Document: 334 U.S. 410 68 S.Ct. 1138 92 L.Ed. 1478 TORAO TAKAHASHIv.FISH AND GAME COMMISSION et al. No. 533. Argued April 21, 22, 1948. Decided June 7, Messrs. Dean G. Acheson, of Washington, D.C., and A. L. Wirin, Los Angeles, Cal., for petitioner. Mr. Ralph Winfield Scott, San Francisco, respondents. [Argument Counsel from page 411 intentionally omitted] Justice BLACK delivered the opinion Court. 1 The respondent, Torao Takahashi, born in Japan, came to this country became a resident California 1907. Federal laws, based on distinctions 'color race,' Hidemitsu Toyota v. United States, 268 402, 411, 412, 45 563, 565, 566, 69 1016, have permitted Japanese certain other nonwhite racial groups enter reside country, but made them ineligible States citizenship.1 question presented is whether can, consistently with Constitution laws passed pursuant it, use federally created ineligibility citizenship as basis barring Takahashi earning his living commercial fisherman ocean waters off coast California. 2 Prior 1943 issued fishing licenses all qualified persons without regard alienage or citizenship. From 1915 1942 under annual by State, fished coast, apparently both within three-mile coastal belt, brought fresh fish ashore sale. In 1942, while was at war residents ancestry were evacuated State military orders. See Korematsu 323 214, 65 193, 89 194. 1943, during period evacuation, an amendment Fish Game Code adopted prohibiting issuance license any 'alien Japanese.' Cal.Stats. ch. 1100. 1945, state code again amended striking provision fear that it might be 'declared unconstitutional' because directed only 'against alien Japanese';2 new banned 'person citizenship,' which classification included Japanese. 181.3 Because underf ederal law, who met requirements, denied Commission upon return 1945. 3 action mandamus Superior Court Angeles County, California, compel issue him. That court granted petition mandamus. It held lawful inhabitants despite their citizenship, entitled engage vocation high seas beyond belt same terms inhabitants, denying right violated equal protection clause Fourteenth Amendment. Supreme Court, three judges dissenting, reversed, holding had proprietary interest miles shore, justified aliens general particular catching threemile bringing purposes. 30 Cal.2d 719, 185 P.2d 805, 808.4 To review importance fields federal-state relationships constitutionally protected individual equality liberty, we certiorari. 4 We may well begin our consideration principles applied case summary Court's Truax Raich, 239 33, 36 9, 60 131, L.R.A. 1916D, 545, Ann.Cas. 1917B, 283, not deemed controlling majority regarded dissenters requiring invalidation law. involved attack Arizona law required employers more than five workers hire less eighty (80) per cent electors native-born citizens States. worked cook restaurant employees, about lose job solely law's coercive effect owner. This upholding Raich's contention invalid, declared having been lawfully admitted into federal privilege abide 'any Union' thereafter Amendment enjoy he abided; carried 'right work common occupations community,' denial would make 'a barren form words.' answer Arizona's restriction employment 'reasonable' therefore permissible, declared: 5 'It must also said reasonable implies consistent legitimate interests state, will disputed these cannot so broadly conceived bring hostility exclusive power. authority control immigration—to admit exclude aliens—is vested government. Fong Yue Ting 149 698, 713, 13 1022, 37 905, 913. assertion deny opportunity livelihood when tantamount entrance abode, ordinary cases they live where work. And, if such policy practical result those acts Congress, instead enjoying substantial sense full scope privileges conferred admission, seggregated states chose offer hospitality.' supra, 42, 11, 283. 6 Had decision nothing further what quoted above, its reasoning, followed, seem require occupation inconsistent 'the supreme Law Land.' Const. art. 6, cl. 2. However, there went note occasion sustained legislation did apply alike non-citizens, ground distinction being necessary protect special either such. pointed out aimed against vocations, failed show 'special public respect business * could possibly support enactment.' noted previously upheld various resricted planting oysters tidewater rivers cii zens possessing rifle shooting game state; referred decisions recognizing state's broad powers, absence overriding treaties, restrict devolution real property non-aliens.5 7 now urges, held, here challenged falls rationale interest' distinguished opinion, thus ban valid. this: owns trustee noncitizen inhabitants; trustee-owner, has complete power bar means conserving supply fish; since migratory caught swimming are indistinguishable adjacent seas, order enforce control, can regulate delivery mile Bayside Co. Gentry, 297 422, 56 513, 80 772. Its goes, tends reduce number fishermen proper conservation measure; exercise decide licenses, duty, first aliens, no community owned State. Finally, legislature's 'ineligible citizenship' defended classification, simply followed Government's lead adopting naturalization laws. 8 First. measure vigorously denied. petitioner argues outgrowth antagonism Japanese, reason alone stand. 216, 194, 194; Kotch Board River Pilot Com'rs, 330 552, 556, 67 910, 912, 91 1093; Yick Wo Hopkins, 118 356, 1064, 220; re Ah Chong, C.C., F. 733, 737. find unnecessary resolve controversy concerning motives prompted enactment legislation. Accordingly, purposes assume conserve waters, engaged competition reasons. 9 Second. does follow, seems argue regulates immigration part race color classifications, adopt one classifications prevent borders way earn living. Government constitutional powers determining shall remain, regulation conduct before naturalization, conditions naturalization. Hines Davidowitz, 312 52, 66, 61 399, 403, 85 581. Under grante powers; neither add nor take imposed Congress residence several states. impose discriminatory burdens conflict derived immigration, accordingly invalid.6 Moreover, comprehensive legislative plan nation-wide provided: 10 'All jurisdiction every Territory contracts, sue, parties, give evidence, benefit proceedings security enjoyed white citizens, subject like punishment, pains, penalties, taxes, exactions kind, other.' 16 Stat. 140, 144, U.S.C. § 41, U.S.C.A. 41. 11 section extend citizens.7 Consequently rests 'all persons' bearing unequally color. Hurd Hodge, 24, 847. embody 'in state' legal non-discriminatory 12 All foregoing emphasizes tenuousness claim single particularly class following put some wholly distinguishable over supported policies treat separately differently countries composed peoples many diverse cultures, races, colors. For reasons exclusively confined narrow limits. Third. unable relies provides Takahashi's fishing. As out, California's collective owners belt. true long ago say collectively own tide-waters them, far capable ownership running.' McCready Virginia, 94 391, 394, 24 248. Cf. 332 19, 38, 1658; Toomer Witsell, 385, 1156. Virginia prohibited river. Though often distinguished, relied cases, including Geer Connecticut, 161 519, 600, 40 793. decision, te commerce involved, that, people out-of-state transportation killed state. On hand, Louisiana shrimp ultimate sale shipment consumption outside boundaries, local processing taken marshes prerequisite transportation. Foster-Fountain Packing Haydel, 278 1, 49 73 147. hunting wild due process challenges. Patsone Pennsylvania, 232 138, 34 281, 58 539. Later, however, Migratory Bird Treaty Act 1918, 755, 703, Missouri birds boundaries prior statements case. Holland, 252 416, 382, 64 641, A.L.R. 984. 'To title lean slender reed.' 434, 384, think statement equally applicable here. whatever extent 'capable ownership' 'ownership' inadequate justify excluding making shores permitting others do so. 14 leaves argument should land ownership.8 Assuming continued validity cases,9 event They rested borders, exercised peculiar property. extended cover 15 judgment reversed remanded opinion. Reversed. 17 MURPHY, whom RUTLEDGE agrees, concurring. 18 I join, adequately expresses my views important aspect relates fact 990 Code, securing direct toward ancestry. Even most cursory examination background statute demonstrates designed discriminate manner concept Legislation type wear cloak constitutionality. 19 manifestation anti-Japanese fever evident varying degrees turn century. concurring Oyama 633, 650, 269, 277 dissenting 233, 201, fever, course, trc eable refusal inability adjust themselves economically socially relative years Pearl Harbor, protagonists intolerance leveling unfounded accusations innuendoes crews operating These numbered thousand resided claimed espionage illicit activities behalf Government. Japan approached finally reality, charges repeated increasing vigor. Yet investigations appropriate authorities reveal competent supporting evidence; even arrested alleged espionage. Such baseless viewed integral campaign undermine reputation discourage McWilliams, Prejudice (1944), VII. 20 More specifically, used secure passage But immediately forthcoming. presence occurrence untoward incidents served time adequate refutation propaganda. Then evacuation West Coast. supra. Once achieved, intensive begun evacuees. old charges, ones relating fishermen, refurbished augmented. absent provide effective opposition. winds animosity blew unabated. 21 During height storm numerous bills considered legislators. Several amendments Alien Land enacted. And altered 'A person No pretense alteration conservation. excluded immediate indicated; banning early fish. doing utmost encourage greater food production wartime main desire increase rather decrease catch Certainly contemporaneous bulletins reports Bureau Marine Fisheries indicate existence problem excess fishermen. Thirty-Eighth Biennial Report (July 1944), pp. 33-36; Bulletin 58, year 1940; 59, 1941 1942. 22 circumstances confirm obvious intended aliens. By taking away rights, lives plied fisherman's trade difficult unremunerative. non-Japanese thereby free afforded Amendment, permit fashion, purpose competitive residents. 23 1945 900 us stands better position amendment. later alteratio eliminated reference Japanese' substituted therefor citizenship.' Adoption change occurred agitation reached periodic peaks. announcement end exclusion orders, plus Ex parte Endo, 208, 243, evacuees certainty. prejudices, antagonisms hatreds once aroused, punctuated violence returning Americans. Another wave proposals marked session. setting proposed enacted significance committee devoted resettlement problems, concerned Senate Fact-Finding Committee Resettlement report May dealt matters Law, language schools, dual Tule Lake riot. heading 'Japanese Fishing Boats' (pp. 5-6) appeared explanation 900: 'The gave little problems vessels operated matter covered committee, feels danger present unconstitutional, grounds discrimination, believed probably bill introduced Bill 413 statute.' 25 Not word reort regarding need necessity limiting thought behind attempt legalize discrimination dropping specific them. 26 revision adopted. trial below correctly described situation follows: 'As commonly known legislators bordering judicial notice fact, becomes manifest enacting version Section 990, Legislature eliminate description name. intents same, thin veil conceal too transparent. each both, profit, shore selling constitutes unequal exaction burden named calling conditions, amounts prohibition. patently hostile, and, extent, violation *.' 27 blink written, piece relation cognizable drawn economic tension. spirit soley birth. denies rights threaten success program, constitute clear welfare nation, stock, stock misfortune arouse among powerful interests. unbutton seemingly innocent words discover beneath very negation ideals clause. warrant reversal below. 28 REED, dissenting. 29 me conclude affirmed briefly stated. treated traditionally natural resource, regulation, sovereign handling shores.1 is, think, resources preserved exploitation aliens.2 fisheries. analogous land, borders. Terrace Thompson, 263 197, 44 15, 255.3 closely akin hunt, reasonably advantageous citizens.4 A operation pool billiard halls city harmful tendencies. Clarke Deckebach, 274 392, 47 630, 71 1115.5 31 pursued treatment citizens. Citizens superior exploiting resources.6 Perhaps open door America until determines fisheries, feel arm privilege. 32 appears rely attempting classify putting restrictions fish, decision. works recognized case.7 consideration, Heim McCall, 175, 78, 206, 287.8 case, attacked constitutionality New York provided 'In construction municipality, contracting employed; laborers employed works, preference given York.'9 unanimous statute, immunities, process, clauses Constitution, City subways private contractors.10 permits surely rights. enjoyment unwilling become 33 If privileges, see why established Constitution. 220, 255. Whatever wisdom intervene passes JACKSON joins dissent. regulating Title U.S.Code, U.S.C.A.; codification governing prerequisites 703. An act 1790 'free eligible 103. Later eligibility groups: 1870, 'aliens African nativity descent,' 254, 256; 1940, 'descendants races indigenous Western Hemisphere,' 54 1137, 1140, 703; 'Chinese Chinese 57 601, 1946, Filipinos 'persons India,' While few still eligible, 635, n. 3, 270, according 1940 census, constituted great then Murphy supra pages 665, 666, nn. 277, 284, 285. Resettlement, 5—6. reads: 'Persons procure license: issuable. Every uses operates assists using boat, net, trap, line, appliance mollusks crustaceans brings causes point license. corporation authorized none officers directors thereof stockholders Cal. 990. 1947 person, citizen States,' obtain sport amendments. Cal.Stats.1947, c. 1329, §§ 427, 428. ordered authorizing 'catches State's territorial jurisdiction.' After appeal catches seas. amend after void. license, namely, ordering limited something do, affirm court's requested not, ground, ruled o de valid Commission's grant terms. Since last resort properly cited cases: 248; 539; Hauenstein Lynham, 100 483, 628; Blythe Hinckley, 180 333, 390, 557. supra; Chy Lung Freeman, 275, 280, 550; 65, 68, 404, 369, 1070, Wong Kim Ark, 169 649, 696, 456, 475, 42 890; Tiburcio Parrott, 481, 508, 509; Fraser McConway & Torley Co., 82 257. 255; Porterfield Webb, 225, 278; Webb O'Brien, 313, 112, 318; Frick 326, 115, 323. 646, 672, 276, 288. Flour 425, 514, text, obviously cast commerce. Washington similar Lubetich Pollock, F.2d 237. opportunities. 248 (planting oyster beds). discriminating between non-residents permissible. Haavik Alaska Packers Ass'n, 510, 177, 414. controlled located. rule Collingwood Pace, Vent. 413, 86 Eng.Rep. 262. nations, Vattell, Nations (1883) 8, 114, accepted country. Chirac Chirac, Wheat. 259, 234; Levy McCartee, Pet. 102, 113; 341, Whether philosophical power, game, theory trusteeship coasts material. governments treaty otherwise. expressing conclusion Holmes phrased follows, 145, 146, 282, remembered whole discussion preserve pleases.' speaking through Stone, said, 396, 631, 1115: objections ordinance persuasive. Although prohibit plainly irrational follow allegiance bear instances object classification.' limits compared territories, 86, 71—86; disposition mineral lands, 181, 181; 43 161, 161; engaging coastwise trade, 46 13, 13; aircraft, 176(c), 521, 521. limit benefits Emergency Relief Appropriation 1938 'filed declaration intention American 52 809, 813, 721—728 note. 39, 40, 10, L.R.A.1916D, Ann.Cas.1917B, 283: defined pertain distribution domain, decisions, *; added receive moneys. enterprise.' aru ed October 1915, decided November 1915; argued 12, 29, 1915. 176, 79, 287. directly discussed unaware cases. 80, explains careful reservation

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