Document: 530 U.S. 793120 S.Ct. 2530147 L.Ed.2d 660 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.GUY MITCHELL, et al., PETITIONERSv.MARY L. HELMS al. No. 98-1648. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Argued December 1, 1999 Decided June 28, 2000 CERTIORARI TO APPEALSFOR FIFTH CIRCUIT Syllabus Chapter 2 Education Consolidation and Improvement Act 1981 channels federal funds via state educational agencies (SEA's) local (LEA's), which turn lend materials equipment, such as library media computer software hardware, public private elementary secondary schools implement "secular, neutral, nonideological" programs. The enrollment each participating school determines amount aid it receives. In an average year, about 30% spent Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, allocated for schools, most Catholic otherwise religiously affiliated. Respondents filed suit alleging, among things, 2, applied parish, violated First Amendment's Establishment Clause. Agreeing, Chief Judge District held, under Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 602, 612-613, had primary effect advancing religion because equipment loaned were direct pervasively sectarian. He relied primarily on Meek Pittenger, 421 349, Wolman Walter, 433 229, programs providing many same sorts does struck down, even though loan textbooks religious upheld. After judge issued permanently excluding sectarian parish from receiving he retired. Another then reversed order, upholding under, inter alia, Zobrest Catalina Foothills School Dist., 509 a district was allowed provide sign-language interpreter deaf student at high part program disabled. While respondents' appeal pending, this decided Agostini Felton, 521 203, approving Title I Elementary Secondary 1965 provided employees teach remedial classes schools. Concluding neither directly overruled nor rejected their distinction between in-kind aid, Fifth Circuit those two cases invalidate 2. Held: judgment reversed. 151 F.3d 347, Justice Thomas, joined by Justice, Scalia, Kennedy, concluded not law respecting establishment simply Pp. 7-38. (a) modifying test-which asked whether statute (1) has secular purpose, (2) inhibiting religion, (3) creates excessive entanglement government see U.S., 612-613-Agostini examined only first second factors, 222-223, recasting inquiry one criterion relevant determining statute's effect, id., 232-233. also acknowledged its pared somewhat factors could justify finding entanglement. Id., 233-234. It set out three criteria effect: Government if results governmental indoctrination, defines recipients reference case, Agostini's purpose test narrow one. Because Court's holding challenged, 2's need considered. Further, considered, create challenged. 7-9. (b) Whether indoctrination ultimately depends occurs reasonably attributed action. See, e.g., Agostini, 226. Moreover, answer question will resolve "subsidizes" religion. See 230-231. distinguishing attributable State not, consistently turned neutrality principle, offered broad range groups persons without regard As way assuring neutrality, repeatedly considered institution genuinely independent choices individual parents, criterion-whether 234-is closely related first. looks facts inquiry, 225-226, but uses different question-whether allocating financial incentive undertake 231. Such present where basis favor disfavor available both beneficiaries nondiscriminatory basis. Ibid. 9-15. (c) Two rules respondents govern determination rejected. 15-27. (i) Respondents' chief argument-that direct, nonincidental always impermissible-is inconsistent with more recent cases. direct/indirect "subsidization" address concern through principle choice, incorporated (i.e., government). If "direct aid," neutrally and, reaching benefiting school, passes hands (literally figuratively) numerous citizens who free elsewhere, "support religion." Witters Washington Dept. Servs. Blind, 474 481, 489. Although presence choice easier when literally individuals' hands, there no reason why Clause requires form. Indeed, expressly absolute line. 225. To extent intend require placed schoolchildren's rather than given Wolman, they rely, demonstrate irrelevance formalism. formalistic line breaks down application real-world labeled "direct" "indirect" arbitrary further constitutional analysis. Allen, supra, 243-245. "special dangers" exist money see, Rosenberger Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 515 819, 842, payments issue here. 17-21. (ii) provision divertible use cases, particularly Zobrest, 18-23, unworkable. appear rely divertibility rule, offer little, any, support rule. itself impermissible content. Where would suitable school. Similarly, prohibition against content resolves concerns actually diverted uses. 224-226. A divertibility, opposed improper content, misplaced boundless-enveloping all matter how trivial-and thus attenuated (if any) link realistic preventing Finally, "divertible" sense allows "divert" resources. Yet accepted recurrent argument forbidden aspect frees spend resources ends. E.g., Committee Public Ed. Religious Liberty Regan, 444 646, 658. 21-27. (d) Additional cited dissent-including political divisiveness post-Aguilar have disregarded, 233-234, particular, recipient sectarian, factor been disregarded Witters, constitutionality school-aid program. 27-31. (e) Applying reveals concluding Parish's First, define since There because, statute, based enrollment. Second, result eligibility neutrally, making array eligible affiliations lack thereof. 225-226. allocates students parents attend. 222. Thus, problematic fairly described aid. explicitly nonideological," record indicates Louisiana SEA Parish LEA faithfully enforced requirement insofar case. evidence been, least easily be, relgious classes, Scattered de minimis statutory violations restrictions discovered remedied authorities themselves litigation began almost 15 years ago, should elevated level convert unobjectionable parishwide into 31-37. (f) conflict foregoing analysis, overruled. 37-38. O'Connor, Breyer, controls presented here, reversal Circuit's unconstitutional Parish. today, 1-33. plurality announces rule unprecedented breadth evaluation challenges That troubling first, treatment comes close assigning singular importance future adjudication important, 228, 231-232, never held government-aid muster solely neutral employs distributing Rather, heretofore several considers. 226-228. plurality's approval actual diversion tension precedents. 226-227. Actual constitutionally impermissible. Bowen Kendrick, 487 589, 621-622, 624. treat per-capita-aid like true approved 1. represents attempt devise general framework approaching questions concerning programs, involved challenge instant program, control 2-9. Under asks acted "effect" doing so. 222-223. specific used determine changed 223, disclose guide determination: 234. can reviewed constitutes endorsement 235. program's contend Accordingly, ask clear so recipients. wholly allocate enrolled alike. bears hallmarks upheld Agostini: Aid criteria; supplementary to, supplant, non-federal funds; reach coffers schools; secular; minimis; includes adequate safeguards. Regardless these requirements, sufficient find For reasons, cannot viewed 9-14. contentions distinguishable controlling must created inexplicable rift within jurisprudence. Those decisions adhered prior Board Central Dist. 1 392 236, statutes authorizing lending did violate Clause, Meek, 359-362 (plurality opinion), invalidated instructional 362-366, ground assistance schools' missions inevitably 365-366. irrationality patent. Wallace Jaffree, 472 38, 110. assertion unlike textbooks, logical distinction: An educator virtually tool, textbook, message. 14-22. follow context textbook programs: establish Amendment violation, plaintiffs prove is, purposes. 248. undermined assumptions underlying Wolman. definitive rejection presumption public-school teaching inculcate stood for-or strongly pointed to-the broader proposition presumptions normally inappropriate evaluating limited facts, inculcation retained, assumption religious-school instructors abide government-provided 384, extend equipment. Grand Rapids Ball, 473 373, 399-400 (O'Connor, J., concurring dissenting part), distinguished. 22-25. contention administration amassed during 4 discovery (which approximately ago) best therefore insufficient affect inquiry. Their failsafe mechanism capable detecting instance adopted teachers abandoned, pervasive monitoring review safeguards employed federal, state, levels demonstrates sufficient. diversion, but, most, proves possibility isolated instances. supplantation secular-content equally insignificant therefore, treated same. declared entire grounds miniscule scale few examples tends show "no-diversion" failed, worked. 26-33. announced delivered opinion, Rehnquist, Scalia JJ., joined. judgment, Souter, Stevens Ginsburg, Opinion J. Thomas Kennedy join. longstanding known Federal distributes agencies, We hold law. * 3 1981, Pub. 97-35, 95 Stat. 469, amended, 20 U.S.C. § 7301-7373,1 origins (ESEA), 89-10, 79 27, 55, cousin ESEA we recently 203 (1997). Like usually districts, (SEA's), assist children Among provides "for acquisition materials, including services (including materials), assessments, hardware use, curricular materials." 7351(b)(2). 5 LEA's SEA's (although nonprofit). §§7312(a), 7372(a)(1). Participating receive number §7372(a)(1), allocations generally "equal (consistent served) expenditures . [LEA]," §7372(b). "assure equitable participation" "in purposes benefits" §7372(a)(1); "supplement practical, increase - non-Federal sources." §7371(b). operate "so supplant 6 Several apply Most significantly, "services, equipment" nonideological." §7372(a)(1). addition, acquire title property. §7372(c)(1). receives listed §7351(b)(2) submitting detailing items seeks them; LEA, approves application, purchases school's allocation funds, lends them 7 (the unit case), whole, nonrecurring expenses, 1986-1987 fiscal example, 44% budgeted acquiring 48% books, computers, software, slide movie projectors, overhead television sets, tape recorders, VCR's, projection screens, laboratory maps, globes, filmstrips, slides, cassette recordings.2 8 appears that, 1985-1986 41 participated following 46 participated, participation remained relatively constant then. App. 132a. Of 46, 34 Roman Catholic; affiliated; B 9 1985, Constitution. case's tortuous history over next well degree our jurisprudence shifted times, while nevertheless retaining anomalies lower courts struggle. 10 1990, after extended discovery, Heebe Eastern granted summary respondents. Helms Cody, Civ. A. 85-5533, 1990 WL 36124 (Mar. 27), Pet. Cert. 137a. three-part 612-613 (1971), his view, were, detailed doctrine curriculum, "pervasively sectarian." 151a. 349 (1975), 229 (1977), 1994, having resolved issues 11 later, retired, Livaudais received Ruling early 1997 postjudgment motions, decision former pointing significant changes legal landscape previous seven years. 35283 (Jan. 28), 79a. 1993 could, disabled, 12 heavily 1995 Appeals Ninth Circuit, Walker San Francisco Unified 1449, found "virtually indistinguishable." Walker, ruling, appeared erect (permissible) (impermissible). F.3d, 1464-1465; 236 (1968) (upholding program). distinction, however, "thin" "unmoored principles," importantly, "rendered untenable" subsequent Zobrest. 1465-1466. These revived Allen Everson Ewing,3 "state benefits constitutional." 1465. relied, 1467, observation Kiryas Joel Village Grumet, 512 687 (1994), "we frequently availability benefit individuals turning aside challenges," 704. purported distinguish percentage parochial (a large moderate Walker), 1468, court observed "the massive schools." n. 16. although longer good law, reasoning seemed conclusion. 13 addition relying invoked 819 (1995), which, months university exclude student-run publications. 14 Following Livaudais's appealed Circuit. ESEA, holding, Aguilar 402 (1985), partially 373 faced dilemma between, hand, analysis holdings dilemma, abandoned effort coherence case divine course instead focused particular holdings. Picard, 371 (1998). thought approach required admonition applicable might seem decisions, 237. recognizing "all assists function invalid," 225, premise controlled, unconstitutional. certiorari. 527 1002 (1999). II 16 dictates "Congress shall make 50 Everson, struggled simple words schools.4 admitted Tilton Richardson, 672 "candor compels acknowledgment dimly perceive boundaries permissible activity sensitive area." 678 (plur- ality opinion); 671 (White, judgment). 17 brought some clarity overruling anomalous precedents (one part) consolidating previously disparate considerations revised test. Whereas modified discussing recast Lemon's effect. statute: 18 "To summarize, New York City's run afoul currently evaluate religion: indoctrination; religion; entanglement." 19 do cf. 369, 17, consider criteria, questioned 108a, Considering light conclude "law acknowledge what Circuits saw inescapable-Meek indicated 226 (quoting (presence " `cannot decisionmaking' ") (emphasis added Agostini)); 230 (question "any [governmental] indoctrinate State"); Rosenberger, 841-842; 488-489 (1986); Mueller 463 388, 397 (1983); Corporation Presiding Bishop Church Jesus Christ Latter-day Saints Amos, 483 327, 337 (1987) ("For `effects' Lemon, fair say advanced own activities influence"). term. 230-231; 230. 21 religious, irreligious, areligious alike conducts done behest government. attribution relative question. offering provide, speak, responsible indoctrination. put point differently, government, seeking legitimate offers terms, adequately 245-247 (discussing dual schools), going furthering purpose. crafting necessary 22 "only individuals." (internal quotation marks omitted). "private parents," "unmediated" 395, omitted), much. choices, single distribution pursuant cannot, easily, grant special favors lead establishment. Private helps guarantee mitigating preference pre-existing arguably inherent Gilder, Revitalization Everything: Law Microcosm, Harv. Bus. Rev. 49 (Mar./Apr. 1988), inadvertently favoring nonreligious ones. 23 principles relationship other, prominent 230-232, Mueller.5 heart follows: 24 "The service child qualifying `disabled' [statute], `sectarian-nonsectarian, public-nonpublic nature' attends. By according freedom select ensures government-paid parents. words, [statute] choose interpreter's decisionmaking." 10. 25 passage indicates, helped ensure together eliminated possible translated doctrine. 26 similar reasoning. bar tuition vocational rehabilitation blind person studying Christian college become pastor, missionary, youth director. explained: 27 "Any flows institutions Washington's sectarian-nonsectarian, nature benefited education- [T]he fact means education individual, State. 28 29 "[I]t appropriate view flowing Inland Empire Bible resulting action sponsoring subsidizing 487-488 (footnote, citations, internal omitted).6 30 five Members Court, separate opinions, emphasized two. 490-491 (Powell, Burger, concurring); 493 judgment); 490 concurring). 31 tax deduction expenses was, respects, Witters. chiefly "neutrally spectrum citizens," 398-399, "numerous, school-age children," 399, determined deductions. explained "[w]here, `imprimatur approval' deemed conferred generally." (citation omitted); (neutrality imprimatur). 32 "define[s] briefly 230-231, focus, criterion, "creat[e] indoctrination." answering question: 33 "This present, circumstances, less likely itself, incentives, choice. truly "independent," 487. 232 (holding incentive, "available meet Act's beliefs go school"); (discussing, successive sentences, respectively); 488 (similar). When exist, greater risk attribute 35 hasten add, obvious mean reducing cost securing education, creates, "incentive" children. 244; 330 17; Mueller, 399. 36 inexplicably Instead, dismissing factually distinguishable, They argue chiefly, "direct, nonincidental" mission similarly impermissible.7 arguments reject them. 37 earlier 393-394, emphasize indirect merely prevent 394. dissent admits, post, (opinion J.), religion," 10-11. individuals-which mentioned directness breath 226; 487; 399-there 38 us draw. departed Ball invalid." conclusion formerly addressed Ball. undeniable (tuition) education. arrangement, issuing paycheck knowing employee institution. Both arrangements valid, reason: "[A]ny went `only of' 487). neutral. 225 39 explained, work government-funded "even she mouthpiece instruction," Therefore, messages interpreted ibid. (We difference hiring hire interpreter. 13, 11.) dissent's objection "a participate (Blackmun, dissenting). impermissibly finance 228; 230-232. services, instruction individually, facilities 226-229. 40 schoolchildren children, very justified by, aid." 362-363. materials-and-equipment essentially identical, except State, comply 233, 250, students. (The operated much Allen. Compare 248, 243-245.) dismissed "technical" exalt form substance Meek." 250. thus, purporting reaffirm decision, evident similarity dissent. 250 "technical change bailee" irrelevant), 391 (Rehnquist, ("Nor bailee regarded determinative"). reached result, indistinguishable shows played Meek. recognize owned noted books courses, collect students' requests submit board store essential subjects. chooses label 42 course, seen dangers," entities than, indirectly. 842 (collecting cases); 846-847 608-609 (1988); compare 646 (1980), Levitt & Liberty, 413 (1973).8 But refuse allow "special" 43 use. agree second. "no divertibility" So long "unsuitable content," 245, manner, concern. And, governing aid's criterion. 44 Our precedents, argument. gave consideration diversion. Had things mattered quite easy-for striking did, program-which just dissenting) ("Until now, authorized indoctrination"); ("[G]overnment crosses boundary furnishes medium communication message- [A] state-employed serve conduit James' thereby assisting Salpointe [High School] (interpreter "is place imprimatur upon favored religion"); 18-23. Quite clearly, then, do, think synonymous incentives. 45 we, concerned unhesitatingly, perhaps summarily, tuition-reimbursement certain sought career Diversion guaranteed. took deductions costs declined impose segregation either tuition-expense strikingly 391, 2; 414 (Marshall, ("The subsidized Minnesota plainly values belief "). O'Connor acknowledges likewise deny 30, claim "was divertible," 16, author today's joined, understood otherwise. 22. clear, 21-22 dissenting); 6, definition, divertible, diverted. 47 footnote, 366, mention peripheral barred 248-249, invalid. 48 uses.9 aid: "Because interpreter, herself inculcating messages, place." 224 (second emphasis added). dissenters charged true: "shift law." herself, assuming fulfilled her assigned duties, 224-225, significance," 244 bus rides Everson), (given program) "would Zobrest). And message-even conveying one-so projector message, partly suspect indoctrinating 223-225, 226-227, 234-235. Relying refused presume `inject content' especially existed; so, emphasizing preapproved content." 245. 617 ("We note pragmatic difficulties ensuring textbooks" added)). book, motivated hard imagine book moderately skilled illustrate message.10 Post, judgment) (agreeing point). conceded 1469, 17. teacher Shakespeare's King Lear, pagan Fourth Commandment. Exodus 20:12 ("Honor your father mother"). non-sequitur "not readily purposes" "had fixed 28. 51 fails explain sort permissible, "establishment Presumably, lecterns, chalk, crayons, pens, paper, paintbrushes excluded proposed fail of) fact, lacks (as books), 255-262 (Douglas, `not ends.' 658 Hunt McNair, 734, 743 (1973)). 52 conceivable take task myriad kinds ease diverting kind. escapes coherently draw far workable, real advancement require, basis.11 C 53 serves up smorgasbord depending particularity," 11, bare minimum. reassured more.12 19, Presumably revealed needed, additional itself: resurrects once occupied rightly disregarded. 36, 37, 45, 233-234; Bowen, 617, 14; 339-340, Aguilar: "It curious indeed base interpretation Constitution speculation likelihood phenomenon parties prosecuting lawsuit." 429. delights perverse chaos produce, 34; 19-20, becomes unnecessarily clouded, legislators, litigants, groan, amply demonstrates. Part I-B, supra. 54 One deserves mention: (or whose aid) correct period mattered, 19-22, 28-29, 33, 38-41. regret, thankfully past. 55 reasons formally dispense factor. relevance sharp decline. years, reliance full part, today distances agreed, rejecting Agostini. 23-25, judgment), year 1988 facially invalid involving schools) had, found, included institutions. 636, 647, 648 left open remand finding, pains narrowness sectarian" category, 620-621 Court), majority category "well-founded," 624 (Kennedy, Then, attended secondary. away High School, absence 13. explaining constitutional, bother issue,13 226-235, lost dissent, 249 J.). disregarding returning 8-9, (Souter, (noting regarding Everson); 251-252 (Black, 262-264, 269-270, 56 furthers government's sectarian), areligious, mystery established, violation be. favor, bizarre would, seemingly does, reserve hostility seriously, whole lives, mistake being effective transmitting views 57 Third, recipient's focus unnecessary offensive. contexts, refrain trolling person's institution's beliefs. Employment Div., Human Resources Ore. Smith, 494 872, 887 (1990) cases). requires, Court. welcomes probing, 39-41, profoundly troubling. related, collides prohibited governments discriminating status sincerity. (1995); Lamb's Chapel Center Moriches Union Free 508 384 (1993); Widmar Vincent, 454 263 (1981). 58 shameful pedigree hesitate disavow. Cf. Chicago Morales, 41, 53-54, (1999) opinion). professes implied exclusion favored," exclusion. Opposition "sectarian" acquired prominence 1870's Congress's (and near passage) Blaine Amendment, amended Consideration amendment arose time Catholics general, secret code "Catholic." Green, Reconsidered, Am. Legal Hist. (1992). Notwithstanding history, face, describe sect, confusion when, 743, coined term sectarian"-a time, exclusively exemplifies 20-21, 39-41 59 short, nothing doctrines it. doctrine, born bigotry, buried now. III 60 "has schoolchildren, Nor 61 Taking basis." enrollment: "Private per capita school," 1464, "be equal subchapter 7372(b). "[t]o consistent [an LEA] nonprofit 87a (District recounting testimony head Louisiana's told `for every dollar you student, non-public student' "); §§7372(a)(1) (children "equitable participation"). incentive. deviate pure LEA's, increasing per-pupil poor families, reside areas, rural areas. §§7312(a)-(b). contended, think, deviation leads §§7372(a)-(b), 62 satisfies makes §7372; §7353(a)(3). difficulty also, reaches "as consequence decision-making." decision-making scheme, neutrality. parents-not government-who, funds. follows child. 63 presumably consumers perhaps, computers software), it, traits meaningful. 228-229. Nor, already significance themselves, students, bailees ultimate attend regardless lug day or, sensibly provided, computers. 22, "see little loaning science kits bring directly." 16; 244, 6. 64 bars anything sort, books. none 65 classes. 118a, 205a-207a. finds detect relies reduce three: signed assurances secular, nonideological purposes, visits, belonging 2.14 places 27. second, officials highly unlikely catch diversion.15 third, compliance labeling haphazard, 113a, followed, prevents diversion.16 anemic, certainly evidence. 42-46.17 event, discussed II-B-2, weakness whatever regulations. 66 improperly errors. evidence, establishes opposite, occurred-and remedied-before ago.18 system minor coordinator, inadvertent. 122a. 191 1982-1983 1984-1985 years); came fewer half participating; amounted "less percent total years." 132a-133a. 67 prescreening coordinator violations, 107a, disagree. noted, errors occur. unwilling elevate scattered litigation, IV 68 reason, "cannot program.19 overrule 69 come surprise. doubt irreconcilable, 251, 18, reaffirmed (In cite 363-366.) Less despite appearances, loans material inescapably 661-662 "resembl[e], respects," 393, 3; 402, 10; 415 (viewing incompatible "simply untenable"). recently, Ball's necessarily portion (perhaps all, 395) invalidating borrowed 220-221 (Shared Time "surely [g]iven Wolman" equipment). Today 70 71 ordered. Notes now technically Subchapter VI U.S.C., codified Improving America's Schools 103-382, 108 3707. convenience, "Chapter 2," did. Prior 2911-2976 (1988 ed.). Congress section 3832(1)(B) (1982 ed.) (1994 closed 1989, issue. Ewing, (1947) reimbursement busing school). Cases indirectly, Vidal Philadelphia, How. 127, 198-200 (1844); Quick Bear Leupp, 210 50, 81 (1908), evaluated provisions Constitution, Cochran Bd. Ed., 281 370, 374-375 (1930). "neutrality important programs," "emphasized repeatedly." small overall State's 488, irrelevant. 491, concurring) (citing 401 (1983), assert validity "does depend petitioner handicapped pursue training"); "most Powell's respect Mueller," specifying further); "[n]o reasonable observer inference endorsing practice belief"). More (1997), proportion irrelevant (refusing "to happen aid"); passage). supplants, supplements, core indication 228-229; 396 delineated distinction's contours required. supplement/supplant separable arguments, for, supplemental. 7371(b). (declining decide requirement); (explaining "necessary" process"). complied least, occurred, yet believe violation. statewide §7371(b) nearly universal compliance. 112a. hinted §7371(b), barely brief slimmest 63a. requirements (such relating libraries) violates state-mandated testing, rejects blanket se bad, risks (or, more, so). payment reduces risks. 399 (neutral deduction, form, economic suggest sanction messages). arguable, risks, deciding differently sent check whichever chose 848 (1995) reconciling funding choice). if, modify Witters's hypothetical, 486-487; employer employee's designated charitable arrangement Bear, 77-82, Catalog Caring: Combined Campaign National Capital Area 44, 59, 74-75 (listing organizations, engage proselytizing, contribute payroll deductions); Cornelius NAACP Defense Fund, Inc., 788 (1985) Campaign). serious Nyquist, 756, 762-764, 768, 774-780 (1973) (striking 8-to-1 vote, grants maintenance repair facilities, private, low-income `all practically all' Catholic). 768. privately purchased film, possessed kind refusing bible club classroom classrooms projectors groups. (1993). elsewhere (1968), observe, response party's argument, using somehow instruction, occasion occurring comment read, (not Agostini) agrees 22-23 She unproblematic "true private-choice" directs thinks tolerable minimal, further, infra, 34-36. surprising accuse "breathtaking manipulability." 19. Many 28-29 Content police mutable adequate, 36-37). supplanting nonfederal paying worship relies, diversion-the latter 7372(c)(1). director said enforces can," visits "[o]ne two" whenever reviews 94a-95a. way" know computer, responded, "No, way." 118a. Monitoring ineffective. hour half, alerts visit advance. 142a, 151a-152a, 182a-183a. consist reviewing records speaking contact person. Self-reporting sole source 140a. sign-out sheet, official checks recordation attempted." 143a. teacher; include teachers; inform 154a-155a. 163a. uninvolved position occurred. 154a. Unsurprisingly, ever reported 147a. contrast, monitors visited classroom-unannounced-once month, training permitted. 211-212, 234.) have, idea diverted: "Q: Would ascertain, on-site visit, accordance plan submitted, also? "A: Now, church-affiliated creation concept origin man, [a 2] projector, ? Yes. way, purpose? No." 144a, 150a-151a. 139a, 145a, 146a-147a label, associating exacerbates problem occurs. dismisses 29-31 realize considers minimis. persuasive audiovisual theology department. "[M]uch" funds," 205a, on, 210a; 187a, 189a. occurred consecutive 206a-207a, department outstripping departments science, math, foreign language, documented 45. ordered recalled sometime summer fall recall week 1985. 162a, 80a-81a. December. self-correction key petitioners raise Exercise Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. Hialeah, 520, 532 (1993) ("At minimum, protections pertain discriminates beliefs"); Speech viewpoints forum). 72 whom Breyer joins, judgment. 73 1965, passed Act, (1965 Act). I, monetary needs educationally deprived families. II, resources, Since reauthorized times. Three Terms City, Appeals' Louisiana. concur 74 write separately my Reduced essentials, states holds permissible. expansive scope troubling, aspects compel me separately. 75 clearest example near-absolute statement: 76 "If purpose." Ante, 77 Souter plurality, taking stance, "appears evenhandedness practical terms promote 35. 78 quarrel recognition challenges. precisely various forms 231-232; 397-399 (1983). Nevertheless, 226-228 instructors, supplemental regular curricula, coffers). distributed accurately 10, 12-13 coffers, relieve expense assumed, child). comprehensive useful explanation ways "neutrality" decisions. 12-17. Even descriptive refer characterized requisite equipoise antagonism Souter's discussion convincingly evolution meaning cause equating old. "axiom precedent Clause." 846 (concurring `neutrality' generality judging scheme aiding mission, alone qualify 17-18. 80 disagree ante, "[o]ur permitted functions performed organizations," "provide activities." 847 At rested advance 226-227 ("[N]o shown City instructor premises attempted students"); 248 ("Nothing supports deal mathematics, physics, languages, literature, religion"). entirely believed permits 589 (1988), remanded determine, factual development, objectives. 621-622; ("[T]he inquiring grantee step demonstrating contends, bases 21-22. missing Specifically, understanding who, turn, 488; 12. "[a]ny recipients." ("[A] parents"). characteristic subsidy, akin donates Witters). 82 Recognizing Zobrest-to permit purposes-relevant 32-33. private-choice 37. beneficiary, retain toward dependent student's decision. Witters); here petitioner's choice"). "that 83 per-capita endorsement. Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 692 (1984) perception, attending differs meaningfully communicated message supported assistance, naturally formula not-and not-indicate endorsed affirmatively mission. No made. belief." path 84 considering consists subsidies. "recognized dangers institutions." 842; If, identical respects reasoning, precluded organizations churches) organization. sure, theory extends payments. 20-21. omission, comfort. logic- advisory 20, 8-the foreshadows subsidies 85 often pose difficult intersection no-aid defy categorization "[r]esolution judging-sifting details challenged offends lines, sometimes fine, case." disagreement approach, applying forth 86 reexamining largely unchanged. still "whether religion" `effect' changed. 223. Looking articulated advances 87 (Title II) (Due denomination legislation, 2." reference, same.) 88 scrutiny manner identifies creating clarified "where Secretary share Nation's population. 7311(b). agency (SEA) distribute (LEA's) "according enrollments districts agencies," adjusted account "which greatest numbers percentages imposes higher child." §7312(a). expend "innovative programs" designed improve achievement. §7351. specifically mandates behalf 89 "result[s] complex hours. Twelve earlier, companion Aguilar, Rapids, Michigan, presumption, drawn 367-373, campuses 90 recognized [had] relied." erected placement state-sponsored symbolic union showing restrictions. 223-224, `secular, nonideological.' 6321(a)(2)). 91 "departed taken forgiving character With issue, financing indoctrination: "provided attend," "by curricula" schools," "attempted students." "reasonably school-wide basis, condition constitutionality. "willing 229. 92 above, criteria. supplement sources. controlled agencies-the LEA's. purchase §§7351(a), (b)(2). Together restriction, reap virtue restriction reinforced instruction." §8897. minimis, length below. 29-31. 93 distinct there. Brief 44-47. paid Here, pay controlling. respondents, problematic. 38. 94 decided, Seven 238. "merely [made] charge," retained ownership 243-244. contrary critical process, 245-248. 236-238 362-366; 248-251. reasoned 96 ignore reality predominantly role Pennsylvania's church-related characterize [the statute] channeling earmarked `when substantial subsumed mission,' 365-366 97 "necessarily enterprise whole," "inescapably activity." 366 (emphases "[i]n impossibility separating 98 willing inevitable consisted lent charge. identifying inextricably intertwined, , contains suggestion purely purposes," 361-362 irrebuttable instruction. 99 inconsistency strands unnoticed, Justices sides contradiction respective arguments. (Brennan, ("[W]hat says omitted)); 390 failure differing approaches above symptomatic upholds, unconstitutional"). Member meant geography contain maps class." 110 (footnotes 100 technology's suspect. constitute adherence Yet, schoolbooks play process. logic. 101 insist sound selecting film divert prohibits giving apparently ascribe determinative do. 25-30. 102 precedential sentence contained footnote There, "premised something ascertained uses." 18. description correct, rationale Meek-that inseparable anything, confirms continuing stare decisis: "Board decisis purposes." 252, accorded items' divertibility. 103 defend viable fares better. presents problems ends, capacity of, "susceptibility [of supplies] ends"). explains "While adaptable not." surprise subjects `self-polic[ing], starting use.' 365 374 F. Supp. 639, (ED Pa. 1974)). comprehend "periodicals, photographs, charts, recordings, [and] films," 355, "maps globes," 249. plausible saying items, ascertainable 104 urged fundamental reason. Stated simply, respect, "it message." 25. book. try justifying absurdity rest. "[a]lthough assign critique." (for surely assignment connection too), hardly turn. mere ability lesson suffices unconstitutional, discern limiting publicly financed lunch conceivably blessing bread. Avi Chai Foundation Amicus Curiae 105 believes respectfully continued associated 25-27. follow, cites demonstrate, falls precariously original object Clause's prohibition. Walz Tax Comm'n York, 664, 668 (1970) ("[F]or men wrote Religion Clauses `establishment' connoted sponsorship, support, active involvement sovereign activity"). Statements cash accordingly, justification 106 (to field-trip transportation nonpublic (1973), Bowen. 28-30. None chosen 254; Levitt, 480, 23. Tilton, universities construction buildings 674-675. university's "obligation facility appear[ed] expire end 683. resting rationale. probative willingness 7372(a)(1), §8897, challenge. 621. call question, reversal. 107 remains irreconcilable follow. Between two, adhere 361-362; Just rather, raising resulted statement "flat smacking antiquated notions `taint,' [that] substance." applies force equipment: 109 "When full-time courses supervision, perceived aims where, pervades curriculum accustomed everything teach." part). Community part-time day. 376-377. argue, unable 26-29. 111 disagree, former. reaffirmance assume caused textbooks. restrictions, altogether. aids Brennan tools education." 112 distinguishable. normal context, works throughout extent, entirety therein remain supplementary, comprises teacher's efforts class. assistance. advance, V 113 rest, alone. uncover instances 42-43, 45-47. aid). 36-37. highlight 39-41. finally, potential restriction. 43-44. Based claims, last concludes 38-46. Souter. 114 thrust alleged inadequacy Respondents, proceed problem, assumption, "abandoned properly instructed discharge duties faithfully, discard required." 234 original). abandon teachers, 115 level, limits equipment," 7372(a)(1); sources, §7371(b); Department Louisiana) "will 260a-261a; 120a. dispute mandatory assurances, Dan Lewis, testified sign power cut off breached assurance. 122a-123a. LEA's-and covered LEA-once 95a-96a. tasks representatives conduct random 99a. 116 System (JPPSS) applications, complete project plans, approval. 127a; 194a-203a (sample application). JPPSS annual 141a-142a. On representative meets plan. 149a. reminds 149a, sample appropriately maintained usage, 142a-144a. (Although report findings 34-35 113a); (same).) randomly selects 210a. satisfy representative, another scheduled. 151a-152a. Apart conducting examines titles suggests) matter. 135a, 137a-138a. process citation concerned. 111a). 117 fault above-described faith officials. acknowledging self-reporting definitively 34-35, 15; 42-43. admissions, inadequate. flourish, bad proper act faith. proof failed tell truth. 679 ("A exists, objectives legislative subverted conscious design lax enforcement. judicial possibilities standing alone, warrant 118 proffered teacher: "Audio-visual enjoyable tool young grade positive result." 108a. chart user 206a-208a. accompanying letter breakdown usage. unless evidentiary burden elsewhere. basic point, piece second-grade class 119 insistence flatly contradicts disregard (finding "material violation" restriction); (characterizing "scattered" "de minimis"). below, points 120 principal indicating connected network non-Chapter 77a). break down. 77a. principal's compelling. 121 contends declare quotes 623 hand: "[E]xtensive violations-if proved case-will shaping remedy ends abuses." Appeals. 51a; 377 (CA5 1998), 165 311, 312 1999). extensive along lines contrary, (15 affirm below functioning 122 Over 129a-133a. performing 99a-100a. prompted JPPSS, reexamined dating back 1982, 130a-133a. series events inadequate, succeeded. incident insignificant. constituted understandably concedes evidence." 44. borrowing 123 effectiveness rest "not[e] well." too ambiguous conclusions best, aggregate "[t]he sparse." 47, 124 125 Given similarities fail. "this carefully constrained 126 Ginsburg join, dissenting. 127 (and, incorporation, States) prohibit church, irreligion. Thus 128 end. right conscience compulsion, protect integrity corrosion preserve unity society controversy causes. 129 jeopardy substantive limitation exercise civil environment, lawful benefit. attempting lines. Owing variety circumstances drawn, enjoyed self-evidence. 130 generalizations nonetheless possible. supporting discernible objective allowable. spheres overlap life tried identify reveal intent circumstances. acting money, institution, nurture, traditional institutions, recipient, things. 131 effort, sufficiency, addresses discharging mission? Particular control, 132 flesh summary, perspective applied. mistakes led unconstitutionality commits error failing What espouses new conception eliminate enquiry law's effects. fundamentally methodology painstakingly worked revisit length, lest rupture cause. From majority's mistaken old, 133 Const., Amdt. eludes elegant conceptualization phenomena churches ranging hearing loans. Any moreover, margins prohibition, succeeding guaranteeing religion's exercise. wonder complementary inexhaustably applicability defied produced combination edges. keep mind served recollection help misunderstandings underlie 134 expressed founding compelling conscience. Madison's Jefferson's familiar clearly liberty personal conviction coercion religion,1 fund Madison simply: "[T]he authority citizen pence property establishment, him conform establishment." Memorial Remonstrance ¶3, reprinted 64, 65-66 (1947). antithetical command minds free." (dis- cussing Remonstrance); "compel[ling] man furnish contributions propagation opinions disbelieves, sinful tyran- nical; forcing persuasion, depriving comfortable morals pattern" 868-874 135 corrupts Engel Vitale, 370 421, 431 (1962) ("[The Clause's] immediate destroy degrade (Rutledge, argued weakened adherents favored, strengthened opponents, generated "pride indolence Clergy; ignorance servility laity; both, superstition, bigotry persecution." ¶7, quoted 67. "[E]xperience witnesseth ecclesiastical establishments, maintaining purity efficacy operation." variant concern, sect threatens taint "corrosive secularism." Lee Weisman, 505 577, 608 (1992) citations Illinois ex rel. McCollum 71, Champaign Cty., 333 228 (1948). 136 "[G]overnment discrete interests mutually avoids proximity other. nonbeliever fears injection controversies polity, devout believer secularization creed deeply government." Abington Township Schempp, 259 (1963) 137 890-891 138 linked conflict. 8-11 (relating colonists' persecution countries established religion); Engel, 429 struggle religions approval); (1971). turmoil subsidize 645-649 Brennan, J.) schools); McCollum, 214-217 Frankfurter, illustrates implicit County Allegheny American Civil Liberties Union, Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 492 573, 592-594 (1989).2 139 reflected classic summation Education, addressing standards schools:3 140 `establishment religion' clause this: Neither church. pass laws religions, prefer another. influence church profess disbelief punished entertaining professing disbeliefs, attendance non-attendance. amount, small, levied called, adopt can, openly secretly, affairs vice versa. Jefferson, intended `a wall separation State.' 15-16 Reynolds 145, 164 (1879)). 141 pertinent doctrinal statements these: "can [or] disagreed.4 142 Immediately, "aid" "support." imprecision "other language [First that] commands [government] hamper ibid., relations believers non-believers," withholding "hamper" extending argument-proof formulation impossible, wisely thing. Instead value organized violating requirement: "such ordinary fire protection, connections sewage disposal, highways sidewalks." "benefits welfare legislation," modern times member population valuable association, paradigms advantages enjoy deserting 143 perfect fits often, spending resists easy classification subsidy favoritism. 5-to-4 division reimbursing transporting enough protection tolerate thinking fell side reimbursed others, [did] Its legislation get safely expeditiously accredited countered analyses pupils Catholics, (Jackson, dissent- ing), inseparability raison d'e ;tre, 45-46 144 usefully successor decades ones supplied 6). classifying benefit, "test" conditions scheme. 243. Again split, Everson's author, Black, remarkable methodology, consistency transcended conclusions. facile simplistic Disagreement concentrated inferrable behind feasibility sham supplying majority, 243, spoken sake analogy services.5 stress savings devoid measurable Harlan, concurring, summed observations "[n]eutrality coat colors," Goldberg's conclusion, `no measure' [religious aid] decided," 306). 145 producing 146 forbidden, revenue teaching. 147 universally count 148 3. sufficiently classified them, particularity. reducible formula. Evenhandedness factor, sufficiency expenditure ostensibly terms. 149 4. maintain conclusory impeding believers. "Neutrality" name action, conferring religious. 150 Today, inuring principle. benefit; effects somewhere possibilities. repeated attempts isolate discernibly threaten cross deceptively "neutrality," sense, moment itself. "some sense," term's encouragement discouragement indicate 152 mentioned, referred stating neutral" nonreligion. "neutral" carried hint inaction [the] adversary" believers, explicit definition median handicapping major balance ally adversary 242 defined, designate attain 672, 677 (1971) (describing "see[k] area Clauses] legislature legitimately act"); Roemer Works Md., 426 736, 747 (1976) Blackmun, ("Neutrality confine objectives, impede activity. stated applied"); 782 "neutral posture" Roemer, 745-746 scrupulous activities"); 254 (1977) noting teachers' remaining `religiously neutral' 153 employ equipoise, explicated "religious" "secular" 18-34 considerations). anticipated way. Black police, fire, indisputably marked function." authorities, assumed elements intertwined [to be] instrumental shifting word describing nonreligious. spoke [as] permitt[ing] materials," 616, thereafter, regularly "nonreligious." 687-688 neutral," "religiously neutral"); (1975) "wholly 372 auxiliary 751 Tilton's nature"); 754 Meek's speech nonideological"); translator service"); (1997) assess 472, 478 testing nonideological' character, citing 616); 616 nonideological)). 154 shift redefinition, again transformed 1980's. Reexamining reinterpreting "evenhanded," common Again, referring paradigms, compared. 155 increased attention notion evenhanded distinguished [in Allen] U. S., 782, Nyquist reserved benefitted" 783, (citations Subsequent "generality" characteristic. program" respectively, 360; 360, (approving "general program[s]" Pennsylvania), diagnostic `general children,' 243 371, 21). 156 writing called "general" "neutral," "facial neutrality" "[R]eligious quarantined all." 746-747; 746 buses available" 388 redefinition evenhandedness, alluding access "facially law," 401, nonsectarian 397. forward. (1986) characterizing generally"); 8-9 "government defined 231 "neutral, basis"); 839 respected, offended, policies, ideologies viewpoints, ones, diverse"). 157 sum, originally entered field term, adversary. paradigm derive prescriptive guideline, nonideological, unrelated reexamination beginning culminating "evenhandedness." 158 calls not. disputed short pointer face people. distribution, looking asking fact; postal mail. legitimacy avoid crucial borne mind. 159 days tantamount constitutionality; conclusory, distribution. constitutional. characteristics administration, recipients, indicators really is. 677-678 (acknowledging caliper"); 358-359 guidelines degree); 383 Meek), 203; 687, 720 (1994) ("Experience reduced test"); 847-849 drawing); 852 "Grand Theory" Joel); 232-233 (examining factors). 160 insufficiency stand-alone interpretative efforts, equivalence refers universality group. Conversely, society, "verge" territory); 612 ("[W]e demarcation extraordinarily law"); 760-761 perplexing questions" `entangl[ing] precedents' 393 Lemon); 485 Lemon). 161 Hence, looked blessed counterparts, thrive money. dispositive teamed bearing objective. 162 main emerged complement types heighten concern: identified method indirectness content; form; support; expense; substantiality. 163 raised overriding sectarian," confined element 22-24 45-47 dissenting), permeates teaching.6 (1970); 636-637 operates commingle completely secularize Parochial measure, accept teaching"); 621-622 (1988) schools). experience, instructors' obligations, Canon 803, §2, Text Commentary 568 ("It formation doctrine; outstanding life"), religiously.7 615-620; 635-641 480; 369-371; 249-250 nonseverability education); 236. separated Ball). 685-686. susceptible ("This enhanced impressionable age pupils, particularly"). teaching, natural academic skepticism older 686-689; 750. accruing practice. portent organization's granted, pertinence indirect, observing distinctions schemes (bus fare 243-244, (textbooks 621 (invalidating 482 (evaluating Direct obviously raises discounted features mechanism. 225-226.8 166 incidentally directed selected themselves. 399; scholarship "genuinely recipients," route "[w]here meaningful transparent fiction." 487, omitted).9 167 accrues, figured classifications ban Walz, 668; variable ideological compared books). (noted 13-15) 688 nonideological"). (barring content).10 168 start outright religion.11 State] tax-raised teaches tenets church"); contributes them"); 243-244 furnished schools"); 675 ("Obviously pregnant encompass sustained administrative relationships enforcement standards"); (identifying "three evils" "sponsorship, activity," Walz); (distinguishing surveillance); 762, 774 grants" restrict purposes); grant" expenses)12; 745, loan"); 239, "statute authorize personnel administering tests"); 228-229 (emphasizing "distributed `directly schools.' schoolwide basis" 614-615; institutions"); 619-620 accounting inspections entanglement); 753-757 segregated religious); 392-393 "[w]ith exception, dollars institutions"), 236; well-settled kind, school" 851-852 fee tax). 169 Divertibility examining supplies susceptibility ends.13 "each authorities; approval." 244-245; Stewart, J.); 237-238. token, sustain subjects.14 363; 249-250. not.15 So, too, permissibility routes trips components integral unacceptable fostering byproduct" omitted)). able uphold underwriting standard forced strike officials, tests reinforce 240 minimum met. result. Levitt"); (1980) (same), 480 examinations, prepared drafted eye, unconsciously otherwise, precepts church"). 170 mind, constructed affiliation indefinitely 683 opinion) ("If, building converted chapel interests, trespasses Clauses"); Hunt, 743-744. accordingly repairing 776-777. 171 again, remanding as-applied counseling teenage sexuality 621; 223-227, lured instruction.16 172 supplements supplants offerings barred. item expense. 375 (1930) "are appropriations. obtain relieved obligation them" (specifically (stating textbooks] schools" (footnote (explicitly appellants' 656 Allen). ignored once, 646; 7, quickly returned guideline aid.17 12, "relieved educating objects borne. 12). "supplant guidance 173 (however imprecise), "substantial" amounts plaintiff borne.18 "faced program], program] 365. ("Substantial whole"); 783; 250-251. substantiality obliquely "nothing expended "[d]isabled [Individuals Disabilities (IDEA)]; IDEA, incidental beneficiaries." 174 stretch leaves beyond peradventure: James hence, one, nondispositive lesser degree) probable Other pointers pathway travels treasury adaptability budgets. enquiries matters circumstances: so? 175 Everson. Emphasis varied utility enquiry, considerations, confirming predecessors prophecies emerge 176 lesson. misapplies 177 nub 178 "[I]f 10-11 179 unequaled interpretation. Simple manifold, proposal replace generous support. 180 treats external observer's government"). undoubtedly County, 592-594; Capitol Square Review Advisory Pinette, 753, 772-774 786-787 start: taxpayer's conscience, corrupt generate disputes same-terms feature perception endorsement, adopting facial met declining automatically supposedly religion.19 181 assumes effects, incentives 10-11, 14-15. case; sphere all. unrestricted 182 safeguard independent, choices. scholarships allowing chose, cry awarding individuals, Not differences individually genuine opportunity give aid.20 license donate members, patent fiction 183 underscore Framers' course. regime, compelled potent mission; divisive resentments resisting systems ready share. 184 disposition turns misapplication categories circumstance type structure owing anemic thin 185 Much 140a; 262a-278a, "slide cassettes, computers," peripherals, La., Mar. 1990); 90a, 56a, 126a, 280a-284a. videocassette players, employable immune countervailing safeguard, 164a-165a. critique, libraries divinity demonstrate. sheer ample 186 Requests 244-245, pupils), submitted orders items); 156a-158a. wanted supplies, 156a-159a, 171a-172a, forwarded 156a-159a. wanted, infused 187 predicated underscored grades, grades characteristically pervasive, 616; 686-689, 616. indeed, trial judge's findings, record, schools,21 participating,22 sectarian,23 education,24 taught religiously,25 concerns. 671; 743; 636-637. threat highest precautionary grossly inadequate counter threat. disbursement admonitions 7332 8897, safeguards, 2-3, onsite property, oversight empty phrases (accepting uselessness). 188 ineffectiveness 34-36; 111a monitor operation [local agency] know: utilized"). Monitors sporadically, person, recordkeeping, involved. haphazardly questioning location kept, recordkeeping planned. 164a-166a. prevented 102a, 164a-166a, knew methods locking functions, 165a-166a, implemented instituted systems, technologies minimize uses,26 165a-166a. watchdogs assurance 368 (1998), 311 1999); diverted, 144a-145a, notes, screening official, 35, policy consequences noncompliance. 145a. 189 absolutely protection. 7372(c)(1), "lent" actuality, became older. old agency, body, dealing probably 161a-162a. witness unclear 190 Providing 682-684; 776-777, "substantial risk" grounds. teacher-accompanied "unacceptable "an byproduct"); "potential 619 out, indoctrination); "minimal" chance state-drafted "complete" testing). conceded. violated. risk, expect paltry resulted, suggests undocumented diversions well. contrasts starkly upheld, taxpayer 1985.27 133a. Books Child's Book Prayers, 84a, Illustrated Life Jesus, 132a, others 59a-62a. 192 persuasively testified, develop unregulated network. computing master observes, comparing considerable unidentified videotape machines 210a, 206a-207a; 108a (statement classes). 193 recognizes exists. 34-36, nn. 14-17. attributes 28-32 Clause.28 194 consolation erroneous stage coup. mistaking abandonment occur majority. reflecting thoughts pervasiveness 195 candid us, matter, 21-27, 36. wrong obtains significance. 196 dead nailed attack sense: adolescents, takes great care effort. obvious. condemns remnant anti-Catholic evangelical Protestant Orthodox Jewish yeshivas sectarian29 ), equates refusal respondent30 amici curiae31 tradition claiming descent Roger Williams). My details32 imputations irreligion debate clear: attacking relation Virginia Bill Establishing Freedom "[t]hat frequent worship, place, ministry whatsoever ." Freedom, Founder's (P. Kurland R. Lerner eds. 1987); 870-872 "previously drafting adoption leading roles, intrusion statute." moved threatened motivating Framers Indian tribes suggesting dicta squarely (1930); parted company buses, 15-16; 25-26 31-32 agreed 252 272 (Fortas, practice; service. 1983 Code Law, 798, Law: 566 (hereinafter Commentary) (directing entrust 800, 567 (requiring faithful Canons 802, 804, 567, diocesan bishop regulate "imparting imbued spirit"). religiously, 223-228 615-620 (1971); (1973); 369-371 (1975); (1977); NLRB Chicago, 440 490, 504 (1979) church-teacher church-operated employment school"). 481 (1986), However, dictum, "[w]hile Until misreads consideration. nominally examine subsidy" designation nominal. subsidies" 11-13; supply public-employee translators, 226, attended, nonpublic. limitations. 8, nonreligious, 23-26. focusing building, 681-684 ("[A]ny Clause"). salaries assume, unsuccessful segregate responsibilities. present. [state legislature] discipline conflicts. certain, Clauses, comprehensive, discriminating, surveillance obeyed respected"). 657-659 reimbursement" standardized "A drawing grading perform task, performs personnel." Aside circumstance, ironclad guarantees nondiversion, relaxed 842. point. 20. this, foundation. 8. namely, followed boundless 26-27. experience limits. charges enquiries, difficulty. 10-12, 18-20. permitting seems prohibiting Contrary apparent belief, (1993), sheds 24, 9. after-school resembling cases: hours, sponsored public, members." 395. education; posed grounds, suggested 619; reading add subtract approve health diagnostics, tests. Bradfield Roberts, 291, 299-300 (1899); 244. "little content[,] views." 23) beside 22-23, undermine aid; deductions, approval, 396, 5, 664 (1970)), university, 685-686, 488. here); (tax university). departure Regan surrounded unbroken no-supplanting Long 12; subsidy"). weight bear. 7. vindicating Levitt. 263); 480. trustworthy guides Amendment. 24-25, 26-27, 31-34. Regan's ignores contrast divertible. read Witters; Marshall, fact. overreads proportionality. relevant, prohibited. Adopting comparable manipulability breathtaking. legalize largess Short replacing dependable fisc cleaner imagine. Litigation, Consequently, information. faiths religiously. Thirty-four Catholic, affiliated, 143a-144a. supervision Archbishop Orleans pastors, located rectory convent. 144a. symbols classrooms, 75a, daily 76a, sacramental preparation schoolday, mass, extracurricular activities. accepting charging tuition. Archdiocese's published philosophy. St. Anthony Handbook, reads: "Catholic men's living, unique setting ideal realized lives "Only learning living fully integrated faith- truth experiences achieve deepest meaning." Handbook Policies Regulations Archdiocese governed canon lists home towards fullness life. values." 146a. outlined institutions' 65a, 71a. preferences contracts principals termination lifestyle teachings handbook encourage committed Christians professional competence." schoolteachers 125a (deposition president school) ("Our moral, concept, answers respond opportunities religio[n] yes, sir"); 73a, 74a. Government's Guidance (Feb. 1999) misplaced. 1a. highlights O'Connor's objections, stark, undisputed 14-17, precedent, former: it; policies 682-684, low threshold infringement odious door corruption return unconstitutionality, explore borne, unconstitutionally supplanted budgetary categories. affidavits development curriculums, introduction 105a-108a, 184a-185a. supplementing poorly replacements purchased. 167a. 145a-146a, 1985 Report library, occasionally available, Fine Deposition, sparse, incidents aspirational. ran group curiae, "religious leaders Western traditions, Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist individuals" "church administrators, administrators systems; pastors laity boards," members "broad Interfaith Amici describes "life-long, Church" "objects "[s]he chilling entangling church." six Baptist Joint Affairs Curiae; Curiae. worthwhile misunderstanding access-to-public-forum (1981), "decisions sincerity," narrowly free-speech goal "trol[l] beliefs," commingling tolerance

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