Document: 542 U.S. 656 ASHCROFT, ATTORNEY GENERALv.AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION ET AL. No. 03-218. Supreme Court of United States. Argued March 2, 2004. Decided June 29, To protect minors from exposure to sexually explicit materials on the Internet, Congress enacted Child Online Protection Act (COPA), 47 U. S. C. § 231, which, among other things, imposes a $50,000 fine and six months in prison for knowing posting, "commercial purposes," 231(a)(1), World Wide Web content that is "harmful minors," but provides an affirmative defense commercial speakers who restrict access prohibited by "requiring use credit card" or "any reasonable measures are feasible under available technology," 231(c)(1). COPA was response Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union, 521 844, which this held Communications Decency 1996, Congress' first attempt make Internet safe criminalizing certain speech, unconstitutional because it not narrowly tailored serve compelling governmental interest less restrictive alternatives were available. Respondents, others concerned with protecting freedom filed suit preliminary injunction against COPA's enforcement. After considering testimony presented both respondents Government, District granted injunction, concluding likely prevail their argument there COPA, particularly blocking filtering technology. The Third Circuit affirmed different grounds, reversed, Ashcroft 535 564. On remand, again affirmed, concluding, inter alia, least means Government preventing using gain harmful materials. Held: correct affirm Court's ruling enforcement should be enjoined statute violates First Amendment. Pp. 664-673. (a) did abuse its discretion when entered injunction. abuse-of-discretion standard applies review such Because 28 1254(1)'s grant appellate jurisdiction does give license depart established standard, Walters National Assn. Radiation Survivors, 473 305, 336, must upheld case remanded trial merits if underlying constitutional question close. There therefore no need consider broader constructions adopted Appeals. concentrated primarily plausible, COPA. See Reno, S., at 874. When plaintiffs challenge content-based speech restriction, has burden prove proposed will as effective challenged statute. Ibid. purpose test ensure restricted further than necessary accomplish goal. conclusion discretion, because, record, met burden. Most importantly, propose software alternative, had shown would disprove contention trial. Filters impose selective restrictions receiving end, universal source. Under regime, childless adults may they have right see without having identify themselves provide card information. Even children obtain same terms simply turning off filter home computers. Promoting condemn criminal any category so potential chilling effect eliminated, much diminished. Filters, moreover, well more First, record demonstrates can prevent seeing all pornography, just pornography posted America. That accessing foreign alone makes possible might serving goals. effectiveness diminish even upheld, providers covered move operations overseas. In addition, found verification systems subject evasion circumvention, e. g., own cards. Finally, filters also applied forms communication, including e-mail, Web. Filtering's superiority confirmed findings Commission Protection, created evaluate relative restricting minors' ability Internet. note. Although perfect solution block some fail catch are, satisfied introduce specific evidence proving effective. alternative require carries little weight, since act encourage giving strong incentives schools libraries, States Library Assn., Inc., 539 194, promoting development industry parents. closest precedent Playboy Entertainment Group, 529 803, like case, involved restriction designed viewing concluded that, absent showing technological already parents blanket option preferred could survive strict scrutiny. Id., 826. reasoning holdings force precedents, compel here. do otherwise Amendment commands. 830. 664-670. (b) Important practical reasons support letting stand pending full merits. harms reversal outweigh those leaving place mistake. Extraordinary harm serious chill upon protected result where, here, prosecution possibility only available, self-censor rather risk perils Cf. supra, 817. done merits, contrast, extensive. Second, substantial factual disputes remaining gap software's effectiveness. By allowing remanding trial, requires shoulder proof respecting argument, excuse doing so. Third, reflect current reality—a flaw involving evolves rapid pace. It assume developments important analysis occurred five years made factfindings. affirming allows parties update supplement Remand permit take account changed legal landscape: Since court factfindings, passed two statutes qualify COPA—a prohibition misleading domain names, creating minors-safe "dot-Kids" domain. 670-673. 322 F. 3d 240, remanded. KENNEDY, J., delivered opinion Court, STEVENS, SOUTER, THOMAS, GINSBURG, JJ., joined. concurring opinion, joined, post, p. 673. SCALIA, dissenting 676. BREYER, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR, CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THIRD CIRCUIT. Solicitor General Olson argued cause petitioner. With him briefs Assistant Attorney Keisler, Deputy Kneedler, Irving L. Gornstein, Barbara Herwig, Charles W. Scarborough, August E. Flentje. Ann Beeson respondents. her brief Christopher A. Hansen, Steven R. Shapiro, Stefan Presser, Harris, David Sobel.* JUSTICE KENNEDY Court. 1 This presents 112 Stat. 2681-736, codified 231. We decide whether Appeals 2 enacting gave consideration our earlier decisions subject, particular decision 844 (1997). For reason, "the Judiciary proceed caution ... care before invalidating Act." 564, 592 (2002) (Ashcroft I) (KENNEDY, judgment). imperative according respect Congress, however, us well-established principles. Instead, we hold proof. 3 Content-based prohibitions, enforced severe penalties, constant repressive lives thoughts free people. guard threat Constitution demands presumed invalid, V. St. Paul, 505 377, 382 (1992), bear constitutionality, 817 (2000). true twice attempted find restrict, punish, question. 4 comes certiorari appeal granting reviewed discretion. conclude failed, point, rebut plaintiffs' plausible Substantial considerations, furthermore, argue favor upholding reasons, remand returned issues presented. 5 * A 6 second speech. Pub. 104-104, 502, 110 133, 223 (1994 ed., Supp. II). CDA supra. 7 penalties minors." 231(a)(1). Material minors" defined as: 8 picture, image, graphic image file, article, recording, writing, matter kind obscene that— 9 "(A) average person, applying contemporary community standards, find, taking material whole minors, to, pander prurient interest; 10 "(B) depicts, describes, represents, manner patently offensive actual simulated sexual contact, normal perverted act, lewd exhibition genitals post-pubescent female breast; 11 "(C) taken whole, lacks literary, artistic, political, scientific value 231(e)(6). 12 "Minor[s]" person 17 age." 231(e)(7). acts purposes engaged business making communications." "Engaged business," turn, 13 "means offers Web, includes devotes time, attention, labor activities, regular course person's trade business, objective earning profit activities (although offering communications sole principal source income)." 231(e)(2). 14 While labels falls within these definitions employ specified gaining site. escape conviction demonstrating he 15 "has minors— 16 requiring card, debit account, adult code, personal identification number; accepting digital certificate verifies age; 18 technology." 19 passage additional laws regulating minors. example, 2252B (Supp. 2004), order site owners disguising pornographic sites way uninterested persons visit them. Brief Petitioner (giving, "whitehouse.com"). "Dot Kids" second-level domain, fit age 13. 941 2004). B 20 Eastern Pennsylvania. They sought witnesses issued noted Union 31 2d 473, 495 (1999). then statute: "On date, apparent [petitioner] meet achieve goal material. 497. particular, "[t]he reveals technology successful online imposing constitutionally users operators." appealed Circuit. ground. 217 162, 166 "community standards" language itself rendered unconstitutionally overbroad. holding community-standards not, standing alone, I, 585. emphasized, limited narrow issue. reconsider been 240 (2003). interest, overbroad, 266-271. once certiorari. 540 944 II 21 "This courts, always injunction." 336 (1985) (O'CONNOR, concurring) (internal quotation marks omitted). "The [28 C.] 1252 standards review." If close, therefore, uphold Applying mode inquiry, agree entering Our conclusion, based narrower, grounds rationale adopted. Appeals, construed number statute, construed, unconstitutional. None statutory terminology, relied conclusions adults, 2d, 495, petitioner dispute. As definitional disputes, respondents' interpretation "not unreasonable," id., 481, again, decline correctness arguments 22 deciding "effectively suppresses large amount receive address one another unacceptable achieving legitimate serve." question, assumes regulated, asks what used goal, regardless imposes. chilled punished. begin status quo existing regulations, ask interest. Any justified analysis. regulation alternatives. 23 district demonstrated See, Doran Salem Inn, 422 922, 931 (1975). (The considers plaintiff irreparable injury, ibid., contest likelihood injury established. 497-498.) bears ultimate deemed unless analysis, prevail. 496-497. 24 primary considered software. Blocking and, children's 25 Above all, All things true, how broadly construed. 26 factfindings witness estimated 40% harmful-to-minors 484. Effectiveness answer say reaches minors; reach them 484, via 27 blue-ribbon commission itself. directed Note following unambiguously age-verification requirements. Report 19-21, 23-25, (Oct. 20, 2000) (assigning score "Effectiveness" 7.4 server-based 6.5 client-based filters, compared 5.9 independent adult-ID verification, 5.5 verification). Thus, failed carry effective, appointed opposite. finding supports enjoining Filtering software, course, problem are. 492. Whatever deficiencies technologies factfinding "[n]o percentage time over- underinclusive." absence respondents, Government's merely show flaws; enough effect. Nor introduce, offer burden, 29 One contrary worth mentioning—the used. undoubtedly filters. libraries 194 steps promote industry, incorrect, part regulatory quo. parental cooperation automatically disqualify alternative. 824 ("A ineffective; presume parents, given information, act"). said "widespread availability Internet" providing "opportunities through frustrate supervision control." Congressional Findings, note 231 (quoting 105-277, Tit. XIV, 1402(1), 2681-736). presumes lack ability, will, monitor see. programs subjecting penalties. 30 general point Group. choice between chose implement it. 825. Absent concluded, 826 (reversing silent comparative alternatives"). instant too, show, Group precedents `starch' cannot sacrificed accommodate choices Government." 830 (THOMAS, concurring). let reversing Where possibility, yet extraordinary ("Error marking line exacts cost"). No prosecutions undertaken law, none disrupted stands. Further, interim enforce obscenity books. 32 case. mentioned above, 668. assume, proof, usurp role. 33 related Yet February 1999, over ago. then, facts about known changed. Compare, 481 (36.7 million hosts July 1998), Systems Consortium, Domain Survey, Jan. 2004, http:// www.isc.org/index.pl?/ops/ds (as visited 22, Clerk file) (233.1 during time. More better exist findings. Indeed, know after congressionally report screens. 34 Delay inevitable, consequence discrepancy takes up Benjamin, Stepping into Same River Twice: Rapidly Changing Facts Appellate Process, 78 Texas Rev. 269, 290-296 (1999) (noting problems courts changing context cases example 844). mean, set insuperable obstacle fair review. Here, usual doubled twice. difference. allow realities. 35 landscape. 663. Remanding 36 final incapable parties, statute's unconstitutional, devote attention introduced restrictiveness able point. foreclose proper meets 37 38 disregarded. Those alternatives, indeed, provisions judgment proceedings consistent opinion. 39 ordered. Notes: Briefs ofamici curiae urging DuPage County, Illinois, Richard Hodyl, Jr., Joseph Birkett; Center Law Justice et al. Jay Alan Sekulow, Stuart J. Roth, Colby M. May, Joel H. Thornton, John P. Tuskey, Shannon D. Woodruff; Focus Family William Wagner, Steve Reed, Pat Trueman; Morality Media, Paul McGeady; Wall-Builders, Barry Hodge; Senator McCain Carol Clancy Bruce Taylor. amici affirmance Society Journalists Authors Carl Solano, Theresa Loscalzo, Jennifer DuFault James, Stephen Shapiro; Association Publishers, Rich, Jonathan Bloom, Jerry Berman, B. Morris, Robert Corn-Revere; Volunteer Lawyers Arts Seth Galanter, Kennedy, Lois K. Perrin, Elliot Mincberg. 40 whom GINSBURG joins, concurring. 41 constitutionality "contemporary serious, fatal, defect. 162 (CA3 2000). I explained length why holding. 603 (dissenting opinion) ("In become sword, shield. puritan village, crime post Web"). continue believe penalize audience tolerant communities America deem unfit consumption, cf. 878 (1997), principle sufficient basis 42 But Today's points another: far reveals, encouraging deployment user-based controls, attempting regulate vast source, significant cost values. 43 registering my agreement less-restrictive-means wish underscore is. restraint dissemination enforces prohibitions threatening noncompliant $50,000, term imprisonment long months, each offense. U.S.C. 231(a). Speakers "intentionally" violate punishable day violation. And implementation various adult-verification mechanisms described defense, 231(c)(1), compliance guarantee prosecution. dutifully behind screens nevertheless court, forced lawfulness pain conviction. Free Speech Coalition, 234, 255 (2002). 44 Criminal view, inappropriate universe classified "obscene," `offend' too blurred conduct." Smith States, 431 291, 316 (1977) (STEVENS, dissenting). Marks 430 188, 198 part). creation new criminally compounds problem. be, BREYER contends, coverage extends "only slightly" beyond legally obscene, intrudes realm expression. Post, 679 opinion). BREYER's guidance, impossible past ill-defined territory "obscenity" thinks extends. Attaching sanctions mistaken contours novel nebulous clearly heavy exercise freedoms. 45 medicine ill seeks remedy. sure, recognized Ginsberg New York, 390 629, 640 (1968). parent, grandparent, great-grandparent, endorse reservation. judge, confess growing sense unease invoked justification substitute for, simple backup oversight habits. 46 view gravity burdens accomplished other, drastic special care. observation, join dissenting. 48 constitutional. 689 Both err, Nothing entitles type exacting "We entities engage `the sordid pandering' `deliberately emphasiz[ing] provocative aspects [their nonobscene products], salaciously disposed,' unprotected behavior." 831 (2000) (SCALIA, dissenting) Ginzburg 383 463, 467, 472 (1966)). Los Angeles Alameda Books, 425, 443-444 concurring); FW/PBS, Inc. Dallas, 493 215, 256-261 (1990) 49 doubt fits description. who, "as profit," 231(e)(2)(B), "with knowledge character material," communicates depicts "is interest," 231(e)(6)(A). could, Amendment, banned entirely, lesser raise concern. 50 CHIEF O'CONNOR join, 51 (Act), placed "screens" readily accessible produce verification. recognizes "`proceed Act,'" while pointing out "imperative principles." Ante, 660. generalities. Like most scrutiny," Turner Broadcasting System, FCC, 512 622, 642 (1994), expression "narrowly drawn" "compelling interest" amounts "least means" Sable Cal., 492 115, 126 (1989). Denver Area Ed. Telecommunications 518 727, 755-756 (1996). 52 Nonetheless, examination (1) expression, (2) Act's (3) "less alternatives" convinces me wrong. accept objective—protecting Internet—in ways. 53 rests existence examine alternative" term. An "alternative" restrictive" work itself, similarly furthering "compelling" prompted enact Unlike majority, determination examining extent regulates nature suggests Act, properly interpreted, modest. 54 limit enjoy protection, namely, material, very more. comparison definition unprotected, "legally obscene," clear. 55 "(a) . standards' work, appeals ...; way, conduct specifically applicable state law; (c) value." Miller California, 413 15, (1973). 56 present defines criteria: 57 [that material] 58 [the 59 231(e)(6) (emphasis added). 60 define relevant critical "prurient "lacks Insofar panders response. "patently offensive" "no value" response, seek educate, elucidate views sex, literary. Erznoznik Jacksonville, 205, 213 (1975) (invalidating ordinance nudity films, where ban confined "sexually nudity" limited), 471 (1966) (finding "created, represented sold solely claimed instrument stimulation bring"). Miller, definition. 61 difference Miller's consists addition words 231(e)(6)(A), "for 231(e)(6)(C). cover expands scope slightly. (while potentially young children) must, first, of, i. e., from, group adolescents postadolescents (since normally respond). interest[s]" almost inevitably well. 62 "lack requirement narrows further—despite presence qualification easily imagine read literally, insofar borderline cases. literally avowed putting produced professional pornographers verify viewer. Rep. 105-225, (1998) (hereinafter Rep.) ("The bill distribution prescribed ."); 105-775, pp. 5, (explaining aimed sale purveyors pornography" regulate). 63 These limitations many concerns raised attack constitutionality. Respondents fear posting fall ambit requirements; example: essay man's experience masturbation shame; "a discussion birth control practices, homosexuality, consequences rape"; 15-year-old, written therapeutic purposes, being raped she 13; guide self-examination testicular cancer; illustration condom; postings modern literary artistic works discussions identity, transmitted diseases, sex education, Aldous Huxley's Brave World, Salinger's Catcher Rye, or, complaint it, "Ken Starr's Clinton-Lewinsky scandal." G. Dillard, Shame Me, Lodging 609-612; 871 (1997); (citing 732-736); Amici Curiae 8, n. (referring medical advice www.afraidtoask.com); 268 2003) Safer Sex Institute, safersex.org/condoms/how.to.use); Complaint ¶ 1, 40-41 ("a Mapplethorpe photograph," referring controversial artist Mapplethorpe); 667-669 (Pl. Exh. 80, PlanetOut Youth Message Boards (Internet board gay teens)); declaration Adam Glickman, president CEO, Addazi, d/b/a Condomania, 4-10 (describing health education); Roberta Speyer, publisher, OBGYN.net, 15-16 resource obstetrics, gynecology, women's issues); (listing literature removed schools). 64 "designed groups lacking "serious §§ (C). outside restricts, fact acknowledged oral argument. Tr. Oral Arg. 50-51. 65 nothing elsewhere broadens scope. Other qualifying phrases, "taking whole," (C), still more, requiring, individual images context. Roth 354 476, 490 (1957). sum, pornography. affects Given inevitable uncertainty characterize close-to-obscene apply (or production of) class ultimately protected. examples class. 66 censor covers. Rather, verifying age. inserting number, similar internet screen difficult bypass. 67 recognize screening regulated providers. is, part, monetary. agreed store numbers passwords cents per number. 488-489, ¶¶ 45-47 (ED Pa. 1999). services operators, charging $20 year. 489-490, 48-53. According association target, procedures "standard practice" operations. Rep., 7; Legislative Proposals Protect Children Inappropriate Materials Internet: Hearing 3783 House Subcommittee Telecommunications, Trade Consumer Committee Commerce, 105th Cong., Sess., 46, (prepared statement Jeffrey Douglas, Executive Director Chairman, Coalition (calling child-protecting "effective appropriate")). 68 monetary cost, despite requirements identifying information kept confidential, 231(d)(1), 501, inherent lead embarrassment. 495. costs embarrassment deter viewers sense, congressional efforts children, Constitution. approved use. e.g., 209 (2003) (plurality ("[T]he acquire public library embarrassment"). 890 part) bouncer [who] checks driver's admitting nightclub"). 69 modest perhaps 70 turn next denies "compelling." 743 (opinion J.) (interest "compelling"); Communications, (same); 639-640 here access, significantly advances words, game candle? 71 majority argues "blocking software." 666-670. refers alternative." misnomer—a misnomer reader look restrictive; (one software), end matter. 72 Conceptually speaking, legislative approach quo, backdrop definition, law. something. "doing nothing" address—namely, exposed 73 asks: Would nothing? Of be. posits change adds requirement. identified remain significant? Does help it? questions relation advance ball? (An justify "[a]ny speech," claims, ante, 666, well.) 74 answers intermediate clear: presently solve "child protection" suffers four inadequacies pass legislation instead relying voluntary faulty, hindrance. Just last year, STEVENS "fundamental defects now foreseeable future." 221 He pointed underblocking: "Because relies key phrases undesirable sites, capacity exclude precisely images." say, distinguish pictorial Venus de Milo. Member disagreed. 75 money. Not every family $40 install 492, 65. less. 682 password user number). 76 depends willing surf decision. millions families, possibility. school parent force, left week, spend afternoons evenings friends computers lenient 842 (BREYER, 77 Fourth, precision, blocks great deal valuable. out, reliance necessarily results thousands pages contain completely innocuous rational matches companies' definitions, sex." 222 (ACLU), told "block[s] valuable Quaker religion, web University Women, AIDS Quilt, Town Hall Political Site (run Resource Center, Christian conservative groups)." Indecency Senate Science, Transportation, (1998). discerning speech." "inappropriately valuable, effectively [it is] intended block." reports documenting overblocking). contrary. respondent offered party suggested, interpret discern suddenly become, widely concedes "[f]iltering problem." 79 "filtering quo" underblocks, uses fails home, precision. reasonably system entirely system. law increases system's efficacy. screened program, bring better, precise blocking, inside home. 80 response—that origin—is beside 667 findings). assuming (I unrealistically) originators refuse screening, 60% Internet's call insignificant. 81 upshot child protection exists. targeted adding range shield 82 Is sufficient? lower thought not. interpreted assumed reached borderline-obscene affecting forth save destroy NLRB Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 (1937). So 678-682, objective, satisfy Amendment's stringent tests. 130. unless, genuine objective. III 83 proposes. proposes real ways alter 84 "act encourage" 669. proves much. imagines resources devoted advances, restrictive. Obviously, schools, cafes installed, hire federal employees train teachers use, dollars extremely 85 cannot, magic solutions, solutions put terms, restrictively equal Otherwise, undoubted lawyers judges," constrained budgetary worries parameters operate, "to slightly write called being." 841 Blackmun recognized, "judge unimaginative indeed come something `drastic' `restrictive' situation, thereby enable himself vote strike down." Illinois Bd. Elections Socialist Workers Party, 440 173, 188-189 (1979) (concurring Perhaps seriously expenditure government funds 86 decriminalizing noting "chilling effect" 667. remove major sanction, virtually IV 87 My risks imposition minor material— wishing overcome cost. At helps practically Hence V 88 raises questions. happened "constructive discourse legislatures" integral admirable design"? Blakely Washington, 326 eight effort, statutes, three sends back proceedings. What proceedings? either evidence. remains litigated? says "introduce evidence" "relative statute." understand consist of. 89 Moreover, "[i]n Reno" striking down effort 661. dedicated task drafting criticism predecessor Reno. incorporated verbatim. Compare U.S., 24, believed obstructing protects. "carefully drafted respond Reno"); (same). else supposed do? 90 Members past, legislate area. Ginzburg, 476 (Black, Federal power whatever ideas kind"). Others ways, obscenity. 674-675 favoring views. adopt finds proved nonexistence alternatives." finding, appropriate universally appropriate. appropriate, practice, leeway seems promise. test, does? does, clearly. 91 explained, permits construe narrowly—as tried do—removing nearly so, reconcile demands. "save" destroy" NLRB, 30. Accord, McConnell Election Comm'n, 93, 180 (where saving construction "`is fairly possible,'" Crowell Benson, 285 (1932))). process, basic objectives. 92 majority's practice mean greater expression? obvious. removes weapon prosecutorial arsenal. choice—a "ban totally all." tells prosecuting bans maximum urged "alternative"), insist close keep wraps, children. third option—a "middle way"—the avoids speech-suppressing prosecutions. 93 matters world tied neatly separate, distinguishable, packages. world, middle furthered interests tempering instinct least, believed. likelihood, perspective, protective rights retain all-or-nothing prosecutors wake 94 dissent.

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