Document: 515 U.S. 70115 S.Ct. 2038132 L.Ed.2d 63 MISSOURI, et al., Petitionersv.Kalima JENKINS, al. No. 93-1823. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Jan. 11, 1995. Decided June 12, Syllabus * In this 18-year-old school desegregation litigation, see, e.g., Missouri v. Jenkins, 495 33, 110 1651, 109 31, challenges District Court's orders requiring State (1) to fund salary increases for virtually all instructional and noninstructional staff within Kansas City, Missouri, School (KCMSD), (2) continue remedial "quality education" programs because student achievement levels were still "at or below national norms at many grade levels." affirming orders, Appeals rejected State's argument that exceeded authority they did not directly address relate constitutional violation: its operation, prior 1954, a segregated system KCMSD. The observed, inter alia, designed eliminate vestiges state-imposed segregation by improving "desegregative attractiveness" district reversing "white flight" suburbs. also approved "implici[t]" rejection request determination partial unitary status, under Freeman Pitts, 503 467, 491, 112 1430, 1445-1446, 118 108, with respect existing quality education programs. Held: 1. Respondents' arguments may no longer challenge remedy that, in any event, propriety is before are rejected. Because, U.S., 37, S.Ct., 1655-1656, certiorari was granted review manner which funded, but denied as order's scope, resisted efforts such scope and, thus, neither nor disapproved Appeals' conclusion proper, id., 53, 1664. Here, however, has challenged approval across-the-board beyond authority. Because an analysis permissible necessary proper whether exceed authority, fairly included question presented review. See Rule 14.1 Procunier Navarette, 434 555, 560, n. 6, 98 855, 859 55 24. Pp. ____. 2. (a) Although necessarily discretion fashion unconstitutionally law, power unlimited be extended purposes elimination racial discrimination public schools. Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bd. Ed., 402 1, 22-23, 91 1267, 1279-80, 28 554. Proper here must rest upon their serving means end restoring victims discriminatory conduct position would have occupied absent conduct, Milliken Bradley, 418 717, 746, 94 3112, 3128, 41 1069, eventual restoration state local authorities control operating compliance Constitution, Freeman, 489, 1444-1445. factors inform court's ordering complete relief from decree are: there been those aspects where federal supervision withdrawn; retention judicial practicable achieve other facets system; (3) demonstrated parents students once disfavored race good-faith commitment whole statutes provisions predicate intervention first place. Id., 1445-46. ultimate inquiry violator complied good faith since it entered, eliminated extent practicable. 492, 1446-47. (b) order approving increases, grounded KCMSD, exceeds admittedly broad discretion. should sought de jure KCMSD: system-wide reduction existence 25 racially identifiable schools population over 90% black students. Instead, created magnet KCMSD attract nonminority surrounding suburban districts redistribute them This interdistrict goal intradistrict violation identified Court. See, Milliken, supra, 746-747, 3128. Indeed, found, affirmed, case involved support relief. 3, 1656 3. devised accomplish indirectly what lacks mandate directly: transfer 745, 3127. record does reliance on justification expansion through pursuit desegregative attractiveness. Moreover, cannot reconciled decisions placing limitations ibid. Nor appropriate limits duration involvement. Thus, results too imponderables far removed task eliminating identifiability (c) Similarly, sustained. Whether levels" clearly test deciding previously achieved partially status. sharply limit, if dispense with, factor reconsidering order, instead apply three-part test. It bear mind role limited funding, implementation, programs; goals plan already attained; purpose only practicable, restore authorities. 11 F.3d 755 (CA 1993) (first case) 13 1170 (CA8 (second case), reversed. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. J., filed concurring opinions. SOUTER, dissenting opinion, STEVENS, GINSBURG, BREYER, opinion. John R. Munich, petitioners. Theodore M. Shaw, respondents. Paul Bender, amicus curiae special leave CHIEF JUSTICE REHNQUIST 1 As litigation enters 18th year, we called again lower courts. case, (KCMSD) 2 A general overview resolution issues certiorari. same Judge 1977. 491 274, 276, 2463, 2465, 105 229 (1989) (Jenkins I). board, children two board members brought suit against defendants. Plaintiffs alleged State, (SSD's), various agencies had caused perpetuated City metropolitan area. realigned nominal defendant certified class, present future cross-claim failure dual system. 3 After trial lasted 71/2 months, dismissed defendants SSD's, determined liable violation, i.e., operated Jenkins 593 F.Supp. 1485 (WD Mo.1984). 1954 "Missouri mandated white children." 1490. Furthermore, failed affirmative obligations 1504. 4 1985, issued established "elimination imposed segregation." 639 19, 23 Mo.1985). "[s]egregation ha[d] wide KCMSD." made particularized findings regarding reduced portion attributable segregation. enrollments more 36. 5 pursuant plans submitted ordered range attending First, restored AAA classification, highest classification awarded Board Education. 26. Second, number per class so student-to-teacher ratio level required standing. 28-29. justified size 6 "an essential part Reducing will serve past increasing individual attention instruction, well potential educational experiences maintaining attracting non-minority enrollment." 29. 7 expand opportunities students: full-day kindergarten; expanded summer school; before- after-school tutoring; early childhood development program. 30-33. Finally, implemented state-funded "effective schools" program consisted substantial yearly cash grants each 33-34. Under program, both 43 33. 8 rating 1987-1988 dispute time " 'maintained greatly requirements.' 19 393, 401 1994) (Beam, denial rehearing en banc). total cost these $220 million. Department Elementary Secondary Education, Total Desegregation Program Expenditures (Sept. 30, (Desegregation Expenditures). 9 set out desegregate believed "[t]o boundary lines whose enrollment remains 68.3% difficult task." F.Supp., 38. found could mandatory redistribution between SSD's. Ibid.; see 1069 (1974) (Milliken refused additional reassignments "increase instability reduce desegregation." Relying favorable precedent Eighth Circuit, "[a]chievement improvement being offered schools, components can maintain hopefully Ibid. 10 November 1986, comprehensive capital improvements held jointly severally funding. App. 130-193. plan, every senior high school, middle one-half elementary converted into schools.1 131. adopted magnet-school "provide greater opportunity students," 131-132, "that proposed [was] attrac- tive draw private who abandoned avoided suburbs." 132. felt "[t]he long-term benefit integrated environment worthy investment." 133. Since inception, cost, including transportation, excess $448 Expenditures. April 1993, considered, ultimately rejected, plaintiffs' KCMSD's proposal seeking long-range renewal 10-year budget $500 million, funded joint-and-several basis. Pet. Cert. A-123. combat deterioration facilities. formulating capital-improvements "irrelevant" "State's condition facilities traceable unlawful 40. focused responsibility "remed[y] segregation" "implemen[t] w[ould] members." 41. initial phase $37 further proposals "in bring point comparable neighboring districts." remove "to . back 133-134. 12 September 1987, adopted, most part, $187 672 400, 408 Mo.1987). renovation approximately closure 18 facilities, construction 17 new 405. referred 'patch repair' approach State" "would comparability visual attractiveness result floor coverings unsightly sections mismatched carpeting tile, walls possessing different shades paint." 404. reasoned "if underwent unattractive substandard, certainly deterrent considering enrolling schools." 1990, $260 million improvements. 61, 1668, 31 (1990) II ) (KENNEDY, judgment). then, soared $540 assistance initially teachers time, three 5,000 employees. component 1987 $200 Expenses. 14 described ambitious expensive history desegregation. F. 3d, 397 annual pupil SSD's Missouri. Nevertheless, pursued "friendly adversary" relationship plaintiffs, continued propose ever programs.2 result, costs escalated now approaching These massive expenditures financed 15 "high classroom air conditioning, alarm system, microcomputers; 2,000-square-foot planetarium; green houses vivariums; 25-acre farm air-conditioned meeting room 104 people; Model Nations wired language translation; broadcast capable radio television studios editing animation lab; temperature controlled art gallery; movie screening rooms; 3,500-square-foot dust-free diesel mechanics room; 1,875-square-foot animal rooms use zoo project; swimming pools; numerous facilities." II, 77, 1676-1677 16 Not surprisingly, "far budget, matter, tax." 60, 1668. operation liability, borne brunt costs. candidly acknowledged "allowed planners dream" "provided mechanism th[ose] dreams realized." A-133. short, "has gone great lengths provide available anywhere else country." A-115. With background, turn controversy. requirement staff. A-76 A-93 (District Order 15, 1992); A-94 A-109 1993); A-110 A-121 July 1993). claimed funding salaries A-86. 1992-1993 year. A-69 A-75 17, 1992). contended 108 (1992), status argued relieved arguments. warranted "[h]igh personnel implement specialized intended 'improve isolation' 'ensure diminution regular academic program.' A-87 (internal citations omitted). Its "ruling remedying A-90. arguments; nevertheless, A-70. Circuit affirmed. (1993). "low d[id] flow earlier violations State." 767. doing so, observed "[i]n addition compensating victims, reverse flight offering superior opportunities." 1170, 1172 (affirming orders). 20 concluded implicitly spite fact articulate even conclusory rejection" them. F.3d, 765. looked comments bench later "illuminate 1992 order." 761. relied statements during May 28, hearing: 21 "The integrate maximum degree possible, matters elements used try integration. That's goal. And standard education. tied goal, until reached, then reached district. So I think wasting our time." 482 (emphasis added). 22 Apparently, extrapolated imported wholesale reject 761-762. significant although "there trend achievement, reaching went say education, "implementation itself sufficient. test, after all, segregation, greatest success measured effect students, particularly 766. banc, five judges dissenting. 395. dissent examined characterized "the current effort American Federation Teachers aided bypass collective bargaining process" "uncalled for" "probably exercise reasonably related court." 399. "agree[d] [S]tate logic pay parking lot attendants, trash haulers food handlers facet violations." 24 evaluating programs, panel "misrea[d] create[d] hurdle withdrawal law. court has, approbation panel, imbedded standardized tests built high-quality sufficient discrimination. Constitution requires standard." 400. 26 noted "KCMSD place offers than America," 403, 'not satisfied close levels,' "as proceeds, involves pedagogical sociology, adjudication." 27 importance issues, consider following: when employees properly scores rise some unspecified declined find 512 ----, 115 41, 129 936 (1994). III Respondents argue remedy, Brief Respondent 40-49; 23. We disagree counts. remedy. 1655-56. 1664; cf. 80, 1678 "approv[ed]" "disapprov[ed], proper." 29 action i.3 An I, 738-740, 3124-3125, 3127-3128, issue subsidiary inquiry. Cf. Yee Escondido, 519, 537, 1522, 1533-1534, 153 (1992). Given basis "improving KCMSD," A-90, resolve order. conclude presented. 14.1; 859, (1978) ("Since consideration [decision] shall treat questions 'fairly comprised' presented"); Mendenhall, 446 544, 551-552, 5, 100 1870, 1875-1876, 64 497 (1980) (opinion Stewart, J.) (Where "is correct disposition petition certiorari"); Yee, 536-537, 1533-1534. 30 Justice SOUTER argues decision unfair imprudent. Post, He claims grant 1988 "lulled [respondents] addressing without foundational issue, lack infected decision." concludes "decide[d] warning respondents." incorrect. Of course, writ imports expression merits bar told times." Carver, 260 482, 490, 181, 182, 67 L.Ed. 361 (1923). fortiori, lulling respondents false sense security, previous put notice affirmed validity 1664, least four Justices questioned 75-80, 1675-1678 32 specific here, aware fact. A-86 ("The approve authority") 25, 1992, order); A-97 repeatedly currently appeal valid remedy") order). understood renewed challenge. 766 increase violations, alternatively, lawful impose abused so"); 767 legal contrary violation"); ("We "). certiorari, i, Petitioners 27-32; Reply 6-12. pages briefing provided respondents, meritless. 2-21, 44-49; ("[R]espondents urge dismiss improvidently granted. surprising; defend excesses courts below"). 33 Appeals, recognized case. Contrary SOUTER's arguments, unfairness imprudence passed below, us, briefed parties. 34 Almost years ago, 554 (1971), dealt remedies law Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. recognizing adhere fashioning power: 35 "[E]limination large one retarded broader lying jurisdiction One vehicle carry amount baggage. important objective Brown seek cases impact forms discrimination." 1279. 36 Three later, themselves guilty violation. said designed, are, absence conduct." "[W]ithout effect, wrong calling remedy." suggestion majority Negro 'desegregated,' whatever makeup district's however neutrally drawn administered." 747, 22, 22; 474, 1437 ("[A] critical beginning imbalance district, comparison proportion minority proportions races whole"). 37 433 267, 97 2749, 53 745 (1977) II), articulated framework derived guide 38 "In place, like equitable remedies, nature [91 1276]. therefore 'the offend Constitution. .' 738 [94 3124]. indeed nature, is, nearly possible 'to conduct.' 746 3128]. Third, devising take account interests authori- ties managing own affairs, consistent Constitution." 280-281, 2757 (footnotes 39 added "principle simply federal-court decrees itself." 281-282, 2758. applying principles, "student assignments, 'faculty, staff, extracurricular activities facilities,' indicia Ed. Oklahoma Pub. Schools Dowell, 498 237, 250, 111 630, 638, 715 (1991) (quoting Green New Kent County, 391 430, 435, 88 1689, 1693, 716 (1968)). 40 "federal systems temporary measure discrimination," 247, 637, considered showing stated "[a]mong sound [1] full satisfactory [2] [3] demonstrated, race, courts' instance." 1446. 42 'whether [constitutional violator] ha[s] ha[ve] practicable.' 1446 249-250, 638). "state 1444. analysis. 44 crafted "interdistrict goal," "intradistrict" nature. 19. "[T]he violation." 280, 2757; Pasadena Spangler, 427 424, 434, 96 2697, 2704, 49 599 (1976) (" '[T]here limits' go dismantle system"). response 3128; 2757, serves identity effected eliminating, operations. 638; Swann, 18-19, 1277-1278; Green, 1692-1693. 45 1656, none actions resulted lingering effects relief"); 76, 1676 judgment) ("[T]here relief").4 24, 46 remained black, purely insufficient. 38, 1656; 855 F.2d 1295, 1302 1988) ("[V]oluntary make meaningful integra- tion predominantly district"). But, 'desegregated' 14, ("[T]he consistently violated more"); 2703-2704.5 47 Instead create equal attractiveness," coupled "suburban comparability." Examination comparability" instructive salary-order issue. 48 presently enrolled elaborate improvements, course enrichment, enhancement formerly throughout "magnet" involving 272, 2753. Magnet advantage encouraging voluntary movement pattern aids basis, extensive busing redrawing lines. 59-60, 1667-1668 (citing 2753). attractive promote while limiting reassignment. 37; Scotland Neck 407 484, 92 2214, 2218, 75 (1972). 50 solely outside But '[B]ecause restrictions powers restructuring operations government entities,' goes [that] existed"). 51 require reassignment Detroit area impermissible identified. 3127-3128. 'any less solution immediately surrounded practically systems, overwhelmingly area.' 735, 3122. "racially acts districts, single cause "contain[ed] evidence conditions Schools" "no outlying effect," reversed 52 Stewart fifth vote wrote separately underscore his understanding decision. describing requirements imposing "interdistrict" stated: "Were shown, example, officials contributed separation drawing lines; units districts; purposeful, housing zoning laws, pupils across might appropriate. shown." 755, 3132 (concurring opinion) (citations "[t]here differing composition city suburbs official activity sort." 757, 3133. What meant adjoining districts. Nothing suggests circumvented Michigan, violator, done just that: redistributing 2757. 54 light statement "led 126; 44-45, 28; 47-49.6 "findings" inconsistent internally,7 typical supposition, bolstered evidence, desegregation, segregation.8 States, curiae, finding "de nothing Amicus Curiae 2; post, findings, limited: "[C]ontrary [plaintiffs] [district court] culpability SSDs, broader. affected examining plaintiff's blurred "careful delineation effect." ' thus SSDs violators segregative effects. "When negate effects, met." 807 657, 1986) (affirming, equally divided court, effect) (en banc).9 56 concern subtle intangible nonetheless real causal link remedied." 496, 1448. Dayton Brinkman, 406, 417, 2766, 2774, 851 (Dayton ). 57 holding effectively overrules Hills Gautreaux, 425 284, 1538, 792 (1976). Civil Liberties Union Amici 18-20. Federal Housing Urban Development (HUD) participated, along agency, establishing 286-291, 1541-1543. adoption plan,' 291, 1543, "permissibility [Milliken I] 'inter-district inter-district violation.' 292, 1544. "relevant geographic [plaintiffs'] options Chicago market, limits," 299, 1547, "a matter law," 306, 1550. 298, 13, 1546-1547, (distinguishing terms 'an administrative system' 58 obligate "subjec[t] HUD measures going geographical political boundaries cautioned "should interpreted appellate factfinding metropolitan-area 294-295, 1551, remanded 'for relief,' 59 Our today fully Gautreaux. "directly caused" 744-745, 3126-3128, purpose. follows decided year reaffirmed bedrock principle "federal-court aimed violate 282, emphasized imposition agency. 9, 1544, 9. raise federalism concerns implicated State. 2757-2758. 60 theoretically expenditure likely unknowable choose enroll reasoning, increased expenditure, teachers, employees, books, buildings, way attractive, thereby perhaps induce rationale susceptible limitation. (remedial "must conduct' provides examples demonstrating limitless rationale. A-115 (The "provide[d] country"); A-140 requested [District Court] extravagant based hopes succeed effort"). hook hang policy choices about 61 399 banc) (per-pupil excluding costs, $2,854 $5,956; $9,412); 18, (arguing $7,665.18). Sixteen began, yet offer viable method financing "wonderful built." A-124; 293, 2763 (Powell, ("Th[e] parties joined forces apparently extracting funds treasury"). Each Court—and —to makes dependent State; turn, dependence recognize autonomy vital tradition, 410, 2770, strive 1449; 636-637. 62 believe posture, "grounded acceptable implementation legally Similar considerations lead us declaration indefinite met, assumption improvement, teaching originally, extension not. needlessly complicated A-75. detailed articulation findings," 765, remand attempted assemble adequate subsequent orders. "maximum A-131. 65 applied 1445-1446; 637-638. basic decide remedied precedents, "entitled rather precise [their] decree." 246, 636. never incremental 420, 2775-2776.10 66 1445-1446. agree improved factor. 34-35; Just demographic changes independent affect 494-495, 1447-1448, external achievement. long do figure calculus. 2703-2704; Insistence unrelated unwarrantably postpones day able operate own. attained: equipped "facilities received eight seven years. economics, "rising tide lifts boats," tailored injuries suffered 287, 2760-2761. Minority kindergarten always attended AAA-rated schools; rated period up 68 On remand, violation" 1445. 69 judgment 70 ordered. 71 concurring. 72 mere answered another insulate former 14.1(a)," Lebron National Railroad Passenger Corporation, 513 961, 977, 130 902 (1995) (O'CONNOR, dissenting), contention 18. 73 setting persons employed (KCMSD). ruling improve hire retain administrators staff." asks comports "address cure offends Constitution," i. attractiveness, legitimately relates purpose, therefore, "prior question," Lebron, 966; such, appropriately answering question. 74 Beyond plain words presented, opening brief placed argument; discussion devoted comparability. 19-45. Such focus come surprise. At stage notes, ante, __, disposing argument, explicitly need comply administrators, hired KCMSD"); ("In opportunities"). persistence specificity decisions, ignored peril. engaged merits. 41-49. Perhaps artfully completely like, nevertheless; respondents' supposed appreciate "what really stake," ____ (SOUTER, fair notice. 76 notice, resolving Unlike Bray Alexandria Women's Health Clinic, 506 113 753, 122 (1993), particular question, "find complaint admitted there; ruled court; revise rule Petition Certiorari (not Opposition briefs) determines presented; penalize specifically supplemental briefing," read opinions courts; briefs If thought "unfairness" "was briefed, albeit sparingly, oral argument," 770 part), hardly cry foul here. transgresses bounds orderly adjudication genuine 77 merits, There, "per se undertake municipal occurred," 1546. permissible, produces district," petitioner urged Gautreaux erected "arbitrary mechanical" shield limits, 300, contradicted violator. territorial transgression produced effects; anything, principle, 292-294, 1543-1545; 296, 1545, 12. More contravenes underlying intradistrict, "determined 744, 3127 16, 1276, (1971)). give blank check 78 concerned relief, it. clear extends 298-299, HUD's practice treated undifferentiated whole, 1547. relevant limits." area, line mechanical." 79 ____, much how phrased presented: obviously interest phrasing emphasizes deviation I. free characterization did: 80 market 'usually larger markets 'may extend several counties.' CHA regulating expert wholly commensurate 299-300, 1547 3127). 81 explicit holding, dispensed predicates rings hollow. 82 distinction notwithstanding, footnote "either present," 294, implicit island, entire itself, context. explained above, petitioner's categorical "court-ordered 305, way, suggesting I—i.e., effects—had factual matter. ill-advised preserve role, dissent, 10, facts exercising accordingly. repeated "significant 3127, "unsupported speculation falls short demonstration" required. 295, 11. There little overrule expressly irrelevant. 83 reading Gautreaux—as affirmation of, from, I—that litigation: "Milliken SSD [suburban district], "mentioned briefly" actually lend argument. 84 Absent hangs semantic mean 'intradistrict violation' today. led it, played sort district." "produced effects" boundaries, When "dealt districts] F.2d, 672. unambiguous. Neither transgressed permit regional plan. 85 introduce ambiguity, arguing took view segregative: "while form numbers departing absorbed systems." Even accurate, significance violation," Whatever ventured justify "segregative 86 intended, paradigmatic ensure integration contribute segregate "arrang[e] residing attend Oakland Macomb Counties," permits instances violations. accepts adjacent 750, 3130, causes whites flee avoid discriminatorily underfunded produce cases, certain Where, contained scope. 87 separated "literally rotted," 411 Mo.1987), restorations par counterparts. further, segregated; district-wide (the here) suffer under—and, indeed, profited from—past prohibition non-victims enjoying collateral, incidental benefits reversal exodus consequence. powers, flight. However troubling be, attempt reconcile ____; fact, uncontroverted. segregated, 672; ----. 68% natural, unfortunate, forces, transcend boundaries. finding, rectify trends 89 inherent myriad human multitude ways racial, religious, ethnic grounds." 1279, (1971). Those readily corrected intervention, best addressed representative branches; again, ample legislatures possess injustice, Wisconsin Mitchell, 508 2194, ---- - 124 436 (1993); Jones Alfred H. Mayer Co., 392 409, 443-444, 2186, 2205-2206, 1189 (1968); Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 651, 1717, 1723-1724, 828 (1966); South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 326, 803, 817-818, 769 (1966). true legislative classify strict scrutiny personal right protection laws infringed. Richmond J.A. Croson 488 469, 493-494, 706, 721-722, 102 854 (plurality opinion). "strict theory, fatal fact," Fullilove Klutznick, 448 448, 2758, 2795-2796, (Marshall, judgment); (THOMAS, concurring). distinguish unconstitutional narrowly enact compelling governmental redressing 90 Courts, different. Article limit judiciary's institutional capacity prescribe palliatives societal ills. unfortunate bias society, pervasive invidious, admit though War Amendments altered balance legislatures, Ex parte Virginia, 339, 345, 676 (1880), THOMAS cogently observes States; either constrained powers." Congress, enjoys 'discretion determining legislation needed secure guarantees Amendment,' Croson, 720 1724), license observe role. context, admonished "take affairs," 281, ), intrusion "where historically sovereign," Lopez, 514 1624, 1632-1633, 131 626 (1995), lay claim expertise," 1641 "myriad existence," prompted above principles invoking discusses insofar supports review, refrains ordered, revised, 18-year improper hold impermissible, conversely, goals. rightly leaves remand. For now, enough affirm reasons, join 93 ceases amaze me willing assume anything inferior. focusing harm schoolchildren injured convert "magnet district" respect, concerning write separately, add few thoughts overall litigation. evaluate understand 95 Two threads jurisprudence situation, taken experiment youth. theory psychological retards mental development. relies questionable social science research rests inferiority. permitted trampled freed pursue agendas narrow precisely harm. A. product "racial establish Fordice, 505 2727, 2744, 120 575 (1992) (Thomas, plaintiffs "prove segregation—that simply, resulting intentional directed [allegedly segregated] Keyes Dist. Denver, 413 189, 205-206, 2686, 2696, 548 (1973) differentiating so-called facto intent segregate." 208, 2697 original). inferred continuing primary facts: 1974 black. somewhat, stressed isolated," 1983-1984. 1485, 1492-1493 followed dismantled entirely. 1493. "become basis," exerted "lingering "general attitude inferiority" employment poverty." 1492. 99 Without more, supported liability state. one-race indication practicing 26, 1281, (1971); 435-437, 2704-2705, (1976); isolation" ended reflect decisions. instance, demography changed considerably 1954. Though blacks accounted 18.9% 1983-1984 67.7% 1492, 1495. That two-thirds sure sign action. search action, linked 1984 ways. past" "imprimatur explained, Jim Crow era atmosphere individuals prejudice blacks," realtors, bankers, insurers otherwise occurred. 1503. encouragement tenuous liability. rested simple intentionally fulfill "its duty disestablishing 1954." According bodies constituted "vestiges" obligation eliminate. 1504, 1506. Later, issuing "remedial" "system KCMSD" vestige Mo.1985) deleted).1 indicated post-1954 pre-1954 126. 101 "vestige" supply ground "vestiges Courts confuse consequences "It causing change relation accord, 501, 1451. (SCALIA, concurring); Columbus Penick, 443 449, 512, 2941, 2964, 666 (1979) (REHNQUIST, dissenting); 435-436, 2704-2705. state-enforced recedes farther past, "these kinds continuous shifts," 495, 1448, source poor performance emphasized, "[i]t practical ability counteract" changes. holds almost last show populations low scores. judge Missouri's actions. doubt maintained despicable enforced actions, thereof, proximately 1984. where, comes late day, incumbent explain recent phenomena "vestiges." do. B 103 improperly imbalances unconstitutional. "indulged presumption, often irrebuttable practice, [racial] era." 2744 concurring) 526, 2971, 2979, (1979), 211, 2698-2699). ongoing inflict appears idea inferior, company whites. willingness adopt stereotypes stemmed misreading earliest 347 483, 686, 873 (1954) (Brown sociological studies purporting harmed generating feeling Seizing passage asserted "forced ruins attitudes inherently unequal." suggested inequality continues force segregation: inferiority among poverty. While poverty regardless undeniable poverty-level families stipulated 1977 finds inferior indigenous state- compelled [KCMSD]." 106 seemed receive "inferior despite persisted. concluded, compensatory problems hand isolated populations." 25. assumptions rely principle.2 107 misunderstood meaning isolated" inferior; social-science announce simple, fundamental truth Government discriminate citizens race. McConnell, Originalism Decisions, Va.L.Rev. 947 (1995). unanimous indicated: "[I]n field doctrine 'separate equal' Separate 692. heart interpretation lies individuals, religious groups. reason subject classifications strictest scrutiny, (aside rendered midst wartime, Hirabayashi 320 81, 1375, 1774 (1943); Korematsu 323 214, 193, 194 (1944)) proven automatically fatal. Segregation feelings Public resources—making "feel" sent lesser schools—would Amendment, stigmatized, positions Psychological injury irrelevant actors ascertaining Clause. judiciary competent determinations unnecessary misleading sciences. Regardless relative classified additionally relegating substandard resources. neutral policies, work residence populations. 2698-2699. prevent choosing live together, send interfere predicted leaps forward learn environment. very colleges Despite origins shameful segregation," institutions 'both pride hope want learning children.' 2746. "distinctive histories traditions," 2746, function center symbol communities, leadership, success, firmer identifying isola- tion" (unaccompanied inequalities resources) constitute "Racial harm; is. harm, something blacks. injures blacks, left own, achieve. To my thinking, misconception away enforce race-mixing, regard skin color. swayed easy answers science, accept assumptions, sociology psychology price principle. authorized reassigning decrease imbalances, methods assignment facially neutral. (1968). merely logical next step. "right" proportions. fault problem twisted injuries, imbalances. 114 unwarranted half tale. subscribe predicated inferiority, married concept expansive powers. given freedom problems—such isolation achievement—that stubbornly resistant policies. stand drive reform authorities, congressional executive authorization genie bottle. Power States" "all Cases, Law Equity, arising Laws Treaties Authority." Art. III, §§ "judicial Power," statute. power, ought reluctant aggressive use, traditions. Chambers NASCO, Inc., 501 32, 63-76, 2123, 2142-49, Young ex rel. Vuitton Fils S.A., 481 787, 815-825, 2124, 2141-47, 740 (1987) 116 Motivated desire eradicate disregarded unprecedented shape equity. times invalidated outnumbered expansions equity power. Montgomery Cty. 395 225, 1670, 263 (1969), allowed faculty according mathematical ratios, roughly faculty. busing, targets populations, alter attendance zones. paid 117 upholding court-ordered measures, boundless crafting "[o]nce wrongs broad, breadth flexibility remedies." 1276. remedy," sentence signaled weak limitation was: default proffer assure system." understandable sweeping toward admission nonracial basis" 349 300-301, 756, 1083 (1955) resistance supra. impatience pace boards extraordinary measures. overcome widespread dictates overreaching past. 119 disappeared. property taxes finance 25% share due statutory cap taxes. 1657-1658. comity barred tax (except resort), taxes, enjoin preventing so. analysis, directing body levy plainly act 55, 1665. unleash areas "structural injunctions," known, supervise Nation's manage prisons, Hutto Finney, 437 678, 2565, 522 (1978), hospitals, Thomas S. Flaherty, 250 (C.A. 4), cert. denied, 951, 373, 335 (1990), housing, generally D. Horowitz, Social Policy 4-9 (1977). Judges managed reconstruction bureaucracies, 121 uses odds tradition Framers' design. historical records suggest Framers intend reach broadly permitted. Anticipating growth modern doctrine, Anti-Federalists criticized response, defenders "sold" espousing narrower attack open Federalist provision, drafters ratifiers response. McIntyre Ohio Elections Commission, 1511, 426 English alternative rigors common battle familiar T. Plucknett, Concise History Common 191-198, 673-694 (5th ed. 1956). By century, developed encompassing categories (trusts) (fraud, forgery, mistake). W. Holdsworth, 300-338 (1927); Milsom, Historical Foundations 85-87 (1969); J. Baker, Introduction Legal 93-95 (2d 1979). fixed 123 Blackstone principal differences "modes administering justice,"—"in mode proof, trial, relief." Blackstone, Commentaries (1768). last, jurist concurrent "want obtained law." 438. Throughout discussion, governed rules precedents "[I]f sea, floated occasional happened preside entertain conscience inconvenience arise uncertainty, worse evil hardship follow inflexible." 440. cabined, warned, undermined arbitrary government. "[The judiciary's] become endured country this, boasts respects will." (footnote omitted); 61-62.3 cautioned, approached suspicion. Jefferson "Relieve rigour text them, pretorian discretion, wander it's equity, becomes incertain." Papers (J. Boyd 1954). Suspicion criticism ratification attacked Constitution's "Cases, Equity," statutes. Anti-Federalists, reference excessive deviate Said "Federal Farmer," "by joining word thing, seem discretionary power." Farmer January 1788, Complete Anti-Federalist 322 (H. Storing 1981) (hereinafter Storing). hoped mention "intended lodge judges, conscience, opinions, caprice, politics dictate." 322-323.4 Another Anti-Federalist, Brutus, allow "explain constitution reasoning spirit confined letter." Brutus 419. This, "entire subversion legislative, states." 420. G. McDowell, Equity 43-44 (1982). 125 criticisms provoked III's words. Answering Papers, Alexander Hamilton play. Initially, conceded interpreting lifetime tenure. 78, p. 528 Cooke 1961). Nonetheless, (as courts) practices "To courts, indispensable bound down define them." 529. Story, Jurisprudence 18-20, pp. 15-17 (I. Redfield 9th 1866). cases," 83, 569, 126 unchecked prevailed England transplanted America. necessary, argued, "between individuals" contain "fraud, accident, trust hardship, render object equitable, jurisdiction." 539. foreigners side, impossible judicatories justice 540. defined colonial system—with specified remedies—would exist judiciary. prevailing "equity" types well-known 127 surprise Certainly injunctions" management institutions. exercises appeared sovereignty century. "Born 1950's 1960's, suits injunctions unknown Young, [209 123, 158, 441, 453, 714 (1908).]" Dwyer, Pendent Jurisdiction Eleventh Cal.L.Rev. 129, 162 framers Ratification. Robinson Campbell, Wheat. 212, 221-223, 372 (1818). least, Federalists' explanation guiding use. C 128 restraints powers—derive Government. pause using intrude sphere States. primarily "[L]ocal tradition." (1977); 1640, 741-742, 3125-26; San Antonio Independent Rodriguez, 50, 1278, 1305, (1973); structural eviscerates budgets reallocate resources expense citizens, represented court. 163. seize strip governments responsibilities, deny entities. capabilities problems. better day-to-day policy, curricular, Wright Council Emporia, 451, 477-478, 2196, 2210-11, (1972) (Burger, dissenting).5 gather information effective decree, compliance, remedies. P. Schuck, Suing 150-181 (1983). presume educational, budgetary, transform dangerous branch one. imposes sure, encroaching prerogatives another, things remain difference running prisons agencies. tax, budgeting, staffing, judgments location aesthetic oversight monitoring. functions involve executive, judicial, 65-81, 1670-79. Nagel, Separation Powers Scope Equitable Remedies, Stan.L.Rev. 661 (1978). courts: declare law; disposed WILL JUDGMENT, consequence substitution pleasure body." 526. fundamentally priorities sought, values taught. local, tasks, detract independence dignity expertise. Mishkin, Reformers, Wash. & Lee L.Rev. 949 132 surprising crept jurisprudence, vest escape constraints rules. standards guidelines predictability targeted injured. D 133 dissent's treatment frames thus: towards achieving" systemwide "keeping enjoyed "it discretion" 1993 characterizes "beyond reproach," vague "Federal-court "unreasonable." criteria guidance, reduces believes "fair" vaguely "fit" envisioned requires. 134 conclusion, tension common-sense principles. retained modification terminating involvement briefly mentioned 756 ("[d]uring transition, jurisdiction"), constantly abstract, elusive deprive finality tends inject policies—a competence. Fuller, Forms Limits Adjudication, Harv.L.Rev. 353 135 Much occurred hit-or-miss shape, reshape, decree.6 Using jurisdiction, decreasing difficulties engineering Wherever implementing unified decree. tailor fit employ contempt compliance. overstep refrain supplants reserved branches, coordinate dictates, preserve. Only remaining giving Judiciary tempt abandoning 136 target aspect invidious distinctions resource allocation, activities. element straightforward "compensatory" ingredient us. 137 Having series plans, criticizes benefitting conduct. experienced levels, raising sufficiently discriminated saying discrimination, 138 side indiscriminately tend indicate "efforts beyond" 139 embark initiatives future, demand Race-conscious (which met cases), interest. 509-510, 730-731, circumstances, ordinarily include (or alive) democratically accountable 140 equality pretext solving seems apparent undertook providing tell, none. lightly forever aside notion educationally 141 present, remember deserving means. institution, captivate forgets constitutionally Usurpation traditionally takes sphere, deprives elected point, omniscient, 142 whom BREYER join, 143 process broken disposes discrete declaring erroneously resolves answer Since, respondent naturally came expecting premise essence misjudgment reviewing repudiating central warned stake. lulled 144 No informed appreciation ruling. deficiencies standing, passing parties, discussed way. 145 departures call one, granted) confidence today's sound, 146 1984, (1954), scheme taught 1490-1494, 1503-1505 Mo.1984).1 Brown, moved separate "root branch," 1505, 437-438, 1693-1694, "Instead, [KCMSD] chose ones," devices optional zones liberal policies "allo[w] patterns basis." 1494. Consequently, 20th anniversary 1974, percent 1492-1493. Ten enrollment. subsequently "defaulted uphold 1505. 147 appealed entered caused, things, original), adoption, starting performance. recognizes, acted flowing committed officials, deficits (programs frequently programs). 281-283, 2757-2759. objection agreed 'appropriate [the] proposal). They endorsed incorporated attainment (a designation, conferred Education criteria, indicating quantitatively qualitatively minimum 26), kindergarten, tutoring development, sizes. 24-26. 148 Between 1985 concept, 131-133 (Order Nov. 1986), 405-408 Mo.1987); 133-134 1986); 39-41. assist desegregating ("[C]ommitment, planning establishment integral achievement"); 1301 foundation compensate schools"). 149 physical 411, similarly objects Specifically, facility presents safety health hazards obstacle Further, impede creation climate, heating leaking roofs, effectiveness plan"); 1305 [are] 150 final teachers' step "[I]t revenues faculty." 410. objected item budget. 151 1988, (though order), run afoul position, 1989 petitioned 152 challenging legitimacy plan: "For remedies—costing hundreds millions dollars making 154 questio[n] [is]. 155 ". 156 "a) 157 "b) O.T. 88-1150, 158 accepted taxation rate 50-58, 1662-1667, (1990). broader, found. party detail items bearing happened. accepting 1989, 490 1034, 1931, 403. 159 returned 1994 questions: 160 "1. fails satisfy Amendment (thus precluding status) District, scores, risen level? 161 "2. granting employee district—including non-instructional personnel—as conflicts applicable Constitution?" issues: look students' attained 163 framed concept. decides, initiative, sees provision "[o]nly forth petition, therein, considered. ." Ante, claims, "fairly included" survive scrutiny. 164 quite simple: comprehended resolved citing 858, (1978); (1980). concedes test-score soundness scheme, ("each [presented] ."). ignores concession, patently correct. why us; assuming determine assess 165 necessity prudential degrees, sometimes originally accepted. arguably powerful reasons confine taken.2 166 Quite naturally, devote raised, presumably designate printing portions seemingly gave bare possibility deal entitled serious already, deliberate refusal reasonable infer raised motion advance adversely affected. 167 Thus misses antecedent ones error scheme. 14.1, surely warning, culmination mind. no. hollow considers intention decides 168 fairness prudence displayed disappear seeing things: first, terms, countenance successful 'smuggl[e] grant[ed] certiorari,' Izumi Seimitsu Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha Philips Corp., 510 425, 427, 396 quoting Irvine California, 128, 381, 561 Jackson, J.); second, adequately leads anchored record, controlling precedent, squarely 169 score play, substance. insists here), "requir[ed] [in KCMSD] 'at .,' contains norms, norms" entirely (dated Apr. quoted Appeals's canvassed levels," 762 1993), A-130. indicates thing standing banc probative governing rely) disavows dispositive scores: 170 accepts, remedied. context relieving supervision, Test equation. testimony witnesses denying unitary." (1994) (Gibson, 171 If, ask straightforward. enter (and apparently, speak itself) procedures entities termination steps 485, 1443. Accordingly, entity) release "whether withdrawn. Full 1446, 637-638, (1991). [or entity] burden expect) seeks 494, 1447. 172 recognizes get acknowledge leading 1992. triggered A-69. Response Motion Approval Plan 1992-1993, 1-20 Response), allege prongs 173 practicable; implemented. 9-17. hearings motion, witness testified 439-483. exception he cross-examination 174 "Q: Dr. you, testifying behalf you District? 175 "A: No, that's testimony, Mr. Benson." 483. 176 complying decree; rested. 8. contradict elsewhere ("[D]uring lawsuit voluntarily Executive General Assembly aid program"); A-123 opposed joint However, viable, tenable, extremely antagonistic effecting KCMSD") 177 meet programs: 178 [the expert] describe succeeded 179 progress start made. fell 180 [Further, the] prove 181 182 [T]he abuse 764-765 183 Examining prong, Dowell prong enquiry effects: ills itself. moment liberty walk curing continued. 184 Looking ahead, procedural follow. frame prepare efficacy 185 undoubtedly play true, attain average prerequisite sorts said, cured deficiency extent. (in shown norms. A-131 assessment. Depending, proceedings, having expected. hand, flattened out, impracticability progress. judgment, unless front admonition "sharply limit" viewed light. 186 otherwise, From start, II. achieving keeping 187 basing Circuit. 188 expired 1991-1992 332-337 23, 1990). following rejecting discontinued, 1992), small 1995-1996 189 instance. adopting discontinuing abrupt drop 1986-1987 disparity teacher nationwide 40-45 percent, mass taking A-76, A-78 A-91. Faced salaries, elevation achievement: 190 191 192 "High isolation,' 193 roll drastically impair 195 turnover, decline inability objectives plan." A-91 1301, 196 A-95 A-97, A-101 A-102 note 197 "[Q]uality [district] 198 199 evident statistically turnover rates full-time dramatic percentage selecting lost heard evaluation professional positively significantly." 1172-1174 200 766-769. 201 exceptionable objectives, obvious amounts ordered.3 tempting maintenance temptation effort, 1174 (referring A-104), circumstances plagued defective lighting, reeking lavatories. 1306; 403-404. reproach "those charged [remedial] [must] qualified attainable," A-102. 202 overlooks altogether. rejects reason. clear, complementary distinct purposes, alone, precludes effect. 203 answerable vulnerable. dissent. 204 fuel face, projects appealing pragmatism seeming cut details precedential intuitive sense, includes logic, calls weight. 205 disappears, soon things. "intradistrict spanning borders schools.4 Insofar assumes cast assumption. violates facts, Assuming applies occurred, flatly precedent. 206 looking forbidden. erred hence old 207 removing major not, wrong, am victim uninformed dispositive. My sole correct, wherever lie. 208 contributing 664, 668-670 723, 1984). shortly Brown. 672, 678; 813, 816. dealing consolidate 660-661, 674; 721-723, 725, 810-811. 209 inconsistency possibility, non-segregative contrary, concurred preponderance 1302, August ("[S]egregated [and] leaving borders, attributed 210 norm procedure. adhered "[a] correction errors factfinding, exceptional error." Graver Tank Mfg. Co. Linde Air Products 336 271, 275, 535, 538, (1949); Branti Finkel, 445 507, 1287, 1291, 574 "our settled accepting, appeals circumstance however: "contradiction" contradiction "supposition" 'white flight' supposition abundance residents 412.5 211 doubtful other, 'made Any impression quickly context: 212 [to [I] 'there district.' 95. V, infra. 213 passage, summarizing repeat "segregative" concluding sentence, referring SSDs.6 contra- diction flight: systems. 214 contradiction, integration, rests, untenable. level, break chain causation linking occasion adverse reaction quotes abundant suburbs, trace sequence. 215 unreality illustrated examples. unreformed physically shambles: 216 hazards, functional impairments, appearance impairments. include: inadequate lighting; peeling paint crumbling plaster ceilings, corridors; loose tiles, torn coverings; odors unventilated restrooms rotted, corroded toilet fixtures; noisy classrooms acoustical treatment; off street bus loading parents, students; space cafeterias, libraries classrooms; faulty antiquated electrical systems; damaged inoperable lockers; fire Paseo High child facility." 403 217 1300 (reciting findings); 39-40. turning shambles habitable enormous, anyone seen repairs. 38-40, 1656-57 (discussing KCMSD). Property tax-paying children, handwriting wall inevitable clean-up intolerable Was desegregation? significance. 218 example point. spending stopped unwilling match customary expected between. 39-40 (describing buildings "10 years"). deteriorate endured. Again, underway), it? 219 explanations head road taking, independently evidentiary shaky grounds separable flight," plausibly lacked arguable plausibility seriously rash Appeals. All spoke schooling Among Clark dissented (whose hesitate purposes): 220 "[By 1985], '[w]hite rampant. 221 correctly practiced fashioned 222 reality overturns warrant 223 likelihood proceeds erroneous corresponding recently summed 'whatever root branch.' 486, 1443 1694. left, absolute 224 proscription apply. term. consolidated started enlarged require, consolidation administered vast super 743, 3125. wrongdoing termed remedy": 225 "We address, mandating cross-district 226 subjection deemed error: 227 "Before autonomous consolidating hinted Court." 228 hold, emphasizing traditional 737-738, 3123-3124, wrongdoer wrongdoer's redress harms nonetheless, reads differently. categorically forbidding innocent yielded ("But [of schools] Court" deleted).). 230 Today's redefinition consequently rewritten I; overruled refusing constrain today, may, predicate, eliminates. 231 Terms (1976), Stewart. Authority (CHA) Chicago, provisions. [might] Chicago's boundaries." 286, 1541. O'CONNOR her squared express deciding: permissibility 1543-1544. 232 committed. 296-297, 1545-1546. 1544-1545, restricted perpetrator perpetrator's subdivision, bind 233 "[Milliken's] crossing reflected substantive extending contemplated 1545-1546 234 face Gautreaux's language, 'relevant limits,' 'a law,' explanation. Requiring wider people lived relating victims) binding unit "reject[ing] area," entry 297, obligated "every [necessary] [relief], practicalities situation,' ibid., Davis Comm'rs Mobile 1289, 1292, 577 subjecting "Nothing occurred." 235 build "not entail coercion uninvolved units. token, "consolidate restructure" 305-306, 1550-1551, or, all.7 accordingly wrongdoers acts, represent appear "wholly 'nature 236 points risks peril complex virtual certainty suspect briefing. stand, references parties' mentions implying relevance says 'extra-city [HUD's] intracity discrimination.' statement, Stewart's Court: surmised conclusion. [I]t mistaken supposing [record contains] justifying [And Appeals's] unsupported demonstration 'significant district' opinion." 11.8 237 misrepresented overruled, decision, reports decades. reserve hearing, realize examination doubtless quote "transform[ing] Milliken's principled mechanical 238 respectfully 239 240 Souter's illuminating emphasize key 241 stresses compared centuries firmly entrenched experience evanescent. 242 1724, Louis XV France Code Noir, slave code Colony Louisiana, Violette, Black Proceedings Mississippi Valley Association 288 (B. Shambaugh 1913). 1821, 303. 243 Before War, prohibited educating blacks: "No person keep teach instruction negroes mulattoes, writing, Act February 1847, § 1847 Mo.Laws 103. 244 Beginning 1865, March 29, 1866, 20, 1865 177. permitted, required, Mo. Const. IX, 1875, XI, 245 announced Attorney declared unenforceable. 1490 repealed 1957 rescinded 1976. thirty state-compelled District." affirmatively structure restrictive ten 246 Today, declares illegitimate stops was, 1984/1985 sorely 36; Mo.1987) (reporting rotted"). deep, inglorious curtail swift soon. Cf.App. A-13 (Court submit projecting intervals, three, five, seven, most, years). syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions convenience reader. Lumber 321, 337, 499. 'Magnet schools,' understood, neighborhoods distinctive curricula quality." 40, 1657, "barely proposes District's programs." A-140. "Whether 931 1273, 1274 1991) segregation"); 470, 475 violations"); 838 260, 264 unsuccessful suburban, federal, 669-670 officially sanctioned looks nature"). 432, 1691, (1968) (approving 57% 43% white); 457, 2200-2201, 66% 34% 77% 22% white). Prior children. Immediately 1954-1955 680. became 30% 1961-1962 40% 1965-1966 60% 1975-1976 1977, 6C 30%. 35. Overall decreased 1986. During period, 44%. Compare 4, 662 ("[N]one segregation"), ("These holdings flight"). "During hearing 239; 2218 (recognizing construes behest plaintiffs—present students—who confines Lujan Defenders Wildlife, 504 560-561, 2130, 2136-2137, 351 Ergo, exactly said: "negate effects." valid. mathematics. statistics meaningless. cited harsh criticism. Yudof, Desegregation: Realism, Reasoned Elaboration, Science Research L. Contemp. Probs. 57, (Autumn 1978); Graglia, Disaster Decree: Race 27-28 conclusive sparked permanent jump had. Bradley Academic Achievement Students Desegregated Schools, Rev. Educational N. St. John, Outcomes Children (1975); Epps, Impact Aspirations, Self-Concepts Other Aspects Personality, 300 (Spring 1975). Contra Crain Mahard, Achievement: Review Research, (Summer Effect Methodology Desegregation-Achievement Studies: Meta-Analysis, Am.J. Sociology 839 gap narrowed decades, gains socioeconomic Armor, Why Rising?, Interest 65, 77-79 wrote: "[A] eminent lawyers degrees study experience, law: which, known suitor expect, suit, precision, 440-441. feared combination equity; restrain him, shoes dictate; country, yet, regulate divisions Great Britain; supreme discretion." October 1787, 244. writer spark freedom" Certain plan—for costs—come perilously abrogating immunity money damage awards. Edelman Jordan, 415 677, 1347, 1362-63, ("a retroactive award payment (1977), 290, 2762, prospective retrospective compensation. Bator, Meltzer, Shapiro, Hart Wechsler's System 1191-1192 (3d 1988). treasury inevitably commanding Edelman, 668, 1358, backward-looking, whole. achievement" 46-51. spent rating, needed. hiring. trouble round Every proceeding formed "desegregation monitoring committee" decrees. comprehend construction, policy. 19; 60-61, (Kennedy, Louis, "[b]efore writing Feb. State-mandated IX reincorporated 1945: colored 1952, upheld constitutionality 1976." Liddell 731 1294, 1305-1306 1984) (case misunderstanding "prevention clause" U.S.C. 1985(3) 'was argument.' Rather, applicability prevention clause especially restated Bray, 770. part). literally second questions). debatable preceded whereas literal salaries. clause, unreasonable bargaining. replaced kcmsd rubber-stamping union requests, "juridically pruned applications it," 1174, smaller union. A-102, A-104 A-106 only, principal, kcmsd, describes living white, 1302-1303. ("Most importantly, suburbs"). impetus world supposition. 'myriad existence,' .") (citation states eludes (1974), multiple participated "produce[d] effect[s]" others. infra, stages 721-820 1984), 665-666, satisfied. errs attempted, indirectly, thinks undue emphasis footnote, "island, .," shrunk dimension majority's result. "territorial transgression" kind [an] [has] She she understands exist. implausible reading. reiterated I's connection type "direct interference entities" 1545; 292-298, 1543-1547. demonstrates, summarized again. sum, contrast restructure units." 1550-1551. ----) ourselves affording views." Nowhere borders.

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