Document: 488 U.S. 469 109 S.Ct. 706 102 L.Ed.2d 854 CITY OF RICHMOND, Appellantv.J.A. CROSON COMPANY. No. 87-998. Argued Oct. 5, 1988. Decided Jan. 23, 1989. Syllabus Appellant city adopted a Minority Business Utilization Plan (Plan) requiring prime contractors awarded construction contracts to subcontract at least 30% of the dollar amount each contract one or more "Minority Enterprises" (MBE's), which defined include business from anywhere in country 51% is owned and controlled by black, Spanish-speaking, Oriental, Indian, Eskimo, Aleut citizens. Although declared that it was "remedial" nature, after public hearing no direct evidence presented had discriminated on basis race letting its against minority subcontractors. The introduced included: statistical study indicating that, although city's population 50% only 0.67% been businesses recent years; figures establishing variety local contractors' associations virtually MBE members; counsel's conclusion constitutional under Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 448, 100 2758, 65 902, statements proponents there widespread racial discrimination local, state, national industries. Pursuant Plan, rules individualized consideration bid request for waiver set-aside, providing could be granted upon proof sufficient qualified MBE's were unavailable unwilling participate. After appellee company, sole bidder contract, denied lost brought suit 42 U.S.C. § 1983, alleging unconstitutional Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. Federal District Court upheld all respects, Appeals affirmed, applying test derived principal opinion Fullilove, supra, accorded great deference Congress' findings past societal holding 10% set-aside certain federal grants did not violate equal protection component Fifth Amendment. However, appellee's petition certiorari this case, vacated remanded further light intervening decision Wygant Jackson Board Education, 476 267, 106 1842, 90 260, plurality applied strict scrutiny standard race-based layoff program agreed school board teachers' union violated On remand, held both prongs scrutiny, (1) justified compelling governmental interest, since record revealed prior itself awarding contracts, (2) narrowly tailored accomplish remedial purpose. Held: judgment affirmed. 822 F.2d 1355 (CA4 1987), Justice O'CONNOR delivered with respect Parts I, III-B, IV, concluding that: 1 1. has failed demonstrate interest justifying factual predicate supporting does establish type identified industry would authorize relief Pp. 498-506. 2 (a) A generalized assertion entire cannot justify use an unyielding quota, provides guidance legislative body determine precise scope injury seeks remedy allow decisionmaking essentially limitless duration. argument attempting various forms are alleged responsible small number entrepreneurs contracting fails, also lists host nonracial factors seem face member any group seeking new enterprise, such as deficiencies working capital, inability meet bonding requirements, unfamiliarity bidding procedures, disability caused inadequate track record. 498-499. 3 (b) None "facts" cited relied Court, singly together, provide prima facie case statutory violation anyone industry. fact declares insufficient, mere recitation "benign" legitimate purpose classification entitled little weight. Similarly, views present highly conclusory probative value. Reliance disparity between misplaced, proper evaluation compare percentage relevant market undertake subcontracting work total dollars presently subcontractors, neither known city. membership extremely low absent some link eligible membership, numerous explanations dearth participation, including education economic opportunities well black white career entrepreneurial choices. finding connection approved nationwide limited value, since, procedure program, Congress explicitly recognized problem vary area area. In event, acting pursuant unique enforcement powers 5 499-504. 4 (c) "evidence" MARSHALL's dissent history desegregation congressional reports—does define necessary remedy, preference size Moreover, suggestion may "shared" jurisdiction unprecedented contrary Court's decisions. 504-506. (d) Since absolutely persons aspect industry, Plan's random inclusion those groups strongly impugns claim motivation. P. 506. 6 2. effects discrimination, entitles Hispanic, Oriental entrepreneur absolute over other citizens based solely their race. many barriers participation appear neutral, considered using alternative, race-neutral means increase contracting. rigid quota rests completely unrealistic assumption minorities will choose enter lockstep proportion representation population. Unlike system focuses availability MBE's, inquire whether particular suffered contractors. Given must already consider bids waivers case-by-case basis, maintaining rather than investigating need action cases simply administrative convenience, which, standing alone, suspect scrutiny. 507-508. 7 O'CONNOR, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE WHITE, concluded Part II if identify particularity required Clause, have power adopt legislation designed eradicate discrimination. read relieve necessity making specific made Amendment enforce, therefore redress violations of, provisions. Conversely, Amendment, includes explicit constraint States political subdivisions, efforts accordance dictates section. erred extent followed rote plurality's ruling Clause requires showing unit involved, context policy affected employer's own force, whereas involves state entity state-law authority address discriminatory practices within commerce jurisdiction. 486-493. 8 JUSTICE, KENNEDY, III-A V 9 denies opportunity compete fixed race, Wygant' review applied, firm evidentiary underrepresentation product Application standard, dependent burdened benefited classification, assures pursuing goal important enough warrant tool chosen "fit" so closely possibility motive illegitimate prejudice stereotype. relaxed proposed determining "designed goals," accepts nature before examination classification's enactment nexus basis. Even level said according ability different defend interests representative process, heightened still appropriate circumstances blacks constitute approximately hold five nine seats City Council, thereby raising concern majority acted disadvantage unwarranted assumptions incomplete facts. 493-498. 10 absence disposal array devices accessibility races who simplification relaxation training, financial aid, elimination modification formal bureaucratic inertia, prohibition provision credit suppliers banks. 509-511. 11 STEVENS, agreeing limit permissible classifications wrongs, but decisions evaluated primarily studying probable impact future. 511-518. 12 Disregarding injustice, even arguable suggesting subcontractor contractor projects should relevance his her access market. always irrelevant sound decisionmaking, makes efficient performance served granting minority-business enterprises. 512-513. 13 Legislative bodies council, policymaking entities promulgate govern future conduct, raise valid concerns when they process punish characterize conduct private Courts, hand, equipped wrongdoers fashion remedies create conditions presumably existed wrong committed, same broad discretion chancellors enjoy areas law proved guilty law. 513—514. 14 Rather engaging debate apply affirmative-action litigation, constructive try characteristics advantaged disadvantaged classes disparate treatment. Here, instead carefully identifying characteristics, merely engaged stereotypical analysis hallmark violations. class victims city, encompasses never themselves members, firms prospered notwithstanding unquestionably disadvantages blacks, punishes forbidden anyone. 514-517. 15 KENNEDY ought interpreted reduce State's sectors, duty do where wrongs intentionally State itself, except conflict where, here, violates protection. rule striking down preferences unlawful serve structural goals eliminating courts pass enacted, significant break precedents require test, adopted. Rather, assumed principle neutrality found vindicated less application demonstrates preference. 518-520. 16 SCALIA, classifications, 17 prohibits governments discriminating order undo circumstance: eliminate maintenance classification. instance extends violation, encompass continuing once eliminated. 520-525. 18 remains free ways involve race—for example, actual can identified. latter instance, wronged. 526-528. 19 J., announced REHNQUIST, C.J., JJ., joined, II, V, WHITE joined. post, p. 511, 518, filed opinions concurring part judgment. judgment, 520. MARSHALL, dissenting opinion, BRENNAN BLACKMUN, 528. BRENNAN, 561. 20 John Payton, Washington, D.C., appellant. 21 Walter H. Ryland, Richmond, Va., appellee. 22 join, join. 23 we confront again tension guarantee treatment citizens, measures ameliorate enjoyed members our society. 902 (1980), principles embodied Due Process Relying largely lower similar assessing constitutionality provisions See, e.g. South Florida Chapter, Associated General Contractors America, Inc. Metropolitan Dade County, 723 846 (CA11), cert. denied, 871, 105 220, 83 150 (1984); Ohio Assn. Keip, 713 167 (CA6 1983). two Terms ago 260 (1986), attempted standards evaluating programs allocate portion exclusively minority-owned businesses. e.g., Michigan Road Builders Assn., Milliken, 834 583 appeal docketed, 87-1860; Cal. Cty. San Francisco, 813 922 (CA9 1987). We noted applicability Virginia. 24 * April 11, Richmond Council (the Plan). whom Enterprises (MBE's). Ordinance 83-69-59, codified Code, 12-156(a) (1985). setaside Ibid. 25 "[a] fifty-one (51) percent . members." 12-23, 941. members" "[c]itizens United Blacks, Orientals, Indians, Eskimos, Aleuts." There geographic Plan; otherwise avail set-aside. enacted "for promoting wider enterprises projects." 12-158(a). expired June 30, 1988, effect years. Ibid.1 26 authorized Director Department Services "shall individual situations prove satisfaction director requirements herein achieved." 12-157. To end, promulgated Contract Clauses, (Contract Clauses). Paragraph D these provided: 27 "No partial complete foregoing [30% set-aside] requirement shall exceptional circumstances. waiver, shown every feasible attempt comply, demonstrated sufficient, relevant, participate enable meeting goal." ¶ D, Record, Exh. 24, 1; see J.A. Croson Co. 779 181, 197 1985) (Croson I). 28 "purchasing procedures" Plan. Id., 194. Bidders provided Commitment Form." 3. Within days opening bids, lowest responsive submit commitment form naming used price firms. contractor's then referred Human Relations Commission (HRC). HRC verified named owned, either recommendation regarding F.2d, 196. final determination compliance propriety waiver. His regard appears plenary. Director's denial Once another award failure comply general right protest procurement policies. 12-126(a) 29 hearing. App. 9-50. Seven spoke merits ordinance: opposition, favor. Proponents indicated while 5-year period 1978 1983. It established associations, whose representatives appeared opposition ordinance, membership. See Brief (chart listing six associations). legal counsel view ordinance (1980). 24. Councilperson Marsh, proponent following statement: 30 "There information, however, I want make sure put practicing community 1961, am familiar area, State, around nation. And say without equivocation, nation, exclusion widespread." 41. 31 (statement Kemp) ("[The witnesses] just available. wasn't gave indication opportunity, he available"). 32 Opponents questioned wisdom legality. They argued value Wake). Representatives satisfy requirement. Mr. Beck); id., 33 Singer); 35-36 Murphy). Murphy 4.7% 41% located California, New York, Illinois, Florida, Hawaii. He predicted thus lead windfall few Richmond. Gillespie labor jobs, whites, because 44. Some organizations discriminate actively out members. 38 Shuman) ("The company belonged [contractors'] organizations. Nobody know Puerto Rican minority, ever turned down. They're actually sought become us"); Watts). expressed about legality asked vote delayed pending consultation outside counsel. rejected, two, abstaining. 49. September 6, issued invitation project installation plumbing fixtures jail. Eugene Bonn, regional manager Company (Croson), mechanical heating contractor, received forms. involved stainless steel urinals water closets Products manufacturers specified, Acorn Engineering (Acorn) Bradley Manufacturing (Bradley). Bonn determined requirement, supply fixtures. amounted 75% price. 34 contacted potential fixtures, contacting three agencies maintained MBE's. No tendered quote. October 12, day due, telephoned This time, Melvin Brown, president Continental Metal Hose (Continental), MBE, wished project. Brown subsequently sources specified obtain quotation. One supplier, Ferguson Plumbing Supply, quotation directly Croson, refused quote Continental. agent Bradley, Continental, check take complete. 35 13, sealed opened. bidder, $126,530. met personally opening, informed difficulty obtaining approval hindered submission bid. 36 By 19, date submitted Croson's "unqualified" unresponsive unable Upon learning request, Acorn, fixture manufacturer Based discussions Croson. Continental's $6,183.29 higher included constituted 7% With added insurance, raised cost $7,663.16. called officials told them jail contract. November 2, Form, warned result being unresponsive. 37 wrote 8, letter, supplier Acorn's subject substantially received. Finally, due. second laid additional costs entail, allowed overall accordingly. raised. decided rebid December 9, asking denial. attorney responded elected project, decision. Shortly thereafter 1983 Eastern Virginia, arguing case. respects. Supplemental Juris.Statement 112-232 (Supp.App.). original divided panel Fourth Circuit 181 Both "the common articulated Supreme opinions" University California Regents Bakke, 438 265, 98 2733, 57 750 (1978). 188. stating: 39 "Unlike court decision, task sustain council majority's position traditional sense weighing evidence. 'the [the council] reasonably contributed negligible contractors.' " 190 (quoting U.S., 503, S.Ct., 2787 (Powell, concurring)). 40 conjunction concerning rendered council's due "reasonable." 190, n. 12. "synthesized Fullilove" examining "narrowly Plan." 190. First, figure, comparing 191. "a years obviously encourage existing grow." Thus, court's figure "reasonable undisputed Richmond." 41 Court. writ, Appeals, (1986). 478 1016, 3327, 92 733 struck violating 1987) II). "core" "[t]o show plan municipality wishes employ rest broad-brush historical discrimination." 1357. As "[f]indings suffice; 'prior government involved.' 1358 Wygant, 274, 1847) (emphasis original). 43 "revealed contracts. ." 1358. statistics market, suggested "more preference." 1359. "[i]f supported future." 1360. 44 went "chosen arbitrarily" tied subcontractors number. judge "misconstrue[d] misapplie[d]" Wygant. 1362. appeal, 484 1058, 108 1010, 976 (1988), now affirm 45 parties amici fight initial battle argues eradicating taken below. controlling, enjoys sweeping attack find stark alternatives withstand analysis. 46 contained 103(f)(2) Public Works Employment Act 1977, Pub.L. 95-28, 91 Stat. 116, 6701 et seq. (Act) challenge $4 billion appropriation works projects. primary give economy quick boost recessionary period; funds committed grantees 1977. requirement: 'Except Secretary determines otherwise, grant unless applicant gives satisfactory assurance per centum expended enterprises.' 454, 2762 6705(f)(2)). effectively "citizens Negroes, 47 written Chief Burger, "strict scrutiny" review. outset call close examination, time "bound approach [its] Congress, co-equal branch charged Constitution 'provide Welfare States' 'to enforce legislation,' guarantees Amendment." 472, 2771. questions: first, objectives Congress? Second, ethnic criteria carry constraints Clause? 473, 2772. 48 issue power, sufficiently reach federally funded 475-476, 2773-2774. mandate 2773 (citing Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 651, 86 1717, 1723, 828 (1966)). 49 next race-conscious relief. stressed upholding First Amendment: 50 "Here deal court, Congress. fundamental organ government, federal, repose comprehensive expressly competence guarantees." 483, 2777 (principal opinion) added). 51 Because powers, "Congress induce voluntary assure antidiscrimination provisions, also, declare unlawful, may, avoid conduct." 483-484, 52 reviewing behind Act, focused reduced grants. 458-467, 2764-2769. drew experience 8(a) Small 1953, extended aid 463-467, 2767-2769. abundant conclude practices, businesses, perpetuate 478, 2775. 53 factor emphasized flexible Two "congressional assumptions" underlay program: impaired competitive second, "adjustment discrimination" flow "assumptions" "rebutted" grantee 487-488, 2779-2780. Thus available fill or, importantly, "to exploit aspects charging unreasonable price, i.e., attributable 488, 2780. fine tuning purpose, statute "pass[ed] muster." 487, 2779. 54 Powell adduced contractors." 2787. particularly "reasonably necessary" 514-515, 2793-2794. clear might undertaking measures: "The degree specificity breadth choice body." 515-516, 14, 2794, 14. 55 rely heavily proposition like engage appellant "[i]t perversion federalism remedying not." (footnote omitted). 56 What ignores unlike subdivision, "enforce" times threaten equality prophylactic situations. 1723 ("Correctly viewed, positive authorizing exercise what needed secure Amendment"). Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 326, 803, 817, 769 (1966) (similar interpretation Fifteenth Amendment). Civil War Amendments worked dramatic change balance matters Speaking Thirteenth Ex parte 339, 345, L.Ed. 676 (1880), stated: "They intended be, really are, limitations enlargements Congress." That society-wide mean fortiori, subdivisions decide appropriate. Section provision. cede control content legislatures myriad subdivisions. benign compensatory entitle full insulate judicial believe intentions Framers desired place limits criterion action, limitations. 929 (Kozinski, J.) action"); Days, 96 Yale L.J. 453, 474 (1987) (hereinafter Days) ("Fullilove clearly congressionally mandated program") original); Bohrer, Weber, Fullilove: Benign Discrimination Congressional Power Enforce Ind. 512-513 (1981) ("Congress authorize, section foreclosed states alone"). 58 not, suggests, 557-560, pre-emption note apparent all—§ stemmed distrust enactments race; is, notes, 'a power' Post, 560, quoting dissent). dispositive here. Slaughter-House Cases, Wall. 36, 394 (1873), dissent, "additional government," restraints States." Wall., 68. 59 equally clear, subdivision (if delegated State) jurisdiction.2 must, course, exercised Our contrary. addressed quotas authorities agreement reached union. addressing board's affecting force "some involved." 1847. matter law, policies, spending identifies extent, question competence, involving 60 "passive participant" practiced elements think affirmative steps dismantle system. beyond dispute entity, assuring dollars, drawn tax contributions finance evil prejudice. Cf. Norwood Harrison, 413 455, 465, 93 2804, 2810, (1973) ("Racial state-operated schools barred [i]t axiomatic induce, promote constitutionally accomplish") (citation internal quotations III A. 61 "[n]o deny person laws." (Emphasis added.) past, "rights created first terms, guaranteed individual. rights personal rights." Shelley Kraemer, 334 1, 22, 68 836, 846, 1161 (1948). whatever belong, "personal rights" treated dignity implicated erecting decisionmaking. 62 Absent searching inquiry into justification measures, way motivated notions inferiority simple politics. Indeed, "smoke out" uses tool. ensures 63 Classifications danger stigmatic harm. Unless strictly reserved settings, politics hostility. 298, 2752 (opinion Powell, ("[P]referential reinforce stereotypes achieve success special having relation worth"). reaffirm 279-280, 1849-1850; 285-286, 1852-1853 (O'CONNOR, judgment). Antonio Independent School Dist. Rodriguez, 411 105, 1278, 1333, (MARSHALL, dissenting) nationality, alienage established") (footnotes 64 continued adherence employed 552, indicate "racial phenomenon past" "government longer preoccupy rectifying injustice." indicate, infra, 509-510, weapons prevent remove arbitrary advancement. stems Bakke "[t]he thing something else color." 289-290, 2748. Under "race-conscious forthwith How arrives told. reached, dissent's singularly deferential, bears resemblance gender. Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 648, 95 1225, 1233, 514 (1975) ("[T]he benign, automatic shield protects purposes underlying scheme"). watered-down version American life, "ultimate goal" "eliminat[ing] entirely human being's race," 320, 1871 (STEVENS, omitted), achieved. 66 accept reading varies central arguments exacting dominant themselves. If judiciary's role protect "discrete insular minorities" majoritarian indifference, Carolene Co., 304 144, 153, 4, 778, 784, 82 1234 (1938), maintain "white majority" places burdens itself. J. Ely, Democracy Distrust 170 67 Five blacks. easily act facts militate for, against, Constitutionality Reverse Racial Discrimination, U.Chi.L.Rev. 723, 739, (1974) ("Of course ways: favors Blacks Whites predominantly Black legislature"). confronted Davis Medical School. plan, entering groups. 288-289, 2747-2748. Among justifications offered support desire "reduc[e] historic deficit traditionally disfavored medical profession" "counte[r] 306, 2756 (citations Members none eliminated nonminorities opportunities. 271-272, 2738 (addressing plan); 408, 2808 C.J. Stewart JJ. part) admissions Title VI Rights 1964). 69 Powell's issue. decisively rejected racially segregated plan. students doctors, insufficiently "discrimination sake," Constitution. 307, 2757. Nor concern, society large, admissions. contrasted "focused" "wrongs instances 'societal discrimination,' amorphous concept ageless past." triggered "judicial, legislative, violations" made. Only favoring another. 308-309, 2757-2758. 70 four employee layoffs. writing plurality, distinction "societal challenged teachers enrolled district. scheme, theory "role models" alleviate reversed, Justices reiterating "[s]ocietal more, too imposing classified remedy." 276, 1848. 71 model reasons. demonstrating kind hiring promotion 1848; 294, 1857 judgment) teaching staff student employment discrimination"). believing occurred, "justify" 1848 (plurality ("In particularized findings, uphold timeless affect future"). B 72 suffers defects fatal "findings ensure adopting industry." Supp.App. 163 Like model" remedy. "has logical stopping point." 275, 1847 opinion). "Relief" ill-defined extend until mirrored whole. 73 cites skilled trade unions training programs. prevented "from path laborer entrepreneur." 23-24. 25-26, 74 While doubt sorry lack entrepreneurs, observation, secondary schooling justifies admissions, quota. 75 sheer speculation how admitted educational Defining sorts injuries "identified license patchwork generalizations field endeavor. 76 These readily realistic reaching adequate quota: remedial; several measure stated industry; (3) population; (4) very associations; (5) stifled nationally. 163-167. 77 "findings," "strong necessary." 277, 1849 nothing approaching 274-275, 1846-1847; 293, 1856 concurring). 78 weight designated "remedial." But 16, ("This assertions purposes, scheme asserted legislation"). suspect, assurances good intention suffice. 79 conclusionary statement "in nation." Marsh). related plagued home Pittsburgh. Deese). factfinding generally presumption regularity deferential judiciary. Williamson Lee Optical Oklahoma, Inc., 348 488-489, 461, 464-465, 99 563 (1955). chooses goals. McLaughlin 379 184, 190-192, 85 283, 287-289, 222 (1964). actor render proxy condition declaring exists. 193, 289; suggests blind executive pronouncements Korematsu States, 323 214, 235-240, 202-205, 89 194 (1944) (Murphy, dissenting). 80 similarly misplaced. "[w]here gross disparities shown, alone pattern practice VII. Hazelwood 433 299, 307-308, 97 2736, 2741, 768 (1977). "[w]hen qualifications comparisons (rather smaller individuals possess qualifications) value." 308, 2742, 13. Mayor Philadelphia Educational Equality League, 415 605, 620, 94 1323, 630 ("[T]his fungible unlawfully excluded"). 81 context, entry positions minimal composition Teamsters 431 324, 337-338, 1843, 1855-1856, 396 (1977) (statistical comparison truck-drivers exclusion). necessary, pool task. Hazelwood, 2741; Johnson Transportation Agency, Santa Clara 480 616, 651-652, 107 1442, 1462, 615 171 (relying compared purchasing set-aside). receive let large seems unsupported hire 933 ("There finding—and decline assume—that male caucasian caucasians").3 8%, Community Block Development Grant 22%. Deese, Manager). Without information subcontracting, quite impossible evaluate expenditures. 84 low. Again, disproportionately attracted industries construction. Business: Report President 201 (1986) ("Relative distribution black-owned proportionally represented transportation considerably wholesale trade, manufacturing, industries"). low, Bazemore Friday, 385, 407-408, 3000, 3013, 315 (mere existence single clubs integrate). For enough, inference arise. preventing assisting Norwood, 2804; Contractors, (upholding earlier joint participant' craft excluded laborers contracts"). limited. 2779 (noting rebutted situations). 87 above, exercising cause distributed manner reinforced patterns exacerbating private, fields. report enact will, effect, nullity. Days 480-481 ("[I]t essential presence bailiwicks, fact-finding processes determinations competent institutions"). 88 MARSHALL apparently headache, "onerous documentary obligatio[n]." 548. agree. regard, accord STEVENS' observation "[b]ecause seldom treatment, potentially harmful politic, especially reasons legitimate." 533-535, 2803-2804 (dissenting reports, zoning property values unprecedented. 547, Renton Playtime Theatres, 475 41, 51-52, 925, 931, extrapolation Milliken 418 717, 746, 3112, 3128, 1069 ("Disparate Negro occurred Detroit system, elsewhere, system"). sum, points We, therefore, apportioning Richmond's open door competing claims "remedial relief" group. dream Nation achievement mosaic shifting inherently unmeasurable wrongs. "Courts consequent harm Those thought exceed tolerability preferential classifications. 296-297, 2751 J.). letter spirit command equality. applies program. took notice vast "minority" black. 207. Eskimo citizen. practical matter, perhaps tailored" compensate legitimately ask why forced share citizen moves tomorrow? overinclusiveness 284, 1852, (haphazard "further illustrates undifferentiated plan"); 482 ("Such leave favored attention IV below, almost assess linked way. ourselves observations regard. Paradise, 149, 171, 1053, 1066, 203 appropriate, look factors, efficacy alternative remedies"). Many neutral. capital financing would, greater participation. examined enacting 2767-2769; 2792 concurring) ("[B]y knew industry"). goal, outright balancing. "completely unrealistic" Sheet Workers EEOC, 421, 494, 3019, 3059, 344 assume gravitate mathematical exactitude employer difficult numerical problematic standpoint treat candidates individually, color applicant's skin consideration. MBE's; procedure, convenience. avoiding effort tailor truly line Frontiero Richardson, 677, 690, 1764, 1772, ("[W]hen realm 'strict scrutiny,' 'administrative convenience' shibboleth, constitutionality"). successful obvious Nothing today precludes taking rectify nonminority systematically excluding end exclusion. Where willing able perform service locality locality's contractors, 398, 3008; 337-339, 1856. circumstances, closed criteria. York Club City, 487 10-11, 13-14, 2225, 2232-2233, 2234-2235, 101 (1988). extreme deliberate powerless refusals occurs, penalizing discriminator victim McDonnell Douglas Corp. Green, 792, 802-803, 1817, 1824-1825, 668 (1973). acts can, proof, lend government's broader justified. Teamsters, 338, whole races. Simplification neglect. entrants inertia necessity, disproportionate Their detrimental classifying prohibit usual unthinking rewards. ascertained nor passed subcontracts, strong 1849. Proper cure effects. Such deviation norm temporary "[I]f recovery distribute injured evenhanded way, adequately ethnic, religious, strength negotiate piece action' 539, 2806 Accordingly, 103 Affirmed. 104 learn mistakes, us decisions—including relationships among groups—primarily agree premise underlie today's wrong. ante, 493-494.1 do, explanation join opinion. write separately emphasize importance me. integrated faculty benefits all-white, nearly faculty. pointed my disregard decisionmaking.2 contracting, litigation body, Legislatures conduct. prohibitions ex post facto laws bills attainder reflect citizens.3 best committed. imposed Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg 402 15-16, 1267, 1275-1276, 554 (1971).4 Third, litigation,5 Cleburne Living Center, 473 432, 452-453, 3249, 3261, 313 (1985) concurring).6 convinces me respectively Whether class, emerges. contractors—and Richmond—have discrimination—it shows, harmed ago. Ironically, survived struggle, perished, most likely benefit kind. 110 vulnerable habit, analysis, acceptable covered shares guilt. complied 1975.7 law,8 Imposing burden reliance stereotype reason.9 111 irony thinking prompts stigmatizes unproven charge imposes stigma supposed beneficiaries. For, explained (1980): 112 "[E]ven though legislation, inevitably perceived resting purely race." 545, 2809. 113 risk habitual attitudes toward persons, imposed. often women, aliens, illegitimates, Today awareness injustice acceptance attributes characteristic 114 "When [government] creates preference, disability, When identification imperative. 115 "In conceivable bases differentiating preferred me: unfair stated, measure. true. judicially proposition." 552-554, 2813-2814 116 concur 117 118 O'CONNOR's explanation. 119 examines overt acknowledgment summary fair, it. becomes transformed poses me; us, reconsideration await suffices unless, 120 moral imperative driving SCALIA's underscores proposition, properly view. strike goals, enacted. Structural protections necessities imperatives obeyed. crystal branches, 121 Nevertheless, given invalidity convinced point. vindicate rigorous courts. My doing follows. confident application, operate consistent neutrality, forbids last resort. one, instrumentality note, connection, intentional suffice diminishes responsibilities branches wait ordered court. precedents, demonstrates. 122 falls far short adopt. existed; antecedent causes; it, passive complicity sector; response adopted, duration wrong, precision bore addressed, unmeasured, unexplored, unexplained council. left fair corrosive animosities sphere condemns well. invalid 123 124 much and, particular, "benign." Ante, 493, 495. agree, dictum despite (in sense) 476—477. compensating social disadvantages, acquired reason pursued assertedly repeatedly rejected. 274-276, 1847-1848, (discrimination teacher assignments students); Palmore Sidoti, 466 429, 433, 1879, 1882, 421 (1984) (awarding custody child father, divorced mother entered interracial remarriage, spare "pressures stresses"); 390 333, 994, 1212 (1968) (per curiam) (permanent segregation prison inmates, conflict). overcoming source effects, tendency—fatal ours—to classify men women origin skin. solution aggravates all. Alexander Bickel lesson contemporary generation: illegal, immoral, unconstitutional, destructive democratic society." Bickel, Morality Consent 133 (1975). At issue, emergency rising imminent life limb—for riot, cf. supra—can exception "[o]ur color-blind, knows tolerates citizens," Plessy Ferguson, 537, 559, 1138, 1146, 256 (1896) (Harlan, dissenting); accord, (1880); Story, Commentaries 677 (T. Cooley ed. 1873); T. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 439 (2d 1871). 125 contexts Government holdings States. permitted prescribe severe, egregious persistent see, (1987); acknowledges, 486-491, permit Government—whose enhanced Const., Amdt. 5—and specifically directed, "take away oppression color" revisiting (or trying derive rationale separate commanded votes, 453-495, 2762-2783 JJ.), 495-517, 2783-2794 J.), 517-522, 2794-2797 JJ.)), controls 126 local) substance Amendments, reality theory. described dispassionate objectivity [and] flexibility mold objective discrimination"—political qualities doubted legislature, 527, 2800 (Stewart, dissenting)—are exist level. struggle justice historically supra (denying writ habeas corpus indictment jurors race); Hyman & W. Wiecek, Law, 1835-1875, pp. 312-334 (1982); Logan, Judicial Federalism History, Ore.L.Rev. 494-515 retains character modern times. 349 753, 1083 (1955) (Brown ); Montgomery Educa- tion, 395 225, 1670, 263 (1969); (1971); Griffin Prince Edward County Board, 377 218, 1226, (1964); Cooper Aaron, 358 1401, (1958). Not Yick Wo Hopkins, 356, 1064, 220 (1886) (Chinese); Hernandez Texas, 347 475, 667, 866 (1954) (Hispanics), Old South, Columbus Education Penick, 443 449, 2941, 666 (1979); Keyes Denver, Colorado, 189, 2686, 548 words, finds ready expression children Founding Fathers, come surprise. An acute factions small, units dates beginning history. G. Wood, Creation Republic, 1776-1787, 499-506 (1969). James Madison observed Constitution's enhancement powers: 127 society, fewer probably distinct composing it; interests, frequently party; majority, compass placed, concert execute oppression. Extend you interests; invade citizens; exists, feel discover unison other." Federalist 10, 82-84 (C. Rossiter 1961). 128 prophesy words came fruition beneficial group, happens happened cities (though rarely textually explicit)—and receiving injustice. game, turnabout play. 129 circumstance "undo discrimination": If, agency pay scale employees 20% nonblack counterparts, assuredly salaries "all employees" differential. 395-396, 3006, explains cases, plain localities sometimes obligation remedies. account "effects" previously assignment, concluded, "dual system." district's "duty dual system," "[e]ach refusal fulfill continues 458-459, 2946-2947 Concluding "dismantling state-imposed system" ineffective "indicate faith," Green Kent 391 430, 439, 1689, 1695, 716 (1968); Raney Gould Dist., 443, 1697, 727 (1968), permitted, authorities' "affirmative disestablish system[s]," (that noncourt-ordered) attendance zones balance, out-of-zone assignment McDaniel Barresi, 39, 40-41, 1287, 1288, 582 (1971). permitting de students, teachers, resources, violation. 2950; Dayton Brinkman, 406, 420, 2766, 2775, 851 (1977); 744, 3127, (1974); 213, 2699. implicit disestablished, assign Pasadena Spangler, 427 424, 2697, 599 (1976) (federal circumstances). 130 reflected unwillingness conclude, equated adoption "wholly neutral admissions" policies 4-H Homemaker Clubs sufficed reassignments effects—that remaining all-black all-white clubs. 3012-3013. "[H]owever [v. ] schools," said, "it wholly milieu." 3013. 131 businesses—which easier field. impact, And, giving wrongfully him—for job applicant, terminating latter's employment. job-holder selected disadvantageous entitled. worlds apart 132 "societal" "identified" situation "tailored" bidders "suffered 507—508. view, difference states, action—see, 504—506, 507-508—but remediation. prevents beneficiaries supportable ever, unneeded. book, Professor wrote: "[A] derogates individuality applied; invidious practice. purports help. subjugation, beneficence. Its lies name, effects: divider creator castes, worse base, desperately striving irrelevant." Consent, 133. 134 true increasingly prophetic. Apart aggregate disastrous," 134, lose sight victims, real ignore whenever 1475, (SCALIA, observed: "A. DeFunis advantage virtue fact; color. Whatever manner." Odegaard, 416 312, 337, 1704, 1716, 164 depart play fire, occasional DeFunis, Johnson, burns. 135 plainly immeasurably directed help "even score" display, reinforce, endures still. Jews, Irish "created equal," against. resolve happen again. degree) embraces appropriately viewed races, man compensated white. worth embrace. aimed operates 136 here succeed fail uninfected bias, 137 BLACKMUN dissenting. 138 welcome symbol progress former Confederacy forthrightly midst. construed allocating indistinguishable meaningful respects from—and patterned upon—the 139 holds today, blocks initiative. essence position1 catalog impeded joining participating fully deep second-guessing is; century richly documented disgraceful wrongly testimony municipal exhaustive widely publicized studies showed pervasive Nation's tight-knit operated exclude precisely types testimonial credited approving 140 More fundamentally, marks giant step backward jurisprudence. Cynical municipality's launches grapeshot general. unnecessary discourage entities, localities, scourge harsh command. 141 takes exceedingly myopic analyzes initiative during session 479-481. doing, downplays rich trove seriously backdrop understood. recognize dismaying painstakingly infects 142 Six acted, passed, signed, (Act), appropriated procure services supplies statutorily groups, 1980, validity Burger's "criteria, methods, defeating, impairing, appropriations." 480, Finding intermediate 492, 2781. 143 powerful influence exclusionary world. 1975 House Committee concluded: 144 inequities stemming remained past. have, degree, adversely 145 "While comprise population, million 382,000, 3.0 percent, individuals. data Commerce indicates receipts totals $2,540.8 billion, $16.6 0.65 realized concerns. 146 "These chance. systems resulted inequities." H.R.Rep. 94-468, 1-2 (quoted 2768) C.J.) deleted 147 1977 148 "[O]ver years, developed measurable present, conducting transactions overtly precluded input. Currently, encounter face, operating, inequities. Minorities, recently, participated generally, particular." 94-1791, 182 (1977), summarizing inFullilove, 466, 48, 2768, 48). 149 faced immense experienced Rights, fledgling hampered "deficiencies disabilities 'track record,' opportunities, preselection advertising officers disfavor businesses." 467, 2769 (summarizing Comm'n Minorities Women (May 1975)). "abundant evidence" domain "that ha[d] effective perpetuated 477-478, 2774.2 Significantly, nascent assignments, ones 2774.3 151 aware point tellingly, elides. transcript contains references 6-year-old 14-16, (remarks Attorney William Hefty); 14-15 Councilmember Leidinger); Freddie Ray); 25, Henry L. Marsh III); Manager Manuel 152 heard up half $24.6 dispensed ending March gone Richardson). major hundreds members.4 industry.5 noted, testified widespread. Civ.Action 84-0021 (ED Dec. 3, 1984) (reprinted 164-165).6 So long systematic resolved. 153 "Agreement eluded us." Bd. 1861, "must objectives" 359, 2783, (1978) (joint JJ.) omitted); 301-302, 1861 517-519, 2794-2795 Analyzed terms two-pronged modeled, "plainly constitutional." 519, 2795-2796 154 155 Turning inquiry, setting aside late compelling, important, interest. deemed governing procurement. satisfied "barriers roots continue 2774; 502-506, 2787-2789 concurring); 520, 2796 reaffirmed breaking erected education, 2763 J.); 362-364, 2784-2785 employment, 167, opinion); 186-189, 1074-1076 concurring), valuable 481-484, 2776-2777 C.J.); 496-497, 2783-2784 521, 2797 156 aside, possible, dollars. prospective reinforcing perpetuating prevailing opportunities"); 157 pays lipservice 491-493, 503-504. tacitly adopting, encouraging, furthering routine operations. (1948), command, unanimously restrictive covenants harbored intent. (1973), invalidated purchased textbooks loaned schools, steer operating old institutions 2811-2812; Gilmore Montgomery, 417 556, 2416, federal-court forbidding allegedly parks). 158 trivialize structures wrought channels white-dominated homogeneity imprimatur forged community. thrived denying better ensuring dispensing bit discrimination—an compelling. 2235, (1988); Directors Rotary Int'l Duarte, 481 549, 1940, 1948, Roberts Jaycees, 468 609, 623, 3244, 3252, 462 Bob Jones 461 574, 604, 2017, 2035, (1983); Runyon McCrary, 160, 179, 2586, 2598, (1976). bestows rewards positioned thrive tighter deadhand grip Cities plans. North Swann, 43, 46, 1284, 1286, 586 (1971) (Constitution state-sponsored segregation); McDaniel, 1288 (same, stating "[a]ny freeze status quo target processes"). affirmatively stem perpetuation through highest order. 159 "governmental interest" prong proffered twin remediation nonperpetuation. differed 166, 166-167, 17, 3052, opinion), regarded one. eschewed tests species evidence, otherwise. adduce whole, claimed dispel natural "paternalistic stereotyping, careful conditions." 2795 160 provision, shared understanding. trial concurrence appropriate." 1857. authored, "legitimate predicate" "genuinely issue." 297, 303, 1859, 1862. rational basis" action. 315-316, 1868-1869. go reflects, understanding "ingenious forms." 387, (separate 161 varied "strong," "firm," "unquestionably legitimate" warranted response. 530-543 Executive Branch pervasiveness presumed 'present inequities' 'past systems.' Supra, 531 (1975)). confirmed deviate pernicious pattern. expenditures previous mixed rife "present enormous descriptive appointed leaders pitifully practices. depiction lent accounts. dramatized lasting systems. suggest blinks credibility. 162 localized, industry-specific cry decries 496, 499, 505. characterizing plight critique shows grips construction-contracting whites-only enterprise. disingenuous disaggregating attacking piecemeal, "standing alone," items "stan[d] alone" alien juxtaposition; necessarily contradicting other. criticisms flimsy foundations. (0.67%) (approximately 50%) "misplaced." 501. contrasts proving contrast "gross disparities." 2741-2742, (Title VII case); 1856, (same). impugn contrast, considering miniscule hardly disparit[y]." 2741. roughly numbers yet one-seventy-fifth receive. 342, 1858, ("[F]ine obscured glaring [bus] drivers. [T]he company's rebut misuse inexorable zero' ") omitted) 656-657, 1465, judgment)). gauge "obtaining th[e] experience" qualify position, "relevant comparison" candidates, force." 1462; Steelworkers 198-199, 2721, 2724-2725, 20, 20. illuminating this, main avenue introduction force—here, train apprentices grossly dominated nonminorities. "does qualified," 502, beside indeed monochromatic community—a Civ. Action Va.1984) Juris. Statement 164)—this reflects lingering Certainly persuasive 2768. set enterprises, ordinance's participate, ease 165 perfunctory dismissal deeply disturbing. officials—including councilmembers, mayor, manager—asserted widespread, sincere concerned, "simple suffice." 500. discounts minimally designation remedial. "[B]lind pronouncements," explains, analysis." 166 advocates "blind deference" leaders. classic straw-man argument. trivialization serious respect. disregarding violence comity championed. Local officials, proximity to, expertise with, affairs, exceptionally "within respective spheres authority." Hawaii Housing Authority Midkiff, 467 229, 244, 2321, 2331, 186 FERC Mississippi, 456 742, 777-778, 2126, 2147, 532 (1982) part). leaves traces headlong rush Had paused moment experience, discovered leadership is. spent witnessing multifarious including, diminution residents' voting rights, resistance desegregation, publicly sanctioned housing Numerous chronicle 422 358, 2296, 245 (1975), denounced annex adjacent county nearing "infected impermissible Negroes office." 373, 2305; 382, 2309 (BRENNAN, (describing "flagrantly avert transfer fast becoming black-population majority") omitted).7 168 1060, 1972), aff'd 412 92, 1952, 771 Circuit, sitting en banc, reviewed 686, 873 (1954), implementing holding. elaborated: 169 sordid Virginia's, attempts circumvent, defeat, nullify recorded courts, repeated detail massive resource, (costing thousands dollars), police, prestige Governor, defeat I. mentioned, freedom became 1966, twelve I." 1075 (Winter, original) citations pungent describing Though rejecting plaintiffs' consolidate district neighboring counties, nonetheless (also federal) tending apartheid ghetto throughout city." 1065 discrimination).8 histories testify infected industries, armchair cynicism place. autonomy federalism," Garcia Transit Authority, 528, 588, 1005, 1037, 1016 dissenting), "each sovereign domain, welfare," 777, 2147 judges, impressions on, disbelieve officials. Disbelief inappropriate unconstitutionality trial, 277-278, 1848-1849 forward motives anything sincere.9 172 vehemently disagree "extremely limited" 504. concedes "presumption" inexplicably, forbid "share" ample findings. 504—505. severed prepared, borders reinvent wheel unnecessarily duplicative, costly, time-consuming factfinding. 173 draw nationally prepared Government. (city "entitled experiences Seattle cities" adult theater produce independent generated cities, relies believed addresses"); 198, 2724, ("Judicial crafts grounds notice"); 296, 1858 ("No fairly assessed vacuum").10 Of built compendious accounts onerous obligations apparent. 555-561. 174 comports similarity "appropriately Fullilove. 489, duration, ibid., renewed freeing 2777. innocent third parties. affects translates 3% 44, (recounting census Richmond); 484, 2778 (burden shouldered "relatively light" "overall opportunities"). 175 interfere vested contract; prospectively. 2777-2778. arrangements diffuse competitors—here, seek disrupting settled expectations impose burden, foreclosing layoffs achieving individuals, resulting disruption lives. intrusive." 1852; 208, 2730. 176 "justify[ing] duration," 505, looked tailoring: explore 507, selection figure. 729. criticism flawed overlooks 1975, Code 17.1 virtual rolls, 1% ban succeeded redressing homogeneity. undertaken firms, theoretically appealing, discredited ineffectual reason, fault precursors 2767-2769 inadequacy businesses); ("By retrace nowhere. well-exposed "[i]n get racism, way." 407, 2807-2808 opinion).11 177 target, "cannot balancing." 507. contracting; thus, imprecision tailoring suggests. precedent. fell "roughly halfway Nation." 513-514, 2792-2793 Council's Richmond-based (almost zero) (50%). faulting presenting honors breach. 178 ordinarily satisfies substantial relationship compelled add announce restricts 179 Today, measures. 493-494; 520 unwelcome development. profound separates actions racist, racism activity racism. judgment); 355-362, 2781-2784 JJ.). 180 "drawn inferior hatred separatism" strictest irrelevance rationales. 357-358, 2782. pertinent basis: tragic indelible pervaded scar "Because employing crafted stigmatization, subjected conventional scrutiny'—scrutiny theory, fact." 518-519, brutal repugnant signals regards vestiges. constitutionalizing wishful thinking, grave disservice assist, tradition issues utmost sensitivity. troubled case" cites, "dominant grou[p]" characterization dominance, observes "blacks Richmond" "[f]ive blacks." Ibid 183 supremacy bearing inferiority, "suspect" "traditional indicia suspectness": "saddled disabilities, purposeful unequal relegated powerlessness extraordinary process." 28, 1294, 184 "history treatment." characteristically afflicted suspect. dominance Virginia politics" fears. 493. believes nonminorities, outnumbered marginally fora, deserving Craig Boren, 429 197, 451, 456, 397 (1976), below-average incomes, stand shaky ground. Castaneda Partida, 430 482, 504, 1272, 1285, 498 185 "circumstances case," 495, underscore subjecting straitjacket increasing recently eager rectify, rectify. witnessed decades walks life—discrimination amply 544-567. "purposefully treatment" minorities, them, remedy—and mind, politics." facile officials' skins. councilmembers hands controversial matters. mayor 1982, victory won Times-Dispatch, July col. year later along lines. voted abstained. municipalities stiffer implies maturity totally unwarranted. insulting judgments C 187 Today's finally, noteworthy daunting contemplating perpetuation. forth violation." calls set-asides dozens across 188 supports limiting out. cedes legislatures. overwhelming subsequent standard. meaning "equal laws" turns happenstance illegal tough books, incorporation statutes perverse inhibiting worst records official 189 Similar flaws inhere incorporated statutes. tomorrow dramatically expanded 1964, 253, amended, 2000e seq.—or alternatively, repealed altogether precipitately mind 1868, certainly turn amendments evolving interpretations later.12 parsimonious grounded disempowered 490—491, mistaken. respect, provision—or, companion federal-empowerment Amendments—was meant pre-empt police contrary, (1966), "is 651 added); 653-656, 653-656; 326-327, 817-818, (interpreting empower "implemen[t] created" passage); Rome 446 156, 173, 1548, 1559, (1980) found. Voting nullifying English literacy challenge). mandating zero-sum game wanes waxes. invoked authorization Government's dispensation grantees. 476, 2774 (basing contexts, Power"). 191 assert States—or Government, Bolling Sharpe, 497, 693, 884 (1954)—from germane, dismayingly life. 192 closes eyes reality. So, too, SCALIA. "necessary classification"—a "distinction" "explains cases." 524 remedy-stage conveniently cordoned off. (like action) case: worth, permissible, tailoring, subjugation basic artful allows him repudiate "our cases," but, limitation "would target" localities. 1288; 1286 (striking flat pupils impeding "effective remedy"); Jewish Organizations Carey, 159-162, 996, 1006-1008, 229 York's drawing lines Act). 193 passing Reconstruction respond newly freed slaves. interpret proscribing responses problems heads. Justices, Bakke: "[There is] voluntarily validly compel do. recognizing initiate matter. Acts remotely addressed. initiatives attainment. 'To sword stultify Amendment.' Railway Mail Corsi, 326 88, 98, 1483, 1489, 2072 (Frankfurter, concurring)." 368, 2788 omitted; emphasis 195 short, credible security civil government." 77-78, (1873).13 undeniably "worked power," 490: forbade state-sanctioned slavery, vote, (until Amendment) uniquely empowered combat today. themselves, interpreting momentous charters, inhibited alongside 196 sounds full-scale retreat longstanding solicitude "directed deliverance century-old promise opportunity." 463, 2767. scuttle surmount imperil profoundly cramped vision offers laudable nowhere near won. dissent. joins, 198 perceptive incisive revealing sensitivity pains trades long. 199 live cradle Confederacy, own, narrow confine, lessen credit, acted. Yet bastion equality, strikes litigation. convincingly discloses fallacy shallowness approach. History irrefutable, sympathize who—though possibly themselves—benefit decades. 200 regresses. confident, promises Preamble Bill Rights—a fulfillment special. expiration controversy moot. damages. Memphis Light, Gas Water Div. Craft, 436 8-9, 1554, 1559-1560, 184-186 1985). disturbed books prohibiting Reply 18, 17.2 (1985)). silence flies "tight-knit industry" 542-543. purposes. point—as length 532-554, 2802-2814, stronger legislature perpetrators conclusions sweep broadly. point: unfortunate acknowledge foster usually discount legitimacy tangible benefits. infra; discussion 311-319, 2759-2763, "Rather analyzing sort entitlement jobs sins Board's advances educating "[I]n enforcement, undercover infiltrate suspected ongoing criminal behavior—and race—it perfectly class. unrest, superintendent develop composed officers. lessons teach diverse cultural, backgrounds together famous 'melting pot' differences beings inhabit land. taught color, beauty, 'skin deep'; convincing truth day-to-day routine, 313-315, 1867-1869 Art. cl. misconduct 100-383, 903 (provision restitution interned Japanese-Americans World normal monetary compensation enterprise party injury. 193-194, 1078-1079, (1987): "A chancellor's bounds 'reasonableness.' opposite proven decisionmaker overcome them. Constitution." impartially. 211-212, 464, "I myself 'rational basis' term 'rational,' impartial lawmaker logically transcends word 'rational'—for least—includes sovereign's questions. 'tradition disfavor' laws? law? treatment? answer questions tell basis.' 3261 surely unlawful. 356-357, 360, 1865, 1867, overlooked. patronage. patronage, gerrymander, defensible patronage gerrymander. Karcher Daggett, 725, 744-765, 2653, 2665-2668, (1983) Rogers Lodge, 458 613, 631-653, 3272, 3283-3294, 1012 Mobile Bolden, 55, 83-94, 1490, 1508-1513, Cousins Chicago, 830, 848-853 (CA7) 409 893, 85, (1972). southern Republicans Republican refer authored majority," portions Other Reports 92-1615, (1972) (Report Subcommittee Enterprise, "long bias" "major problems" businessmen); H.R.Doc. 92-194, (text message Nixon press doors millions Americans barred, half-open"); 92-169, paucity ownership "every chance starting line"). convened unabated—and legacy failed, gain toehold 95-949, Business, "are severely undercapitalized" "because categories"); S.Rep. 95-1070, (1978), U.S.Code Cong. Admin.News 1978, 3835, 3848, 3849; Senate Select fallen growing businesses," "recogniz[ing] deprive others, system"); 96-31, IX, (1979) control"); 96-974, 4953, 4954 "significantly increased" "have maximum viable businesses"); 97-956, "limited success" date, "greatly expanded" "appropriate corrective actions"); 98-3, inadequate"). According association representatives, Richmond-area 27-28 Stephen Watts); Subcontractors Association Patrick Murphy); Professional Estimators Al Shuman); Central Electrical National Mark Singer). testifying 1982. same. question." capacity oversight responsibility matters, Marsh's 42. did, Shuman, behalf Association). disturbing description lengths Moeser R. Dennis, Politics Annexation—Oligarchic Southern 50-188 (1982). Again judge—who consolidated districts—elaborated: "[M]any contribut[ed] concentration without. principally residential Racially convenants freely employed. purchase purchasers followed. Urban renewal, subsidized government-sponsored mortgage insurance [The counties] roads, development rapid growth expense possible integrated. Superimposed government-aided construction, sites center identifiable neighborhoods manifestly needs accuracy facts." 1075-1076 541, 2807, sponsors constituents action"). sharply criticizes develop, floor amendment "without hearings investigation whatsoever." Tribe, Law 345 1988). relying aforementioned Administration reports prior, legislation. ("Although recites preambulary 'findings' subject, discrimination"); 549-550, 2811-2812, "perfunctory" provision); 465 ("One marvel committee token opposition") footnote faults definition "minority "Spanish-speaking, persons." 2762. accepting overbroad Eskimos Aleuts, proffered, follow invalidated. "adher[e] Wygant," "prima adopts rejection framed endorsed "firm 289, 1855; 286, 1853. tests, adducing 632, 1452, (criticizing conditioned violation). rhetoric departs unduly 1849; 1853 305, 1863 accompanied contemporaneous accepted required. [A] 'narrowly tailored,' 'substantially related,' correction actor." 286-287, 1853-1854. hints "specific victims" cases. 504 (States specificity"). idea untenable, references—and cryptic requirement—cannot showings. quantum exceeds Tellingly, articles decisions, Madison. 491. Madison, dead

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