Document: 435 U.S. 389 98 S.Ct. 1123 55 L.Ed.2d 364 CITY OF LAFAYETTE, LOUISIANA and City of Plaquemine, Louisiana, Petitioners,v.LOUISIANA POWER & LIGHT COMPANY. No. 76-864. Argued Oct. 4, 1977. Decided March 29, 1978. Syllabus Petitioner cities, which own operate electric utility systems both within beyond their respective city limits as authorized by Louisiana law, brought an action in District Court against respondent investor-owned with petitioners compete, alleging tha it committed various federal antitrust offenses that injured the operation systems. Respondent counterclaimed, had its business property. Petitioners moved to dismiss counterclaim on ground that, cities subdivisions State, "state action" doctrine Parker v. Brown, 317 341, 63 307, 87 L.Ed. 315, rendered laws inapplicable them. The granted motion, but Appeals reversed remanded. Held: Apart from whether are exempt agents State under there insufficient grounds for inferring Congress did not intend subject liability. Pp. 394-408. (a) definition "person" or "persons" covered clearly includes municipal operators suing plaintiffs seeking damages violations such being sued defendants. Chattanooga Foundry Pipe Works Atlanta, 203 390, 27 65, 51 241; Georgia Evans, 316 159, 62 972, 86 1346. 394-397. (b) have failed show existence any overriding public policy inconsistent a construction coverage laws. presumption implied exclusion cannot be negated either would anomalous municipalities liability intended protect only abuses private power exist serve weal. 400-408. Mr. Justice BRENNAN, joined MARSHALL, POWELL, STEVENS, concluded: 1 1. Brown does automatically all governmental entities, state agencies simply reason status such, exempts anticompetitive conduct engaged act government sovereign, subdivisions, pursuant displace competition regulation monopoly service. 408-413. 2 2. err holding further inquiry should made determine petitioners' actions were directed since when itself has practice, State's exercising delegated must obey While subordinate unit's claim immunity is readily established same adequate mandate activities other units exists found "from authority given entity particular area, legislature contemplated kind complained of." 413-417. 3 Chief Justice, while agreeing directions remand Part III because they represent at minimum what required establish exemption, insist compel alleged activity demonstrate exemption essential regulatory scheme. 425-426, n. 6. 4 5 Cir., 532 F.2d 431, affirmed. Jerome A. Hochberg, Washington, D. C., petitioners. 6 Andrew P. Carter, New Orleans, La., respondent. 7 William T. Crisp, Raleigh, N. National Rural Elec. Cooperative Ass'n et al., amicus curiae, special leave Court. 8 BRENNAN delivered opinion (Part I), together (Parts II III), STEVENS joined. 9 315 (1943), held do prohibit "as sovereign" imposing certain restraints government." question this case extent restraints. 10 organized Louisiana,1 grant them limits.2 Eastern among others,3 Power Light Co. (LP&L), service compete areas limits,4 systems.5 LP&L injunctive relief allegedly property.6 11 decision Fifth Circuit Saenz University Interscholastic League, 487 1026 (1973), dismissal, notwithstanding "[t]hese plaintiff engaging . profit realized," "for court reluctant hold apply activity."7 App. 47 (emph sis original). read interpret exemption8 requiring "holding purely requirements United States," 48, thereby making determinative maintenance suits remanded proceedings.9 431 (1976). noted acted before Court's Goldfarb Virginia Bar, 421 773, 95 2004, 44 572 (1975), "taken together" "require following analysis": 12 "A body ipso facto Rather, district ask type restraint. In our opinion, though, necessary point express statutory each violate It will suffice if challenged was legislative intent. Thus, trial judge may ascertain, of. On hand, inGoldfarb, connection between entity's asserted use too tenuous permit conclusion scope encompassed conduct. Whether body's comprehended powers is, course, determination can specific facts case. A judge's broad enough include evidence might intent." F.2d, 434-435 (footnotes omitted). 13 We certiorari, 430 944, 97 1577, 791 (1977). affirm. 14 * Petitioners' principal argument "since merely subdivision exercises state, Parker's findings regarding congressionally Sherman Act equal force political subdivisions." Brief 5. Before addressing question, however, we shall address contention implicit arguments brief apart doctrine, never local governments 15 impose create cause defined Acts.10 Since embraces States, understandable argue meaning 16 Section Act, ch. 647, 26 Stat. 210, U.S.C. § (1976 ed.), Clayton 38 730, general definitional sections define "persons," "wherever used [Act] corporations associations existing Territories, foreign country."11 731, provides, pertinent part, "[a]ny person who his property anything forbidden sue therefor ., recover threefold him sustained ."12 17 241 (1906), municipality section, Atlanta therefore could maintain treble-damages 7, predecessor Act,13 supplier whom purchased water pipe furnish Some 36 years later, 1346 (1942), words "any person" included States. Under decision, permitted bring name charging injury combination fix prices suppress market asphalt annually roads. reasoned "[n]othing history, poli y, justify so restrictive word 'person' exclude State." U.S., 162, S.Ct., 974. 18 Although Evans involved bodies plaintiffs, whereas instant defendants counterclaim, basis those decisions plainly precludes reading construed meant rest impact some negates coverage, upon including them.14 B 19 suggest several reasons why, addition congressional purpose inferred. Those arguments, like itself, necessarily considered light exclusions 20 (1) 21 purposes been developed prior cases require mention here. Commenting language rejecting insurance excluded stated: "Language more comprehensive difficult conceive. face shows carefully studied attempt every whose restrain monopolize commercial intercourse states." States South-Eastern Underwriters Assn., 322 533, 553, 64 1162, 1174, 88 1440 (1944). That subsequent reviewing history concluded Congress, full constitutional power,15 sought regime fundamental principle governing commerce country.16 22 For reason, even legislation establishes over area activity, displaced unless appears provisions repugnant. E. g., Philadelphia Nat. Bank, 374 321, 350-351, 28, 83 1715, 1734-1735, 915 (1963) (collecting cases). repeal implication reflects understanding overarching policies, argues exclusions. See Goldfarb, 786-788, 2012-2013. 23 Two policies sufficiently weighty override Railroad Presidents Conf. Noerr Motor Freight, Inc., 365 127, 81 523, 464 (1961), regardless intent, concerted effort persons influence lawmakers enact beneficial themselves detrimental competitors nothing statute indicate exclusion, two correlative principles support finding coverage. first contrary impede open communication polity vital functioning representative democracy. Second, "and least significance," threat constitutionally protected right petition entail. Id., 137-138, 529-530.17 24 Brown18 identified second policy, namely "[i]n dual system which, Constitution, states, save subtract authority, unexpressed nullify state's control officers lightly attributed Congress." 351, 313. 25 Common potential conflict signal importance national traditions structure federalism. Even then, recognized unavailing prevent enforcement though implicating thought severely impinge See, e. supra; California Transport Trucking Unlimited, 404 508, 92 609, 30 642 (1972). prevail countervailing overcome presumption. now turn consideration whether, showing. (2) 28 inferred criminal civil liabilities imposed violators short answer regarded compliance substantive standards sanctions "persons." Union Pacific R. 313 450, 61 1064, 85 1453 (1941).19 generally Ohio Helvering, 292 360, 370, 54 725, 727, 78 1307 (1934);20 320 577, 352, (1944).21 But remedies appropriate redress equally municipalities; nor need decide remedy case.22 29 next goal partly correc Every enterprise, private, operates furtherance goals. municipally owned utility, likely be, broadly speaking, benefit citizens. economic choices affairs, designed assure maximum benefits community constituency, inherently comport broader interests well-being than acting organization shareholders. allegations present accept true,23 aptly illustrate governments, providers services, individuals enterprises inter-relate purchasers, suppliers, sometimes, here, competitors.24 31 Plaquemine contracted provide LP&L's customers outside gas condition purchase electricity LP&L.25 effect tie-in twofold. First, tying contract injure former ways. net increase cost these customers. Moreover, conceivably charge discriminatorily higher rates captive jurisdiction without cost-justified basis. Both practices constituents, disserving affected practice regulated displaced.26 elimination reduce revenues, possibly abandonment loss equipment rate base affect capital structure. surviving investor-owners bear brunt consequences. service, rather efficiency distribution interest realizing regard extra-territorial regional efficiency.27 32 allegation counterclaim,28 conspired others t engage sham frivolous litigation agencies29 courts purpose, effect, delaying approval proposed nuclear generating plant. course deprive needed financing delay costs, amounting $180 million, effectively block project. Such citizens Lafayette eliminating competitive expansion utilities still undeveloped cities' territorial limits. truly anticompetitive,30 enormous unnecessary costs facility expansion. addition, significant LP&L, interfering ability expanded 33 Another aspect public-service argument31 control, welfare assured through process unnecessary. consumers dissatisfied provided seek merit. recognize, must, living forced take no recourse level, nevertheless complaints legislature. fairly questioned Florida corporation subsidiary meaningful chance influencing outlaw ad hoc whatever direct time time. More fundamentally, cuts far broadly; engages. Mulcted unfairly always process. enacting mandated polestar guided ordering affairs. vagaries process, administered neutral courts,32 guarantee enterprise exercise "whatever muscle muster," Topco Associates, 405 596, 610, 1126, 1135, 515 (1972), amount legislatures.33 34 1972, 62,437 different country.34 Of number 23,885 districts goals provision one services,35 remaining 38,552 represented counties, municipalities, townships, most governance limitations way another State.36 These may, do, participate life Nation great variety When owners fully capable aggrandizing interrelate, serious distortion rational efficient allocation resources, free markets embodied engender.37 If make counseled solely parochial effects, chink armor protection introduced odds established.38 35 conclude additional implying rejected. argument, "Parker's Plainly error arguing are, 37 Agricultural Prorate enacted Legislature program enforced "through officials restrict growers [of raisins] commodities packers." 346, 311. prohibited "nothing suggests legislature," id., 313, "[t]he restraint undertake prohibit." 314. underscored significance 's determinant "an government" "sovereign." repeatedly emphasized effects California's prorate derived "the state['s] command"; adopted, organized, "in execution policy."39 presented "whether minimum-fee schedule lawyers published Fairfax County Bar Association Bar," 775, 2007, violated Act. Exemption claimed "a agency law." 790, 2014. empowered Supreme regulate law assigned role administrative referred lawyers' fees taken adherence schedules. said schedules sovereign. 791, 2015. powers, "voluntarily essentially activity," 792, 2015, executing State. meet threshold determining proscribe ." Go dfarb clear 39 Bates Arizona, 433 350, 2691, 53 810 (1977), applied. applicability ban attorney advertising directly Arizona inapplicable, "[t]hat ultimate wielding see Ariz.Const., Art. 3; re Bailey, Ariz. 407, 248 (1926), and, thus, 'compelled direction sovereign.' " 2697, quoting supra, emphasized, moreover, fact part system, articulated affirmatively expressed actively supervised policymaker.40 40 rejection proposition affords entities exemption.41 limitation applied Bates, "official [the] state," arises doctrine—that "dual states authority," States' acts To extend limitation. Cities sovereign; receive deference Edelman Jordan, 415 651, 667 12, 94 1347, 1357-1358, 662 (1974); Lincoln Luning, 133 529, 363, 766 (1890) (political Eleventh Amendment suit court). consistent treated equivalents themselves.42 dislocation result place above Nation's reflected laws, 403-408, especially unwilling presume reach. 41 mean "[m]unicipal instrumentalities convenient administration limits." ex rel. Folsom Mayor 109 285, 287, 211, 213, 936 (1883), reflect policy. or, There remains erred 42 Brother STEWART's dissent focus sovereign concluding fall doctrine. But, substantially less statewide jurisdiction, significance. approach way, adopted them, preference, State.43 Therefore, absence did, hardly command," imposed. most44 neutral. shielded circumstances impair achieve furthering underlying "exemption." This mean, able specific, detailed authorization properly assert defense suit. agree of."45 434. 43 understood, preserves freedom federalism administer inhibitions permitting disrupt free-market Our reach "greatly delegate municipalities." Post, 438 (footnote That, respect, hyperbole. render allocate subdivisions. means notwithstanding, late desire insulate falls Schwegmann Bros. Calvert Distillers Corp., 341 384, 71 745, 1035 (1951). characterizing applicable virtue statutes specifically sub ect La.Rev.Stat.Ann. 33:1334(G) (West Supp.1977), quoted 44, supra. perversion federalism.46 45 Today's threaten legitimate power, preclude providing services progeny authorize Compare Goldfarb. True, lawful monopolist seeks exploit manner authorization. Cf. Otter Tail 410 366, 377-382, 93 1022, 1029-1032, 359 (1973).47 assuming basis, action48 hobble programs. 46 Affirmed. concurring. 48 I THE CHIEF JUSTICE, post, purposes. join plurality test established, relating competition," ante, 413, incorporates core JUSTICE's concern. As makes clear, "desire[s] practices." Ante, 416. "impose" Ibid. involving effectuate viewed plurality's approach. 49 JUSTICE BURGER, concurring judgment. 50 turns, ought to, explicit conclusion,1 unchallenged activity; realized." progeny, proprietary inherent capacity economically disruptive eff cts municipality. administering conceded replacing segment agricultural regulation. lawsuit entirely different. took perfectly natural step answering complaint— filed competitors—with record assumption ordinary dispute market. true ignore reality difference entrepreneur community. Indeed, injuries complaint litany woes suffered competitor: 52 "As proximate unlawful hereinabove alleged, have: prevented continue profitably expanding businesses ; lost lose profits resulted expanded, lower (3) deprived economies systems; (4) sustain losses value properties (5) incurred incur excessive expenses otherwise incurred." 14. (Emphasis added.) strikes me somewhat remarkable "meant deal comprehensively evils resulting contracts, combinations conspiracies trade," Atlantic Cleaner Dyers, Inc. 286 427, 435, 607, 76 1204 (1932), allowed complain damage baldly asserting similar harms unleash economy absolutely purview law. allow inject wholly arbitrary variable into "fundamental policy." Carnation Conference, 383 218, 781, 784, 709 (1966), strongly disfavors scope. (1963); FPC, 369 482, 485, 82 901, 903, (1962). indicated, Cantor Detroit Edison Co., 428 579, 604, 96 3110, 3123, 1141 (1976), interpreting Parker, heretofore focused identity parti suit." surely logical passed very kinds problems generated arisen wake. (1977); Cantor, (1975); Slater, Antitrust Government Action: Formula Narrowing 69 Nw.U.L.Rev. 71, 84 (1974). dubious assume attention possible operated Not borders, see, C. Knight 156 1, 249, 325 (1895); Kidd Pearson, 128 6, 346 (1888), manufacturing enterprises, themselves, interstate commerce. 20, 9. By decided, narrow view "interstate commerce" broadened via "affection doctrine" intrastate events sufficient NLRB Fainblatt, 306 601, 605, 59 668, 671, 1014 (1939); cf. Hospital Building Rex Trustees, 425 738, 743, 1848, 1852, 338 Given development, interpretation 394-397, along trend allowing expand broadening conceptions Commerce Clause, 743 2, reasonably wonder how reached Parker. 56 understandable, historical period decided. then recently emerged era due undoubtedly eager commence new round invalidating principles. Verkuil, Action, Due Process Antitrust: Reflections 75 Colum.L.Rev. 328, 331-334 (1975). Responding concern, intent "polic[y] federalism." 400. 57 "In 58 thus firmly grounded federalism, ambit government."2 mode analysis sound today am surprised neither dissents puzzling much judicial energy expended here deciding parties case: impinges governments. suggested outset, issue reaches municipalities.3 60 difficult. decided certainly common carrier, "public function," Clause. California, 297 175, 183-186, 421, 423-425, 80 567 (1936) ("[W]e think unimportant say conducts railroad 'sovereign' 'private' capacity." 183, 424); Parden Terminal 377 184, 189-193, 1207, 1211-1213, 233 (1964); Taylor, 353 568, 77 1037, 1045, 1034 (1957). Likewise, (1934), business, became tax dealing intoxicating liquors, although mentioned statute. short, already recognized, entrepreneurial personality sovereign's decision—as —to replace regulation.4 last conclusion. fact, recent League Usery, 426 833, 2465, 245 rekindled commitment tempering Clause government, employs strikingly Stone : "It thing recognize regulating individual sovereignty reside. quite uphold directed, citizens, attributes attaching impaired lack affirmative matter, Constitution prohibits manner." 845, 2470. delineation 'attributes sovereignty" alluded "functions separate independent existence.' Ibid., Coyle Oklahoma, 221 559, 580, 688, 695, 853 (1911). evident, think, running integral traditional functions. Alfred Dunhill London, Cuba, 682, 695-696, 1854, 1861-1862, 301 (1976); Bank Planters' Georgia, Wheat. 904, 907, 244 (1824). reaffirmance Cities, 854 18, 2475, supports understanding. true, undertaking here—the supplying service—has traditionally prerogative Jackson Metropolitan 419 345, 352-353, 449, 454, 477 (1974).5 Following path outlined lead us destination: treated, applying say, condemnation 592-598, 3117-3121, state-regulated pose analytical underParker. well example, order "to avoid consequences unrestrained competition." 595, 3119. precisely occurred utility's command "act 314, 65 sovereign." first, final inqui "all "There inconsistency firm criteria insofar also comply engages economy." 66 remand, directing determining—as would—that service."6 413. supplemental consist "was work, 'and necessary.' 597, 3120.7 67 STEWART, WHITE, BLACKMUN,* REHNQUIST join, dissenting. 68 restricted raisin keep price raisins artificially high. "where trade monopolization valid action, opposed violation [Sherman] out." 136, 464. controls bodies, persons, "act[s] instead imposes unjustifiable it. According plurality, henceforth immune laws1 "authorized directed" "pursuant service." 414, "direction" apparently shown 'from of.' 415. exclusive limited sharp departure cases. 70 adopts approach, once narrower plurality's. view, "proprietary enterprises," 422, retain types activity. corporation: 'required sovereign' 'necessary [State's] work.' 425-426. seems just mistaken opinions failure other. 72 aimed." Apex Hosiery Leader, 310 469, 489, 982, 990, 1311. "particular evils" bodies. concerned attacking concentrations unresponsive needs, "these trusts, corporations, large moneyed institutions." Cong.Rec. 2562 (1890).2 73 Recognizing action. legislature, nowhere contrary, expressly equated municipality." carefully3 "private corporate." 313.4 distinction units. drew line 74 doubt side fall. "Municipal 936; Reynolds Sims, 575, 1362, 1388, 506.5 They subdivision, power. Avery Midland County, 390 474, 480, 1114, 1118, 45; Breard Alexandria, 622, 640, 920, 931, 1233. unaccountable popular electorates legislature.6 cry accumulations wealth regulate. advances nonetheless notes cla m Amendment. 412. relevant answered reference situations.7 And analogies looked related isNational 245. case, one, Congress' deference. 855-856, 2476. advance disregard reliance basically irrelevant Secondly, relies 572. overrule scheme parties, namely, lawyers. sheltered umbrella compelled bar association "complemented" 1035. Unlike involve persons. 361, 810, case" falling squarely rule Brown. purposes," fixing fostered members professional group. Asheville Tobacco Board Trade, FTC, 263 502, 508-510 (CA4). city, State."8 blurs, indeed erase, 1141, escape compulsion requirement State's, immunize it.9 senseless showing Mexico American Petrofina, 501 369-370 (CA9). C 79 rely distinctions purports find simpler subjecting despite personality." 422.10 substantial disregarding advanced plurality. choose goods itself. state-owned latter, decisions. responsive concerns, effects.11 Yet, according latter not. 428-430. And, previously said: 'Government depending pedigree it.' Federal Crop Insurance Corp. Merrill, 332 380, 383-384, 10. hard 'operational level,' 'uniquely governmental,' sense been, privately performed." Indian Towing 350 61, 67-68, 122, 126, 100 48. Nonetheless treat all. envisioned virtually impossible determine. "proprietary" "governmental" described "quagmire." 124. "distinctions [are] finespun capricious almost incapable mind formulation." 68, 126. understandable.12 moment's range "proprietary." decides characterized "proprietary"? not, Lowenstein F. 908 (CC S.C.).13 ignores controlling marks extraordinary intrusion country. Its overstated. wishes.14 police having obtain legislature.15 self-government serves important interests. allows devote burdened matters, quickly flexibly problems. today's demanding extensive diminish share autonomous follow emphasis vagueness announces.16 government's "authorized" legislatively "directed" enjoy immunity. uses terms interchangeably, meanings. Edison, 592-593, 3117-3118. so. gives indication legislature's relate "action Reference elusive is. Stripped essentials litigation, maintained monopolies debenture covenants, foreclosed long-term supply tied sale electricity. Broadly bringing lawsuits, issuing bonds, statutes.17 affirming judgment evident consider alone "mandate" cities. 89 "point identify compelling lawsuit, contract, covenant.18 intermediate authorization, approval, unable fathom.19 90 Finally, often little recorded history,20 bare unilluminating utilities21 "contemplate" tie electricity? Do statutes, indeed, residents basis? Without language, questions creation imagination.22 91 practical uncertainties opinions,23 prudent probably believe passage anticompetitive. Each grants franchise, chooses refuses zoning variance business,24 even—as brings behalf ensure subsequently "contemplated" greatly municipalities.25 interference fundamentals proper function judiciary.26 procedures decisions, substance well. "accorded wide latitude economies," Orleans Dukes, 427 297, 303, 2513, 2517, 511; delivery require." 847, 2472. sharply limit latitude. uncertainty bound discourage experimentation innovative social programs.27 governmen al granting franchises, ordinances, contemplating after risk discovering believes existed, nature. imposition sort wide-ranging reasonableness regulations forsworn.28 ordinance preserve character historic food pushcarts vendor eight years, Equal Protection Fourteenth upheld validity ordinance. Dukes proceeded unreasonably pushcart vendors, he prevailed few vendors area. "wide latitude" exercised delegated, stifled application staggering thousands atypical million alleged. Trebled, amounts $540 alone, recovered combined population (in 1970) about 75,000.29 magnitude bankruptcy rendered.30 ultimately prevail, rapidly mounting increased taxes decreased services.31 prospect closing schools, discharging policemen, curtailing fire department defend dismay Act.32 discussed respectfully dissent. BLACKMUN, exception II-B, wish note reaching concert parties. circumstance go protections accorded themselves. 351-352, (1943) becoming participant agreement trade, 1453"). opportunity "conspiracy parties" municipalities' limited, commanded majority, order. 99 liability, nonchalance puts aside remedy. 402, n.22. grave potentially liable massive treble when, however seem, responsibilities life-sustaining protection. occasions past "corporations" pretend. 400-402, nn. 19-21. cites previous constructions Elkins Act; sellers alcoholic beverages; Shipping 1916. financial penalties available Acts laws.1 Nor come grips mandatory ed.): "Any sustained" (emphasis supplied), repeated rejected proposals discretionary.2 conceivable theory (e. tariffs, hence involuntary). 614-615, n.6, 3128-3129, (1976) (opinion judgment). defense, where insolvency petitioner inhabitants. sensible me, appropriate. La.Const., §§ 7(A) (effective Jan. 1975); XIV, 40(d) (1921) 33:621, 33:361, 33:506 1951). 33:1326 1951); 33:4162, 33:4163 1950). named defendant Middle-South Utilities, subsidiary, Central Electric Gulf Texas respectively, generation, transmission, wholesale retail Louisiana. allege competes Lafayette, arrangements Respondent's Second Amended Counterclaim, 33-34; Affidavit J. M. Wyatt, Senior Vice President 37. charged attempted monopolized preventing competing systems, improperly refusing wheel foreclosing supplies served defendants, boycotts petitioners, utilizing improper generation facilities amended, nonparty cooperative, electric-generating plant, eliminate boundaries covenants debentures, using agreements, continued slide-rule manufacturer conspiracy agency, (UIL), director, competitor products interscholastic schools. affirmed dismissal UIL director official, answerable "exemption" commonly shorthand expression entering dismissing entry Fed.Rule Civ.Proc. 54(b). designated appealable Liberty Mutual Ins. Wetzel, 424 737, 742-743, 1202, 1205-1206, statutes. examples, ed.) ("Every hereby declared illegal deemed guilty felony ."); monopolize, combine conspire nations, [making Territory Columbia] (defining "persons"); (declaring importing articles misdemeanor). provides full: "That 'person,' 'persons,' wherever country." remained unchanged enactment 1890. defines identical 1914. 13, infra. 210 (repealed 1955), act, circuit resides found, respect controversy, three fold sustained, suit, reasonable attorney's fee." agent, ed.). wished operations done ambiguity. May 26, 1938, 283, 446, 13c not-for-profit institutions "purchases use" amended Robinson-Patman 1526, 13b 21a grant, institution induce, discriminatory discount supplies. libraries exemption. (Public definition, government. U. S. Office Education, Biennial Surveys Education (Library Service 1938-1940), p. (1947); (Statistical Summary 1941-1942), 38; Am. Library Assn. Bull. 272 (1938)). Mandeville Island Farms, Crystal Sugar 334 219, 229-235, 996, 1002-1005, 1328 (1948). "Antitrust general, particular, Magna Carta enterprise. preservation free-enterprise Bill Rights personal freedoms. guaranteed matter small, compete—to vigor, imagination, devotion, ingenuity muster." Mine Workers Pennington, 381 657, 669-672, 1585, 1588, 1592-1594, 626 (1965). Pennington small mining companies, joint companies labor unions lobbying Secretary Labor favor establishing wage employees contractors selling coal Tennessee Valley Authority TVA purchases exempted attack. Cases infirmity entail First freedoms presented. Continental Ore Carbide Carbon 370 690, 707-708, 1404, 1414-1415, 777 (1962); 516, 614, (1972) (Stewart, J., Olsen Smith, 195 332, 344-345, 52, 54-55, 224 (1904). 587, 41(1). statute, person, offer, give, solicit, accept, rebate, concession, discrimination transportation [covered] carrier Kansas City, Kan. (hereinafter Kansas), develop Public Levee metropolitan rail terminal produce markets. constructed, operated, market, development revenue bonds. Mo. Missouri), Because believed markets, plan induce Missouri dealers lease offering cash payments temporary reduction abatement rent. exceeded compensate merchants moving, settlement leases, disruption business. payment resolution, legality quo warranto proceeding. 151 P.2d , 101 (1939). railroads, exclusively Railroad. Kansas, Pacific's traffic railroads shrank. Kansas' concessions merchants, ship cheaply serving amounted rebate tariffs. permanently enjoined giving rental credits move moving Kansas. appeal Court, argued corporation. Appellants, O.T. 1940, 594, pp. 233-235, 244-256; 72. 59-68, 69-75. modification permanent injunction Roberts, dissent, phrase "every provided. context antirebate anti-price-discrimination Accord, Helvering distributor beverages. Rev.Stat. 3244 (1978), "[e]very sells offers [alcoholic beverages]." 3140 provided: [W]here distinctly manifestly incompatible thereof, title, partnership, association, company, corporation, person." stated "[w]hether 'corporation' depends found," becomes dealer extension extension." 371, 727. 1916, 734, 815, 816, "person[s]," 801, "corporations, partnerships, associations, arise determines Trustees Hosp., 740, 1850, ready example transcending borders. Duke Foerster, 521 1277 (CA3 363 (CA9 1974); Hecht Pro-Football, 144 U.S.App.D.C. 56, 444 931 (1971). 33. commentator noted, buyer arrangements. Equally unrelated merits product involved, concomitantly, distortion. Turner, Validity Tying Arrangements Laws, Harv.L.Rev. 50, (1958). Utilities Commission, PUC conform plans deem advisable coordinating Answer 18-20. Securities Exchange Atomic Energy Department Justice. urged antimonopoly nature operating interest. interfere agree. Acting implement infra, hinder programs refrain from, predatory "The prohibitions precision crystal clarity consequence perhaps uncalculated,[*] left give content performance aimed. "[*] Debates, 2460, 3148; Hoar, Autobiography Seventy Years 364; Senator Edmunds, Interstate Trust 1890, 194 No.Am.Rev. 813, 'after careful earnest Judiciary Committee Senate agreed member impracticable description "trade" "commerce" "trust," "restraint" "monopolize," precise all-inclusive definitions; matters consideration.' "See Hoar Edmunds drafted bill (see H. Walker, History Law (1910), 27-28) 522, 1903: 'We undertook clothe duty trade. ' 10, 1311 (1940). political-redress substitute strike down applies. Bureau Census, 1972 Census Governments, Governmental Organization (1973). figure (62,437) represents total county, municipal, township, 15,781 school narrowly functions generlly. 1-5. 4-5. 1-3. 493-495, 15, 992-993, (reviewing history). 1134; 492-495, 15; furthered 352-359, 314-317. analyzed command. Michigan, seller bulbs extra relying defended light-bulb approved Commission tariff long effect. claim, Michigan industry, desirability program, Commission's Detroit-Edison's "implement bulbs" should, program." 585, 3114. joining analysis. 604-605, 3123-3124. Cantor's could, insulated enforcement. situation presents expresses immunized suggesting official capacity, somehow ethical opinions, 21, benefited member-lawyers discouraging competition. obvious ancillary Bar's conscious transmute organization. instrumentality 562 280, 284-285 (CA4 1977); 288 (concurring opinion); Kurek Pleasure Driveway Park Dist., 557 588-591 (CA7 1977), cert. pending, 77-440; Company, 1280. acknowledgment 433, (1955), it,' (citation omitted), discloses fallacy distinguish 'a purposes,' group." 431. explication, "reliance Amendment" unfounded. statement longstanding principle, 1890 aware, (1890), Certainly, remotely contrary; search vain constructional presumptive Indeed conclusion, "exempt" implementing tangentially implicated. "While legislatures constituents universally decisionmaking Legislators many countless concern govern level." 481, (1968). Amendment, di ferent attributes. yet, reasons, commission adopt, aware so, prohibiting engages, yet enforce lacks (The PUC, Monroe Serv. Comm'n, 177,757—Div. "I" (19th Jud. Dist. Ct., Sept. 14, 1976).) fosters, compels, practices. Rev.Stat.Ann. Supp.1977) illustration technically with, intergovernmental commissions jointly construct utilities. 33:1324, 33:1331-33:1334 Supp.1977). 33:1334(D) 1334(G) Chapter [such] States." reject fallback position lie (1951); Northern 193 197, 344-351, 436, 459-462, 679 (1904); (1941) (discussed 19, supra ). Restating theme before, dissenting), 438-440, likens judges unfair. analogy, mandating dissent's unwise. majority disagreed regulation, 1029-1032 390-391, 1035-1036 dissenting part). appear complexion Posner, Proper Relationship Between Regulation N.Y.U.L.Rev. 693, 705 formal disposed pleadings. Nonetheless, conclude, aim production revenues excess costs. attempting likewise undeniable profitable way. complaint, "been businesses." correct ordinarily constrained earnings would, detract posture incentive evolve, evolved. Consequently, evolving perceptions occur cast bronze; rather, Act's parallel developing concepts term relationship constrained, necessary, highly unlikely possesses thwart 433-434, attempts blunt noting "nongovernmental-governmental" criticized (1955). more, cases: entitled per se (1936), railroad, albeit profit, function." comprehend why manner. STEWART SC 1895), complete liquor industry violating monopoly, rationale. (1934). ascertainment dovetails private: former, duties incumbent State; pecuniary individuals, responsibility person. Hall Shreveport, 157 La. 589, 102 So. 680, 681 (1925). explicitly electrical holds governed rules individuals. Hicks 237 848, 112 So.2d 635 (1959); Elias Iberia, 137 691, 141 (1915); Hart Town Lake Providence, La.App. 294 (1926); Bannister Monroe, 182 (1926). strong intended. satisfied, highest policymaking undertaken insist, supersede competition, plan. disagree stronger Cities. judgment, demand Edison's activities. "infer[red] [was] program," 3115 STEVEN, J.) added), 3125 J.), consequently work." Blackmun joins II-B opinion. acknowledges, 393 n.8, understand invokes exemptions rule, accommodation rests repeals favored, relevance based also, 1458 (1889) ("the common, single too, wealth, arranging dictate people country pay purchase, sell"); 2728 ("transaction[s] extort community, segregate, use, greed, lawfully diffused whole community"); 3147 (remarks Sen. George). advanta e 135-136, 528-529, 464; 492-493, 992, n.15; Standard Oil 58, 511, 515, 619. 591, n.24, 3117, 1141. assumed "if effective corporate," combination." "it state"; corporations." prohibition action." Id. Trenton Jersey, 262 182, 185-186, 534, 536, 937; Hunter Pittsburgh, 207 161, 178, 40, 46, 151; Ray, Wall. 468, 475, 164; Bradford 305 (La.). Barnes Columbia, 540, 544-545, 440; 475; East Hartford Bridge How. 518. control. factual legal Waller Florida, 397 387, 1184, (Double Jeopardy Clause); (Fourteenth Amendment); (Impairment Contract Clause). Doran Salem Inn., 422 922, 927 2561, 648 (28 1254(2). Worcester Street 196 539, 548, 327, 329, 591. 1035; 460, 679. However, "conclusion," 418, supported (since motion dismiss) reply brief. fact—heavily relied JUSTICE—that misses point. concededly proscribed city. places, refers 'business activit[ies] realized,' effects," "integral operation[s] functions," cited Lockport Citizens Community 259, 269, 1047, 1054, 313; 481-482, 1118-1119. Local broadest "home rule" matters. Vanlandingham, Municipal Home Rule Wm. Mary L.Rev. 269 home Louisiana's provision, La.Const. 1974, 5, 6; 1921, 22, 40(c), constitutions Note, Corporations, Geo.L.J. 1547, 1559 portions discuss stronger, justifiable, compulsion. 425-426 n.6. 33:621 1951): inhabitants politic corporate sued; acquire otherwise, construct, own, lease, restrictions communities; [and] borrow money faith credit notes, evidences debt .." 1951), 1966). suggestion 414-415 n.44, 416, erroneous irrelevant. applies created counties; comparable federal, law; conversely, person's otherwise. unwarranted Apparently, 413 (plurality J.). litigate constructing facility, insert of, "displac[ing] service"? Would deny controlled them? Price Bitner, Effective Legal Research 73, 103 (3d ed. 1969). n.17, problem exacerbated "retroactive" senses. premised past. contemporary future ago. faced foreknowledge announced today. add confusion trying Whitworth Perkins, 559 378 (CA5). activities, deter choosing others. Sailors 387 105, 1549, 650; Williams Eggleston, 170 304, 310, 617, 619, 1047; Baker Carr, 186, 289-290, n.23, 749-750, 663, (Frankfurter, dissenting). leaves delegations agencies, they, actions. This, defeats agencies. Ice Liebmann, 285 262, 311, 386, 747 (Brandeis, Ferguson Skrupa, 372 726, 1028, 93. Commerce, 1970 Population, Number Inhabitants, Summary, Table indicates "appropriate" 401-402, face: requires supplied). Cf., 284. 443 n.2, demonstrates understood refused change Perma Life Mufflers, International Parts 392 134, 1981, 982. current esti ated one-half dollars month. Y. Times, June 27, 1977, 41, col. section 3, Treble-damages can, ruinous functions, shareholders stand relation taxpayers live. An investment decision; shareholder takes risks hope profits. citizen's obviously divided residents, penalty exceed $28,000 family four. beverages, 205 (1926 370-371, 1307, $25 retail, $100 wholesale, outlet. 816 (1940 585-586, 356, (1944), misdemeanor punishable $5,000 fine. arguable lies (1941). there, $20,000 fine, rebates received municipality, times rebate. fine actual caused 8. 4597, 83d Cong., 1st Sess. (1953); 6875, 84th (1955); 978, 85th (1957); 86th 190, 87th (1961). Hearings 4597 Subcommittee House Judiciary, Sess., 189, 509-522, 2246-2249

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