasonableness" plainly incorrect standards Nor troubling questions survive could, intended further, onerous requirement. Petitioners met establishing keyed 56 us, impossible evaluate necessity goal. 306 safeguard tied district, pool. probative availability substantially exceeded hired draw deliberate employment. (Title context). Because adjudged join Parts I, 58 59 proportion race, seniority, retaining black, status. None singly together, save strictures Whatever quotas be, room blacks, whom shown victim quite different matter. integrate force, hire comprised suggest look way. case—laying keep job—has hence 60 BLACKMUN join, dissenting. seeks far-ranging issues, especially ground firmly facts controversy it. significant hindered record informal incomplete. appear realize inadequate inform decision. lodged voluminous "submissions" containing material Appeals. submitted items, predominantly charts, assert documents tend substantiate alleged brief accompanying motion include transcripts exhibits litigated, 4-72340 Mich.1976) I), Cty. Cir.Ct.1979) 62 acquiesce parties' try mistake ignore altogether, done, setting evidently arisen. purports fairly assessed vacuum. haste respondents, seeking develop respondents' brief, prevented exploration critical resolution us. Respondents' acquiescence premature victory instrument defeat. adequate case. believe, therefore, improper posture. But, feel seriously merits write express conclusions reached. 64 too, unfair. unfairness ought confused injury. Paying heed circumstances plight, nullify negotiation compromise solve educational Michigan. permitted preserve benefits reducing dissent. extrarecord materials persuasively quickly predicate, first 1954.1 1969, risen 3.9%, branch NAACP complaint Lodging (complaint). conducted investigation each merit.2 66 settlement complaint, issued adjustment, improve opportunities public-school promise "[t]ake recruit, promote counselors bec[a]me ." 1-B, 3. comply next increased 8.8%. 67 1971, time, recent vintage system's led substantial "literally wip[ing] out gain" balance. 3, (deposition Superintendent Schools). Once again, rarity. By early tensions escalated violent levels, officials best course integration system, faculty. modification genuine place. 41; 69 superintendent Schools); 2, 16-20 (testimony Executive Director, Minority Affairs Office Schools questionnaire asking abandoning "last hired, fired" approach absolute freeze overwhelmingly voted straight system. Negotiations ensued camps—on favored and, other, urging seniority—and negotiators ultimately reached accord. One leader characterized development balancing equities encountered. Record, Doc. 4, 5. avoided placing either group. shoulder portion overall remain constant. Within group, govern off. known XII: 70 certified 13. 71 leadership then ratified majority vote. six times renegotiated, reconsideration 80% white, ratified. 72 petitioners, bottom scale fell lot bearing group's proportionate share 1982. Claiming right lose jobs ahead From outset, useful mind balance, might power obligations proved committed wrong. 16, occasion her replaced worker. 2729, (1979). asked suffer consequences adopting. 575, 2586, party attempted unilaterally balance refusing contractual, seniority-based 350, 352, 1862, 1863, sole policy, unchallenged.3 applying eluded come (1978), four nearly rigorous instances, highly eliminating vestiges appropriate. length view fundamental immutable characteristics class, so-called scrutiny" applicable. 357, 2782 eschewed rigorous, "rational basis" review, misuse. "important objectives" objectives." 2783; 387, 2797 J.); 402, 2802 genuinely searching" inquiry, "not fact.' 362, Gunther, Supreme 1971 Term—Foreword: Search Evolving Doctrine Changing Court: Model Newer Protection, 86 Harv.L.Rev. (1972)). Bakke no, "call 2748 76 (1980), again disagreed review. Three Justices, one, reserving 10% contractors served objectives, surviving attack test. 519, judgment). expressly adopt deciding survived formulae Bakke. 492, 2781 77 inability route, common destination sustaining attack. account factor decisions, 326, 2766, congressional legitimately ameliorate 520, 2796. 78 matter applies. What important, issue. assuming verification adopt. 79 principal supporting adopted 1970's. 41-43. Justification turbulent effort schools—not mentioned opinion—which attests bona fides lodgings indicate endowed investigate complaints secure laws, Mich.Const., Art. V, 29, prompted oversaw attack.4 specified pursue rendering Instead subjecting already volatile accusations trials, about settlement. According then-Superintendent Schools, aware, step way, "[t]he ready postponed [integration] operation abandoned attempts. willing to—they go get order, happened Kalamazoo." 44. provoke looming lawsuit, worked committees solution plaguing parents why plan: 82 "Waiting inevitable flames passions contributes difficulties orderly transition segregated desegregated Firmly precedents mandate change. know true. 83 emphasizes disobey orders law. Further, cost money litigants." 1-2 (Exhibit 8, 84 An explicit admission culpability, Solicitor General urge 27-29; Amicus Curiae exposed liability, acts. contributed advancement community's urgent real irony mandatory, complete disregard longstanding reform, Our desegregation boards "racial root branch." New-Kent (1968); 755, (1955). having belatedly admonitions heart, delayed disputing forcing aggrieved seek relief. wholly inconsistent policies overloading dockets, groundless defenses, impeding good-faith disputes. last Term, writing reaffirmed exception settlements: "Indeed, penalized 'helping lessen docket congestion' settling short, settlements defendants." Marek Chesny, 473 10, 3012, 3017, (1985). defy penalize harmony discord, wisdom needless superfluous recognize, implicitly today, predicate policies, scope identifiable 277 289-291 rely awareness efforts. imperative urgent. Racially motivated violence erupted interfering objectives. told underrepresentation ensuring treatment lieu enforcement proceedings. agency, participating amicus curiae Attorney Michigan, still stands behind viewing attainment quality supra. Surely, supply "[e]videntiary warranted" seek, 277. Since submission support, am glibly rejects obvious remanding factfinding 278-279, Were satisfied integrity policy—which turn sought benefit students—was sufficient, Constitution. second disputed examine Again, insofar assistance. 89 Testimony meaningfully continued hired. addition, reluctant uproot lives move imminent testimony suggests lack crippled recruit applicants. 55, 56. Adjustment hierarchy corollary policy. approach, painfully watched hard-won vanish massive layoffs, informed simply, lesser cost. 283-284. logic achieves untenable. concluded, focusing exclusively undisputed hardship losing job, bars plans. overlooks, cause jobs; someone whoever person deserve Any per se prohibition protection, rest premise tradition basing permitted. belie premise. upset sake displace granting retroactive victims 775, 1269, (1976). "employee modified statutes 778, 1271. agreements enhancing fostering interests. Ford Motor Huffman, 345 330, 339-340, 681, 686-687, 1048 (1953). Accordingly, collectively bargained bestowed enhanced military employment, 687, gave preferred chairmen, detriment veterans. Aeronautical Industrial Lodge 727 Campbell, 337 521, 529, 1291, 93 1513 (1949). (1979), departure principle disparity. negotiated reserved half openings plant training replacing awarding seats tampered attendant redistributed qualification company. 1964 "eliminate traditional patterns segregation" industry "unnecessarily employees." 201, 2726, 2730. interference stake. altogether unavailable tool goals. form falls proportions staff. C narrow allocates impact unavoidable proportionately places confines constant proportions, preserves Race factor, along lose; dispositive individual's fate. 318, 2762 increasing representation; entrusted severe policies.5 temporal sense well. bilateral rise demise longer Finally, modifies contractual themselves carry connotation merit achievement; interfere "cherished American ethic" "[f]airness competition," 319, 53, 2763, depriving deserve. ways, metes manner smallest deviation norms. achieved, perhaps, lottery, retention percentages. random place jeopardy, working upheaval occasioned XII; restrictive Another measure, burdensome necessitating erecting races, benefited burdened, avoids. neither alternative attained narrower equitable fashion. conceive VI accident conceivable options adopted. crucible clashing All economic elected yielded concerns tailored, perhaps court-ordered, spring fear persecute couched benign phraseology. mistrust profess "work benefit." warned "if sacrifices ., represented process," 588, 2593, (O'CONNOR, concurring), "principle malevolent stigmatic 294-295, 34, 2750, answers call. powerful vehicle thorny problems, "minimal supervision agencies substantive terms agreements." Tobacco Patterson, 456 63, 76-77, 1534, 1541, 748 noted "[s]ignificant freedom afforded unions create differing systems," Brewers Bryant, 598, 608, 814, 820, (1980).6 dangers misused, naturally averted negotiation, agreement, ratification. representatives persons, diametrically opposed perspectives, it—not once, 1972. indeed proceed merits, offers broad proclamations concerning controversial action. calls calm, dispassionate reflection exactly whom, why. honestly confronts background inescapable meets, surpasses, bargain recruitment apportioning groups, auspices supervisory charged protecting citizens, grounds. 101 evince, least, wealth plausible response imperatives. historical whatever, devoid facts, grave injustice governments traces throughout Most all, aspirations itself. vacate remand instructions remanded proceedings views expressed.7 103 guilty employing analyzing special entitlement sins ask advances educating children interest, pursued, justifies disadvantaged group.1 cite few: juries,2 services,3 marry,4 fit parents.5 situations "utterly irrational" purpose;6 moreover, particularly badge oppression unfaithful society, sound decisionmaking.7 enforcement, undercover agent needed infiltrate suspected criminal behavior—and perfectly rational employ member class. Similarly, unrest, police reasonably integrated composed officers. education,8 able all-white, lessons teach ethnic, cultural, backgrounds famous "melting pot" identify essential differences human beings inhabit land. thing child taught color, beauty, "skin deep"; far experience truth routine, learning process. 107 succinctly purpose—"recognition desirability multi-ethnic faculty," "a actively personnel." Pet. Cert. 22a. Nothing record—not shred contradicts employ, retain, enter 108 argued, nonetheless, invalid because, furthered laudable classes, faculties, academic achievement. difference exclude skin color reason. 109 exclusionary rests person's skin, blessings society. noted, irrational," Cleburne Living Center, 452, 3249, 3261, 313 repugnant principles democratic races do, indeed, differently colored belief persons. inclusion inevitably tends dispel illusion whereas foster inclusionary men created equal; war principle. accords Amendment; consideration consciousness distinguishes reinforce assumptions inequality.9 110 consciousness, transcends recently inquiries assessing teacher. procedures adopt, implement, action.10 111 fairness propriety breadth. demonstrated, scrupulously fair. represents it; vote membership, approved. procedural agreement. specially recruited after period faculty.11 striking contrast inadequacy unjustified breadth (1980),12 circumscribed berth policy's operation. 112 Every layoff, refusal applicant, individual. consequence blind habit stereotype.13 combination reasons: conditions protections newly character occur gifted young specialties short faced fiscal grant immediate tenure experts computer technology, athletic coach, teacher, eligible depression precisely here. generated teachers—a extremely interest.14 113 lightly approve government's distinction. History teaches classifications.15 must, "to entirely decisionmaking factors being's race."16 persuaded breadth, affirm Prior subject, sent soliciting proposed alternatives: continuation population. Ninety-six responded defined "minority personnel" "those Black, Indian, Oriental, Spanish descendancy." 15. constitute Abood Detroit Ed., 209, 218, 12, 1782, 1790, 261 schools," 297. assertion, engages unprecedented reliance nonrecord "lodged" selective citation unusual enough My heretofore unquestioned rule decides "legitimate predicate," undefined predicate. If, dissent assumes refer history. disputes State, non-record predicate." escaping below—a exist. dispute, record. discrimination—that involved—then factfinder respondents insulate key conceding concession. Contrary dissent's arbitrary barrier today's opinion. remedial. At rate, lawsuit where "had practices." 271, term frequently cases, acquired secondary meaning. More specifically, commentators indicated, lawful used. Or, Professor Ely precision means. Ely, Constitutionality Reverse Discrimination, U.Chi.L.Rev. 723, 727, "[Courts] intense nonracial narrowly-tailored tolerable administrative expense." Greenawalt, Judicial Scrutiny "Benign" Preference Law Admissions, Colum.L.Rev. 559, 578-579 Several emphasized weight arguing intermediate Greenawalt "while weighing means, administrability classifications." 565. "special consisted insisting available alternative." 26. Gunther legislative Term Foreword: 20-21 (1972). sharing "waiver" dealt one's affected. repeatedly somehow validates He sees burdens groups." 309. political "avoided group." 299. Wygant fired waived senior colleagues. works, surprising rejected, "compromise" placed junior members. compromise. ibid. ("To 1982.") painless accommodation irrelevant. allocate distributed bloc grants discrete groups; does, colleagues rights. attempts portray invidious effect, stating "within layoff." phrase expresses tautology really group-based analysis: "[E]ach layoff] faculty." problem remains: Weber company, involves state-imposed Weber. alteration see, (1953); (1949), element here—layoffs heavy "school admission" basic concepts illustrate DeFunis Odegaard, 416 312, 1704, 164 (1974), petitioner's Washington Oregon, Idaho, Gonzaga, Willamette Schools. Wash.2d 507 P.2d 1169, 1181, (1973). removed third year. analogy make-whole relief actual, award competitive definition Orientals, Indians, descent, undifferentiated explanation how categories identified. suggested—much formally found—that prior, purposeful promoting discuss magnitude applicability models," Unless herein recited defendants' 1-6. concluded: continues System elementary high school. appear, substantiated organizational records, files, committee reports appraisal Schools." (order adjustment). suggesting shortage hiring. testified "an administrator me she tried 1950's didn't people." "type thing," stated, 22-23. disposition She preamble "goal [affirmative-action] VII.D.1, 1a. Believing "goal" instead pool, concludes overly broad. petitioners—plaintiffs below—to equaled unjustifiably injuries. do. Outside First context, invalidating might, hypothetical improperly plaintiffs. fill gap charts Lodging, 56-62. Clearly, equipped factfinding, hortatory ceiling aspect remand. currently describes follows: "[T]he investigated negotiating adjustment [T]he out-of-line provisions undertaken Commission's adjustment." Dept. (emphasis added). equivalent deliberately firing predetermined races. utterly ignores selecting necessitated external conditions. supplant contribute losses. deference fairly; union's breach union. Steele Louisville Nashville R. 323 192, 207, 226, 234, 173 (1944). envy task sorting today. clear, noteworthy emerge: explicitly preceded entity institute past; left open questions. class harmed legislation, 'tradition disfavor' laws? law? characteristic disparate treatment?" 453, (1985) Batson Kentucky, 79, 1712, (1986); Vasquez Hillery, 474 254, 617, 598 (1985); Rose Mitchell, 545, 2993, 739 (1979); Strauder West Otto 303, 664 (1880). Turner City Memphis, 369 805, 762 (1962) (per curiam); Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 856, (1961). (1967). Cleburne, 3261 judgment) ("It irrational limit franchise height weight; color"). ("Classifying according likely prejudice concerns; person, dictates category"). explains, path tortuous, reveals opinions, unconstitutional. 522, (STEWART, dissenting, 548, 2810 ("Unlike Mr. STEWART convinced contains race"). Notably, theory, 408, 2808 part) (suggesting dispositive). life. Pico, 457 853, 864, 2799, 2806, 435 (1982) (plurality opinion) ("[P]ublic vehicles 'inculcating values maintenance system' "); Ambach Norwick, 441 68, 76, 1589, 1594, preparation preservation rests, decisions"); San Antonio Independent Rodriguez, 411 1278, 1295, (1973) (" '[T]he significance education society' doubted"); 493, 691, ("[E]ducation foundation good citizenship. Today awakening cultural values, preparing him later professional training, helping adjust normally environment"). 434, prejudice, real, removing infant custody natural mother custody"); Buchanan Warley, 245 60, 149 (1917) (rejecting "proposed peace preventing conflicts"). 548-549, 2810-2811 (A "does scrutinize draws nationwide incidentally discriminates noncitizens classes. guarantee impartial process, play vital process"). observation nonlegislative reason notion unable enjoy participation. Carolene Products, 304 152-153, 783-784, 1234 (1938) ("[P]rejudice insular condition, curtail processes ordinarily correspondingly inquiry"); J. Democracy Distrust 75-77 (1980). states: 23a. follows agreement's presence commitment active recruiting 22a-23a. 532, Mathews Lucas, 427 495, 520-521, 2755, 2769, 651 (1976) question. extra accept reduced. suggestion, 282-284, identical unpersuasive. assume few suffers unemployed refused qualified. event, "only opportunities" available, disappointed artificial, included 534, 5, 2804, 547, 2810.

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