Document: 533 U.S. 218121 S.Ct. 2164150 L.Ed.2d 292 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.UNITED STATES, PETITIONERv.MEAD CORPORATION No. 99-1434. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Argued November 8, 2000Decided June 18, 2001 Syllabus The Harmonized Tariff Schedule authorizes Customs Service classify and fix rate duty on imports, under rules regulations issued by Secretary Treasury. As relevant here, provides for tariff rulings entry goods authorizing "ruling letters" setting classifications particular imports. Any 46 port-of-entry offices Headquarters Office issue such letters. Respondent imports "day planners," three-ring binders with pages daily schedules, phone numbers addresses, a calendar, suchlike. After classifying planners as duty-free several years, ruling letter them bound diaries tariff. Mead filed suit International Trade, which granted Government summary judgment. In reversing, Federal Circuit found letters should not treated like regulations, receive highest level deference Chevron A. Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 837, because they preceded notice comment Administrative Procedure Act (APA), do carry force law, intended clarify importers's rights obligations beyond specific case. court gave no at all issue. Held: implementation statutory provision qualifies when it appears Congress delegated authority agency generally make carrying interpretation claiming was promulgated exercise authority. Such delegation shown variety ways, an agency's power engage adjudication notice-and-comment rulemaking, some indication comparable congressional intent. A has claim deference, but, Skidmore Swift & Co., 323 134, eligible respect according its persuasiveness. Pp. 7-19. (a) When explicitly left gap fill, there been express elucidate regulation, ensuing regulation binding unless procedurally defective, arbitrary capricious substance, manifestly contrary statute. Even absence question, agencies charged applying statute necessarily sorts interpretive choices, while those choices bind judges follow them, influence courts facing questions have already answered. weight accorded administrative judgment "will depend upon thoroughness evident consideration, validity reasoning, consistency earlier later pronouncements, factors give persuade, if lacking control." Skidmore, supra, 140. Chevron, this identified category distinguished additional reason judicial recognizing engages only express, but also implicit, It can apparent from conferred circumstances would expect able speak law addressing ambiguity fills space enacted even one about did intent result. implying expectation exist, reviewing must accept position previously spoken point reasonable. very good indicator meriting treatment authorizations rulemaking process produces claimed. Thus, overwhelming number cases reviewed fruits adjudication. Although fact classification product does alone bar Chevron's application, cf., e.g., NationsBank N. C., Variable Annuity Life Ins. 513 251, 256-257, 263, ample reasons deny here. 7-12. (b) There statute's face meant delegate law. Also, difficult see practice set out lawmaking pretense mind, letter's character stops short third parties. Indeed, suggestion being churned 10,000 year self-refuting. Nor amendments effective after case arose reveal new objective treating decisions suggest create patchwork rules, without. sum, best "interpretations contained policy statements, manuals, enforcement guidelines," Christensen Harris County, 529 576, 587, thus pale. 12-15. (c) mean, however, due deference. eliminate Skidmore's holding merit whatever form, given "specialized experience broader investigations information" available agency, U.S., 139, value uniformity understandings what national requires, id., room least raise where regulatory scheme highly detailed, bring benefit specialized bear case's questions. seek proportional "power persuade," 140, writer's thoroughness, logic expertness, fit prior interpretations, sources weight. Underlying Court's choice way deal great ways laws invest Government's arms discretion, procedures exercising it, giving meaning Acts Congress. said nothing recognition various justifications depending action. Judicial responses action continue differentiate between two cases. assessment here ought first instance lower courts. 15-19. 185 F.3d 1304, vacated remanded. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR FEDERAL CIRCUIT Souter, J., delivered Court, Rehnquist, Stevens, O'Connor, Kennedy, Thomas, Ginsburg, Breyer, JJ., joined. Opinion Justice Souter Court. 1 question whether deserves rejected Customs's invocation 837 (1984), support ruling, We agree we hold 134 (1944), 2 * 3 Imports taxed (HTSUS), 19 U.S.C. 1202. Title 1500(b) "shall, prescribed [of Treasury] ... final applicable merchandise" HTSUS. Section 1502(a) 4 "[t]he Treasury shall establish promulgate inconsistent (including establishing issuance merchandise concerned), disseminate information necessary secure just, impartial, uniform appraisement imported duties thereon ports entry."1 5 See 1624 (general admission goods). 6 CFR 177.8 (2000). "represents official transaction described therein personnel accordance provisions section until modified revoked. change modification revocation affects principle forth letter, cited disposition transactions involving same circumstances." 177.9(a). gives birth, "be applied articles identical sample submitted request whose description letter." 177.9(b)(2). general matter, "subject without person, except person whom addressed," 177.9(c), consequently provide "no rely assume principles will connection than letter," ibid. Since respond moment, issued, published need "available public inspection," 1625(a), and, time arose, could most circumstances, 177.10(c) (2000).2 requirement added 1993, Pub. L. 103-182 623, 107 Stat. 2186, codified 1625(c), took effect arose.3 7 464 port-of-entry5 letters, so Office, providing "[a]dvice guidance proper application related [which] field time, prospective, current, completed," 177.11(a) Most contain little simply describe state appropriate few rationale detail. B 8 Respondent, Corporation, having notes schedules together calendar schedule falls HTSUS heading "[r]egisters, account books, notebooks, receipt pads, memorandum similar articles," subheading 4820.10, comprises subcategories. Items first, "[d]iaries, notebooks address bound; pads were 4.0% controversy. 1305 (CA Fed. 1999) (citing 4820.10.20); App. Pet. Cert. 46a. Objects second, covering "[o]ther" items, free duty. 4820.10.40; 9 Between 1989 repeatedly day "other" subheading. January changed position, Mead's "Diaries ..., bound" 4820.10.20. That explanation, Brief Opposition 4a-6a, protest, carefully reasoned never published, reaching conclusion, 28a-47a. considered definitions "diary" Oxford English Dictionary, journal past day's events, second book including " 'printed dates memoranda jottings; calendars .' Id., 33a-34a (quoting Dictionary 321 (Compact ed. 1982)). concluded confined part definition reflects commercial usage hence "commercial identity these items marketplace." 34a. "bound," referring "bookbinding," less exact sort fastening Commodity Description Coding System Explanatory Notes Heading 4820, spoke 'reinforcements fittings metal, plastics, etc.' 45a. 10 further protest Trade (CIT). CIT motion judgment, adopting reasoning saying anything 17 F. Supp. 2d 1004 (1998). 11 then went Appeals Circuit. While pending decided Haggar Apparel 526 380 (1999), (1984). appeals briefing impact Haggar, argued rulings, deserve 12 Circuit, reversed held get owing differences Haggar. Rulings 553 "do not, importers review." F.3d, 1307. thought had weaker Internal Revenue deference; unlike IRS, many locations published. 1307-1308. 13 accordingly both "bound." "relatively extensive notations observations, feelings, thoughts" past. 1310. And "bound" 4810.10.20 presupposed "unbound" diaries, ring-fastened leave "unbound diary" empty category. 1311. 14 certiorari, 530 1202 (2000), consider limits owed Delegation fails qualify, although possibility leads us vacate remand. II 15 "explicitly regulation," 843-844, statute.6 844; Morton, 822, 834 (1984); APA, 706(2)(A), (D). But enjoy certainly "[T]he well-reasoned views implementing 'constitute body informed litigants properly resort guidance,' Bragdon Abbott, 524 624, 642 (1998) 139-140), "[w]e long recognized considerable executive department's construction entrusted administer ." 844 (footnote omitted); Ford Motor Credit Co. Milhollin, 444 555, 565 (1980); Zenith Radio Corp. 437 443, 450 (1978). fair measure administering own understood vary looked degree care,7 consistency,8 formality,9 relative expertness,10 persuasiveness 139-140. approach produced spectrum responses, end, see, Aluminum America Central Lincoln Peoples' Util. Dist., 380, 389-390 (1984) (" 'substantial deference' construction), near indifference other, Bowen Georgetown Univ. Hospital, 488 204, 212-213 (1988) (interpretation advanced litigation brief). Jackson summed things up Co.: 16 "The [accorded administrative] 1984, authority, "[s]ometimes legislative implicit." 844. Congress, is, expressly responsibility implement fill gap. Yet still addresses "Congress actually intent" 845. business rejecting resolve chosen resolution seems unwise, 845-846, obliged reasonable, 842-845; cf. 706(2) (a aside action, findings, conclusions "arbitrary, capricious, abuse otherwise law"). 18 See, EEOC Arabian American Oil 499 244, 257 (1991) (no guideline include 'promulgate regulations' General Elec. Gilbert, 429 125, 141) (1976)); 596-597 (2000) (Breyer, dissenting) (where doubt "inapplicable"). contemplates relatively procedure tending foster fairness deliberation underlie pronouncement force.11 Cf. Smiley Citibank (South Dakota), A., 517 735, 741 (1996) (APA "designed assure deliberation"). our adjudication.12 said, significant pointing want decide case, sometimes formality required none afforded, 263 (1995).13 alone, therefore, Chevron. are, nonetheless, authorization making present far removed process, reasonably suggesting ever deserving claimed 20 No matter angle choose viewing qualify On statute, begin with, terms course, global statement true Customs, "legal norms," put 391.14 well mind authorized, parenthetical, "regulations concerned," 1502(a).15 reference bespeak type activity naturally more parties once classified admitted into country. though direction "information" "secure" uniformity, 1502(a), precedent transactions, precedential add entitlement; function precedents, Strauss, Rulemaking Continuum, 41 Duke J. 1463, 1472-1473 (1992), status class. event, counterbalanced independent review CIT, 28 2638-2640; includes treats par Secretary's "valuation, duty, marking, restricted merchandise, requirements, drawbacks, vessel repairs, matters," 1581(h); 2639(b). hard imagine understanding odds regime.16 21 difficult, fact, itself undertook these. issuing their makes clear parties; regarded conclusive importer 177.9(c) advance change, 177.9(a), (c). Other warned against assuming right detrimental reliance. 177.9(c). 22 legal ignore reality different 15,000 each year, 5; CITBA Advisory Committee Commercial Operations Service, Report COAC Subcommittee OR&R, Exhibits 1, (Jan. 26, 2000) (reprinted 20a-21a)). scattered startling issue, statutes recognizes separate others; potent might going developed instance. 23 disturb conclusion. requires modifying revoking substantially 1625(c); sees "changing practice" produce increase, imposition restriction prohibition, determines "the sufficient importance involve interests domestic industry," 177.10(c)(1)(2) changes nor 24 guidelines." Christensen, 587. They C 25 To fall within place outside pale whatever. Metropolitan Stevedore Rambo, 521 121, 136 (1997) (reasonable interpretations "at persuasive force" inapplicable); Reno Koray, 515 50, 61 (1995) (according "some deference" rule "do[es] require comment"); Martin Occupational Safety Health Review Comm'n, 144, 157 ("some weight" informal norms derive powers"). 26 subtle case: planner brief entries "diaries," grouped "notebooks 4820.10.20; ring typified book, "reinforcements etc.," p. 687 (cited situation therefore 140; 587; 595 (Stevens, dissenting); dissenting). surely D 27 take expressed Scalia dissent, inescapable feature legislation Implementation occur defend challenge; central board office dozens dotted across country; institutional minute detail extend matters intentionally worked level. Judiciary defer multifarious how range variety. If primary simplify withholding diversity discretionary declared irrelevant minimized. If, hand, implausible broad varieties demanding either all, breadth possible taken account. Scalia's priority over years limit simplify. tailor variety.17 acceptance variation led recognize just indicators deference.18 29 Our respective repeated today. pose either-or choice. his view rendered anachronistic, owe owe, post, 9-10. Whether turns, him, (if reasonable) "authoritative," 17. authoritative derives, turn, defined "official" ibid., ultimately persistence 30 action; gap, implicit particularly insistent call intact indicate invoked, last Term response exception, 589, he again 31 think, efforts run afoul Congress's indications considering it. Without much believe continued decided.19 32 33 called go remand proceedings consistent opinion. 34 ordered. 35 Scalia, dissenting NOTES: term "ruling" "a written interprets applies facts." 177.1(d)(1) noted 'effect changing practice.' 1307, n. (1999). specifically excluded reach holding. Ibid. amended 1625(c) decision "modify revoke 60 days" "have transactions" "published Bulletin. interested opportunity submit, during 30-day period date publication, comments correctness proposed decision. consideration received, publish Bulletin days closing period. become publication." Bar Association Amicus Curiae (CITBA Brief). I.e., location full cargo processing functions, inspections, entry, collections, verification." 101.1 Assuming constitutional, 706(2)(B), exceed jurisdiction, 706(2)(C). 142 (1976) (courts 'thoroughness [the agency's] consideration' 140 (1944))). Good Samaritan Hospital Shalala, 508 402, 417 (1993) ("[T]he factor assessing due"). (internal rigors [APA], comment," entitled quotation marks omitted)). 390 Merrill Hickman, Domain, 89 Geo. 833, 872 (2001) ("[I]f rests presumption intent, apply apply. delineating types delegations trigger important determine plausible mean interpretational authority"). For cases, Shalala Illinois Council Long Care, 20-21 (2000); (1999); AT&T Iowa Utilities Bd., 525 366 Atlantic Mut. Commissioner, 523 382 (1998); Regions 522 448 O'Hagan, (1997); 735 (1996); Babbitt Sweet Home Chapter, Communities Great Ore., (1995); ICC Transcon Lines, 138 PUD Jefferson Cty. Washington Dept. Ecology, 511 700 (1994); 402 (1993); Assn. NLRB, 606 (1991); Sullivan Everhart, 494 83 (1990); Zebley, 493 Massachusetts Morash, 490 (1989); K mart Cartier, 486 281 (1988); Atkins Rivera, 477 154 (1986); Fulton, 475 657 Riverside Bayview Homes, 474 121 (1985). INS Aguirre-Aguirre, 415, 423-425 Employees Department Interior, 86, 98-99 Holly Farms 392 ABF Freight System, 510 317, 324-325 National Railroad Passenger Corporation Boston Maine Corp., 503 407, 417-418 (1992); Norfolk Western R. Train Dispatchers, 117, 128 Fort Stewart Schools FLRA, 495 641, 644-645 Treasury, IRS 922 (1990). 256-257 (1995), quoted longstanding concluding Comptroller Currency banking extent warrants deference] deliberative laws" omitted). M. Malloy, Banking Law Regulation 1.3.1, 1.41 (stating "personal authority" Bank Act). Adams Fruit Barrett, 638, 649-650 (1990) (although Labor standards certain Migrant Seasonal Agricultural Worker Protection Act, "agency determinations scope deference," Act's "[n]o regarding [those] statute"). "is presumed correct" review, 2639(a)(1), "may ground" raised below, 2638, "shall basis record court," rather 2640(a); Apparel, 391. Compare 587 ("Interpretations letters-like guidelines, lack law-do warrant Chevron-style deference"), 257-258 (applying analysis confer regulations), 589-591 (Scalia, concurring judgment) (urging treatment); 259-260 Cardoza&nbhyph;Fonseca, 480 421, 453-455 (1987) Chevron). marked hard-edged rule. example showing warranted, not. Judges perhaps harder, examples, always done. Surely Jackson's practical criteria, along concern understanding, reliable guideposts conclusory references "authoritative" "official." provided criterion, something wrong standard substantive every customs turned placed around country Nation's entryways. tries avoid result limiting expresses "judgment management, approved level," distinct pronouncements "underlings," 22, 5. entitle "highest level" source Commissioner approval 386. ruling. What due. so, sometime began, management brief. explains why accepted position. 36 dissenting. 37 Today's avulsive federal Whereas reasonable ambiguous sustained represented interpretation, henceforth "it law," [procedure] indicati[ng] intent," authority." Ante, 6-7.1 authorized enforce overcome affirmative contrary. whereas previously, exist supposedly indeterminate amount so-called sorting consequences doctrine, today replaced come. I adhere established jurisprudence, enforcing, reverse Appeals. 38 Only five ago, doctrine follows: "We accord resolved, foremost, desired (rather courts) possess discretion allows," 740-741 843-844 (1984)). Today collapses announcing instead impliedly, says so. disclaims hard-and-fast determining existence discretion-conferring asserts [is] claimed," ante, 10. act through "adjudication[,] [whatever means]" applicable-because procedure[s] [designed] . deliberation" Court) willingness courts, ambiguities. 7, Once determined order, uncertainty end-and indeed beginning. Litigants cannot determine, traditional lights. No, now resurrects, force, pre-Chevron whereby var[ies] circumstances," care, consistency, formality, position," (footnotes largely words, test beloved unwilling (and feared who know expect): th'ol' "totality circumstances" test. 39 neither sound sustainable practice. 40 principle: Chevron-that deference-was rooted division powers Second Third Branches. When, leaves administered resolved. By committing committed initial branch well. faithful text bother cite.2 origins federal-court review. control officers principally exercised prerogative writ mandamus. Jaffe, Control Action 166, 176-177 (1965). officer acting plainly 42 mooted him fund tribal fund, tribe existing distribution annuities members These solution 1889 acts. reading acts shows requiring answered negative aspects color answers Secretary. insofar bearing sufficiently uncertain plain... 43 44 "From follows mandamus lie." Wilbur ex rel. Kadrie, 206, 221-222 (1930). 45 Statutory ambiguities, Executive. today's background instructions resolved judges. Specific depart found-and single touchstone (what is) informal?) adjudication, employs procedures. contradicted addition, principal criterion supplant me quite implausible. entity authoritatively refers to-formal adjudication-is modeled used trial course purpose closed determination facts-which implies subjected 47 rulemaking: (either Constitution), 554 556; Wong Yang Sung McGrath, 339 33, 50 (1950), typically required. Agencies proceed case-by-case, "making law" program (not adjudication). NLRB Bell Aerospace 416 267, 290-295 (1974); SEC Chenery 332 194, 202-203 (1947). Is likely-or plausible-that meant, chooses administrators successors, flexibility interpreting way, another; case-by-case administration, future forever) courts?3 sense. categories rules-those grant programs, example, exempt requirements rulemaking. 553(a)(2). Under novel theory, takes advantage exemption deprived i.e., effect. Was APA exemption, program? 48 Some personally Cabinet Secretary, Giordano, 505, (1974) (involving 2516 (1970 ed.), wiretap applications Attorney General, Assistant specially designated General"); Federation Civic Assns. Volpe, 459 F.2d 1231, 1248-1249 (CADC 1971) ed.) Transportation feasible prudent alternative use of" publicly owned parkland federally funded highway), cert. denied, 405 1030 (1972). conceivable high-level judge 557(b), authoritative? absurd, actual 49 effects rule: (1) 51 protracted confusion. above, enunciates wonderfully imprecise: adjudication[,] intent." justice utter flabbiness since, maintain fiction really old one, consistently throughout virtually open-ended exception imprecise guidance: tells us, "[who knows?] [of] intent") enough "for afforded." 11. grab bag factors-including sole deference: 13-15. guidance. 52 (2) 53 Another artificially induced increase Buy stock GPO. more-or-less safe harbors storm unleashed; since option mandated constitutional command; rulemaking-which careful voluntary Aerospace, Chenery, supra-will virtual necessity. described, harbor merely employed means resolving ambiguity. (It understand mere conferral demonstrates-if accepts logic-a allow difference another perfectly permissible purpose?) Moreover, majority's perverse emerge, (which untouched today) regulations. Cleveland Indians Baseball 532 __ (slip op., 18) ("We [informal] themselves deference[, because] reflect regulations"). high incentive rush barebones, construing turn respect. 54 (3) 55 Worst lead ossification large portions Where applies, ambiguities remain ongoing clarification. space, speak, continuing discretion. held, Environmental Agency interpret "stationary source" smokestack, replace "bubble concept" embracing entire plant, proves undesirable return original interpretation. 853-859, 865-866. indeterminately decision, flexibility) cease resolution. current vague respect, Executive Branch future. spoken, becomes unlawful contradictory position; prescribed. Neal 516 284, 295 Lechmere, 502 527, 536-537 Maislin Industries, Primary Steel, 497 116, 131 bad occurs (under principles) "delegate"; positively bizarre failure adjudication) presented 56 One readopt repromulgating Chevron-eligible procedural formats Approving landmark abdication power. worlds apart proper, purport interpretation-except identifying ambiguity, court's irreversible. (Under comes ambiguity-and approves it-the "overruling" decides (still ambiguity) preferable.) contrast, view, ambiguity; "delegation-conferring" procedures, own-but reversal uses 57 reminded words Chicago Southern Air Waterman S. 333 103, 113 (1948): 58 below Board's President, disapprove acts, chance deadlock conflict function. President completely disregard court, render. Judgments vested Article Constitution lawfully revised, overturned refused faith credit Government." 59 history allowed agency-or render correction agency. recently 1996, attempt precisely that. Chapman 500 453 (1991), blotter paper lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) counted purposes quantity crossed 10-gram threshold 841(b)(1)(A)(v) imposing minimum sentence years. At Sentencing Commission Guidelines, provision. Guidelines approach, petitioner 284 (1996), bore approach. "Were we, argument's sake, adopt petitioner's commentary 841(b)(1), states Commission's dose-based method 'mixture substance' prevail. squared Chapman... what, any, reject alleged meaning, stare decisis, assess settled law." 294-295 (citations short, sets motion. forever, 62 (4) 63 finally, compounds confusion creates breathing life anachronism sliding scale dependent "upon control"; "body judgment" often embody, eloquence notwithstanding, truism trifling obvious: well-considered expert observers. 64 live indeterminacy times. era pervasive, (intended unintended) innumerable, totality-of-the-circumstances recipe uncertainty, unpredictability, endless litigation. condemn vast regime (all else included formulation "delegate") irresponsible. 65 withstand analysis. sure, impossible demonstrate contradicts prescribes, prescribes none. More precisely, renders meaningless newly announced ensures possibly requirement, exemplify manifested: "[A]s afforded," 10-11.4 66 antecedent jurisprudence. purportedly explicates, mention procedure[s]," 10, finds Which remarkable, find intent; event presumed. followed prescription. 67 Six unanimously Seventh (1988 V), private party Senior Deputy Currency. 255, (1995). contested) Currency, 263. 68 Several wake conveniently ignores, opinions) acted reliance assumption arrived assuring "fairness deliberation," FDIC Philadelphia Gear 476 426, 438-439 (1986), Deposit Insurance Corporation's "deposit" reflected unstructured actions, "contemporaneous understanding" asked meeting bank officials. command Young Community Nutrition Institute, 974 pertained Human Services] poisonous deleterious substance food] protection health." regularly interpreted phrase "to necessary" conferring rule, permit. rulemaking-it Department's unquestionably have. Tilley, 714 (1989), retirees former employer Employee Retirement Income Security 1974 (ERISA), Pension Benefit Guaranty 4044(a) 1344(a) (1982 amicus Letters 722. 69 enumerate proceedings-for LTV 496 633, 642-643, 647-648 PBGC's restoring terminated plan 4047 ERISA, 1347 restoration). Suffice say flatly contradict theory opinion, language supports theory. recent extended discussion. 70 576 following: 71 "[W]e confront after, Interpretations deference." 72 dictum, unnecessary Labor's "ma[de] sense" structure 585-586, conditions application. 591 judgment). was, moreover, dictum unsupported cited. 73 majority above-quoted string citation three sustains point. occasion Bureau Prisons' 3585(b) internal guideline, independently own, 57-60. Koray read Bureau's "Program Statemen[t]" inconclusive, ends observing Statement 'permissible statute' 843). cited, 244 warranted "longstanding 'canon [statutory] construction' disfavoring extraterritoriality, 248, applied. 260 Equal Employment Opportunity informally pre-Chevron, EEOC-specific 125 (1976), 'Congress, enacting VII, not' intend Oil, 141). Lastly, 144 1970, 84 1590, amended, 651 et seq., competing 1910.1029 (1990)-the Commission's-should deferred below. 150. dicta 157), opined Manning, Constitutional Structure Deference Rules, 96 Colum. Rev. 612 (1996). 74 worse, arguments marshaled dictum-its observation K. Davis Pierce, Treatise 3.5 (3d 1994), 587-are unpersuasive scant resemblance Professor Robert Anthony rely, Anthony, Should Bind Citizens Courts?, Yale Reg. (1990), argument criticized informal) somehow bespeaks "delegate" permit add-ons contains-"some "we III 75 ' congressionally created left, implicitly explicitly, Congress,' 843 Morton Ruiz, 415 199, 231 (1974)). presume-and precedents presume-that, absent textual contrary, "Congress, Smiley, 843-844). across-the-board presumption, operates legislates: Ambiguity authoritative-that represents agency-must 76 Nothing displays modify based. points, 13, 16, 2640(a), that, (CIT) court." records facts, All evidence introduced stage; Service's CIT's obligation concerned, "presum[ption of] correct[ness]" "by ground support" challenge again, "new ground[s]" intervening discovered unsound.5 77 signed Director Headquarters' Regulations Rulings, 47a, Solicitor brief, cosigned Counsel Service. contends "post hoc rationalizatio[n]" litigating positio[n] wholly practice," 212 (1988).6 78 best. belabor point, evidently agrees: An unreasonable decrees IV 79 Finally, importantly, revised version correct indistinguishable, regard, 251 acknowledges notwithstanding "administrative formality," Here, NationsBank, tradition opinions head, 11, 13. Just Terms observed: "As early 1809, Chief Marshall '[i]f doubtful, respected treasury department questions.' Vowell, Cranch 368, 372. P. Reed, Role Courts 289 ('Consistent methodology, represent statute'); (1978) (deferring 'longstanding interpretation' countervailing Act." 393 80 officially head. Con-sequently, terms, 81 82 stated, respectfully dissent uphold Subheading 4820.10.20 vigorously dealing Its enormous, almost uniformly bad. entirely minted extends former. Cf., 706 "decide law"-which seem judicially. APA: Sometimes Don't Get It, Admin. Am. U. 9-11 argued, "questio[n] gone conferred. observant APA's was-and reconcile relies suspend 706, presumably enacted, runs head-on specifies law") expressly. 559. infra, 9-12. sole, teasing "sometimes" cites explaining footnote precedent" evinced 'deliberative conclusions' enforcing. How head challenges intellect imagination. aware agencies. Davis, 30.08, pp. 237-238 (1958) (describing "great "determination[s]" FTC Cement 683, 720 (1948)); General's Procedure, Doc. 77th Cong., 1st Sess., 90-91 (1941). resolutions Needless say, indication, explained, "modes" displaying straight face, be? "[i]t imagine" 'valuation, matters,' 1581(h), citing 2639(b)). fail all. anything, on" [and] requirements,' statutes, strengthens (as opposed factual determinations) embody. wrong-indeed, cuts deeply case-unless believes personal criteria rates parting shot, "there 'official' entryways," 19, misses mark. disagree. "authoritativeness" enunciated someone levels. condition satisfied when, attacked counsel defended. thinks impart authoritativeness, line assured view. (Contrary suggestion, latter Affirmation court-if necessary-is determination. establishes (or purpose), Thorpe Housing Authority Durham, 268, 282 (1969); Schooner Peggy, 103 (1801).) authoritativeness bright-line standard-but infinitely brighter asks draw today, display "affirmative innumerable indistinguishable And, focuses attention question: "affirmatively intended" administration did, system works); truly underlings,

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