Document: 490 U.S. 730 109 S.Ct. 2166 104 L.Ed.2d 811 COMMUNITY FOR CREATIVE NON-VIOLENCE, et al., Petitioners,v.James Earl REID. No. 88-293. Argued March 29, 1989. Decided June 5, Syllabus In the fall of 1985, petitioners—the Community for Creative Non-Violence (CCNV), a Washington, D.C., organization dedicated to eliminating homelessness, and one its trustees—entered into an oral agreement with respondent Reid, sculptor, produce statue dramatizing plight homeless display at 1985 Christmas pageant in Washington. While Reid worked on his Baltimore, Md., studio, CCNV members visited him number occasions check progress coordinate CCNV's construction sculpture's base accordance parties' agreement. accepted most suggestions directions as configuration appearance. After completed work was delivere paid final installment agreed-upon price, joined sculpture base, displayed it. The parties, who had never discussed copyright sculpture, then filed competing registration certificates. District Court ruled subsequent suit seeking, inter alia, determination ownership, holding that "work made hire" defined Copyright Act 1976, 17 U.S.C. § 101, therefore owned exclusively by under 201(b), which vests ownership works hire employer or other person whom is prepared, unless there written contrary. Appeals reversed, not first subsection 101 definition (hereinafter 101(1)), since it "prepared employee within scope her employment" light Reid's status independent contractor agency law. court also did satisfy second 101(2)), nine categories "specially ordered commissioned" enumerated therein, parties agreed writing would be hire. However, remanded whether jointly authored such they were co-owners 201(a). Held: 1. To determine definition, should apply general common law principles ascertain prepared contractor, and, depending upon outcome, either 101(1) 101(2). Although nowhere defines "employee," "employment," related terms, must inferred Congress meant them their settled, common-law sense, nothing text provisions indicates those terms are used describe anything than conventional relation employee. On contrary, Congress' intent incorporate definitions suggested 101(1)'s use term "scope employment," widely art. Moreover, relied on, rather any particular State, expressly intended create federal uniform, nationwide application broadly preempting state statutory regulation. Petitioners' argument whenever hiring party retains right control, actually controls, inconsistent language legislative history provisions, distort provisions' structure, views employees commissioned contractors mutually exclusive entities. Pp. 737-751. 2. question meaning 101. "employee" since, although directed enough ensure met specifications, all relevant circumstances weigh heavily against finding employment relationship. engages skilled occupation; supplied own tools; Baltimore without daily supervision from Washington; retained relatively short period time; absolute freedom decide when how long order meet deadline; total discretion paying assistants. no assign additional projects Reid; manner often compensated; engage regularly business creating or, fact, n business; pay payroll Social Security taxes, provide benefits, contribute unemployment insurance workers' compensation funds. Furthermore, petitioners concede, does 751-753. 3. nevertheless may joint author thus, co-owner 201(a), if, remand, determines intention contributions merged inseparable interdependent parts unitary whole. P. 753. 270 U.S.App.D.C. 26, 846 F.2d 1485 (1988), affirmed. MARSHALL, J., delivered opinion unanimous Court. Robert Alan Garrett, petitioners. Joshua Kaufman, respondent. Lawrence S. Robbins, Register Copyrights amicus curiae supporting respondent, special leave Justice MARSHALL 1 this case, artist hired contest work. resolve dispute, we construe 1976 (Act Act), §§ particular, provision 101(1)). 2 * Petitioners nonprofit unincorporated association homelessness America, Mitch Snyder, member trustee CCNV. decided participate annual Christmastime Pageant Peace sponsoring dramatize homeless. As recounted: 3 "Snyder fellow conceived idea nature display: modern Nativity scene which, lieu traditional Holy Family, two adult figures infant appear contemporary people huddled streetside steam grate. family black (most Washington being black); life-sized, grate positioned atop platform 'pedestal,' special-effects equipment enclosed emit simulated 'steam' through grid swirl about figures. They settled title work—'Third World America'—and legend pedestal: 'and still room inn.' " 652 F.Supp. 1453, 1454 (DC 1987). 4 Snyder inquiries locate sculpture. He referred James Maryland, sculptor. course telephone calls, sculpt three human make pedestal statue. proposed cast bronze, cost approximately $100,000 taking six eight months complete. rejected proposal because have sufficient funds, December 12 included pageant. suggested, agreed, material known "Design Cast 62," synthetic substance could monetary time constraints, tinted resemble withstand elements. project more $15,000, including services, he offered donate. sign Neither mentioned copyright. 5 received advance $3,000, several sketches various poses. At Snyder's request, sent sketch showing creche like etting: mother seated, cradling baby lap; father standing behind her, bending over shoulder touch baby's foot. testified asked raising funds approval. sought serve model Upon suggestion, living shelter but only newly born child suitable model. took see streets. pointed out tended recline grates, sit stand, warm bodies. From contained reclining 6 Throughout November weeks statue, assisted times dozen different provided installments occasions, base. suitcases shopping bags hold family's personal belongings, insisting instead cart. discuss these visits. 7 24, days after date, There placed near site $15,000. remained month. late January 1986, returned studio minor repairs. Several later, began making plans take tour cities raise money objected, contending Design 62 strong ambitious itinerary. urged bronze $35,000, master mold $5,000. declined spend project. 8 return refused. certificate "Third America" name announced modest proposed. acting capacity trustee, immediately registration. 9 commenced action photographer, Ronald Purtee,1 seeking ownership. granted preliminary injunction, ordering return. 2-day bench trial, declared CCNV, owner F.Supp., 1457. reasoned been motivating force statue's production. members, explained, "conceived contrast national celebration season," "directed [Reid's] effort assure that, end, produced what they, he, wanted." Id., 1456. 10 Columbia Circuit reversed remanded, 35, 1485, 1494 (1988). Adopting termed "literal interpretation" articulated Fifth Easter eal Society Crippled Children & Adults Louisiana, Inc. v. Playboy Enterprises, 815 323, 329 (1987), cert. denied, 485 981, 108 1280, 99 491 read "a simple dichotomy fact between contractors." U.S.App.D.C., 33, F.2d, 1492. Because, law, concluded employee" 101(1). 1494. Nor 101(2)): subsection, Ibid. id., 36, 1495, indeed Act, 39-40, 1498-1499. 11 We certiorari conflict among Courts proper Act.2 488 940, 362, 102 352 now affirm. II A. provides "vests initially authors work." rule, creates work, is, translates fixed, tangible expression entitled protection. 102. carves important exception, however, "works hire."3 If hire, "the considered author" owns copyright, 201(b). Classifying "made initial copyright's duration, 302(c), owners' renewal rights, 304(a), termination 203(a), import certain goods bearing 601(b)(1). See M. Nimmer D. Nimmer, 5.03[A], pp. 5-10 contours doctrine carry profound significance freelance creators—including artists, writers, photographers, designers, composers, computer programmers—and publishing, advertising, music, industries commission works.4 13 Section "for sets circumstances: 14 "(1) employment; 15 (2) specially contribution collective part motion picture audiovisual translation, supplementary compilation, instructional text, test, answer atlas, if agree instrument signed shall hire."5 16 do claim satisfies Quite clearly, not. Sculpture fit establishes dispositive inquiry case define terms. absence guidance, four interpretations emerged. holds party6 control product. Peregrine Lauren Corp., 601 828, 829 (Colo.1985); Clarkstown Reeder, 566 137, 142 (SDNY 1983). view. Brief 15; Tr. Oral Arg. 12. A second, closely related, view has wielded respect creation This approach formulated Second Circuit, Aldon Accessories Ltd. Spiegel, Inc., 738 548, 469 982, 105 387, 83 321 (1984), adopted Fourth Brunswick Beacon, Schock-Hopchas Publishing Co., 810 410 Seventh Evans Newton, Chicago Systems Software, 793 889, 479 949, 107 434, 93 383 (1986), times, petitioners, 17. third carries meaning. endorsed Seal 323 below. Finally, numerous amici contend refers "formal, salaried" employees. See, e.g., Respondent 23-24; Amicus Curiae 7. Ninth recently Dumas Gommerman, 865 1093 (1989). 18 starting point our interpretation statute always language. Consumer Product Safety Comm'n GTE Sylvania, 447 102, 108, 100 2051, 2056, 64 766 (1980). employment." It well established "[w]here uses accumulated . infer, otherwise dictates, means terms." NLRB Amax Coal 453 322, 329, 2789, 2794, 69 672 (1981); Perrin United States, 444 37, 42, 311, 314, (1979). past, defining it, master-servant relationship understood doctrine. Kelley Southern Pacific 419 318, 322-323, 95 472, 475-476, 42 498 (1974); Baker Texas R. 359 227, 228, 79 664, 665, 756 (1959) (per curiam ); Robinson Ohio 237 84, 94, 35 491, 494, 59 L.Ed. 849 (1915). Nothing words "employment" 'the employe.' Kelley, supra, U.S., S.Ct., 476, quoting Robinson, 494; cf. Hearst Publications, 322 111, 124-132, 851, 857-861, 88 1170 (1944) (rejecting conception purposes National Labor Relations where structure context indicated broader definition). term, art Restatement (Second) Agency 228 (1958) Restatement). 19 past cases interpretation, "employer," agency, give 323-324, n. 5; 332, 480 (Stewart, concurring judgment); Ward Atlantic Coast Line 362 396, 400, 80 789, 792, 820 (1960); Baker, 665. practice reflects "federal statutes generally uniform application." Mississippi Band Choctaw Indians Holyfield, 30, 43, 1597, 1605, 29 Establishment rule reliance particularly appropriate here given Act's express objective national, pre-empting 301(a). thus agency. 20 contrast, neither test consistent Act. focus product clashes 101(1), focuses parties. ensuing plainly distinct ways can deemed hire: employees, subject ignores transforming party. Because hires specify characteristics desired, accepted, frequently until completed, mean many 101(2) woul already hard square 101(2)'s enumeration specific eligible work," picture," "answer test." unifying feature usually instance, direction, risk publisher producer.7 By very nature, therefore, types petitioners' test. 21 actual Accessories, fares marginally better measured Under so controlled supervised "employees" Thus depends party's of, 552. arise 101(2), commissions, falls categories. Nonetheless, "[t]here simply way milk 'actual control' statute." Society, 334. clearly delineates works. Sound though distinctions might matter policy, support 22 conclude approaches.8 means, contractors, ordinary canons indicate classification reference 23 reading undefined finds considerable history. Cf. Diamond Chakrabarty, 303, 315, 2204, 2210-11, 65 144 almost completely revised existing decades negotiation representatives creators copyright-using industries, Office lesser extent, Congress. Mills Music, 153, 159, 638, 642-43, 556 (1985); Litman, Copyright, Compromise, Legislative History, 72 Cornell L.Rev. 857, 862 (1987). Despite lengthy compromise ultimately things constant. First, interested viewed separate Second, using refer These factors militate favor found appropriate. 24 1955, overhaul 1909 26 (1976 ed.) (1909 Act). word 'author' include hire."9 "employer" hire," task shaping fell courts. codified regular employment. works, courts presumed impliedly convey along itself, Shapiro, Bernstein Co. Jerry Vogel Music 221 569, 570, rev'd, 223 252 (CA2 1955); Yardley Houghton Mifflin 28, 31 1939), 309 686, 60 891, 84 1029 (1940).10 25 1961, Office's distinction contractors. Report General Revision Law, 87th Cong., 1st Sess., Law 86-87 (H.R. Judiciary Comm. Print 1961). meetings affected issued draft bill 1963. Register's recommendation, duties mployment, commission." Preliminary Draft Revised Discussions Comments Draft, 88th 2d Revision, Part 3, p. 15, (H. 1964) Draft). response objections book publishers limited "employees,"11 1964 revision expanded reach, time, bill's language, publishing industry, insofar "employees," added clause covering regard matter, "if writing." 3008, H.R. 11947, 12354, 54 (1964), reproduced Bill Comments, 89th pt. 1965). Those representing objected allow superior bargaining position agreements, thereby relinquishing rights condition getting books published. Supplementary Report, 67. 27 1965, interests reached historic compromise, embodied memorandum submitted Office,12 incorporated 1965 bill, enacted same form nearly years (1) referring exchange concessions relating transfer consented classified writing: "as picture, 1006, 4347, 5680, 6835, (1965). selected covered treated ordinarily "at producer." emphasized "four specifically mentioned" qualify hire; "[o]ther come definition." t 67-68. 28 1966, House Committee bills. H.R.Rep. 2237, 114, 116 (1966). Retaining focused "how draw line not." 115. compilations, texts, tests, atlases. 116. With single addition test," enacted, 1966 bill.13 Indeed, much Senate Reports borrowed accompanying earlier drafts. 94-1476, 121 (1976); S.Rep. 94-473, (1975), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 5659. Thus, significant reasons. enactment modifications demonstrates acquire status: underscores clear language: accorded status. determinative. Note, Commissioner: Commissioned Works N.Y.U.L.Rev. 373, 388 importing based unravel 'carefully aimed balancing legitimate both sides.' Supplemental 66.14 30 find convincing contrary Congress, enacting exists supervise artist's Siegel Periodical 508 909, 914 1974); Picture Bourne, 457 1213, 1216 (CA2), 409 997, 320, 34 262 (1972); Scherr Universal Match 417 497, 500 1969), 397 936, 90 945, (1970); Brattleboro Winmill 369 565, 567-568 1966). position, note: "Nowhere jettison standard reject pre-Act judicial identifying relationship." 20, citing unpersuaded. Ordinarily, "Congress' silence just that—silence." Alaska Airlines, Brock, 678, 1476, 1481, 94 661 misplaced counsel otherwise. Bourjaily 483 171, 178, 2775, 2780, 97 (1987); Harrison PPG Industries, 446 578, 592, 1889, 1897, 525 (1980).15 fully developed essentially 1966. applied forged Congress16 567-568. certainly "jettisoned" yet decided. 32 impede paramount goal revising enhancing predictability certainty H. Rep. 129. "copyright marketplace," negotiate expectation will Dumas, 1104-1105, 18. expectation, outset settle contractual price reproduction rights. 33 extent endorse test,17 prevents planning. turns monitored production process, know approach, predict sufficiently author. "If guess incorrectly, 'work hire' assignment interest bargain for." 333; accord, 1103. understanding thwarts ensuring "leaves door open failed get full falling outside subdivision guidelines, unilaterally obtain work-made-for-hire party." Hamilton, Made Hire Act: Misinterpretation Injustice, 135 U.Pa.L.Rev. 1281, 1304 sum, argument. Transforming basis provisions. ascertain, contractor. determination, B turn, finally, America." determining consider accomplished.18 Among skill required;19 source instrumentalities tools;20 location work;21 duration parties;22 party;23 work;24 method payment;25 role assistants;26 party;27 business;28 benefits;29 tax treatment party.30 220(2) (setting forth nonexhaustive list employee).31 No Ward, 792; Hilton Int'l NLRB, 690 1982). 36 Examining factors, 11, 1494, 11. True, specifications. But exercises details dispositive. occupation. tools. activities practicably impossible. less months, time. During Reid. Apart deadline completing sum dependent "completion job, compensated." Holt Winpisinger, 258 343, 351, 1532, 1540 "Creating sculptures hardly 'regular business' CCNV." all. 37 concede cannot do. virtue clear, "with con ributions whole." 101.32 38 For aforestated reasons, affirm judgment Circuit. 39 ordered. Purtee named defendant appeared claimed Compare (CA5 1987) (agency 101), (CA4 (supervision 101); 889 (CA7) (same), (1986); 548 (CA2) (1984). (CA9 1989) (a multifactor formal, salaried 101). phrase interchangeably cumbersome hire." 40 percent registrations according study. Varmer, Commission, Studies Prepared Subcommittee Patents, Trademarks, Judiciary, Study 13, 86th 139, 49 (Comm. 1960) Hire). keep recent statistics registrations. each "hiring party," claims Law: Bill, 6, 66-67 1965) Report); Hardy, Law's Concept Employment—What Really Intended, J.Copr.Soc. USA 210, 244-245 suggestion some history, 130; infra, say "formal" "salaried" employee, "employee." content Compare, (hired 101(1)) receives salary commissions 101(1)); Volunteer Lawyers Arts, al. Amici Even adopt embraced incorporating drawn endorse. 1104. concept arose controversies involving persons Colliery Engineer Correspondence Schools F. 152 (CC SDNY 1899); Little Gould, F.Cas. 612 (No. 8,395) NDNY 1852). note Bleistein Donaldson Lithographing 188 239, 248, 298, 299, 47 460 (1903), advertisements created not, purport Fidlow, "Works Hire" Doctrine Employee/Independent Contractor Dichotomy: Need Congressional Clarification, Hastings Comm.Ent.L.J. 591, 600-601 Varmer study, itself subsections labeled Commission." overlap 259 (statement Horace Manges, Joint American Book Publishers Council Textbook Institute) ("There necessity putting employers wouldn't want put payroll, prefer contractors"); 272 Saul N. Rittenberg, MGM) ("[T]he present emphasis formalism necessary. I man, my purposes, difference contract establish relationship?"); 260 John Peterson, Bar Association) ("I don't think valid philosophical economic situation you man continuing orders justifies placing your job"). major involved process: authors, lyricists. Revision: Hearings 6831, 6835 before 1, 134 An attempt add "photographic portrait[s]," objected: "The portraits 'works difficult justify. Artists photographers vulnerable poorly protected beneficiaries seems serious composers choreographers, 'employees' carefully negotiated section 101." 1975 Chapter XI, 12-13. Strict adherence where, here, result series crafted compromises. Rodriguez Compass Shipping 451 596, 617, 1945, 1957-58, 68 472 States Sisson, 399 267, 291, 2117, 2134, 608 (1970). framing (1976), 5736 need concerning coowners [sic] work; court-made left undisturbed"); (same). Over later formally revisions. 160-161, 643-644, (1985). practical demonstrate existence evidence exercise right. Murray Gelderman, 1307, 1310-1311 1978). 320 1982); Maine Caterers, 654 131, 133 (CA1 1981), 455 1432, 71 651 (1982); 220(1). Bartels Birmingham, 332 126, 132, 67 1547, 1550-51, 91 1947 (1947); 320; Duie Pyle, 606 379, 382 (CA3 1979); 220(2)(d). Ins. 390 254, 258, 988, 990-91, 1083 (1968); Silk, 331 704, 717, 718, 1463, 1470, 1470-71, 1757 1105; 220(2)(e). 990-91; Darden Nationwide Mutual 796 01, 705 1986); 259, 991; Bartels, 1550-51; 220(2)(f). 1105. Short Central Southeast Southwest Areas Pension Fund, 729 567, 574 (CA8 1984). Darden, 705; 220(2)(g). 719, 1471; Short, 574. 1470-71; 321; 220(2)(h). 220(2)(j). traditionally looked guidance Agency. (1959). nor review Appeals' remand order. occasion pass applicability authorship case.

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