Document: 403 U.S. 602 91 S.Ct. 2105 29 L.Ed.2d 745 Alton J. LEMON et al., Appellants,v.David H. KURTZMAN, as Superintendent Public Instruction of the Commonwealth Pennsylvania, al. John R. EARLEY Appellants, v. DiCENSO William P. ROBINSON, Jr., Commissioner Education State Rhode Island, Nos. 89, 569, 570. Argued March 3, 1971. Decided June 28, Syllabus Island's 1969 Salary Supplement Act provides for a 15% salary supplement to be paid teachers in nonpublic schools at which average perpupil expenditure on secular education is below public schools. Eligible must teach only courses offered schools, using materials used and agree not religion. A three-judge court found that about 25% State's elementary students attended 95% whom Roman Catholic affiliated date 250 are sole beneficiaries under Act. The parochial school system was 'an integral part religious mission Church,' held fostered 'excessive entanglement' between government religion, thus violating Establishment Clause. Pennsylvania's Nonpublic Elementary Secondary Act, passed 1968, authorizes state 'purpose' certain 'secular educational services' from directly reimbursing those solely teachers' salaries, textbooks, instructional materials. Reimbursement restricted specific subjects, textbooks approved by Superintendent, no payment made any course containing 'any subject matter expressing teaching, or morals forms worship sect.' Contracts were with have more than 20% all State, most Church. complaint challenging constitutionality alleged church-affiliated controlled organizations, purpose propagating promoting particular faith, conduct their operations fulfill purpose. granted motion dismiss failure claim relief, finding violation Free Exercise Held: Both statutes unconstitutional Religion Clauses First Amendment, cumulative impact entire relationship arising involves excessive entanglement Pp. 611—625. (a) Island program arises because activity, especially respect children impressionable age primary grades, dangers teacher control discipline poses separation purely aspect such These factors require continuing surveillance ensure statutory restrictions obeyed Amendment otherwise respected. Furthermore, inspect records determine what expenditures attributable opposed event school's per pupil exceed comparable figures 615—620. (b) Pennsylvania also necessary play strictly nonideological role supervision accounting procedures required establish cost distinguished education. In addition, statute has further defect providing financial aid church-related Historically governmental measures tend follow cash grant programs, here government's post-audit power creates an intimate church state. 620—622. (c) Political division along lines one evils aimed, these where successive probably permanent annual appropriations benefit relatively few groups involved, political fragmentation divisiveness likely intensified. 622—624. (d) Unlike tax exemption places worship, upheld Walz Tax Commission, 397 664, 90 1409, 25 697, based practice 200 years, innovative programs self-perpetuating self-expanding propensities provide warning signal against 624—625. No. 310 F.Supp. 35, reversed remanded; 569 570, 316 112, affirmed. Henry W. Sawyer, III, Philadelphia, Pa., appellants. Shane Creamer, appellees Kurtzman Sloan. B. Ball, Harrisburg, appellee Schools. Charles F. Cottam, Providence, R.I., appellants Robinson others. Edward Bennett Williams, Washington, D.C., Earley Leo Pfeffer, New York City, Milton Stanzler, Joan DiCenso [Amicus Curiae Information pages 605-606 intentionally omitted] Mr. Chief Justice BURGER delivered opinion Court. 1 two appeals raise questions secondary challenged violative Due Process Clause Fourteenth Amendment. 2 adopted support way reimbursement specified subjects. pays salary. Under each been given institutions. We hold both unconstitutional. 3 * Statute 4 Act1 enacted 1969. It rests legislative quality available jeopardized rapidly rising salaries needed attract competent dedicated teachers. officials subjects paying amount excess his current As supplemented, however, teacher's cannot maximum recipient certified board substantially same manner 5 order eligible supplement, per-pupil less during period. Appellant requires submit data. If this information indicates limitation, question examined assess how much activity.2 6 supplements They use 'only teaching schools.' Finally, applying first writing 'not religion so long time he she receives supplements' 7 Appellees citizens taxpayers Island. brought suit declared its operation enjoined ground it violates Appellants charged administration parents whose would receive assistance. 8 federal convened pursuant 28 U.S.C. §§ 2281, 2284. accommodated approximately pupils. About pupils church. To some applied benefits All them employed 9 hearing extensive evidence introduced concerning nature instruction assistance Although concern values does necessarily affect content Church.' 10 District Court concluded violated Clause, holding addition judges thought had impermissible effect giving 'significant enterprise.' 112. affirm. 11 but features program. Act3 1968 response crisis Legislature existed due costs. affirmatively reflects conclusion goals could appropriately fulfilled 'those objectives achieved through *.' 12 'purchase' 'contracts' authorized statute, reimburses actual seeking maintain prescribed identify 'separate' service.' accounts audit. funds originally derived new horse harness racing, now financed portion cigarettes. 13 There several significant aid. limited 'presented curricula 'solely' following 'secular' subjects: mathematics, modern foreign languages,4 physical science, Textbooks included Instruction. prohibits contains 14 went into July 1, payments September 2, appears $5 million expended annually entered contracts 1,181 student population 535,215 pupils—more total number State. More 96% attend 15 action challenge statute. organizational plaintiffs-appellants associations persons resident declaring belief state; individual Pennsylvania. Lemon, being citizen taxpayer, parent child attending Lemon alleges purchased ticket race track supports who responsibility administering seven defendants-appellees. 16 standing 42. denied Flast Cohen, 392 83, 99, 101, 88 1942, 1952, 1953, 20 947 (1968). 17 appellees' relief.5 35. neither nor Judge Hastie dissenting. reverse. II 18 Everson Board Education, 330 67 504, L.Ed. 711 (1947), reimbursed bus transportation expenses. Black, majority, suggested decision carried 'the verge' forbidden territory Clauses. Id., 16, S.Ct., 511. Candor compels acknowledgment, moreover, we can dimly perceive demarcation extraordinarily sensitive area constitutional law. 19 language best opaque, particularly when compared other portions Its authors did simply prohibit establishment history shows they regarded very important fraught great dangers. Instead commanded there should 'no law respecting religion.' may 'respecting' objective while falling short realization. proscribed result, is, always easily identifiable might nevertheless end sense step lead hence offend absence precisely stated prohibitions, draw reference three main intended afford protection: 'sponsorship, support, active involvement sovereign activity.' 668, 1411, 697 (1970). 21 Every analysis begin consideration criteria developed over many years. Three tests gleaned our cases. First, purpose; second, principal advances inhibits Allen, 236, 243, 1923, 1926, 1060 (1968); finally, foster Walz, supra, 674, 1414. 22 Inquiry purposes affords basis intent advance On contrary, themselves clearly enhance covered compulsory attendance laws. reason believe legislatures meant anything else. legitimate maintaining minimum standards allows operate. find nothing undermines intent; therefore accorded appropriate deference. 23 Allen acknowledged teachings intertwined furnished fact instrumental U.S., 248, 1929. separable. abstract quarrel conclusion. 24 legislatures, recognized substantial activities religiously oriented. sought create designed guarantee functions former. provisions precautions taken candid recognition approached, even if intrude upon, areas need decide whether restrict point do Clauses, conclude III exemptions real property owned organizations worship. That holding, tended confine rather enlarge permissible institutions calling close scrutiny degree involved relationship. prevent, far possible, intrusion either precincts other. 26 Our prior holdings call possible absolute sense. Some inevitable. Zorach Clauson, 343 306, 312, 72 679, 683, 96 954 (1952); Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 422, 83 1790, 1803, 965 (1963) (Harlan, J., dissenting). Fire inspections, building zoning regulations, requirements school-attendance laws examples contacts. Indeed, before us burden ascertain exempt Judicial caveats recognize line separation, 'wall,' blurred, indistinct, variable barrier depending circumstances 27 This suggest, engage legalistic minuet precise rules govern. true pure form style, observance itself substantive end. Here examine light casts substance. excessive, character benefited, provides, resulting authority. Harlan, separate echoed classic 'programs, apt entangle details administration. *' 695, 1425. entanglement. 30 findings grave potential inheres 31 located parish churches. understandably permits convenient access exercises since faith process. buildings contain identifying symbols crosses exterior crucifixes, paintings classrooms hallways. minutes day devoted direct instruction, oriented extracurricular activities. Approximately two-thirds nuns various orders. Their efforts atmosphere vocations natural proper parts life found, enhancing led 616m 32 au thorities attempt one-to-one ratio lay permit staffed almost entirely 33 constituted characteristics make 'a powerful vehicle transmitting next generation.' process inculcating doctrine course, enhanced pupils, particularly. short, involve activity purpose.6 34 gives rise entangling church-state relationships kind avoid. inevitably considerable legislature careful controls authorities 35 corresponding entanglements provides. decisions permitted States secular, neutral, services, facilities, Bus transportation, lunches, health supplied common note dissenters seemed chiefly concerned pragmatic difficulties ensuring truly provided expense. 36 refused assumptions, meager record, asked provide. cannot, refuse different ideological books. terms involving textbook's ascertainable, handling not. ignore danger aspects precollege conflict situation. 37 view record present degree. general Bishop Providence appointed representative, Diocesan cases, parish, assumes ultimate school, priest authorizing allocation funds. With exceptions, principals Mother Provincial members staff school. By third growing. interviewed superintendent's office then principal. signed priest, retains discretion negotiating levels. Religious authority pervades system. 38 governed set forth 'Handbook School Regulations,' force synodal diocese. emphasizes importance schools: 'The prime factor success spirit personality, well professional competency, Handbook states that: 'Religious formation confined formal courses; single area.' advises stimulate interest missionary work. Given instructions consistent logical. 39 Several testified, inject classes. And instruction. But recounted suggests hazards organization, direction authorities, works rearing faith. lessened Inevitably responsibilities hover border orientation. 40 assume will guilty bad conscious design evade limitations imposed person, her operated inculcate tenets, experience difficulty remaining neutral. Doctrines inculcated advanced neutrals. intentions hard doctrine. What appear essential good citizenship others constitute Further inherent combination possibility disagreement meaning restrictions. 41 assume, unsuccessful attempts segregate beliefs responsibilities. fostering present. not, mere assumption avoid conflicts. certain, subsidized religion—indeed undertaken so. trespass occurs, carefully conditioned pervasive An texts 42 comprehensive, discriminating, book, inspected once extent personal subjective acceptance prophylactic contacts enduring 43 another concern. excludes equal norm, activity. inspection evaluation organization sort Constitution forbids. pregnant noted supporting churches' 675, 1414, ultimately 44 45 salaries. describes similar existing According allegations, Since dismissed accept allegations review. 46 earlier, non-ideological give like fosters officials, 47 distinguishes cases out parents—not 243—244, 1926—1927; 18, 512. warned organizations: 48 'Obviously money subsidy and, encompass sustained detailed administrative enforcement 49 grants accompanied varying surveillance. predicting comprehensive follow. evaluate IV 50 broader base yet presented devisive programs. community large served assumed entail Partisans costs sincerely missions champion cause promote achieve goals. Those oppose aid, constitutional, religious, fiscal reasons, respond employ usual campaign techniques prevail. Candidates forced declare voters choose. unrealistic people confronted issues votes aligned 51 Ordinarily debate division, however vigorous partisan, normal healthy manifestations democratic government, protect. Freund, Comment, Aid Parochial Schools, 82 Harv.L.Rev. 1680, 1692 (1969). threat 1424. (separate J.). See 249, 1929 concurring); Abington Schempp, 203, 307, 1560, 1616, 844 (Goldberg, concurring). communities divide confuse obscure urgency. expanding array vexing issues, local national, domestic international, on. conflicts whole tradition elections divert attention myriad problems confront every level government. highways one-way streets, Constitution's protect countries attests religion's intruding arena free exercise belief. 52 Of '(a)dherents faiths churches frequently take strong positions issues.' 670, 1412. expect otherwise, pervade fabric national life. dealt status groups. 53 related aggravated likelihood larger demands populations grow. system's 'monumental deepening crisis' 'inescapably' subsidizing greater percentages facts case, pressures already include revenues cigarette taxes V 54 argued prove inevitable progression leading stand up years virtually universal imbedded colonial 55 argument, persuasive here. today represent something innovation. propensities. internal schemes needs growing interests support. Nor fail see adjudication steps, approach verge,' become platform steps. momentum develops theory 'downhill thrust' difficult retard stop. Development invariably bad; indeed, grown, reckoned with. increased perceiving exactly 'verge' precipice lies. constituting independent evil protect, serves signal. 56 said construed disparage contribution enormous. economic plight period need. Taxpayers generally spared vast sums maintenance largely gifts faithful adherents. 57 merit issue squared dictates choice excluded affairs decrees private individual, family, choice, inevitable, drawn. 58 judgment 570 89 reversed, case remanded proceedings opinion. 59 MARSHALL took 89. 60 DOUGLAS, BLACK joins, concurring. 61 While I join expressed length my views rationale today's 62 deals Laws 109. purchase service' Pa.Stat.Ann., Tit. 24, § 5604 (Supp.1971). services languages, prohibited 'expressing 5603 qualify, demonstrate satisfactory performance standardized Instruction, argument probable jurisdiction. 1034, 1354, 646. 63 1969, c. 246. supplementing nonprofit Also supplements.' R.I.Gen.Laws Ann. 16—51—3 (Supp.1970). profit, meet standards, per-student grade second preceding year.' 16—51—2 (Supp. 1970). unlike teacher, 'results Probable jurisdiction oral 400 901, 142, 137. 64 approving said: 65 'Determining aimed establishing, sponsoring, inquiry, however. sure result—the effect—is 66 police performed, puts investigator classroom entails monitoring agencies authorities. Yet occur zeal proselytizers promises carry shambles Moreover, contribute propagation infringed. objections systems sectarian start admitted obvious raison d'e tre subjects; came existence country Protestant perverting propagate Catholics naturally rebelled. creed ideals served. Hence advent 68 1840 United States.1 1964 times many.2 Today 57% 9,000 parishes '(E)very diocesan chancery department, enjoys primacy status.'3 indeed consume 40% 65% parish's income.4 'school centered' '(t)he becomes being.'5 69 Early 19th century Protestants obtained reading Scriptures revealed King James version Bible.6 contests Catholics, often erupting violence including burning churches, twice-told tale;7 Know-Nothing Party, 'daily Bible schools,'8 1854—Massachusetts, Delaware.9 grew, alone. Other dissenting sects established own schools—Lutherans, Methodists, Presbyterians, others.10 major shaping pattern Catholics. logically taught Bible. wanted removed schools; tried get schools.11 70 right substitute Pierce Society Sisters, 268 510, 571, 1070. 71 story dissension known. result so-called equilibrium eliminated deemed banned.12 hydraulic created forces stress began change passed—state federal—that dispensed sustain plea frame reference: sectors needed, languages calculus nuclear physics. forcefully linguist mathematician physicist trained just 73 gradually edged situation amounts year schools.13 74 takes $9 billion off back government14 enough justify 75 evolution marked escape denominational admirable seen eyes think Madison Jefferson, disadvantages. mold alike according dominant group discourage emergence idiosyncrasies. 76 Sectarian education, remedy condition. advantages relate doctrinal matters. opportunity indoctrinate delicately indirectly, massively courses. 77 Many nations course: Moslem Koran Sweden vests parish; Newfoundland superintendents—one Church England, church, Ireland managership—Catholic, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Hebrew. 78 England umbrella finances education; exerts prescribing standards; scholarships; nondenominational membership directors.15 79 British words, too making met, viz., teachers, accreditation diplomas, hours work credits allowed, 80 never faced, until recently, problem policing Any minor consistently unchallenged matters system.16 81 supplementary 'does financing 'shall disabilities previously burdened. For, Cooper Aaron, 358 19, 1401, 1410, 5, relating 'must exercised requirements.' protection; faced concepts Where restraints governments come play. Thus, Arkansas, consequences Brown 347 483, 686, 98 873, 349 294, 753, 99 1083, withdrew sent instead violate Equal Protection Aaron McKinley, 173 944, 952. affirmed, sub nom. Faubus 361 197, 291, 237. Louisiana tactic invalidated. Poindexter Financial Assistance 296 686. Again Ed. Commission Needy Children Poindexter, 393 17, 48, 16. Whatever students,17 clear duty-bound stays within bounds causes. 84 may, finance hospital though run order, open races creeds. Bradfield Roberts, 175 121, 168. enter business; would, difference agents ran hospitals agnostics, whatnot. For indulging guidance indoctrination. Jackson 26, 516, (dissenting): 85 '(Each has) latitude deciding itself, conditions, shall scheme things. socialize utilities enterprises taxpayers' business conventionally business. welfare, health, entertainment security. character.' 86 Remonstrance:18 87 '(T)he pence establishment, him conform When Remonstrance attacked taxing measure activities, series reasons opposing it. One extremely relevant phrased follows:19 '(I)t destroy moderation harmony forbearance intermeddle Religion, produced amongst sects.' Intermeddling, Madison's word, 'entanglement,' Watz, aspects. grants, supervision, enthrones sect overt subtle depriving threats reprisals, construction interpretation of, say, literature, dogma. suppression, surveillance, meddling affairs. indicated Tilton Richardson, 672, 2091, 790, decided day, prayers, daily routine go Engel Vitale, 370 421, 1261, 601, honored. honored, sect. Elimination prayers problem. curriculum presents problems. mandate censoring curricula. palpably deletion. starts there. which, indulge, place Shakespeare mathematics. No offers, taught? deal zealous ones class.20 known everything goal mind. Rev. Joseph Fichter, S.J., School: Sociological Study (1958): 'It commonplace observation permeates curriculum, half-hour day. Even arithmetic instrument pious thoughts, gave class: 'If forty thousand priests hundred sisters care States, convert non-Catholics States?" 92 imagine zealot, contrasted civil libertarian, Reformation Inquisition. Much gloss detect insufferable partisans breed 93 looms hiring firing teachers: 94 '(I)n selection faculty usually election recall voters, hands bishop alone, administered priest. member believes treated unjustly disciplined dismissed, seek redress guaranteed hearing. recourse whatsoever. word final, without explanation chooses. payers voice affairs.' L. Boettner, Catholicism 375 (1962). 95 1060, textbooks. so, approval. books independently totality destined sectarian, least part, maintained. operates commingle plainly completely secularize measure, unrelated teaching. prescribes subtleties standard obvious. astride dictate religious. disrupting influence rancor ill-will control. opposite 'moderation harmony' aim 97 vices payable Moreover reveal another, related, knotty launch Regulations Diocese Providence.21 supervises spiritual high 100 superintendent agent interprets makes 'effective directives.' pastors visit 'give intellectual discipline.' 101 Community supervisors 'assist instruction' duties are: 102 'I. acquainted able advise superiors placement reassignment. 103 II. act liaison provincialate 104 'III. cooperate studying regulations encourage observe regulations. 105 'IV. orders directions policy regarding testing, method, 106 'V. refer beyond scope namely, pastor.' 107 includes Mass: 108 'A full session consists five one-half hours, exclusive lunch Mass,22 inclusive recess grades 3.' 109 study syllabus 'mandatory.' follows: 110 'A. Systematic 111 'B. Modern catechetics unusual aptitudes, specialized training, unction words possess call. He filled freely improvize discussion, dramatization, drawing, song, prayer. gifted permeated message Gospel rare. Perhaps attains ideal. nearer hear Good News minds enlightened hearts love God His Christ, formed vital, twentieth-century Christians, 112 'C. Inasmuch above fifth catechetical preparation, departmentalized six twelve.' 113 provided, holy days participation Mass. 114 formation' 'through example faculty, tone activities.' 115 unauthorized address students. 116 'Retreats recollection 117 students: 118 'Although wealth serve criterion accepting things equal, seem fair preference parish. Regular budget, size contributions, equitable. regularly Mass.' 119 highlights handbook. indicate remote type structure perpetuate innumerable ways. man people, people. ideas Framers placed reach 120 closed actually allowing undertook fear, dissension. 121 announced again applicable virtue Fourteenth. 122 unequivocal 511, 711, 'No amount, small, levied institutions, whatever called, adopt reiterated idea 314, 684, 954, McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 443, 8u 1101, 1114, 393, Torcaso Watkins, 367 488, 493, 1682, 982. repeated McCollum 333 210, 461, 464, 648, added tax-supported 'for dissemination doctrines' 'pupils classes state's machinery.' 212, 466. 123 spite courage announce nonetheless That, turn merely bookkeeping entries. class, literature science class institute; organic subsidizes. pay help presence critical endeavors receiving teaches fraction time. organism living budget. humanities trace proseletyzing enables training. Coffin said, 120, blind realities let 'sophisticated bookkeeping' sanction 'almost institution assigning bulk institution's expenses sophisticated invalid simple-minded ones. Lane Wilson, 307 268, 275, 872, 876, 1281. 124 125 MARSHALL, ante, p. 625, intimating vitality concurs MR. JUSTICE DOUGLAS' covering 126 BRENNAN. 127 judgments outright. dissent 153 insofar plurality Brother WHITE constitutionality, Federal Higher Facilities 1963, amended, Stat. 363, seq. (1964 ed. Supp. V). monies extent. remand four institutional 128 continue adhere concrete lishment 129 accords faithfully understanding Founding Fathers. mark expounding guarantees foreclose, forbidden, involvements essentially institutions; organs purposes; means ends, suffice. manner, inhere dangers—as state—which feared subvert liberty strength government.' 294—295, 1609—1610, (concurring opinion); 680—681, 1417—1418, (1970) opinion). 130 feature provision fares (1947). loan Central Dist. 168 (1899). 131 us, schemes. example, ended Annen. contrast exacts promise subjects—promises policed assure compliance. Again, although subsidy, subsidies, colleges universities, subsidies practical schools.1 mention mean me Rather, breach 681, 1417 132 sharp 'undeviating earliest Nation,' ibid., became embroiled bitter controversies soon after Nation formed. was, nonexistent adopted. Colonial Massachusetts 1647 directed towns Benjamin Franklin 1749 proposed Philadelphia Academy, Jefferson labored Virginia.2 exceptions. Colonies overwhelmingly enterprise, sects. fact, looked contributed donations land money. E. Cubberley, 171 (1919). 133 immediately ratification Bill Rights. Schools continued main, institutions.3 demand emerged. struggle City illustrative.4 1786, ordered section township aside 'gospel 'charity schools' poor received fund. forerunner city's organized 1805 DeWitt Clinton founded belong Society.' city aided society, built Gradually, competition bickering among apportionment 1825, transferred council distributing City's share stopped funding societies connected Orphan Asylum Society. Thereafter, 1831, demanded operate request Methodists denied. Nine later, enlarged contending Society, Clinton's become. Scotch Presbyterian Jewish followed requests revise objections, 1842, controversy enacting distribution 134 Nation's developing heterogeneity, tide Jacksonian democracy, urbanization widespread throughout At opposition States' powers schools.5 century, 268—277, 1596—1601 (Brennan, concurring), opponents won fight 1900. 1840, obtain succeeded. 179. Between 1875, constitutions iprohibiting id., 180, 1900, provisions. Union 1858, except West Virginia, omitted constitution. Ibid. fewer half-dozen omit constitutions.6 1897, Congress appropriation Columbia statement 135 'to Government founding, maintaining, aiding service, expenses, denomination, society ecclesiastical control.' 411. 136 Thus consensus, enforced courts consistency, constitutes institutions.7 compelling validity statutes, acceptance' highly favor exemption, tips scales them. threaten 'dangers—as 295, 1610. '(G)overnment discrete mutually avoids proximity nonbeliever fears injection doctrines polity, devout believer secularization deeply dependent upon 259, 1591 'too proximity' creed.' 137 surrender 'inject' stop praying classes,8 testimonial self-censorship accompanies regulation delicate freedoms. Cf. Smith California, 147, 215, 205 (1959); Speiser Randall, 357 513, 526, 1332, 1342, 1460 (1958). prescribe standardization courses, implement picture inspectors prowling halls auditing surely raises imagined specter 'secularization 138 obviously. 'sectarian 'religious worship' building. Office polices promise.9 instance college cease entitled History Methodism' federally assisted building, 'plainly foreclose Holy differences history.' 300, 1612 illustrate complete incompatibility barring interference freedom.10 139 Policing used, regulating levels achievement. Government's skill acquisition knowledge taught, methods opinions offer 140 accepts obligated discriminate admissions policies selection. pinpointed dilemma: 141 'Applying ability policies, 'public' wish. point, justifiably feel victory abandonment Clause.' (citations omitted). 142 event, elimination save statutes. '(g)eneral 690, 1422 fall outside activities' passive conferred cessation conflicts, values. However, subsidies: 143 'Tax qualitatively different. Though assistance, fundamentally transfer enterprise uses resources exacted whole. hand, transfer. assists exempted passively, relieving privately funded venture taxes. '(i)n forcibly diverts income believers nonbelievers churches,' refrains diverting generated voluntary contributions.' symbolism manifestation expected token church." 690—691, 1423 (footnotes citations omitted) 144 argue strenuously specifically provide.11 145 Before turning based, Part I, supra. universality forbidding weight judicial disapproving state, time-tested nn. 7, recurrent rejected past, ought viewed 'because (the schools) relieve burden, bear render service performing duty educating people.' Cook County Chicago Industrial School, Ill. 540, N.E. 183, 197 (1888). 146 Nonetheless, universities perform separable functions. tenets determined citizens, contended function 1070 (1925), relied argument. 147 education: 148 '(T)his pursue goals, Oregon shown publicly premise sufficiently reliance training maintained Sisters. 149 willingness rely systems, strongly wide segment informed opinion, acceptable job performing, function, task education.' 245, 247—248, (footnote 150 read proposition involvement. skills quantum knowledge, effectively context defined broadly boundaries acquire competency skills, reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, Without severe disadvantage participating self-government earning industrial economy. forum learned incompatible learning, inconsistent inimical precepts. 151 occurs theory, involved. 152 important, parents, 244 n. 6, Everson, schooling children. undoubtedly send compelled Black wrote '(C)utting (general) indisputably obviously neutral relations non-believers; adversary. handicap religions them.' 154 view, 'neutral non-believers.' distinction secular.12 blink goes hand that' existence. Within institution, inextricably intertwined. 155 Court, varied program—the decor, program, assemblies, etc.—produced 'intangible atmosphere," 'diocesan Church' F.Supp., 117. Quality enterprise. 'Good roof desks classrooms.' 117—118. separated environment integration 156 ingredient prongs test outset 'essentially My operation, purposes, effects leads inescapably impermissibly specifically, stated, suffice.' ago committed supported diversity impetus commitment. 157 American experiment guided dramatic serve. entirely, communities, funds—funds alone views, subscribe all. implicit uniquely function: divisive, separatist influences sort—an assimilate heritage religions. theistic atheistic, civic patriotic.' 241—242, 1581 1582 (citation 158 that, principle 'government interests, be, clearest demonstration nonreligious 265, 1594 159 plurality's treatment Tilton, 153, diverges add comments. forbids advancement institution. 'sectarian' 160 stated: deep restrictions, proselytizing argues present.13 161 risk repetition, emphasize university equivalent realm higher Island; permissible. 'permeates' provided. religion; flows benefit. part. enterprise' environment—which high-quality, courses—within variety 162 exists cogently comments argument: 'Why (as program) adequately explained.' Post, 668. telling nonsecular vice creation practices university. susceptible permeation lessen policing. occurred heavy-handed way. situation, insubstantial. 'nonideological' reduces imposes policed; rather, offends Constitution. 163 therefore, focus primarily statute's extension eligibility severable broad authorized, institutions—institutions Therefore, determines 'sectarian,' court, enjoin 164 WHITE, concurring 165 fortune young old ranks scale young. Having value educated them, assert chose church-related. asserts entitled, requested, furnishing facilities alike. urge choose prevail, conducting grant. position bar official contributions family prefers nonsectarian 166 fairly joined. contemplates decide. affirmance reversal follows automatically spare construing reasonable men sensibly differ import language. 167 But, legitimate, quite wrong overturning satisfy state-imposed obligation educate sending permitted, Constitution, obligation. (1925). furnish students, arrangements whereby released (1952). Outside field Sunday closing laws, (1961), exempting taxation, (1970), improvements managed 169 dual society: legislation having extending 'law(s) religion' incidentally fulfilling mission. indirectly 170 squarely holds expressly rejects notion are, more, decides setting. reaches undeniably aid; adequate bodies remain stationary decrease doors. overriding challenged. establishments 172 unnecessary, respects modify express free-exercise 673, 1413 (tax properties; limits accommodation coextensive noninterference mandated equate deny roots Revolution itself'); (exemption Seventh Day Adventist unemployment insurance Clause); 313—314, 683—684 (students excused regular instruction; '(w)hen encourages traditions. accommodates needs'). 308, (Stewart, dissenting); Welsh 398 333, 367, 1792, 1810, 308 (White, coexists latter these. seeks young, considerations counsel refusing setting instructed constitutionally practice. concur 1531 reject facial below. 174 strikes down face. fault program; suggestion disguised attire. finds 'entanglement' reasoning curious mystifying blend, unwillingness Court's none mixed struck resulted strengthened insufficient invalidate plan, considerations. Accepting church—an surprise alarm anyone, forms—the majority interposes conclusions abjured, nuns, clerics, laymen unavoidably pose put classroom. stopping considering untrustworthy, concludes avoiding intolerable risks unacceptable regime. classrooms—an untested paradoxically renders insuring successfully 176 twofold. place, contrary DiCenso. points indicating inserted doing testimony contrary. '(t)his testified trial classes, deposed gains credibility non-Catholics. textbook explicit requirement applicants Robinson, (RI Elsewhere, overtly intrudes instruction,' plus implementing 177 Secondly, model case. urged condition learning complied purport pass Here, suppositions unsupported happen classrooms, indication accompany 178 insoluble paradox classroom; taught—a willing give—and enforces it, entangled jurisprudence. 179 Why explained. Surely mature resistant indoctrination make-weight, mechanism available. resistance scheme. clerics reliable keeping counterparts schools—particularly persons, non-Catholic. 180 seized formula verify spent purposes. Only qualify system, provoke serious 'entanglement.' slender reed strike law, inception manner. 181 focused recurring supplemented appropriated friction constantly adopts theme one-time matter. force. apparent conditions attached enforced. ongoing one. repeated, year. appropriating desires supervise record. 182 factual complaint, dismiss, reverse dismissal legislation. paraphrased purpose.' 620, 2115. From enforcing compliance paid. 183 disagree. allegation invade devoid maintained, presumption proof state-financed violation. forget compel agreement 184 agree, action. allege legal theories 'finances participates blending instruction.' showing blend admissible credited, Hence, trial, thereby valid face leaving 185 acceptability. surprising, frank acknowledgment 'we adjudication,' 678, 2095, '(j)udicial 'blurred, indistinct barrier.' Kurtzman, 614, 2112. difficult, acknowledgments mind, understand considered equally state.2 R.I.Pen.Laws 16—51—1 breakdown necessary. unlikely determinations heavy kept wage 5601—5609 Latin, Hebrew, classical Greek excluded. Plaintiffs-appellants claimed discriminated racial grounds policies. unanimously plaintiff admission grounds. unnecessary issue. See, e.g., 77—108 (1958); Giannella, Liberty, Nonestablishment, Doctrinal Development, pt. II, Nonestablishment Principle, 574 A. Stokes & 229 (1964). Deedy, Should Survive?, Republic, Mar. 13, 1971, pp. 15, 17. 231. 231—239. Butts, Tradition (1950). 118. Finney, Brief 44—45 (1924). Knight, 314 (3d rev. 1951); 1960 $500 universities. Amounts negligible. Just decade later grown to.$2.1 billion. begun reached $100 million. Statistical Abstract demonstrate, reaching S. Curtis, Great Britain 316—383 (5th 1963); Alexander, c (2d 1964). 534, 573, 1070; Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 402, 627, 1042. Grants desegregated exception stricken tools discrimination. Griffin Prince County, 377 218, 1226, 256; Hall St. Helena Parish Bd., 649, aff'd, 368 515, 529, 521; Lee Macon 267 458, aff'd Wallace 389 415, 422; 275 833, 693, 780; South Carolina 199, 222, 449, 391; Coffey Educ. Finance 1389; 231 743. 3. Memorial Against Assessments reproduced appendices Rutledge, 63, Douglas, 719, 1437. 11. 'In subject. History, civics, slant. propaganda. going expense educate, train, Scripture truths Americanism, loyal regimented, told wear, do, think.' 360 handbook exhibit superseded. hereinafter quoted reads deletions referred. participate Sacrifice Mass feasts Saints, Ascension, patronal saint Hours Devotion, commendable.' 342 subsidy. (1) certificate; (2) exclusively (3) (4) (5) supplement. lacks motion. addressed segregated perpetrates promotes segregation 'with Pennsylvania—a predominantly black, inferior private, white, affluent superior.' 9. lacked protection claim. plain error. (1919); 238 1580, cited therein C. Antieau, Downey, Freedom Confrey, Secularism Education: 127—129 (1931). 111—145 (1950); Stokes, 47—72 supra 155—181. Ala.Const., Art. XIV, 263; Alaska Const., VII, 1; Ariz.Const., 12, XI, 8, A.R.S.; Ark. 2; Calif.Const., IX, 8; Colo.Const., 7; Conn.Const., VIII 4; Del.Const., X, 3; Fla.Const., Decl. Rights, F.S.A.; Ga.Const., VIII, par. Hawaii Idaho 5; Ill.Const., Ind.Const., Kan.Const., 6(c); Ky.Const., 189; La.Const., XII, 13; Mass.Const., Amend. XLVI, Mich.Const., Minn.Const., Miss.Const., 208; Mo.Const., Mont.Const., Neb.Const., 11; Nev.Const., 11, 10; N.H.Const., Pt. 83; N.J.Const., 4, N.Mex.Const., N.Y.Const., N.Car.Const., 12; N.Dak.Const., 152; Ohio VI, Okla.Const., Ore.Const., Penn.Const., 15; R.I.Const., S.C.Const., 9; S.Dak.Const., 16; Tenn. Tex.Const., Utah Va.Const., 141; Wash.Const., W.Va.Const., Wis.Const., Wyo.Const., 8. overwhelming discussion categorization formulations, Note, Money, Yale L.J. 917 (1941). collected 47—125 explicitly apply prohibition Colo. 'schools' Opinion Justices, 214 599, 464 (1913), overruled amendment. 2. Wright Dist., Kan. 485, P.2d 737 (1940); Atchison, T. S.F.R. Co. 712, 1000 (1892); Williams Trustees, Ky. 708, 191 S.W. 507 (1917); (1913); Jenkins Inhabitants Andover, (1869); Otken Lamkin, Miss. 758 (1879); Harfst Hoegen, Mo. 808, S.W.2d 609 (1942); ex rel. etc. Taylor, Neb. 454, 240 N.W. 573 (1932); Nevada Hallock, Nev. 373 (1882); Synod Dakota S.D. 366, 632 (1891). 'Already qualified longer prays lest endanger subsidy.' 121. stipulated engaged on-site reviews completed projects implemented. During visits, schedules descriptions contained catalog analyzed scheduled constructed academic questionable terminated constructing involved.' App. (emphasis added). 20-year 'period interest,' 754(a), restrictive obligations 751(a)(2) compatibly expire value.' 2098. continues differs regard equals exceeds limitation financially embarrassed. attracting audience needing granting preferences secular. 252—253, 1931—1932 (Black, 257, 1933 (Douglas, 270, 1940 (Fortas, establishing here, colleges, await hearings invalidation restriction terminates postscript considerations, showed entry gaining tents myself, made,

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