Document: 514 U.S. 549115 S.Ct. 1624131 L.Ed.2d 626 UNITED STATES, Petitionerv.Alfonso LOPEZ, Jr. No. 93-1260. Supreme Court of the United States Argued Nov. 8, 1994. Decided April 26, 1995. Syllabus * After respondent, then a 12th-grade student, carried concealed handgun into his high school, he was charged with violating Gun-Free School Zones Act 1990, which forbids "any individual knowingly to possess firearm at place that [he] knows . is school zone," 18 U.S.C. § 922(q)(1)(A). The District denied motion dismiss indictment, concluding 922(q) constitutional exercise Congress' power regulate activities in and affecting commerce. In reversing, Appeals held that, light what it characterized as insufficient congressional findings legislative history, invalid beyond under Commerce Clause. Held: exceeds Clause authority. First, although this has upheld wide variety Acts regulating intrastate economic activity substantially affected interstate commerce, possession gun local zone no sense an might, through repetition elsewhere, have such substantial effect on Section criminal statute by its terms nothing do "commerce" or any sort enterprise, however broadly those are defined. Nor essential part larger regulation activity, regulatory scheme could be undercut unless were regulated. It cannot, therefore, sustained Court's cases upholding regulations arise out connected commercial transaction, viewed aggregate, affects Second, contains jurisdictional element would ensure, case-by-case inquiry, firearms question requisite nexus Respondent student school; there indication had recently moved requirement concrete tie To uphold Government's contention justified because does indeed affect commerce require pile inference upon manner bid fair convert authority general police only States. Pp. __. 2 F.3d 1342, (CA5 1993), affirmed. REHNQUIST, C.J., delivered opinion Court, O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, JJ., joined. J., filed concurring opinion, opinion. STEVENS, SOUTER, dissenting opinions. BREYER, GINSBURG, Drew S. Days, III, New Haven, CT, for petitioner. John R. Carter, Georgetown, TX, respondent. Chief Justice REHNQUIST Court. 1 Congress made federal offense "for knows, reasonable cause believe, zone." 922(q)(1)(A) (1988 ed., Supp. V). neither regulates nor way We hold "[t]o among several ." Const., Art. I, cl. 3. On March 10, 1992, who arrived Edison High San Antonio, Texas, carrying .38 caliber five bullets. Acting anonymous tip, authorities confronted admitted weapon. He arrested Texas law premises. See Tex.Penal Code Ann. 46.03(a)(1) (Supp.1994). next day, state charges dismissed after agents respondent complaint 1990. V).1 3 A grand jury indicted one count knowing zone, violation 922(q). indictment ground "is unconstitutional legislate control over our public schools." motion, well-defined 'business' elementary, middle schools commerce." App. Pet. Cert. 55a. waived right trial. conducted bench trial, found him guilty 922(q), sentenced six months' imprisonment two years' supervised release. 4 appeal, challenged conviction based claim exceeded Fifth Circuit agreed reversed respondent's conviction. "section full reach terms, Clause." 1367-1368 (1993). Because importance issue, we granted certiorari, 511 ----, 114 1536, 128 189 (1994), now affirm. 5 start first principles. Constitution creates Federal Government enumerated powers. 8. As James Madison wrote, "[t]he powers delegated proposed government few Those remain State governments numerous indefinite." Federalist 45, pp. 292-293 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961). This constitutionally mandated division "was adopted Framers ensure protection fundamental liberties." Gregory v. Ashcroft, 501 452, 458, 111 2395, 2400, 115 410 (1991) (internal quotation marks omitted). "Just separation independence coordinate branches serves prevent accumulation excessive branch, healthy balance between will reduce risk tyranny abuse from either front." Ibid. 6 delegates foreign Nations, States, Indian Tribes." Marshall, defined nature Gibbons Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 189-190, L.Ed. 23 (1824): 7 "Commerce, undoubtedly, traffic, but something more: intercourse. describes intercourse nations, parts all branches, regulated prescribing rules intercourse." 8 regulate; is, prescribe rule governed. power, like others vested Congress, complete itself, may exercised utmost extent, acknowledges limitations, other than prescribed constitution." Id., 196. however, acknowledged limitations inherent very language "It not intended say these words comprehend completely internal, man State, different same extend Such inconvenient, certainly unnecessary. 10 "Comprehensive word 'among' properly restricted concerns more one. enumeration presupposes enumerated; something, if regard subject sentence, must exclusively internal State." 194-195. 11 For nearly century thereafter, decisions dealt rarely extent almost entirely limit legislation discriminated against See, e.g., Veazie Moor, 14 How. 568, 573-575, 545 (1853) (upholding state-created steamboat monopoly involved wholly commerce); Kidd Pearson, 17, 20-22, 6, 9-10, 32 346 (1888) prohibition manufacture intoxicating liquor "does purely domestic within State"); see also L. Tribe, American Constitutional Law 306 (2d 1988). Under line precedent, certain categories "production," "manufacturing," "mining" province governments, thus Wickard Filburn, 317 111, 121, 63 82, 87, 87 122 (1942) (describing development jurisprudence). 12 1887, enacted Interstate Act, 24 Stat. 379, 1890, Sherman Antitrust 26 209, amended, 15 et seq. These laws ushered new era power. When involving reached imported negative approach "mining." E.C. Knight Co., 156 12, 249, 253-254, 39 325 (1895) ("Commerce succeeds manufacture, it"); Carter Coal 298 238, 304, 56 855, 869, 80 1160 (1936) ("Mining brings matter existence. disposes it"). Simultaneously, where aspects so mingled together required incidental authorized regulation. Houston, E. & W.T.R. Co. 234 342, 34 833, 58 1341 (1914) (Shreveport Rate Cases ). 13 A.L.A. Schecter Poultry Corp. 295 495, 550, 55 837, 851-52, 79 1570 (1935), struck down fixed hours wages individuals employed business being related indirectly. doing so, distinction direct indirect effects transactions "a one, maintenance system." 548, S.Ct., 851. Activities directly power; indirectly reach. 546, 850. justification formal rooted fear otherwise "there virtually practical purposes should centralized government." Two years later, watershed case NLRB Jones Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 57 615, 81 893 (1937), National Labor Relations challenge, process, departed "direct" "indirect" 36-38, 623-624 ("The [of scope power] necessarily degree"). "have close relation their appropriate protect burdens obstructions" regulate. 37, 624. Darby, 312 100, 61 451, 85 609 (1941), Fair Standards stating: 16 "The confined states. extends make them means attainment legitimate end, 118, 459. 17 Wrightwood Dairy 315 110, 119, 62 523, 526, 86 726 (the "extends interfere obstruct power"). application amendments Agricultural Adjustment 1938 production consumption homegrown wheat. U.S., 128-129, 90-91. explicitly rejected earlier distinctions 19 "[E]ven appellee's though regarded still, whatever nature, exerts irrespective whether might some time been 'direct' 'indirect.' " 125, 89. 20 emphasized Filburn's own contribution demand wheat trivial "enough remove where, here, contribution, taken many similarly situated, far trivial." 127-128, 21 Steel, jurisprudence greatly expanded previously part, recognition great changes occurred country. Enterprises once most regional become national scope. But doctrinal change reflected view artificially constrained 22 even modern-era precedents confirm outer limits. warned "must considered dual system extended embrace remote them, complex society, effectually obliterate create 624; supra, 119-120, 459-460 (Congress "substantial effect" Wickard, 89 "exerts commerce"). Since time, heeded warning undertaken decide rational basis existed sufficiently Hodel Virginia Surface Mining Reclamation Assn., Inc., 452 264, 276-280, 101 2352, 2360-2361, 69 (1981); Perez 402 146, 155-156, 91 1357, 1362, 28 686 (1971); Katzenbach McClung, 379 294, 299-301, 377, 381-382, 290 (1964); Heart Atlanta Motel, Inc. 241, 252-253, 348, 354-355, 258 (1964).2 Similarly, Maryland Wirtz, 392 183, 88 2017, 1020 (1968), reaffirmed "the broad indeed, limits" ample power" enforce. 196, 2023-2024, overruled grounds, League Cities Usery, 426 96 2465, 49 245 (1976), Garcia Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 528, 105 1005, 83 1016 (1985). response dissent's warnings powerless enforce "[a]ll minutest degree, [Wickard], controlled Congress," 204, 2028 (Douglas, dissenting), Wirtz replied dissent misread precedent "[n]either here declared use relatively impact excuse private activities," id., 197, n. 27, 89-90, 27. Rather, said bears de minimis character instances arising consequence." (first emphasis added). Consistent structure, identified three 150, 1359; 276-277, 2360-2361. channels 114, 457; 256, 357 (" '[T]he keep free immoral injurious uses frequently sustained, longer open question.' (quoting Caminetti 242 470, 491, 37 192, 442 (1917)). empowered instrumentalities persons things threat come activities. Shreveport Cases, (1914); Southern 222 20, 2, 72 (1911) Safety Appliance applied vehicles used Perez, 1359 ("[F]or example, destruction aircraft (18 32), thefts shipments 659)"). Finally, includes having 624, i.e., 2024, 25 Within final category, admittedly, clear "affect" "substantially affect" order Compare Preseault ICC, 494 110 914, 924-925, 108 (1990), 27 never "Congress activities"). conclude, consistent weight law, proper test requires analysis affects" turn consider framework, enact quickly disposed of: attempt prohibit transportation commodity commerce; can sought instrumentality thing Thus, third category concluded Examples include coal mining; Hodel, extortionate credit transactions, restaurants utilizing supplies, inns hotels catering guests, home-grown wheat, (1942). examples exhaustive, pattern clear. Where sustained. Even perhaps reaching example not. Roscoe Filburn operated small farm Ohio, which, year involved, raised acres practice sow winter fall, harvesting July sell portion crop, feed poultry livestock farm, making flour home consumption, remainder seeding future crops. Secretary Agriculture assessed penalty harvested about allotment permitted. designed volume moving avoid surpluses shortages, concomitant fluctuation prices, obtained. said, sustaining activity: 29 "One primary increase market price end thereof market. hardly factor variability home-consumed influence conditions. marketable condition overhangs and, induced rising tends flow check increases. assume marketed, supplies need grew purchases Home-grown competes 128, 30 define terms.3 31 Bass, 404 336, 92 515, 488 (1971), interpreted former 1202(a), crime felon "receiv[e], posses[s], transpor[t] firearm." 337, 517. component 1202(a) additional both ambiguous "unless conveys purpose clearly, deemed significantly changed federal-state balance." 349, 523. Bass set aside demonstrated possessed firearm, failed "to show 347, 522. reserve regulate, without more, "mere possession" firearms. 339, 4, 518, 4; Five Gambling Devices, 441, 448, 74 190, 194, 98 179 (1953) (plurality opinion) principle old deeply imbedded construe decision serious questions statutory leaves alternative"). Unlike express discrete possessions additionally explicit connection Although independent evaluation constitutionality course findings, committee regarding see, concedes history contain[s] Brief 5-6. agree normally 383-384; 156, 1362 ("Congress [not] particularized legislate"). enable us evaluate judgment visible naked eye, they lacking here.4 33 argues accumulated institutional expertise previous enactments. Cf. Fullilove Klutznick, 448 503, 100 2758, 2787, 65 902 (1980) (Powell, concurring). agree, importation justify especially inappropriate "prior enactments Congressional [do not] speak section relationship Indeed, plows thoroughly represents sharp break long-standing legislation." F.3d, 1366. contention, fine, determine valid 17. result violent expected functioning economy ways. costs substantial, mechanism insurance, spread throughout population. Evans, 928 F.2d 858, 862 (CA9 1991). reduces willingness travel areas country perceived unsafe. 253, 355. presence guns poses educational process threatening learning environment. handicapped turn, less productive citizenry. That, adverse Nation's well-being. result, rationally 35 pause implications arguments. admits, "costs crime" reasoning, crime, lead regardless how tenuously relate Tr. Oral Arg. 8-9. "national productivity" productivity citizens: family (including marriage, divorce, child custody), example. theories presents support difficult perceive limitation enforcement education historically sovereign. accept arguments, hard-pressed posit 36 BREYER acceptance rationales authorize unable identify posits education. Post, suggested when expansive analysis, devoid substance. focuses, near potential consequences flowing threat. Specifically, reasons (1) gun-related violence problem; (2) problem, classroom learning; (3) learning, trade ____. equally applicable, subjects 38 instance, can, pursuant adversely environment, then, fortiori, directly. school's curriculum "significant" learning. mandate elementary secondary taught significant "effect learning," cf. post, __, rejects reading conclude fall side line." Again, BREYER's rationale lacks real limits because, depending level generality, looked commercial. rationale, just easily look rearing "fall[ing] line" provides "valuable service—namely, equip [children] skills survive life specifically, workplace." doubt process. That authority, broad, each every aspect schools. 40 Admittedly, determination noncommercial legal uncertainty. But, long limited Constitution, judicially enforceable limits, always engender "legal uncertainty." Marshall stated McCulloch Maryland, 316, 579 (1819): 41 [federal] principle, universally admitted. respect ing actually granted, perpetually arising, probably continue arise, shall exist." 405. 42 Wheat., 195 enumerated"). mandates uncertainty withholding plenary enactment type legislation. framework ever since determined judiciary's duty is." Marbury Madison, Cranch. 137, 177, 60 (1803) (Marshall, C.J.). Any possible benefit eliminating uncertainty" expense Constitution's 43 degree." Cardozo Poultry: 44 "There causation Motion rim communicated perceptibly, minutely, recording instruments center. society ours 'is elastic medium transmits tremors territory; size.' 554, 853 76 617, 624 (CA2 1935) (L. Hand, concurring)). 45 precise formulations, cannot be. think point correct case. 46 contentions retained prior steps road, giving deference action. opinions possibility expansion, decline proceed further. presuppose enumerated, 195, truly local, 30, 621. unwilling do. 47 foregoing 48 Affirmed. whom O'CONNOR joins, concurring. 50 judicial struggle interpret during transition Founders knew single, still emergent counsels restraint before determines gives me today's decision, I join observations conceive necessary holding. 51 announced reaches "that one" (1824). His statements understood early authoritative grants extensive discretion exercise. progression present marked, coherent interpretation; technological advance foundational principles itself self-evident courts resolve contemporary disputes enduring 52 Furthermore, adoption did concern legislate. faced quite distinct matters chosen act. simple fact Republic, seldom necessity circumstances called question. initial task, elaborate permit act done so. Not least problem unresolved exclusive, reserved 209-210. 53 At midpoint 19th century, embraced absent displace invalidate dormant Cooley Board Wardens Port Philadelphia, 299, 318-321, 996 (1852). utility solution apparent, generally F. Frankfurter, Taney Waite (1937) (hereinafter Frankfurter), difficulties persisted, Leisy Hardin, 135 122-125, 681, 688-690, (1890). 54 One inquire lawfulness draw content-based subject-matter distinctions, defining semantic formalistic deciding in-state out-of-state shipment, distinguished "No popular common mind, clearly expressed political literature, manufactur[e] Manufacture transformation—the fashioning raw materials form use. functions different." (1888). Though likely survived State's legislation, propitious chose it. became evident began confront rapid industrial late century. relied manufacture-commerce dichotomy (1895), manufacturers' combination controlling 98% sugar refining capacity outside Act. Conspiracies agriculture, mining, production, wages, explained, too 16, 255. And Adair 208 161, 277, 436 (1908), originated single state, nevertheless activity. logical employe's membership labor organization commerce," 178, 282, forbidding discharge employee organization. Employers' Liability 207 463, 497, 141, 145, 297 (1908) (invalidating creating negligence action carriers personal injuries employees employment, "regulates engage alone committed practicality, depart decisions. disavowed Knight's reliance manufacturing-commerce Standard Oil Jersey 221 68-69, 502, 518-519, 619 (1911), declaring "unsound." likewise decided, Orleans Railway Clerks, 281 570-571, 427, 433-434, 1034 (1930), pertaining railroad workers. another cases, addressed efforts impede undesirable prohibiting movement element. Lottery Case, 188 321, 492 (1903), argument lacked lottery tickets prohibit. Hipolite Egg 220 364, 364 (1911); Hoke 227 308, 281, 523 (1913). Hammer Dagenhart, 247 251, 529, 1101 (1918), insisted contrary assumed forbid moving," 269-270, 530, goods manufactured laws. while experiencing finding satisfactory pursuing sustainable lines decisions, particularly rates. Minnesota 230 352, 729, 1511 (1913), rate order, observed area "by reason interblending operations carriers" rates maintained restrictions "intrastate former." 432-433, 753-754. (1914), ICC fixing explanation "extending embraces traffic security efficiency service, conditions molestation hindrance." 351, 836. 59 interpretation posed much difficulty production. Nevertheless, conception altogether cases. Swift 196 375, 276, 518 (1905), antitrust meat dealers restrained cattle "sent sale expectation transit another." 398, 280. explained "commerce technical conception, drawn business." Taft followed stockyards Stafford Wallace, 397, 66 735 (1922). Speaking "nice inquiry," 519, 403, issue "be separated contribute," 516, 402. Reluctance adopt caused inconsistencies doctrine persist, however. addressing Deal resuscitated abandoned abstract 309, 872, (Act miners "secondary indirect" Railroad Retirement Bd. Alton 330, 368, 758, 771, 1468 (1935) (compulsory retirement pension plan carrier "remote such"); Schechter 851, (wage hour provision Industrial Recovery "no seems mark definitive commitment manufacturing facilities, distinguish Schechter, supra. 40-41, 625-626. given confirmed. 116-117, 458-459, (1942), disapproved entire direct-indirect manufacture-production explaining "broader interpretations [were] destined supersede ones," 122, 88, "whatever terminology used, criterion degree satisfy seek mathematical rigid formulas. formulas provided concepts Constitution," 123, 24, 24. Later (1964), (1971). ambit today. lessons relevance first, outset, imprecision boundaries second, greater consequence, institution whole immense stake stability evolved point. Stare decisis operates force counseling call respecting nature. forecloses reverting understanding serve 18th-century economy, dependent trading practices little preceding centuries; returning undoubted system. sphere assumption unified build stable economy. referring balance, Terms ago: 64 "This flexible past centuries allow enormous government. undertakes today unimaginable senses: conceived conduct activities; believed Government, rather responsibilities. Yet conferred phrased enough expansion role." York 505 112 2408, 2418, 120 (1992) (emphasis follow, instance responsibility review attempts alter balance. design appreciate significance federalism structure Constitution. Of various structural elements powers, checks balances, review, federalism, concerning last seem existence, content, standards judiciary play role maintaining contemplated Framers. resolution specific proved difficult, derived workable assist preserving balances. Prize Black 635, 459 (1863); Youngstown Sheet Tube Sawyer, 343 579, 863, 1153 (1952); Nixon, 418 683, 94 3090, 1039 (1974); Buckley Valeo, 424 612, 659 (1976); INS Chadha, 462 919, 103 2764, 77 (1983); Bowsher Synar, 478 714, 106 3181, 583 (1986); Plaut Spendthrift Farm, --- 1447, ---- (1995). well accepted. Judicial established question, Cranch (1803), differ applying principles, Planned Parenthood Southeastern Pennsylvania Casey, 2791, 674 (1992), legitimacy undoubted. Our tenuous. 67 There irony this, four mentioned, unique science theory. Friendly, Federalism: Forward, Yale L.J. 1019 (1977); G. Wood, Creation 1776-1787, 524-532, 564 (1969). surface idea counterintuitive, insight freedom enhanced creation "In compound republic America, surrendered people divided allotted subdivided separate departments. Hence double arises rights people. other, itself." 51, p. 323 1961) (J. Madison). ("Just front. tension lies promise liberty"); 2431 ("[T]he divides individuals. sovereignty itself: 'Rather, secures citizens liberties derive diffusion sovereign power' ") Coleman Thompson, 722, 759, 2546, 2570, 640 (Blackmun, dissenting)). 68 theory accord liberty realization discernable accountability: Government; second If, expected, competing affections people, 46, accountable failure perform function. "Federalism assign responsibility, obscure it." FTC Ticor Title Ins. 504 621, 636, 2169, 2178, 119 (1992). Were take traditional concern, activities, spheres blur illusory. 2417-2422; FERC Mississippi, 456 742, 787, 102 2126, 2152, 532 (1982) (O'CONNOR, part). resultant inability branch answerable dangerous devolving central sure, conclusion Papers entrusted entirety Madison's observation ought surely precluded confidence discover due," 1961), essence shift rests judgment, added assurance apprehend, things, advantageously administered," ibid. Whatever role, axiomatic 70 reasons, mistaken mischievous forget sworn obligation preserve instance. Webster-Hayne Debates, Great Speeches Orations Daniel Webster 227-272 (E. Whipple 1879), debates Civil Rights Acts, Hearings 1732 Senate Committee Commerce, 88th Cong., 1st Sess., pts. 1-3 (1963), Congresses accepted lasting design. fulfill grave democratic endure. 71 absence mechanisms officials undertake principled momentary convenience often attendant argue renunciation role. officers design, Public Citizen Department Justice, 491 440, 466, 109 2558, 2572-2573, 377 (1989); Rostker Goldberg, 453 57, 64, 2646, 2651, (1981), plays vital securing admit intervene tipped scales far. participated exposition doctrines abstention, Younger Harris, 401 746, 669 Comm'n Pullman 496, 643, 971 (1941); Burford Sun 319 315, 1098, 1424 (1943), determining primacy Erie Tompkins, 304 817, 82 1188 (1938), adequate Murdock City Memphis, 590, 429 (1875); Michigan Long, 463 1032, 3469, 1201 (1983), preemption, Rice Santa Fe Elevator 331 218, 1146, 1447 (1947); Cipollone Liggett Group, 2608, 407 governing habeas jurisprudence, supra; McCleskey Zant, 499 467, 1454, 113 517 (1991); Teague Lane, 489 288, 1060, 334 Rose Lundy, 455 509, 1198, (1982); Wainwright Sykes, 433 72, 97 2497, 594 (1977). 73 ability presented challenge. ____-____. clause chief source adjudications federalism," body affords fairer revealing qualities." Frankfurter 66-67. whose distinctive declare "what is," Cranch, susceptible mechanical bright lines. Bill latter class disputes. County Allegheny Liberties Union, Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 573, 630, 3086, 3120, 472 (1989) judgment) ("We lines, lines" adjudicating rights). teach meaning position enforcing instructive. "taken turns." Oklahoma Tax Jefferson Lines, 1331, 1336, contrast prevailing skepticism surrounds give text Clause, widespread inferred impose undue burden discriminate businesses. Brown-Forman Distillers Liquor 476 2080, 2084, 90 552 (1986) (citing Pike Bruce Church, 397 142, 844, 847, 174 (1970)). Distinguishing depends delicate judgments. True, overturn whereas announcing transgressed consequential, stands revise demonstrate character. difference informs circumspection mitigate recognize meaningful Congress. 75 upsets renders assertion intervention required. THE CHIEF JUSTICE explains, unlike actors character, nexus. ante, makes 1,000 feet grounds offense. interdependent world ultimate origin yet If extension, seeks intrude concern. An interference dimensions occurs Milliken Bradley, 717, 741-742, 3112, 3125-3126, 1069 Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 104, 266, 270, 228 (1968). proximity schools, including owned subdivisions, premise criminal. circumstances, particular insure destroyed. Rice, 230, 1152 ("[W]e historic States" displaced manifest Congress"); Florida Lime Avocado Growers, Paul, 373 132, 1210, 1219, 248 (1963). While doubtful person, wise policy students carry premises, considerable disagreement exists best accomplish goal. circumstance, revealed, laboratories experimentation devise solutions Independent Dist. Rodriguez, 411 49-50, 93 1278, 1304-05, (1973); Ice Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 371, 386-87, 747 (1932) (Brandeis, 78 municipality harsh sanctions deter sufficient measures. already outlawing grounds. Alaska Stat.Ann. §§ 11.61.195(a)(2)(A), 11.61.220(a)(4)(A) (Supp.1994); Cal.Penal 626.9 (West Supp.1994); Mass.Gen.Laws c. 269, 10(j) (1992); N.J.Stat.Ann. 2C:39-5(e) Va.Code 18.2-308.1 (1988); Wis.Stat. 948.605 (1991-1992). Other, practicable rid thought preferable safety welfare maintaining. Conference Legislatures al., Amici Curiae 26-30 (injection problems causes friction diminishes accountability governments). inducements inform violators information leads arrests confiscation guns, C. Lima, Schools May Launch Weapons Hot Line, L.A. Times, Jan. 13, 1995, B, col. 5; Reward Tips Guns Tucson Schools, Arizona 7, B2; programs encourage voluntary surrender amnesty, A. Zaidan, Akron Rallies Save Youths, Plain Dealer, Mar. 1B; M. Swift, Legislators Consider Plan Get Off Streets, Hartford Courant, Apr. 29, A4; penalties imposed parents guardians supervise child, Okla.Stat., Tit. 21, 858 (Supp.1995) (fining school); Tenn.Code 39-17-1312 (Supp.1992) (misdemeanor Straight Shooter: Gov. Casey's Reasonable Control Assault Weapons, Post-Gazette, 14, 1994, B2 (proposed bill); Bailey, Anti-Crime Measures Top Legislators' Agenda, (same); Krupa, Gun-Control Plans Could Tighten Local Law, Boston Globe, June 1993, 29; providing suspension expulsion gun-toting students, Ala.Code 16-1-24.1 Ind.Code 20-8.1-5-4(b)(1)(D) (1993); Ky.Rev.Stat.Ann. 158.150(1)(a) (Michie 1992); Wash.Rev.Code 9.41.280 assignment special J. Martin, Poised Take Harsher Stand Seattle Feb. B1 (automatic-year-long intense semester-long reentry program). experimenting exercising lay expertise, realm ordinary usual term. tendency territorial operation. 100,000 Dept. Education, Center Education Statistics, Digest Statistics 73, 104 (NCES 94-115, 1994) (Tables 63, 94). Each invisible extending (often irregular) property. communities navigate infringing zones. areas, find danger displacement chooses parallel rule. etiquette violated command directing policy, organize governmental way, 781, 2149 intrusion severe recent Tenth Amendment nonetheless significant. Absent stronger identification contradicts obliged djQ concludes grant attempted Pub.L. 101-647, 4844. majority, write separately observe drifted original case, temper faithful 84 "Commerce states," 3, anything test, extreme, "police life. Unfortunately, grips implication formula. supposedly years, readings 2417, ("[N]o proposition '[t]he created powers' 457, 2399, 2023-24, (1968); (1937). Chisholm Georgia, Dall. 419, 435, 440 (1793) (Iredell, J.) ("Each Union reserved. them"). crucial point, majority principle: approaching ____-____ sweeping current enables possession. encompass mere possession, empowers littering, cruelty animals, notwithstanding activities' suggests reexamination. believe further reconsider effects" eye toward constructing standard reflects totally rejecting jurisprudence. Today, merely discussion text, law. My goal simply "radical," ____ (STEVENS, dissenting). want refashioning tend "obliterate ratified, consisted selling, buying, bartering, transporting purposes. Johnson, Dictionary English Language 361 (4th 1773) (defining "Intercour[s]e; exchange another; interchange thing; trade; traffick"); N. Universal Etymological (26th 1789) ("trade traffic"); T. Sheridan, Complete (6th 1796) ("Exchange trade, traffick"). finds etymology word, literally "with merchandise." Oxford 1989) (com—"with"; merci—"merchandise"). fact, Federalists Anti-Federalists discussed ratification period, (in selling/bartering sense) interchangeably. Jay) (asserting countries cultivate friendship "trade" prudently Government);1 39-40 (A. Hamilton) (discussing "competitions commerce" resulting "regulations trade"); 40, 262 Madison) "acknowledged object Convention submitted government"); Lee, Letters Farmer 5, Pamphlets (P. Ford 1888); Smith, Address People York, 107. expect, term contradistinction agriculture. Alexander Hamilton, repeatedly treated endeavors. 36, 224 (referring "agriculture, manufactures"); 133 (distinguishing arts, industry); agriculture shared interests). conventions. Debates Several Conventions Adoption Elliot 1836) Debates) (T. Dawes Massachusetts convention); 336 (M. Smith convention). Moreover, interjecting modern generates textual problems. replace manufacturing. manufacturer produces car, assembly nation" Parts nations hence takes site. involve goods; encompasses articles. Preference denoted and/or transport generally. According "[n]o Regulation Revenue Ports 9, 6. farming prefer port another, natural prohibits using channel favored ports. narrower suggest, Clause2 "regulate contrast, temporarily prohibited lack restrict slave unproportioned taxation. V. Clearly, drafted contained objective. addition "necessary proper" execution 18. Clauses, superfluous. all, specify bankruptcy laws, coin money fix weights measures, punish counterfeiters securities, Likewise, establish post offices roads, patents copyrights, "punish Piracies Felonies Seas," 10. raise Army Navy, cls. fewer shipping expropriate property ease. international Indians. understood, Put simply, portions itself) surplusage rest superfluous correct. endorsed interpretation: accorded swallowed 8.3 appended why Government? singling treatment. Accordingly, bankruptcies, tax collection, expenditures, on. clauses mutually overlap, Founding Fathers intended. 95 construction coming turning head. read expressly Taken together, should, least, convince reexamined. II exchanges campaign reveal confirmed (even commerce) Government. affairs exclusive Early Americans manufacturing, intimately other—that affected" others. items produced farmers manufacturers articles time. robust superintendence, benefit. Oliver Ellsworth Connecticut benefits "Your riches depend ready generous produce you annually spare," exist "where flourishes merchant freely export country" pay highest price. Landholder 1787, Documentary History Ratification 399 Jensen 1978) History). 35, 219 ("[D]iscerning aware mechanic arts furnish mercantile enterprise industry. Many immediately They know patron friend"); ("Will interests allied?"); Jerseyman: Citizens Jersey, Trenton Mercury, 147 (noting "source commerce"); Marcus, Journal, 152 (both farmer prosperity commerce). William Davie, delegate North Carolina Convention, illustrated link best: sir, nurse [agriculture manufacturing]. furnishes planter himself, produce. flourish languishes; other." 20. Yet, despite founding generation cede concerns: 99 administration justice supervision similar short desirable cares jurisdiction." 106. unlikely event matters, effort "would troublesome nugatory." Ibid.4 comments Hamilton well-known truth 267-268 convention) "alter, abrogate [a state's] civil institutions [or] penetrate recesses life, control, respects, individuals"); 313 Madison); 259 (Virginia O. Ellsworth, Letter Governor Huntington, Sept. 352; Wilson, Speech House Yard, Oct. 167-168. concerns. 34, 212-213 (observing "internal encouragement manufactures" expenditure). passage Amendment, apparent "herein granted" 1. meant spoke "intimately 42, 287. urged "[i]f mean secure Atlantic side, endeavour soon navy." 157 Hamilton). short, principal calls 'economic realities.' (BREYER, SEC, 327 686, 705, 785, 796, 945 (1946)). boundary ignore "economic reality" arbitrary artificial some, III correct, dissent, Marshall's (1824) "significantly And, exception wrong subsequently corrected," "traditiona[l]" method interpreting (1941)). my view, holding reasoning Gibbons. error characterize 150 "wrong turn," feel compelled put perspective. Gibbons, examined licensed ships "coasting trade" preempted granting 30-year Robert Livingston Fulton waterways steamship. did, noted "navigation" America uniformly 'commerce,' navigation. unde rstood, constitution framed." 190. "among partly State. 194-196. 107 took pains "which States." 194. suggesting "[i]nspection quarantine health description, State" "of mass 203. From moment, notion everything inspection, quarantine, doubted. "surrendered course, misconstrue "described breadth exceeded." 120, 151, 1360, (1971) (claiming Darby broader restored"). misreading stems uncontroversial 194 statement, infers whenever follows drawn. better "affect[s]" language: acknowledging interstate/foreign draw, construed cover reading, language, most, permits asserting confusion praise Government: genius be, external nation, generally; interfere, executing 195. passage, commits "national" "local" saying believes becomes control. Constitution: war, taxes, patents, uniform naturalization bankruptcy, types Gibbons' emphatic "affect generally."5 B am sweepingly test. indicates innovation 20th 116 writing Cohens Virginia, 257 (1821), murder States," 426, "clear congress felonies generally," 428. qualification places enjoyed powers—for Columbia. 426. murders, robbery, (or concern) irrelevant power.6 117 Dewitt, Wall. 41, 593 (1870), marked exceeding conveyed two-page invalidated nationwide sales naphtha illuminating oils. doing, remarked "has terms; virtual denial 44. "plainly police," territories. 44-45. License 462, 470-471, 497 (1867) State); Trade-Mark 550 (1879) trademark registration). 118 monopolize Raising echoes discussions intimate "[c]ommerce 253. approvingly quoted (1888): 'No [commerce] manufactures future, impossible deny industries contemplate thing. invested manufactures, horticulture, stock raising, fisheries, mining—in human industry.' Knight, 254. "comparatively left control." Newberry 256 232, 257, 469, 474, 913 (1921) ("It settled thereto. Without etc., exist, suffice Congress"). Whether irrelevant. 121 1936, continued insist 871-872, mine employer relation"); 543-550, 848-852, (holding sick chickens sales). point: mid-1930's, widely Clause.7 business, anything, turn" dramatic departure 1930's half precedent. IV 123 Apart vintage corresponding grounding suffers flaw appears Nation. asked oral loss words. 5. insists muster implicitly criticizes "threaten[ing] seemed reasonably settled." advantage certainty: guise 124 flaw, "aggregation principle." so-called "class activities" statutes, themselves "interstate" "commerce." ask isolation. 192-193, 2021-2022 (if 'within power,' excise applications trivial) 120-121, 460-461). 125 aggregation clever, stopping Suppose weapons (knives, brass knuckles, nunchakus, etc.) does. doctrine, weapon circle isolation, passed omnibus statute, purporting apparently constitutional. sections govern aggregate V 126 wholesale abandonment opinions.8 reveals removed "radical" corrected future.9 127 Unless Justices willing repudiate long-held wish true Clause's "defined" 'commensurate needs' self-consciously let 'defend forces decrees inimical destructive economy.' dissenting) formulation all: blank check. juncture, modify easy empower ban school. 129 dissenting. 130 vitally children. therefore schools—just environment harms substances asbestos alcohol. SOUTER's radical kinship discredited, pre-Depression version substantive due Dolan Tigard, 512 2309, 2326-2329, (1994) extraordinary merits comment. 131 restrain Their indirectly, location potentially harmful use; markets. handguns school-age children distressingly, substantial.* interest 1789, 132 reviewing defer implicit addresses "if finding." 2360, (1990); 2020-2021, quoting 303-304, 383-384, (1964). reason, remaining inquiry 'the [are] adapted permitted Constitution.' 360, 924-925.1 134 deferring judgments paradigm restraint." FCC Beach Communications, 508 2096, 2101, 211 competence assigned appreciation comes Congress's dealing range choices. 2101-2102; 2360; Carolene Products 144, 147, 151-154, 778, 783-784, 1234 (1938); Williamson Lee Optical Okla., 348 483, 488, 461, 464, 563 (1955). thus, brief overview reminds us. developed chastening experiences, perforce repudiated untenably derogation history's sequence tugs off leading suggest opportunities developments odds wisely states adherence. 136 Notwithstanding 196-197, C.J.), saw occasions Reconstruction, Warren, 729-739 (rev. 1935), really 1887 opened age level, 729-730. amount ensuing (1922) packing equalize inter- rail rates); 729-739, period 1937 series highly notions social 869-870, (striking unfair industry "commerce"); 545-548, 849-851, "indirectly"); (1918) shipment factories union "commerce"). 137 restrictive views complemented activism limiting familiar routinely Fourteenth Louis K. Baldridge, 278 105, 204 (1928) requiring pharmacy owners pharmacists); Coppage Kansas, 236 240, 441 (1915) employers organizations); Lochner 198 539, 937 (1905) establishing maximum working bakers). 568-574 fulcrums characteristic laissez-faire economics, turned ostensibly showed exacting scrutiny legislature's choice ends selected them. 138 coincidental, sea conceptions Due Process Clauses 1937, West Coast Hotel Parrish, 300 578, 703 893. Stern, Economy, 1933-1946, Harv.L.Rev. 645, 674-682 (1946). Hotel, rejection challenge minimum women contractual freedom. weeks affirmed injunctions practices. seen beginning abandonment, purposes, effects. 139 following powerful theme 147-148, 152, 780-781, 783; 119-121, 459-460, 118-119, 525-526, articulate rationality review. litigation, statement came quickly. 489-490, 465-466. elimination direct/indirect cumulative 127-129, 89, 90-91, (1942); 124-126, 528-529, pressing issues leave phrase moment came, racial discrimination accommodation, implied: legislators, facts testimony investigation end." discussing 258-259, 358-359, subjecting judgments, half-century back direction (as direct) inclined reasserting inflated autonomy). 198, 2024-2025; 151-157, 1360-1363, 140 today, backward glance pitfalls, treats gradation according immediate patently looks touches calibrating drawing resemble fatal. step portend return untenable extricated ago. answer reassuring. occasion century's beginning. anomalous yards, remarkable bake shops event, hope successful predecessors began. Taking hopeless porosity "commercial" America's inconsistency categorization years. 141 Further glosses moreover, offing. turns gestures considerations sometime entertain (apart supply proof element): deal regulation, contain factual supporting commerce? Once again, appeal ignoring painful lesson learned suggestions square scrutiny. 142 observes traditionally suggestion remote, weaker legislators. Neither tenable. remoteness, education, prospects illiterate Nation rosy, needed hijacking cigarettes substantially, prosecuted robbery. closer gets customary concerns, flatly rejected, observed, plenary. 549-550, 1016-1017, (1985); 196-197. Harlan speaking Wirtz: 143 implied other. [I]t acting override countervailing interests. ago [1925], 'outweigh' 195-196, 2023-2024 (citations 144 460, 2400-2401, 781. 145 imposing state-national refused statutes prerogatives, 460-464, 2400-2403, defines sovereign," "powers readily interfere," 2401. plausible alternative impute intention ably Enmons, 396, 411-412, 1007, 1015-1016, 349-350, 523-524, Rewis 808, 812, 1056, 1059-1060, 493 146 rules, interpretation, allow, Culbert, 435 379-380, 1112, 1116-1117, 349 (1978); 2406; 346-347, 521-522, implicating historical reluctance trench prerogatives enter occupied 2401; 523; 811-812, 1059-1060. intent hesitance presume acted state-federal status quo (when alternative) enquiry definitely inevitably degenerate indefensible assert (and plausibly maintain) concern; forbidden absolutely subject, stand strength legislation's justification. again raises objections essays overriding choices ultimately suffer fatal weaknesses: power) activism, superior with. expect findings. 1363-1368 (1993), position, Might court aided subjected (or, deferred them)?2 no, important hoped 148 help hard job, harder garbage hauling resolve; yards obvious ignorance relevant facts. comparable dig responsible find, close, judges close. ease vary follow vary, address standard. 149 courts, predicate implies finding, claims ultra vires intentionally. finding. reason. 2360-2361; 391-392, 780, (Hughes, dissenting); 2101 equal context, "those attacking classification conceivable it; motivated legislature") omitted); Ferguson Skrupa, 372 726, 731-733, 1028, 1031-1032, (1963); 487, 464. not, reasonableness; tell found, find. existence dispositive afoot. imply (and, hence, wisdom) choices, deliberateness, evidence. wisdom pretension discredited deliberateness mandating function covert arbitrarily applied. regime, past. hand, pointless. may, value telling for, frame reference citing research underlying major undertaking; welcome, incidentally shrinks miss material scattered across domain buried pounds record. plane record illustrates accordingly earned thanks. thanks day touchstone, possibility, ____, fate here. 151 demonstrates passes continues espouse, misstep, gear standard, epochal otherwise, caveat. trappings. reject words; enough. 41-43, 626-627. happened. respectfully dissent. 153 GINSBURG join, 154 authorizes in, near, falls half-century. 155 conclusion, apply basic interpretation. insofar 194-195, C.J.); points out, describing requires, sometimes "substantial" Compare, ("substantial effect"), (1981) ("affects 2024 (1968) (cumulative "trivial"); (speaking "close effect") added); (words "comprehend States"). recognizes Cardozo, (how effect) estimate "size" verbal capture precision. somewhat suggests. 154, 1361-1362, 395 298, 1697, 1702-1703, 318 "significant consider, (a possession), (i.e., schools). 89-90. "[I]t multiplied preventative regulation." Mandeville Island Farms, Crystal Sugar 219, 236, 996, 1006, 1328 (1948) 158 Third, judge directly, remove. Courts leeway empirical kind legislature accuracy. "rational basis" leeway. us, recognizes, "regulated but, rather, concluding. Ante, 159 independently. "[S]imply so." 2391 (REHNQUIST, judgment). "interstate Lopez convicted. Nonetheless, noted, independently basis") built deprives extra deference, though, practice, critical difference. 299-300, (1964) made, necessary"); 156-157, 1362-1363; Turner Broadcasting System, FCC, 2445, 2471, (opinion obligated, enacting administrative agency accommodate review"); concurring) ("After legislated Members gain experience fresh hearings prolonged debate ."). unfortunate validity hand (though until prosecuted), appear elevate 103-322, 320904(2)(F), (G), 2125, U.S.C.A. 922(q)(1)(F), (G) (Nov.1994 Supp.). 160 addition, Appeals' contrary, 1365 rationale. Cf., Dellmuth Muth, 223, 227-228, 2397, 2399-2400, 181 (requiring abrogation Eleventh immunity). clarify measure consideration went ibid.; 233, 2403 (SCALIA, (to suits damages, clear, refer Amendment); EEOC Wyoming, 460 226, 243, 18, 1054, (1983) recite action). 161 Applying substantial) Or, amended 1994: "violent zones," "quality education," substantially) "foreign commerce"? connection, "technical conception," one," 280, (Holmes, J.), yes. Numerous reports studies—generated inside government—make explicitly, asserts. (See Appendix, infra sample documentation, citations sources referenced below.) 162 thing, reports, hearings, available literature around extremely serious. report, percent inner-city students) occasionally, Centers Disease 2342; Sheley, McGee, Wright 679; urban fired threatened 6-month hundred thousand schoolchildren victims crimes Select Hearing (1989). report interferes quality Judiciary (1990) (linking dropout rate); Health 118-119 (1978) (school-violence academically); compare (gun worst inner city schools), (dropout cities). Based these, obviously exclusive. Human Resources 123-124 (1978). problem—teachers teach, learn —and contribute size problem. 163 Having undermine classrooms, commercial, human, inextricably intertwined began, workers received workplace, typically (like Benjamin Franklin) apprentices. Seybolt; Rorabaugh; (1950). 1920's, employers—from large corporations, General Electric, Ford, Goodyear, firms worker firm. Bolino 15-25. (Throughout attending 11.) enrollment Becker 218 diminished. remained. Scholars quarter growth traceable increased schooling, Denison 243; investment "human capital" (through spending education) "physical ratio Schultz (1961); returns conventional capital investment, Davis Morrall 48-49. 164 strengthened, becoming important. innovations management techniques altered workplace jobs skills. MIT (only one-third hand-tool company's qualified work high-school-level skills); Cyert Mowery (gap dropouts trained increasing); (job openings declining time). evidence "service, technology better-educated or, likely, exported overseas," Gordon, Ponticell, Morgan 26; "workers 2000 job ten remain," 165 "[o]ver haul high-wage upgrade force. [B]etter-trained workers, enabling company competitive expand." Henkoff 60. Increasing global competition economically attributable tripled 1950 1980, American-made compete imports. 205; Tucker 33. lagging contributed balances hourly compensation fallen below industrialized nations. 57; Handbook 561, 576 Neef Kask 28, 31. emerge classrooms European Asian counterparts, presumably, (up cities), 47; Chubb Hanushek 215. "functionally technologically illiterate" "erod[e]" "standing marketplace," 100-418, 6002(a)(3), 1469, "our paying scientific illiteracy, declining, base ailing, competitiveness dwindling." H.R.Rep. 98-6, pt. (1983). 166 ever, presence, absence, MacCormack, Newman, Rosenfield 73; Coffee 296. "[h]igh speed communication products services anywhere world," 38; "[m]odern machinery methods combined low wage drive down," managers 'back office now,' 'can't get skilled here' 'move country,' 41; consequence "rich retraining, unskilled tomorrow's jobs," Survey Global Economy 37. firms, surprise setting shaping curricula Maturi 65-68, involvement important, 68, reforms attract Overman 61-62, magazines begun rank cities Boyle 167 links sketched fairly obvious. Why obvious, links, widespread, serious, physical teaching threatens tied? say, hands city's threaten support. majority's terminology) "substantial." consequent effects, ____-____, indicate 168 consequently inadequately educated endure jobs, businesses "information society") gain, well-educated force, advantage, railhead harbor threats loan sharking "funds" "numerous localities," 157, 1362-1363, pose Consolidated NLRB, 305 221-222, 206, 213-214, (1938). pointed written occurrence zones" brought "decline education" violence-related facts, rational. ____-____; infra, sufficiency 169 "obliterate" "distinction local," (citation omitted; citizens," "marriage, custody," aimed curbing acute process—the use) life-threatening classroom. above unmistakably documents incompatible. recognized singularly disruptive acts have. 1362-1363. immediacy well-being documented scholars institutions. rare strikes abstract) (practically speaking) 170 sum, expand preexisting changing circumstances. 354, world, economic, social, accordance well-accepted realities," "an affirmative commensurate needs," acknowledge operate render nation defend economy." (1946) 280 J.)). 171 holding—that 922 Clause—creates runs actions connections violence. ("[e]xtortionate transactions") level. "though intrastate, 1361 Presumably, reasoned street corner, collect debt (by helping organized crime) force—the frequent possessing gun—in inhibiting States? smaller (nor significant) crime. 172 upheld, restaurants, discouraged African food restaurant 300, 381-382; 274, 366 (Black, McClung (1969), amusement park located miles road Alabama—because customers assumed), food, paddleboats, juke box 304-305, 1700-1701, 1702. (at accommodation) whole, harm, nationally well. 301, 382; Daniel, 307, 1702, present. Businesses locate plagues Families hesitate move neighborhoods instead books. 1994 "parents send school" "due violence." 922(q)(1)(E) Supp.)). narrowly manner), publishers books disrupts Most importantly, signi ficant dimensions. 173 consumed totality, "induced prices" "flow increases," enters market, "supplies market" sense, "competes 91. amount, doubt. "substantial") leeway? Women's Sportswear Manufacturers 716, 805 (1949) ("If feels pinch, operation applies squeeze"); 1006 ("[I]t regulation"). belief reconcile "transaction[s]." identical matter, fails heed "questions Congress" "formula[s]" 175 "controlling nomenclature 'production' 'indirect' foreclose actual 87. 176 (1941) (overturning "production" 271-272, 531, (1918)); ("[C]ommerce business"). characterizes. categorize activity," decided focus focused Wickard's grown regulated—"whatever "—so "it 177 More intend standing reconciled (McClung ) Perez—in transaction race-based exclusion, force) "commercial." differentiating draw. writing, mathematics, been, teaching. When, commercial? Does number vocational classes train difference? private, nonprofit profit-seeking? adopts voucher pays run school? questions, theoretical environmental pollution, harm? (1981). 178 Regardless, classes, involvement, management) line. spent $230 billion—that trillion dollars —which accounts $5.5 Gross Domestic Product year. Statistical Abstract schooling expenditure funds transportation, custodial services, books, teachers' salaries. expenditures provide valuable workplace. Certainly, analyzed closely analyzing efficient, resources spend, restructured achieve returns. S.Rep. 100-222, (1987) (federal assistance prudent investment"); Appropriations (private sector schools); Moe 185-229 (school choice); 85-122 (performance incentives educators); Gibbs (decision Hartford, Conn., contract system). roughly analogous investments derives force? settled. (more Code), sections), "affecting scope, 844(i) (destruction buildings commerce), 922(o)(1) (possession machine guns). Do similar, activities? element? Staszcuk, 53, 57-58 (CA7 1975) (en banc) (Stevens, (evaluation "requires transaction"). element, 90-91 later cases) inapplicable, considering conduct? However eventually resolved, behavior seriously Americans. 180 realities." 796 it, corrected. generally"); 458 inescapable Dagenhart [the case], prevailed decision. overruled"). Upholding threaten. reverse Appeals. Respectfully, APPENDIX Materials chronological order) 182 Private Sector Management Subcommittee Labor, Services, Related Agencies Appropriations, 103d 2d Sess. (Senate (1994)). 183 Children Gun Violence, Juvenile Judiciary, (1993) (1993)). 184 Keeping Every Child Safe: Curbing Epidemic Joint Children, Family, Drugs Alcoholism Youth, Families, 185 Recess Violence: Making Safe, Arts Humanities Resources, 186 Preparing 21st Century, 102d Carrying Weapons: Recent Increase, 187 Youth Violence Prevention, Governmental Affairs, Dropout Prevention Basic Skills Improvement 101-600, 2(a)(2), 3042, 2(a)(2). Excellence Mathematics, Science Engineering 2883, 5301(a)(5) 190 Oversight Reform Business Implementation Hawkins-Stafford Amendments 1988, Elementary, Secondary, Vocational Training 101st (1990). 191 Power Changing World, Report Prepared International Economic Policy Trade Foreign 43-66 192 Free Crime (House (1990)). 193 Restoring Productivity: Role Guns, (1989)). Competitive VI, 1469. (1987). Competitiveness, 100th 197 Competitiveness Quality Work Force, Committee, Illiteracy, 99th (1986). 199 Illiteracy 200 98th (1984). 201 98-151, 202 Security 203 93-380, 825, 602 (1974). I. Clarke, Art Industry: Instruction Drawing Applied Fine Arts, S.Exec.Doc. 46th (1891). Other 205 206 Office Educational Research Improvement, First Findings: Workforce Employer (Feb.1995). President (Feb.1994). (Statistical 209 Financing Year 1989-90 (June 1993) (U.S. 210 (Feb.1992). Secretary's Commission Achieving Necessary Skills, Tasks Jobs: SCANS Employment Administration, Beyond Doors: Literacy Needs Job Seekers Served (Sept.1992). 212 Bureau Crime: Victimization (Sept.1991) (1991)). 213 Census, 1990 Census Population: 474 (Jan.1994). 214 Delinquency OJJDP Bulletin (Oct.1989) 215 (Aug.1989) (Handbook 216 Bishop, Incentives Learning: Students So Poorly Counterparts Overseas, Market Efficiency, Investing 217 Rumberger Levin, Schooling Modern Workplace, (Sept.1989). Bottom Line: Workplace (1988). Estimating Attainment Future Demand (Oct.1981) (1981)). Health, Welfare, Institute Violent Schools—Safe Schools: Safe Study (1978)). Apprenticeship, Apprenticeship Past Present (1950) (1950)). Readily Available alphabetical Akin Garfinkel, Expenditures Returns Schooling, J.Human 223 Council Business-Higher Forum, Challenge: (Apr.1983). P. Applebome, Employers Wary N.Y. A1, 225 Are Real Estate Firms Ready Ride Infobahn?: Information Highway Technology, Investor, 226 Aring, What 'V' Word Costing Economy: Phi Delta Kappan 396 Atkinson, Economics Becker, Adam Address: Force Quality, Economics, (Becker (1992)). Capital (3d 229 Berg, Robbery (1970). Berryman, Requirements, At-Risk Adults, Marketplace: Improving Low-Income Single Mothers 1989). 231 Is Test Score Decline Responsible Productivity Growth Decline, Am.Econ.Rev. (Mar.1989). 232 Performance Employee Recruitment, J.Labor 233 Blackburn, Can Explain Increase Earnings Inequality Among Males?, Boissiere, Sabot, Earnings, Ability Cognitive 235 Bolino, Century (Bolino). Boyle, Expansion Management's Quotient, Development Rev., Winter 23-25 (Boyle). 237 Brandel, Wake Up Smart, England Business, 1991, 46. Callahan Rivara, Urban Handguns: School-Based Survey, 267 JAMA 3038 238 Card Krueger, Matter? Characteristics J.Pol.Econ. 239 Carnevale, How Radically Workplaces (1991). 240 Carnevale Porro, Education: 31-32 (1994). 241 Prevent Handgun Caught Crossfire: (Sept.1990). Control, Leads Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report, 266 2342 (Centers Control). 243 Hanushek, Reforming Reform, Setting Priorities (H. Aaron 1990) (Chubb Hanushek). 244 Moe, Politics, Markets, Moe). Coffee, Survey: Worker Important Site Selection, 296 (Coffee). 246 Cohn, (1979). Index (July 1994). Elevating (May 1993). Governing America: Agenda Administration 33-39 249 D. Mowery, Technology Employment: Innovation (Cyert Mowery). 250 Cynoweth, Enhancing Jobs Planning 251 Morrall, Evaluating Investment (1974) (Davis Morrall). 252 Denison, Growth, (D. Rogers H. Ruchlin eds. 1971) (Denison). 253 Dertouzos, Lester, Solow, Productivity, Made Regaining Productive Edge 254 DeYoung, Historical Critical Overview Impact Theories 255 Downs, Failures Will Hurt Estate, Aug. 34. Doyle, Anderson Bowman 1965). Task Action 1983). Testing Service, Developing Knowledge Finding Really Works Executive, 48. 260 Ganderton Griffin, Earnings: Productivity-of-Schooling Hypothesis, Contemporary Issues 261 Garver, "Success Story! ": Evolution Broward County, Florida, Review (Summer Gibbs, Profit, Time, (Gibbs). 263 Gintis, 264 Glazer, Cities, Interest, Summer 265 Anything Done Curb Growing Violence?, CQ Researcher, 11, 785-808. Ponticell Morgan, Closing Gap (Gordon, Morgan). Work: Controlling Costs (Hanushek). Henkoff, Come From?, Fortune, 19, (Henkoff). 268 Herbert, Reading, Writing, Reloading, Dec. A23, 269 Industry's Schoolhouse, 4A, 22, Life 270 Introducing EQ (Education Quotient), Management, Sept./Oct. 18-24. 271 Equity-Efficiency Quandary 1972). 272 Itzkoff, Unspoken Dilemma: Falling Intelligence Levels, J.Social, Pol. Econ. Studies 311 273 Should Help Financier, 274 Johnson Stafford, Social Quantity (1973). 275 W. Johnston Packer, 2000: Workers Twenty-first Jorgenson, Contribution 1948-73, Dean 1984). 276 Kirkland, Service Good Jobs?, 1985, 38. 277 Kozol, Illiterate Stands Republic: Illiteracy: Warning Challenge Press 279 Levin Shank, Society: Costs, Benefits, Link Ratledge, Statement, (1975). Lyne, Gap: Work-Force Woes Complicate Business-Location Equation, 642. 282 Rosenfield, Dynamics Manufacturing Location, Sloan Review, (MacCormack Rosenfield). 283 Machlup, 284 Markey, Problems Today's Dropouts, Monthly 36. Implications Internationalization Institutions Systems, Rethinking Bawden Skidmore (Marshall). Tucker, Thinking Living: Work, (Marshall Tucker). 286 Maturi, Lure: Education/Training Carries Weight Siting Decisions, Industry Week, 65-68 (Maturi). 287 Maurice, Sellier, Silvestre, Foundations Power: Comparison France Germany 288 Mikulecky, Literacy: Relationship Between Preparation Actuality, Reading Quarterly 400 (1982). 289 Mikulecky Ehlinger, Influence Metacognitive Aspects Electronics Technicians, J.Reading Behavior States: Need Technological Advance Working (MIT). 291 Mitchell, Employment, World (W. Morehouse 1978). 292 Sirageldin, Note Dimension Academy Dimensions 293 Choice: Low Wages! (National Center). 294 Risk 8-9 Small Again: Jobs, Governor's Association, 35-36, 77-96 Brief, Toby, (Dec.1983). Center, 299 Kask, Economies, (Neef Kask). Neff, Recharging Competitiveness: Perhaps Use Germany's System Benchmark, 21. O'Connor, Education's Significance Quality-Of-Life Location Factor Parallels Nationwide Reformist Movement, Selection Handbook, 846. 302 O'Donoghue, Organisation Co-operation Development, Society 303 Overman, Skilled Lure HRMagazine, 61-62 (Overman). Leadership, Perlman, Conceptual Price, Fighting 'All Mushy Stuff,' USA 9A. 307 Prothrow-Stith, Deadly Consequences 308 Psacharopoulos, 309 Rasell Appelbaum, Assessment Return 310 Ray Mickelson, Corporate Leaders, Resistant Sunbelt City: Political Reich, Nations Riddle, Service-Led Growth: Rorabaugh, Craft Apprentice: Franklin Machine Age (Rorabaugh). Daymont, Value Academic Acquired School, Borus 314 Ruttenberg, Limited Promise Methodologies 1885 Ryscavage Henle, Accelerates 1980's, 316 Schultz, (Report 1971). Capital, 1961, reprinted Blaug 1968) (Schultz 1961)). Seninger, Policies Regional Development: Programs Seybolt, Colonial (1917) (Seybolt). 320 Wright, Gun-Related Around Inner-City Am.J.Diseases 677 (Sheley, Wright). 321 Stone Boundy, Meaningful Response, Clearinghouse 322 Strane, Locating Rural Advantage, Telemarketing, 92. Sturm, Affect Country's Performance? Literature Survey. Economist, 70-37 (Survey Economy). 324 Swaim Podgursky, More-Educated Fare Better Following Displacement?, 1989, 43. Tremblay, College Wages Non-Southern Workers, 326 Vaizey, 328 Vallens, Dictate Spending Training, Plastics, 19. 329 Wachtel, Effect Expenditures, 326, 330 (1976). Weiner Siler, Trained Order, Forbes, 73-78. Wheat, Nonmetropolitan South 332 Wirth, Choices Face, Kappan, 361. 333 Wise, Patterns syllabus constitutes prepared Reporter Decisions reader. Detroit Lumber 287, 499. "school zone" "in, of, public, parochial "within distance school." 921(a)(25). ("[S]imply so") judgment); 273, ("[W]hether finally Court") system, 'States law.' Brecht Abrahamson, 507 1710, 1720, 353 Engle Isaac, 107, 1558, 1572, 783 (1982)); Screws 91, 109, 1031, 1039, 1495 (1945) ("Our alone. except offenses criminalizes denounced 'change sensitive jurisdiction.' (1973) (1971)). "displace[s] prohibitions outlaw question." 18; Statement George Bush Signing Comp. Pres. Doc. 1944, 1945 (Nov. ("Most egregiously, [922(q)] inappropriately overrides unnecessary policies provisions legitimately note September Clinton signed Enforcement 1796. 320904 amends rely subsequent substitute ("[W]e're relying strict wanted activity"). All references Jacob Cooke 1961 edition. Clause" obscures adhere ----. distortion Columbia IV, 2. comprehensive Nation, conjunction confirms ceded Pendleton intermeddle Virginia? [it] altering transferring property, descents, Virginia?"); 553 (denying "laws mode contracts, claims, state"); 33, descent pre-empt land tax); Native Virginia: Observations Proposed 1788, 692 (States sole author ity "rules property"). None tenure, concerned "dormant" Brown 678 (1827); Willson Bird Creek Marsh 245, 412 (1829). worth noting like. 1790, ch. 112. outlawed murder, manslaughter, maiming, larceny, territory seas. (authorizing piracy seas); (plenary property). (prohibitions treason counterfeiting securities) (counterfeiting); (treason). kidnaping, prohibitions. purported alternatively described 150-year period. Coombs, 78, 1004 (1838) (commerce acts, land, with, obstruct, [interstate international] stealing beached ship) 254, ("Contracts buy, sell, transported regulated, During understanding, reexamination Consideration stare wipe slate clean. compared (1905). (SOUTER, "substantive process" enforces "judicial judgments." discussion, 'commercial' character" inevitable "ground distinction." invalidation comfortably itself. it: "If [Congress] warranted infringement guard. void." (before ratifying 44, (James exercises "not Constitution's] meaning" Constitution); 526 "courts bulwarks encroachments"). Where, controversy, "misstep", manufacturers—aided grant—are specifically targeting consumers distributing, hunting-related videos styled "educational grades 12," ends; (perhaps), helpful 320904, 2125 zones resulted country; States; measures integrity subsection"). go expressing conclusory generality add Solicitor sound placing afterthoughts. 24-25.

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