Document: 445 U.S. 263 100 S.Ct. 1133 63 L.Ed.2d 382 William James RUMMEL, Petitioner,v.W. J. ESTELLE, Jr., Director, Texas Department of Corrections. No. 78-6386. Argued Jan. 7, 1980. Decided March 18, Syllabus Petitioner, who previously on two separate occasions had been convicted in state courts and sentenced to prison for felonies (fraudulent use a credit card obtain $80 worth goods or services, passing forged check the amount $28.36), was third felony, obtaining $120.75 by false pretenses, received mandatory life sentence pursuant Texas' recidivist statute. After appellate rejected his direct appeal as well subsequent collateral attacks imprisonment, petitioner sought writ habeas corpus Federal District Court, claiming that so disproportionate crimes he committed constitute cruel unusual punishment violation Eighth Fourteenth Amendments. The Court this claim, Appeals affirmed, attaching particular importance probability would be eligible parole within 12 years initial confinement. Held: imposed upon does not under Pp. 268-285. (a) interest here is simply making criminal unlawful acquisition another person's property, but addition interest, expressed all statutes, dealing harsher manner with those repeated acts have shown they are incapable conforming norms society established its law. statute thus nothing more than societal decision when person, such petitioner, commits yet should subjected serious penalty subject only State's judgment whether grant him parole. 276-278. (b) While petitioner's inability enforce any "right" precludes treating equivalent years' sentence, nevertheless, because an variation proper assessment treatment could ignore possibility will actually imprisoned rest life. 280-281. (c) entitled make own line dividing felony theft from petty larceny, strictures Amendment can informed objective factors. Moreover, given record, required treat same it might were first "petty property offense." 284-285. 587 F.2d 651, affirmed. Scott Atlas Vinson & Elkins, Charles A. Wright, Houston, Tex., petitioner. Douglas M. Becker, Austin, respondent. Mr. Justice REHNQUIST delivered opinion Court. 1 Petitioner Rummel presently serving State 1973 "recidivist statute," formerly Art. Penal Code, which provided "[w]hoever shall three times less capital conviction penitentiary."1 On January 19, 1976, United States Western Texas, arguing imprisonment "grossly disproportionate" formed predicate therefore violated ban punishments Fifth Circuit Rummel's finding no unconstitutional disproportionality. We granted certiorari, 441 960, 99 2403, 60 1064, now affirm. 2 * In 1964 charged fraudulent services.2 Because question greater $50, offense punishable minimum maximum 10 Corrections.3 eventually pleaded guilty charge confinement penitentiary. 3 1969 $28.36, crime penitentiary nor five years.4 four imprisonment. 4 pretenses.5 obtained designated "felony theft," which, itself, years.6 prosecution chose, however, proceed against statute, cited indictment convictions requiring imposition if offense. A jury also found true allegation prior felonies. As result, April 26, 1973, trial court mandated 63. 5 imprisonment.7 then filed petition Texas. petition, claimed, inter alia, punishment. noting already constitutional attack 63, see Spencer v. 385 554, 87 648, 17 606 (1967), crediting argument respondent viewed approximately years. 6 divided panel reversed. 568 1193 (CA5 1978). majority relied Court's Weems States, 217 349, 30 544, 54 L.Ed. 793 (1910), Fourth Circuit, Hart Coiner, 483 136 (1973), cert. denied, 415 983, 94 1577, 39 881 (1974), holding "so grossly offenses F.2d, at 1200. dissenting judge argued "[n]o neutral principle adjudication permits federal hold situation individual too trivial relation imposed." Id., 1201-1202. 7 case reheard sitting en banc. That vacated affirmed denial relief claim. 651 Of banc Six members dissented, enforceable right compelled unconstitutional. II 8 Initially, we believe important set forth propositions contest. First, challenge constitutionality general proposition. supra, upheld very employed here, course similar statutes sustained contentions "constitutional double jeopardy, ex post facto laws, punishment, due process, equal protection, privileges immunities." U.S., 560, S.Ct., 651. Here, result applying concededly valid facts case. 9 Second, authority punish each felonies, is, imprisoning penitentiary.8 Cf. Robinson California, 370 660, 82 1417, 758 (1962) (statute addicted narcotics violates Amendments). See Ingraham 430 667, 97 1401, 1410, 51 711 (1977) (Eighth "imposes substantive limits what made punished . ."). Under law sentences totaling 25 refers offenses." Indeed, pretenses least 35 Columbia.9 Similarly, large number authorized significant terms other them.10 focuses impose opposed substantial term years, felony. This has occasion stated prohibits severity crime. See, e. g., 367, 549; 1410 (dictum); Trop Dulles, 356 86, 100, 78 590, 597, 630 (1958) (plurality opinion). recent proposition appeared most frequently opinions death penalty. Coker Georgia, 433 584, 592, 2861, 2866, 53 982 opinion); Gregg 428 153, 173, 96 2909, 2925, 49 859 (1976) (opinion STEWART, POWELL, STEVENS, JJ.); Furman 408 238, 458, 92 2726, 2838, 33 346 (1972) (POWELL, J., dissenting). cites these latter compelling conclusion offenses. But STEWART noted : 11 "The differs forms degree kind. It unique total irrevocability. rejection rehabilitation convict basic purpose justice. And unique, finally, absolute renunciation embodied our concept humanity." 306, 2760. theme, nature purposes analysis, time again opinions. 287, 289, 2751, 2752 (BRENNAN, concurring); 187, 2931 Woodson North Carolina, 280, 305, 2978, 2991, 944 (1976); 598, 2869 kind matter how long, decisions prohibition cases limited assistance deciding meted out Rummel. 13 Outside context successful challenges proportionality exceedingly rare. coming Supreme Philippine Islands, successfully attacked known "cadena temporal " falsifying public record. Although invalidated after weighing "the mischief remedy," 379, disproportionality cannot wrenched extreme "mischief," document, apparently complete knowing entry single item information "though there one injured, though fraud it, gain desire it." 365, 548. "remedy" cadena temporal, described graphically Court: 14 "Its penal institution twelve day, chain ankle wrist offender, hard painful labor, friend relative, marital parental rights participation even family council. These parts endure From intermission. His bars chains removed, true, goes them perpetual limitation liberty. He forever kept shadow crime, voice view magistrate, being able change domicil without giving notice 'authority immediately surveillance,' permission writing." 366, 549. 15 argues length Weems' was, basis decision, support simple conclusion. consistently referred jointly "accessories" "accompaniments." id., 372, 377, 380, 548, 551, 553, 554. expressly behalf provision Code separable accessory may declared illegal, leaving former application." According "[t]he unites penalties principal accessory, power .." 382, 555. Thus, do applied regard peculiar facts: triviality offense, impressive extraordinary included temporal. 16 Given considered cases, argue fear contradiction classified classifiable penitentiary, purely legislative prerogative.11 Only six Weems, example, Holmes wrote unanimous brushing aside concurrent cumulative fines $1,000 seven counts mail fraud. Badders 240 391, 36 706 (1916). "no ground declaring unconstitutional." 394, 368. Such reluctance review legislatively implicit well. WHITE, writing plurality "Eighth judgments be, appear merely subjective views Justices; factors possible extent." Since involved rape adult female, draw "bright line" between various permutations commutations short ultimate sanction. For reasons Furman, 272, considerably clearer distinction shorter longer 18 differentiate fashion highly traditional Anglo-Saxon system. extensive intrusion into line-drawing process pre-eminently province legislature makes act difficult square neither Justices. 19 attempt provide us criteria measure points certain characteristics allegedly render "petty." cites, absence violence crimes. presence always affect strength society's deterring punishing criminal. high official corporation commit undeniably area antitrust, bribery, clean air water standards close engaging "violent" short-term "life-threatening" behavior. Additionally, "small" money taken recognize stolen $5,000, $50,000, $500,000, rather stealing, virtually concede lines drawn indeed "subjective," properly legislatures, courts. attempted defraud victim failed, whatsoever changed hands; blameworthy, skillful, succeeded. 20 case, need decide pretenses. Had enacted Legislature fact, felt enough warrant Thus property; By conceding validity generally, himself concedes State, class persons. 21 Nearly 70 ago, claim seems factually indistinguishable advanced present Graham West Virginia, 224 616, 32 583, 56 917 (1912), incorrigible horse-thief Virginia's 1898 stealing "one bay mare" valued $50; 1901 "feloniously burglariously" entering stable order steal brown horse, named Harry, value $100"; 1907 red roan horse" $75 tack accessories $85.12 Upon last did tarry long Graham's claim,13 maintained "that [had] inflicted." 631, 588.14 22 Undaunted earlier like Badders, attempts alleged "nationwide" trend away toward "lighter, discretionary sentences." Brief 43-44. Rummel, jurisdiction Free World punishes habitual offenders harshly Texas." 39. proposition, offers detailed charts tables documenting history since 1776. 23 Before evaluating evidence, examine exact operation interpreted qualify satisfy requirements. prison.15 some conviction, imprisonment.16 Finally, having sent second time, three-time felon receives parole, commission succeeding followed preceding one, actual necessary sequence, must twice demonstrate deter returning once released. One position both consequences lawlessness opportunity reform, avail. Article person admittedly incarceration life, parole.17 24 comparing program creates complex hierarchy places scheme alone top rung. isolation entirely convincing. Both Virginia Washington, felony.18 distinguish Washington includes indicated willingness Amendment. Lee, Wash.2d 932, 937, n. 4, 558 P.2d 236, 240, (CA4 1973). ultimately meaning If disagree point, practical agree courts, either indicate lenient almost Washington. distinctions, subtle gross. three.19 Other require sentence.20 Still leave discretion jury.21 thing compare specific not. 595-596, 2867-68. quite evaluate matrix.22 26 Nor begin reflect complexity comparison asks make. told, relatively liberal policy granting "good time" credits prisoners, historically allowed prisoner become little Respondent 16-17. Nevertheless, "an criminals," Morrissey Brewer, 471, 477, 2593, 2598, 484 (1972), hardly else, however slim, serves Mississippi's, provides including violent Miss.Code Ann. § 99-19-83 (Supp.1979). 27 Another variable complicating calculus role prosecutorial scheme. common knowledge prosecutors often exercise their invoking plea bargaining screen truly "petty" fall literal statutes. Oyler Boles, 368 448, 456, 501, 505, 446 (upholding over contention placed hands prosecutor). asked event find unconstitutionally disproportionate, remand sentencing introduce entire If, remand, discover original indictment, reasonably wonder status based held "cruel unusual" 28 offer additional considerations inherent flaws suggested interjurisdictional analysis illustrations complexities confronting comparison. Even assume stringent 50 States. Lochner New York, 198 45, 76, 539, 547, 937 (1905), Constitution "is people fundamentally differing Until recently, Arizona "neat horned animal," regardless value;23 California considers "avocados, olives, citrus deciduous fruits, nuts artichokes" particularly reprehensible.24 $100 earn offender fine jail;25 imprisonment.26 Absent constitutionally uniformity inimical notions federalism, bear severely State.27 29 Perhaps, asserted "time works changes" Amendment, bringing existence "new conditions purposes." 373, 551. all, course, think "moving down road human decency." 410, 2814 (BLACKMUN, Within confines judicial proceeding, way direction lies. Penologists themselves unable light heavy,28 determinate.29 uncertainty reinforces "nationwide trend" lighter, source sustaining force III casual justice systems Union shows usually taken, varies markedly another. where lie, 2866. Having place onus bring conduct social prescribed State. 31 simplify task prosecutors, judges, juries. Its primary goals repeat and, point repeatedly segregate extended period time. segregation duration propensities demonstrated during Like deemed isolated matters largely jurisdiction. Affirmed. 34 concurring. I am moved substance say about legislation Texas: "If gave me roving my enlightened policy, join opinion. clear procedures adopted many far superior utilized [here]. applaud personally approve [this case]. below level [Constitution] tolerate. constrained Court." 569, 656, (concurring 37 whom BRENNAN, MARSHALL, STEVENS join, dissenting. 38 contravention applicable property-related Today, holds unconstitutionally. dissent. stated. 1964, presenting intent $80. 1969, face $28.36. accepted payment return promise repair conditioner. conditioner never repaired, indicted offender. Tex.Penal Ann., (Vernon 1925), amended recodified, 12.42(d) (1974). proved convictions, 40 exhausting remedies, contended constituted suggest method punishment—life imprisonment—was invalid. Rather, view, (1978), corpus. (1979). 41 today affirms Circuit's decision. dissent (i) noncapital (ii) assessing (iii) (iv) suffered compatible principles restraint federalism. 42 punishments." language came I, 9, Declaration Rights, "excessive bail ought required, excessive imposed, words English Bill Rights 1689. Granucci, 'Nor Cruel Unusual Punishments Inflicted: Original Meaning,': 57 Calif.L.Rev. 839, 840 (1969). 43 extensive, Framers intended proscribe inhumane methods 319-322, 2767, 2768, (MARSHALL, 839-842. When delegates met consider Constitution, Patrick Henry specifically provisions contained Declaration. feared punishments" clause, Congress "may practice torturing, extort confession crime."1 debate First adoption Congressman objected precisely "villains deserve whipping, perhaps ears cut off."2 44 19th-century Wilkerson Utah, 130, 135, 345 (1879), shooting emphasized, torturous execution, burning live violate re Kemmler, 436, 930, 519 (1890), carrying York's electrocution. apply action, conclude electrocution deprive Louisiana rel. Francis Resweber, 329 459, 464, 67 374, 376, 91 422 (1947). B 45 scope Clause extends barbarous disproportionate. Disproportionality measures relationship inflicted inquiry whether, deserves serve utilitarian goal. levied overtime parking vehicular lawlessness, offend sense plays imposing penalty, suggests challenged. finds jurisprudence. 46 rooted deeply Magna Carta 1215 insured "[a] free man [fined] offence, except accordance offence; offence according gravity."3 1400, embraced principle, practice, length.4 commentator's survey demonstrates clause 1689 "was first, objection unauthorized outside court, second, reiteration penalties." 860. 169, 2923, JJ.). 47 record claimed labor chains.5 loss civil surveillance release. agreed unusual. attentive 363-364, 547-548, solely explicitly imposed: 48 "Such amaze conception offending citizens American commonwealths, precept graduated proportioned 366-367, recognized "proscribes crime." (1977); Hutto Finney, 437 678, 685, 98 2565, 2571, 522 (1978); J.); 171, 2924 POWELL 325, 2770 concurring).6 resolve issue, measured persons crimes, jurisdictions. 381-382, 554-555.7 1420, (1962), applies through drug addict "crime." addiction illness contracted involuntarily, said "imprisonment ninety days not, abstract, abstract. day 'crime' cold." Ibid. 52 circumstances. special relevance lies acceptance Members principles. punishment.8 "evolving 101, Warren, C. J.).9 woman WHITE "if (1) measurable contribution acceptable hence purposeless needless pain suffering; (2) proportion 2866.10 concluded rape. To end, examined attitudes legislatures juries cases. opinion, concurred plurality's reasoning ordinarily raping woman. 601, 2870. Nothing questions posed same: sum, few emerge purpose, seriousness acknowledged sentences. 55 law, sentence. so, primarily probably 659 (en banc). good-time available system, equated 660. necessarily mean spend behind walls. attains sufficient credits, begins early release; executive grace. Last Term Greenholtz Nebraska Inmates, 442 1, 2100, 2104, 668 (1979), extinguishes whatever liberty securing freedom before end lawful unequivocally conditionally released expiration sentence." 2104. create legitimate expectations procedural protection Due Process chosen cognizable freed Johnson Wells, 566 1016, 1018 Craft Board Pardons Paroles, 550 1054, 1056 (1977). 58 discounts prisoner's cruelly ironic. combined effect holdings allow defend contending probable expectation. approach inconsistent failed speculation pardoned carried out. 59 Recent events remains June 1979, Governor refused 79% prisoners board recommended release.11 chief acted declining follow board, actions emphasize speculative Appeals' reasoning. comes us, deprived accordingly. IV commands Clause. discharging responsibility, minimize risk constitutionalizing personal predilictions judges relying Among 2869; 603, 2871 concurring part part); jurisdictions, 593-594, 2866-67; 179-180, 2928; 554; cf. 102-103, 598-99; criminals jurisdiction, 380-381, 554-555. 61 Each underlies involves small sums ranging $28.36 $120.75. total, slightly $230. None injury one's threat violence, weapon. involve action property. imagine pose danger peace good civilized legislature's recodification supports reclassified pretext, misdemeanor. 31.03(d)(3) (Supp.1980).12 62 Apparently, ever nonviolent 3, retained statute.13 three-fourths experimented decided represents excess Kentucky, replaced flexible "because circumstances justified. An example Class D none involving person." Commentary following Criminal Law Kentucky Annotated, 532.080, p. 790 (1978). Kansas abolished mandating bears resemblance enforcement judges." Legislative Council, Operation Habitual Law, Pub.No.47, (1936). eight enactment 733 defendants 32-33. statistic strongly belief thought severe.14 retains rule, application (1976). More three-quarters jurisdictions currently employ offenses,15 crime,16 limit life,17 authority.18 showing offenses.19 64 materially Title U.S.C. 3575 increased "dangerous offenders" defendant offender" previous current arose pattern "which income, manifested skill expertise," conspiracy played supervisory role. 3575(e). "to appropriate exceed twenty-five otherwise felony." 3575(b).20 overwhelming lend credence disproportionate.21 C 65 criminals. receive severe first-time murder. §§ 12.31, 19.03 first-degree murder, aggravated kidnaping, rape, 19.02, 21.03; 12.32 (1974 Supp.1980). Persons second-degree voluntary manslaughter, robbery, 12.33 next higher degree. 12.42(a)-(b) rapes 5-year may, functionally 66 comparisons illuminating mandate extra recidivist. (1962). vehicle great twice. Compare 12.42(a) 31.07 12.42(b); 21.02 (1979 statutory choose committed. recognizes two-time vary felons completely different types raises doubts harmful bar note system further extent doubt suitable proportionate 68 Examination traditionally assess suffers penultimate defrauding others engaged threatened another's trespass, endangered society. authorize assumes murders cash checks. 69 punished. inherently barbarous. defrauded $230, justify isolate potentially individual. My examination "objective indicia attitude sanction," V agrees arguments favor federalism difficulty formulating guide lead interference decisions. Neither 71 sovereign responsibilities promulgate forget "recognizes preserves autonomy independence States,—independence departments." Erie R. Co. Tompkins, 304 64, 78-79, 817, 822, 1188 (1938), quoting Baltimore Ohio Baugh, 149 368, 401, 772 (1893) (Field, sphere activity interference, compels commands. obligation created. stated, "[c]ourts exercising function conferred assess, them, enacting body, runs afoul body." 466, 2842 (dissenting 72 believes formulate practicable standard identify sentences, fears intervene will. "floodgates" easy rebut. subjectivity. rely experience govern 73 1974, prisoner. first- second-time Coiner contends undercut ability independent authority. Yet subsequently Davis Davis, 601 153 (1979) banc), 40-year possession distribution nine ounces marihuana Roberts Collins, 544 168 (1976), lesser (assault) (assault murder).22 74 inapplicable. 10-year obscene telephone calls "[w]hatever matter, fail discern establishing eighth amendment." Wood South 149, 150 (1973). Griffin Warden, 517 756 (1975), breaking gasoline grocery store, burglary residence, grand larceny. distinguished Griffin's "clearly potentiality property." 757. turned 10- 20-year 13-year-old female. Hall McKenzie, 537 1232, 1235-1236 emphasized integrity potential physical injury. brought heroin, Atkinson, 513 38, firearm, Wooten, 503 65, assault 455 1172 Martell, 335 764 (1964).23 75 correct. body developed constitutes empirical evidence capable sensitivity autonomy.24 VI 76 difference prisoners' separated separates "But fact somewhere anywhere." Pearce Commissioner, 315 543, 558, 754, 761, 86 1016 (1942) (Frankfurter, has, easiest best.25 77 heretofore precedents establish duty Supra, 289-293. reach restricted claims adjudicated "Time changes, brings new purposes. Therefore vital wider birth. constitutions. They ephemeral enactments, designed meet occasions. are, Chief Marshall, 'designed immortality nearly institutions it.' construing living Constitution. unjust every layman lawyer. clearly $230 crosses rationally separating lawfully proscribed reverse Appeals. With minor revisions, article recodified 1555b, provided: "Section 1. card, defraud, service type; pay items services rendered." App. 712 1555b(4)(d), "For Act, Fifty Dollars ($50) more, ten (10) years." 713 996, knowingly pass instrument mentioned defined articles chapter, confined 597 'Theft' taking corporeal belonging possession, him, consent, owner same, benefit taking." 688 1413, wrongful, accused means, appropriation theft, taking, originally lawful, thereof, appropriated, complete." 689 1421 "Theft fifty dollars 690 Preliminarily, barred Wainwright Sykes, 72, 2497, 594 (1977), object stage raised rehearing banc, shortly decided. contemporaneous-objection requirement 653-654 Deferring interpretation decline defines "may—not must—be ." 1.07(14) W. LaFave Scott, Handbook (1972). Ala.Code 13-3-50, 13-3-90 (1975) (1 years); Alaska Stat.Ann. 11.20.360 (1970) Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. 13-661(A)(3), 13-663(A)(1), 13-671 (1956 Supp.1957-1958) Ark.Stat.Ann. 41-1901, 41-3907 (1964) Colo.Rev.Stat. 18-4-401, 18-1-105 (1973) (fine up Del.Code Tit. 11, 841, 843, 4205 (1974) D.C.Code 22-1301 Fla.Stat. 811.021 (1965) Ga.Code 26-1803, 26-1812 Ind.Code 10-3030(b), 10-3039(3) (Supp.1975) Kan.Stat.Ann. 21-3701, 21-4501 Ky.Rev.Stat. 514.040, 532.080 La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 14:67 (West 1974) (up Me.Rev.Stat.Ann., 17, 1601 Md.Ann.Code, 27, 140 (1957) Mass.Gen.Laws ch. 266, 1970) Mich.Comp.Laws 750.218 (1968) Minn.Stat. 609.52 (Supp.1978) 97-19-39 Mont.Rev.Code 94-2701(1), 94-2704(1), 94-2706 (1947) Nev.Rev.Stat. 205.380, 205.380(1) N.H.Rev.Stat.Ann. 637:4(I), 637:11(II)(a), 651:2 N.C.Gen.Stat. 14-100 (1969) months N.D.Cent.Code 12.1-23-02, 12.1-23-05(2)(a), 12.1-32-01(3) Rev.Code 2911.01 (Supp.1974) years), committee comment Rev.Stat.Ann. 2913.02 (1975); Okla.Stat., 21, 1541.1, 1541.2 (Supp.1979-1980) S.D.Comp.Laws 22-37-1, 22-37-2, 22-37-3 Tenn.Code 39-1901, 39-4203, 39-4204 (3 Arts. 1925) (2 Utah 76-3-203(3), 76-6-405, 76-6-412 accompanying Compiler's Note Vt.Stat.Ann., 13, 2002 Va.Code 18.2-178, 18.2-95 Wash.Rev.Code 9.54.010(2), 9.54.090(6) W.Va.Code 61-3-24, 61-3-13 Wis.Stat.Ann. 943.20 Wyo.Stat. 6-3-106 years). Columbia, Ala.Code, 14, 199, 207 13-421 (Supp.1957-1978) 41-1806 Cal.Penal 470, 473 40-6-1 (1963) Conn.Gen.Stat. 53-346 861, 22-1401 831.01, 831.02 26-1701 Haw.Rev.Stat. 743-9, 743-11 labor); Idaho 18-3601, 18-3604 (1948) Ill.Rev.Stat., 17-3 (1971) and/or 10-2102 (1956) plus fine); Iowa 718.2 (1950) 21-609, 21-631 434.130 14:72 1501 267, 750.253 609.625 (3) 2172, 2187 Mo.Rev.Stat. 561.011 94-2001, 94-2004 Neb.Rev.Stat. 28-601 (1943) 205.090 (1959) 581:1, 581:2 (1955) N.J.Stat.Ann. 2A:109-1, 2A:85-6 1969) N.M.Stat.Ann. 40A-16-9, 40A-29-3(C) (Supp.1963) N.Y.Penal 70.00(2)(d), 170.10, 170.25 (McKinney 1967 1975) 14-120 (4 12-39-23, 12-39-27 (1960) 2913.01 (1954) 1621(2) Ore.Rev.Stat. 165.105, 165.115 (Supp.1967) Pa.Stat.Ann., 5014 (Purdon 1963) R.I.Gen.Laws 11-17-1 S.C.Code 16-13-10 22-39-14, 22-39-17 (1967) 39-1704, 39-1721, (1955 Supp.1974) 996 76-26-1, 76-26-4 (1953) 1802 18.1-96 9.44.020, 9.44.060 61-4-5 (1966) 943.38 6-2-101 covering credit-card Rummel's. 484a(b)(6) (Deering Supp.1964), 1960) 21-533, 21-534, 21-590 1963 Ore.Laws, 588, 3(6) 1555b Supp.1973) 18.1-119.1 (Supp.1964) while lacking fraud, provisions. 209, 331 (1958 94-1805, 580:1 12-38-04 authorizing 18-112, 18-3113, 18-3119 Ann.§ 9.26A.040 come play dissent, post, 288, Transcript Record O.T. 1911, 721, pp. 5, 9. Amendment's proscription 462, 375, opinion), assumed, deciding, inflict punishments. Howard Fleming, 191 126, 135-136, 49, 50, 121 (1903); McDonald Massachusetts, 180 311, 313, 389, 390, 542 (1901). reference Howard, McDonald, indicates course. 588. characterizes per se, 18-19, 6. share reading. brief submitted Plaintiff Error 37-38. moreover, assumed unusual." Defendant 19. Cromeans 160 Tex.Cr.R. 138, 268 S.W.2d 133, 135 (1954). interpreted, prove Tyra 534 695, 697-698 (Tex.Crim.App.1976); Rogers 308, 325 697, 698 (1959). that, claims, subjects "merely felon." Post, 299, 18. contrary, mandates ineffective. 9.92.090 61-11-18 16-13-101 (1973 Supp.1976); 207.010 22-6-1, 22-7-8 (Supp.1978); 6-1-110 22-104a (1973); 19-2514 (1979); (Supp.1979-1980). sort Coker. applied, re-enacted killings, done importance. 594-595, 2867. watershed comparable confirmed, undercut, There contemporary expression recidivists, 13-663(A) (repealed 1977). 487(1) 1970). 18-4604, 18-4607 205.220 draws implicate interests, speculative. Embezzlement, "hard" drugs, forgery, name offenses, denominated "property related" values political process. "violence," 295-296, 12, warranted wash, morals, history, Caesar's Brutus fellow conspirators undoubtedly violent; Hamlet's father brother, Claudius, poison, few, any, just murder poison (or poison) stabbing. embezzles huge savings loan association, causing shareholders means lose savings, takes smaller gun. rational merits token, "minor" "more serious" offender's inferences conform offenders. short, "seriousness" modern line, plane. Once put side, judging several "violence" cruel-and-unusual-punishment Frankfurter Gore 357 386, 393, 1280, 1285, 1405 (1958), entertained regarding efficacy futility, peculiarly policy." Von Hirsch, Doing Justice: Choice Punishments, Report Committee Study Incarceration Yeager, Do Mandatory Prison Sentences Handgun Offenders Curb Violent Crime?, Technical Conference Mayors 25-26 E. van den Haag, Punishing Criminals: Concerning Very Old Painful Question 158-159, 177 (1975). generally F. Zimring G. Hawkins, Deterrence: Legal Threat Crime Control 234-241, 245-246 McKay, It's Time Rehabilitate Sentencing Process, Occasional Paper—Aspen Institute Humanistic Studies 4-5 98-104; Dawson, Sentencing: Decision Type, Length, Conditions Sentence, Bar Foundation's Survey Administration 381, 414 (1969); 25-26. Dept. Justice, Determinate Reform Regression?, Proceedings Special Sentencing, 2-3, 1977. Elliot, Debates 447-448 (1876). Annals Cong. 754 (1789) (Rep. Livermore). Holt, 323 (1965). Perry, Sources Our Liberties 236 enunciated Field O'Neil Vermont, 144 323, 693, 450 (1892). 307 selling alcoholic beverages Vermont prison. issue properly, 331-332, 696-697. asserting punishment" directed "against greatly disproportioned offences charged." 339-340, 699. Jeffries Stephan, Defenses, Presumptions, Burden Proof 88 Yale L.J. 1325, 1377 Note, Imprisonment, 79 Colum.L.Rev. 1119 notes discussion consists sentence: "Nor statement. 448-449, 934, declined action. Waters-Pierce Oil 212 111, 220, 227, 417 (1909), controlled "[w]e interfere enforcing deprivation law." until one-sentence preincorporation relevant determination today. (1916), adds "little language." 2770, concurring). $7,000 teaches 2747 312, 2763 (WHITE, 2773 457-458, 2837-38 dissenting, joined BURGER, BLACKMUN REHNQUIST, 2740 329, 2772 2800 (BURGER, BLACKMUN, 409, 2813 dissenting); 420, 2819 derived joint JJ.), 'excessiveness' aspects. unnecessary wanton infliction pain. Austin American-Statesman, Sept. 23, A1, col. 4. newspaper reported 6-month 33% recommendations inevitably identifying distinctions beyond judiciary. Ante, 275-276. forging $28 committing threatens surely judiciary perceive gravity 2869, part). identifiable compartments. professional seller addictive drugs bodily harm assault. difficulties presented obscure vision here. enforced laws include: 1927 Cal.Stats., 634, 1066, repealed 1935 602-603, 1699; 2121. 667.5 Supp.1979) (Habitual allows felony). Indiana, Ind.Acts, 82, 109 repealed, 1977 Ind.Acts 340, 121, 1594. Ind. 35-50-2-8 (Supp.1979) (30 Kansas, Kan.Sess.Laws, 191, 247, 1939 178, 299. 1978 120, 4(2) (Up treble (4) 1893 Ky.Acts, 182, 757, 1974 406, 873. (A persistent (5) 1818 Mass.Acts, 176, 5-6, 1833 85, 618. 279, 1972) specified offense). (6) 1796 N.Y.Laws, 30, 669, 1881 676, 688-690, 181. 70.04, 70.06-70.10 1975 Supp.1979-1980)(mandatory (7) Ohio, 1885 Leg.Acts, 751, 2, 1929 8, 1-2, 40. 2929.01, 2929.11, 2929.12 (Supp.1979)(no penalties). (8) Oregon, 1921 70, 97, 334, 1-3, 432. 161.725, 166.230 (life fourth armed (9) 1848 Va.Acts 752, 1916 chs. 29-30, 34-35. 1979 Va.Acts, 411 (no statute). continue Washburn 244, 247-250 (1970); 940-942, 241-242 (Rosellini, Thomas, Wash.App. 13-15, 553 1357, 1365-1366 Four 16-13-101(2) 207.010(2) "subtle gross," ante, fewer 4214, 4215 (1975 Supp.1978) (mandatory violence); violent). 31-18-17 (Persons year felony); Wis.Stat. 939.62 life); life). Statutes permit behavior justifies permissible therefore, dangerousness felon. choice will, rule local vote "assess[ing] concerning challenged sanction." 2925 together although weight assigned vary, factor controlling. incorporated bill Senate Judiciary heard testimony considering dangerous "examine wise." Hearings Subcommittee Laws Procedures Judiciary, 91st Cong., 1st Sess., 205 (testimony Professor Peter Low University School Law). Katkin, Offender Laws: Reconsideration, Buffalo L.Rev. 99, 118 proposes criminal, mentally abnormal whose commitment public, "a multiple criminality warranted." ALI, Model 7.03 (Prop.Off.Draft 1962). longest ran consecutively. proposal 269. Association proposed "[a]ny related left court. ABA Project Standards Justice; Alternatives 3.3 (App.Draft 1968). Ralph 438 786 (1970), death. reached later possessing firearm felon, manslaughter entering, 3575. Williamson, 567 610, 616 20, text. Courts carefully. safecracking Thacker Garrison, F.Supp. 376 (WDNC 1978), infirmity disenfranchisement persons, Thiess Board, 387 1038, 1042 (Md.1974) (three-judge court), distributing marihuana, Queen Leeke, 457 476 (SC distribute suspended condition $1,500 jail. Wolkind Selph, 675 (ED Va.1979). Martin Leverette, 244 S.E.2d 39, 43-44 (W.Va.1978), Simmons 264 S.C. 417, 215 883, 884 concedes, must, 274, 11. distinguishing

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