Document: 426 U.S. 572 96 S.Ct. 2264 49 L.Ed.2d 65 EXAMINING BOARD OF ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS AND SURVEYORS, etc., et al., Appellants,v.Maria C. FLORES DE OTERO and Sergio Perez Nogueiro. No. 74-1267. Argued Dec. 8, 1975. Decided June 17, 1976.* Syllabus A Puerto Rico statute permits only United States citizens to practice privately as civil engineers. Appellees are alien engineers residing in Rico, one of whom (Flores de Otero) was denied a license under the statute, other (Perez Nogueiro) granted conditional work for Commonwealth. Each appellee brought suit declaratory injunctive relief against appellant Examining Board its members District Court claiming jurisdiction 28 U.S.C. § 1343(3) alleging that statute's citizenship requirement violated 42 1983. Section gives district courts actions "(to) redress deprivation, color any State law" federal constitutional rights, privileges, or immunities, 1983 provides "(e)very person who, . Territory" deprives another "any immunities secured by Constitution laws" shall be liable party injured proper action. In Flores Otero action three-judge court, after determining it had 1343 enforce abstention unnecessary, held unconstitutional directed fully licensed engineer. separate subsequent judgment same court like Perez. Held : 1. The provisions Pp. 580-597. (a) territorial, well circuit courts, confirmed legislative history §§ their predecessor statutes, generally deprivations rights bpersons acting territorial law. 581-586. (b) legislation specifically respecting supports conclusion prior Rico's becoming Commonwealth 1952 conferred predecessors on several States, Congress, entering into compact which assumed "Commonwealth" status, did not intend leave protection exclusively local repeal implication 586-595. (c) While occupies unique relationship does follow Congress intended relinquish enforcement restricting cf. Columbia v. Carter, 409 418, 93 602, 34 613, whether is considered Territory purposes jurisdictional question little consequence because each included within and, therefore, 1343(3). 595-597. 2. correctly determined since claim complicated an unresolved state-law question, even though appellees might have sought similar Constitution. Wisconsin Constantineau, 400 433, 91 507, 27 515; Harris County Comm'rs Moore, 420 77, 95 870, 43 32. 597-598. 3. prohibition alien's engaging private engineering "rights, laws," meaning 599-606. Fifth Amendment Fourteenth protects residents need resolved since, irrespective applies, statutory restriction ability aliens engage otherwise lawful plainly unconstitutional. If Equal Protection Clause nullifies exclusion; whereas, if Due Process apply, discrimination so egregious violate due process. 599-601. validity must principles state classifications based alienage subject "strict judicial scrutiny," laws containing such will upheld imposing them able satisfy burden demonstrating "its purpose interest both constitutionally permissible substantial, use classification 'necessary accomplishment' safeguarding interest," re Griffiths, 413 717, 721-722, 2851, 2855, 37 910. This met following three justifications offered appellants requirement: (i) prevent "uncontrolled" influx Spanish-speaking field Rico; (ii) raise prevailing low standard living (iii) provide client engineer assurance financial accountability building responsible collapses. 601-606. Affirmed. Miriam Naveira Rodon, San Juan, P. R., appellants. Max Ramirez Arellano, Santurce, appellees. Mr. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. 1 case presents issue possesses jurisdiction, 1343(3),1 entertain upon 1983,2 answer affirmative, further restriction, licenses constitutional. first issue, phrased way, "State," 1343(3), insofar speaks deprivation "under law"; resolution reserved Calero-Toledo Pearson Yacht Leasing Co., 416 663, 677 n. 11, 94 2080, 2088, 40 452 (1974). 2 * A. Act May 10, 1951, 399, amended, now codified P.R. Laws Ann., Tit. 20, 681-710 (Supp.1973), relates engineering, architecture, surveying. administration 683, committed Commonwealth's Examiners Engineers, Architects, Surveyors, here. 6893 sets forth qualifications "for registration engineer, architect surveyor." For "licensed architect," these include specified education, passing written examination, stated minimum practical experience. also requires applicant citizen ited States. It, however, exempts qualified from he has "studied total courses" Commonwealth, employed agency instrumentality government municipal public corporation there; employment, receives valid during time entity. 3 B. Maria native Mexico legal resident Rico. She is, profession, citizen. 1972 she applied It undisputed all specifications formal required licensure, except citizenship. her application until furnished proof 4 October 1973 instituted individual members. asserted 1343(3),4 alleged violative 1981 were requested. 5 Flores' complaint, defendants lacked 689 contravene Amendments guaranteed They adequate remedies available exhausted those remedies. requested "abstain assuming this allow Courts opportunity pass issues raised plaintiff." App. 5. 6 Nogueiro Spain He degrees universities Colombia University He, Flores, presently Public Works Department municipality Carolina, holds Board, authorized 689, passed examination.5 7 1974 Board6 "is repugnant Amendments." 10. complaint relevant respects filed Perez, too, relief, including full unconditional 8 D. convened hear case. 1343. concluded unnecessary unambiguous susceptible interpretation would obviate reaching question. On merits, with judge dissenting, rejected proffered requirement. found 9 vote, decreed he, Jurisdictional Statement 7a. 10 Appeals taken judgments, single statement pursuant our Rule 15(3). We noted probable stay execution judgments. 421 986, 1988, 44 476 (1975). II 11 do contend no Rico7 claims cognizable may enforced there. Instead, they argue unless complainant establishes $10,000 amount prescribed 1331(a),8 adjudicated Rico.9 12 approaching we examine language 1343, enacting it, "and circumstances words employed."10 Shell Co. (P. R.), Ltd., 302 253, 258, 58 167, 169, 82 L.Ed. 235 (1937); 420, 604, 613 (1973). As frequently case, free ambiguity, appear diverse sometimes contradictory, spread record instruction. 13 legislation, here concerned, enacted nearly 30 years before conflict resulting establishment ties between Both origin Ku Klux Klan April 1871, 1, 17 Stat. 13. That contained substantive provision protecting "the Constitution" law, but, well, authorizing proceeding "to prosecuted States."11 Jurisdiction independently defined; given simply created statute. two aspects, seemingly, deemed coincide. 14 been said Fourteenth, Thirteenth, Amendment. U.S., at 423, S.Ct., 605; Lynch Household Finance Corp., 405 538, 545, 92 1113, 1118, 31 424 (1972); Monroe Pape, 365 171, 81 473, 475, 492 (1961). originally enacted, 1871 law "State." 1874, presumably power "make needful Rules Regulations Property belonging States," Constitution's Art. IV, 3, cl. 2, added, without explanation, "or 1874 codification statutes. Rev.Stat. 1979 (1874). See 606. evident aim insure persons Territories denied, States.12 15 Although say evident, method chosen implement curious indeed, somewhat confusing. codification, portion (the today's 1983) redesignated 1979.13 became separated 1343(3)) appeared 563 Twelfth 629 Sixteenth (concerning, respectively, courts) Revised Statutes. But 1979; 629. 16 Our then, whether, separately codifying having discrepancy them, restrict federal-court some way. conclude restriction. First, above, common suggests meant be, are, complementary. 543 7, 1117. There indication exercising subject-matter personal parties. Second, contrary necessarily lead effectively afforded remedy there violation despite Congress' obvious intention afford one. then existing established cases arising vested States." 1910 (1874) (emphasis added).14 Thus, (but territorial) likewise limited. Further, Districts California Oregon, Washington possessed over violations extended Alaska. 1957 Unless explicit extension theoretical forum existed enforced. strengthened additional factors. explicitly provided: "The locally inapplicable force effect organized Territories, every hereafter elsewhere 1891 1979, reference obviously applicable year general federal-question jurisdiction.15 Mar. 1875, 18 470, 1331(a). Zwickler Koota, 389 241, 245-247, 88 391, 393, 19 444 (1967). Accordingly, districtnd although providing remedies, could failed means enforcement. reasons, turn, approach exercise Const., 2.16 By Treaty Paris, 1754 (1899), ceded 1755. Shortly thereafter, Foraker Act, being 12, 1900, courts. structure consisted system Supreme Court, Federal Court.17 34, 84, (federal) have, addition ordinary cognizant States."18 20 face, appears broad grant comparable earlier grants, different. Whereas explicitly, One expect former encompassed latter. divided own withhold Ricans guarantees Territories. S.Rep.No.249, 56th Cong., 1st Sess. (1900); H.R.Rep.No.249, (1900).19 21 division reflected governing support measure, see pp. 12-13, declined inhabitants 33 Cong.Rec. 3690 (1900). And, contrast expressly extend impose statutes condition continued consistent Constitution.20 22 At time, undoubtedly aware above-mentioned providing: Yet mention made Act. contrast, later, when Philippines. July 1902, c. 1369, 32 692.21 Moreover, (other than internal revenue laws) inapplicable," 80,22 least potentially "applicable." 23 review leads conclusions: uncertain powers extent recognized, implicitly, ultimate questions responsibility 9-12; 9-15, 25-28. Thus left accorded orderly development whatever itself make them. nevertheless, sufficiently permit Insular Police Comm'n Lopez, 160 F.2d 673, 676-677 (CA1), cert. 331 855, 67 1743, 1863 (1947). Nothing precluded 1910, language, limitations, cautions us reading exception suorted persuasive evidence history. 24 Subsequent tends uncertainty deprive vindication exist. Organic 1917, known Jones 39 951, more according "jurisdiction 41, 965; citizenship, 5, 953; bill 951. remained 1952, provided Constitution.23 very provision, example, read: "That Porto life, liberty, property process deny therein equal laws." These almost identical Amendment; selected done mind view doctrines embodied it. Kepner 195 100, 124, 797, 802, 114 (1904). passage clearly set stage 1983's (Rev.Stat. 1979) prohibited stute, ordinance, regulation, custom, usage, Munoz Ry. Light & Power 83 262, 264-266 298 56 955, 80 1408 (1936). 25 referring "all 1948. course major revision Judicial Code, placed nonterritorial Hawaii, squarely Title Code. "Puerto constitutes district." 25, 1948, 646, 119, 62 889. reason change "Hawaii districts matters powers, procedure, courts." H.R.Rep.No.308, 80th Sess., confirms Miranda 255 (CA1 1958); supra. 26 Only responded demands greater autonomy24 1950, 446, 64 319. "nature compact" people Rico," 48 731b, draft constitution which, "shall republican form rights," 731c. proposed thereafter submitted declared drafted "within union America," among "determining factors life" "our America" loyalty Constitution." Preamble Ann. p. 207 (1965). note 731d. approved adding, things, amendment document 66 327.25 accepted, effective, status. resulted numerous contained. 320. remainder Rican Relations 4, arises compact, think not. observed 671, 2086, 1950 accord degree autonomy independence normally associated Union, accordingly, "now 'elects Governor legislature; appoints judges, cabinet officials, lesser officials executive branch; educational policies; determines budget; amends criminal code.' " Leibowitz, Applicability Law Geo.L.J. 219, 221 (1967); Magruder, Status U.Pitt.L.Rev. (1953); Americana Inc. Kaplus, 368 431 (CA3 1966), 386 943, 87 977, 874 More importantly, relating undisturbed, determination departure.26 absence affirmative history, unwilling read attribute inclination supported neither nor District, observed, status government. seat National Government, Civil Rights exercised plenary activities. geographical political considerations, purposes, intent scope coverage," Court's conclusion. 432, 610. 29 Appellants, focus characterization "Sui generis governmental structure," Ibid., Sui generis, conduct similarly exempted scrutiny 1983.27 readily concede parallel but 427, 607, recognized "had authority exert direct control, day-to-day basis, officials," "solution involve judiciary." effective control govern plenary.28 limitations effectiveness protect federally cession relinquished organization affairs island measure thereby lessened. Finally, 1983, terms, applies Territories; Columbia, these. Whether State, specific us, makes difference follows III should abstained merits claim. Fornaris Ridge Tool 156, 174 (1970), cited example context. unnecessary. novel concerning judicially doctrine; requires, instead, settled reviewed just last Term Appellants urge appropriate reasons. conrued commonwealth light 1483 31, 4124 (1968). imposes liability contractor defective construction building. fail see, how way affect imposes, exceptions noted, licensing Appellants' second argument permitted adjudicate II, provides: "No account race, color, sex, birth, social condition, religious ideas." interrelated said, County, ambiguous. Rather, seems controlled 515 (1971), where, 84-85 876, "we order where plaintiffs constitution." Indeed, hold sweeping provisions, convert rule.29 IV takes particular us. Does 1983? 35 decisions exactly uniform. nature country's vigorously debated Congress.30 Coude, Evolution Doctrine Territorial Incorporation, Col.L.Rev. 823 (1926). clear now, protections either Clauses apply applicability long ago Downes Bidwell, 182 244, 283-284, 770, 785, 45 1088 (1901), Balzac 258 298, 312-313, 343, 348, 627 (1922). principle reaffirmed Reid Covert, 354 77 1222, 1148 (1957),31 again Calero-Toledo, (1974), protected, official taking 36 thus far protection.32 668-669, 2084. Once again, resolve precise because, applicable, exclusion. If, hand, falls rule Bolling Sharpe, 347 497, 499, 74 693, 694, 98 884 (1954).33 Schneider Rusk, 377 163, 168, 84 1187, 1190, 218 (1964). examining virtually complete ban aliens, standards recent Graham Richardson, 403 365, 1848, 534 (1971); Sugarman Dougall, 634, 2842, 853 (1973); 910 establish scrutiny." 376, 1854. Statutes kind "that interest." 2855 (footnotes omitted). consideration. 38 underpinnings defining governments favor country denying lawfully admitted opportunities two. first, concepts Amendment, recognizes "(a)liens class prime 'discrete insular' minority heightened solicitude appropriate." 372, 1852. Antonio School Dist. Rodriguez, 411 29, 1278, 1294, 642, 2847. second, grounded Supremacy Clause, VI, naturalization power, I, Government's primary immigration naturalization. See, E. g., Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 66, 61 402, 85 581 (1941); Truax Raich, 239 33, 42, 60 131 (1915). 378, 1855; Takahashi Fish Game Comm'n, 334 410, 419, 68 1138, 1142, 1478 (1948). Offial traditionally forms. Aliens enjoying resources receiving benefits basis citizens. supra; excluded employment. M. Konvitz, Alien Asiatic American Law, (1946). And restricted enterprises occupations lawful. Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 369, 1064, 1074, 220 (1886).34 present course, category. respect greatest difficulty persuading interests substantial permissible, necessary interests. Hopkins struck down ordinance administered exclude pursuing occupation laundry. Raich invalidated employer, five workers, employ 80% Qualified electors native-born Griffiths prescribing Ohio ex rel. Clarke Deckebach, 274 392, 47 630, 71 1115 (1927). 41 apparent: "It show right community essence freedom (Fourteenth) secure. refused solely ground race nationality, denial barren words." (citations true drew distinction special affording Id., 39-40, distinction, longer sharp was. Recently restrictive discriminate noncitizens compare Crane New York, 195, 85, (1915), aff'g People Crane, 214 N.Y. 154, 108 N.E. Heim McCall, 175, 78, 206 supra ; distribution funds allocation resources, McCready Virginia, 248 (1877), Patsone Pennsylvania, 232 138, 281, 539 (1914), supra, suggest, Territory, government, certainly discretion receive partake claimed justify carefully examined determine legitimate inquiry apted achieve goal precisely drawn. aliens' engineering: living. third collapses construction. 46 justification amounts assertion justified desire discriminate. unpersuasive face. odds regulation immigration. admitted, liberty wishes impact laws. Cf. DeCanas Bica, 351, 933, (1976). elements substance legitimacy, drawn end precise. What require employers contractors hire who impermissible 50 To uphold economic bar employment occupations. assure negligent workmanship sweeps too broadly. guarantee continue reside bears rational skill, competence, responsibility. 645, 2849; 724, 2856. ample tools engineer's indiscriminately prohibiting professionals. judgments affirmed. ordered. 51 STEVENS took part consideration decision 52 REHNQUIST, dissenting part. 53 I agree appellees' obligated abstain believe understanding difficulties encounters attempting recapitulate doctrine lends facile "either-or" ultimately settles. 54 terms States: State. Doubtless inquiries shrouded cannot definitively answered this, inclined reject strong overcome "plain meaning" obstacle, itself, out.* 55 strictures Legislature perhaps understand regard theory annul disagreed, Ante, 586 16, legislature treated delegate equally would, face obstacles fact subsequently 1917 giving "Nearly 591 supplied). directly virtue superfluous rights; quite impossible endow disregard liberties possess. find extremely difficult thought proprio vigore Legislature. acceptance 593-593, elected imposed 57 short, am certain acts me possible operates limitation body. Even wrong easy avoid focused applicable. not, challenged appellees, surely Amendment's Hampton Mow Sun Wong, 88, 100-101, 1895, 1904, 495. restrictions Government somehow appellants, seem equivalently assert aliens. rejection question: Why granting concomitant citizens, bearing deal Territory? answers dispositive my vote feel compelled explore much detail today. either/or assumption correct, result believes assumption. violates reasons dissent 649, (1973), infirm application. 117, 1912 (Rehnquist, J., dissenting). therefore reverse Together Architects Surveyors al. Nogueiro, appeal (see 15(3)). original commenced person: "(3) custom right, privilege immunity "Every subjects, causes subjected, thereof laws, equity, redress." pertinent reads: "§ 689. Qualifications Board's registry "As evidence, satisfactory meets surveyor accept, be: "(2) architect: "(a) Graduation, examination certification accrediting his graduation curriculum duration less four (4) academic equivalent, whose efficacy adequately verified, university, college institute standing proficiency accepted Board; examinations (validation) fundamental subjects architecture; detailed professional experience years, acquired professional, showing, justifies licensing. "((3)) what already section, applicants America filing applications. Provided, requisite engineers, architects surveyors studied courses received corresponding grade certificate study institution fulfill fixed sections title, be; meet act registry. requisites residence different agencies instrumentalities corporations wish employ, understood title "Upon compliance requirements noncitizen America, board graduate surveyor, practicing professions performance entities. "Any holding obtains entitled reregistration reregistered architect, accordance Board." Federal-question 1331(a) asserted. defendants, here, acknowledge "are concerned (Federal) (s) 1331." Brief 6. reads part: approval grants him ENGINEERING employee Agencies Municipal Governments Corporations. "I, FURTHER CERTIFY: MR. SERGIO PEREZ NOGUEIRO Engineering automatically registered ENGINEER soon Naturalization Certificate Citizen." 8-9. later amended parties defendant. oral argument, conceded "Fourteenth Rico." Tr. Oral Arg. wherein matter controversy exceeds sum value $10,000, exclusive costs, Constitution, treaties 6, 9-10; 37. Using approach, Are "State" appellate 1254(2), 157, 2281, 669-676, 2085, construe narrowly appeals, failure 1258, appeals highest early 1950's. Inclusion 2281 served "of insulating sovereign State's interference judge." 2085. Andres 333 740, 745, 880, 882, 1055 (1948); 257-259, Domenech City Bank, 294 199, 204-205, 366, 79 857 (1935). section usage subject, cause shall, notwithstanding, redress; appeal, error, ninth April, eighteen hundred sixty-six, 'An furnish vindication'; remedial cases." Another effected changes retained (1878). Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Dakota, Arizona, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming. governed 1911 (1874), provided, part, quoted "Constitution." did. omission rectified, however. Original "arising under" Feb. 13, 1801, 92, repealed 1802, 132. nothing along line 1875. 427 5600 arrangement convenient same, inference presumption Title, placed." add successor mere oversight. Had intact, added while "such broad. 430-431, 609; Bank Yankton, 101 129, 133, 1046 (1880); Insurance Canter, 516, Pet. 511, 542, 242 (1828). territories hereby Congress." 1759. fully. President appoint, advice consent Senate, chief officers, 81; justices 84. addition, (Puerto Rico) assembly reported reserves authority, advisable, same." 83. systems stands supreme 1864-1869, Palmore 389, 402-403, 1670, 1678, 342 constitute called 'the Rico.' President, appoint term sooner removed President. proceed manner court." report majority House Committee considering concluded: "First. 'United States,' used Union "Second. plenary." report, 17-20. adopts views Representative Newlands: weight authorities sustain(s) proposition Ex vigore, controls wherever operates, Territories." 29. Senate surveyed previous when, circumstances, that, rule, accompanied Not 1850, provide: inapplicable, Sept. 9, 49, 452. model legislation. ninety-one seventy-eight Philippine Islands." 692. Nevertheless, Philippines unprotected guaranteeing most basic presented constitutionality Brown referred attached significance 257, 775. Dorr 143, 808, 810, 128 (1904), relied 1902 Act's express exclusion 1891, 954: hereinbefore hereinafter internal-revenue 734. variety "locally exceptions: "be capital, infamous crime, presentment indictment Grand Jury," Sixth Seventh Amendments, jury trial. 306, 346, (1922); S.Rep.No.1779, 81st 2d (1950); H.R.Rep.No.2275, (1950). 1947 voters select governor popular suffrage. Aug. 1947, 490, 770. explained: "Applicable constitutions throughout Any null void. "Within framework, self- regards matters, sphere methods bear resemblance Union." S.Rep.No.1720, 82d (1952). congressional affecting Pub.L. 89-571, 764, tenure judges judges. responsibilities U. S. (several) S.Rep.No.1504, 89th (1966); H.R.Rep.No.135, 2-3 (1965); U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News, 1966, 2786, 2787. identity effectuated 1970, 965, context rests large rationale 57, 1257(2). identically respect. view, particularly sources entirely true, activities impossible. ruled immediately Washington; day poor roads slow mails, unthinkable be. developed largely legislatures, framework organic veto. self-government delegations enjoyed ' Glidden Zdanok, 370 530, 546, 1459, 671 (1962) 'confused ineffective,' making problem Columbia." 609 During seemed 36. "who Commonwealth." conclude, also, merit. series come Cases, incorporated unincorporated De Lima 743, 1041 (1901); Dooley 222, 762, 1074 Armstrong 243, 827, 1086 (1901). category destined statehood acquisition, force. Rassmussen 197 514, 862 (1905); Hawaii Mankichi, 190 197, 787, 1016 (1903). latter possessing anticipation statehood. "fundamental" inhabitants. provoke debate Members significant Cases imposition duties goods Duties, Imposts Excises uniform how, extent, opinions Downes. believed White, Justices McKenna Shiras joined, propounded Gray essentially branches Chief Justice, Harlan, Brewer, Peckham dissented vigore. White's Bidwell eventually adopted unanimous 348. Nor ended now. Note, Inventive Statesmanship vs. Clause: Constitutionality Agreements Limiting Powers, Va.L.Rev. precedent holdings civilian dependent serviceman stationed abroad tried court-martial offenses foreign country. Kinsella Krueger, 351 76 886, 100 1342 (1956); 487, 1352 (1956). announcement composing overruled, petitions rehearing, arrived opposite result, withdrew opinions. (1957). First Circuit, determination. Colon-Rosich Cir., 256 397 (1958); Stagg, Mather Hough Descartes, 244 578, 583 (1957); Mora Mejias, 377, 382 (1953). "(T)he process, stemming ideal fairness, mutually exclusive. 'equal laws' safeguard unfairness 'due law,' imply always interchangeable phrases. But, unjustifiable process." 694. devolution real Hauenstein Lynham, 483, 628 Blythe Hinckley, 180 333, 390, 557 acquire land, Terrace Thompson, 263 15, (1923); Oyama California, 332 633, 269, 249 wording Thirteenth shows Framers post-Civil War knew word rather limit

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