Document: 451 U.S. 100 101 S.Ct. 1584 67 L.Ed.2d 769 CITY OF MEMPHIS et al., Petitioners,v.N. T. GREENE al. No. 79-1176. Argued Dec. 3, 1980. Decided April 20, 1981. Rehearing Denied June 15, See 452 955, 3100. Syllabus The city of Memphis decided to close the north end a street (West Drive) that traverses white residential community (Hein Park), area which is predominantly black. West Drive one three streets enter Hein Park from north. stated reasons for closing were reduce flow traffic using streets, increase safety children who live in or use it walk school, and "traffic pollution" area. Respondents, residents black area, two civic associations brought class action Federal District Court against various officials, alleging violated 42 U.S.C. § 1982—which entitles all citizens "have same right . as enjoyed by inherit, purchase, lease, sell, hold, convey real personal property"—and also Thirteenth Amendment, constituting "a badge slavery." Ultimately, entered judgment defendants, holding did not create benefit was denied citizens, racially discriminatory intent purpose had been proved, departed significantly normal procedures authorizing closing. Appeals reversed remanded, invalid because adversely affected respondents' ability hold enjoy their property. court concluded relief under 1982 required facts (1) would neighborhood affect blacks; (2) barrier be erected at point separation neighborhoods have effect limiting contact between them; (3) part citywide plan but rather "unique step protect outside influences considered 'undesirable' "; (4) there evidence economic depreciation property values Held : 1. record Court's findings do support Appeals' conclusions. Pp. 110-119. 2. violate 1982. failed show prevent blacks exercising rights whites, depreciated value blacks' property, severely restricted access homes. Rather, discloses only injury requirement than another must used certain trips within city. Such an does involve any impairment kind interests identified being reach 120-124. 3. Nor Amendment. A review justification demonstrates its disparate impact on could fairly characterized incident slavery. no motive city's part, tranquility motivated are legitimate. sufficient justify adverse motorists somewhat inconvenienced That inconvenience cannot equated actual restraint liberty sense comparable odious practice Amendment designed eradicate. 124-129. 6th Cir., 610 F.2d 395, reversed. Clifford D. Pierce, Jr., Memphis, Tenn., petitioners. Alvin O. Chambliss, respondents. Justice STEVENS delivered opinion Court. 1 question presented whether decision Drive, community, Civil Rights Act 1866, Rev.Stat. 1978, 1982, United States Constitution.1 challenged respondents, resided ultimately held 395. We reverse holding. 2 * Most relevant concerning geography, street, course litigation dispute. inferences drawn evidence, however, subject some disagreement. A. Geography 3 Park, small bounded sides thoroughfares west campus Southwestern University. two-lane about half-mile long passing through center Park. Its southern terminus short distance entrance Overton large recreation containing, among other facilities, municipal zoo.2 northern intersection Jackson Ave. Springdale St., heavily traveled four-lane avenues. north; east. 4 will both local traffic. Prior closing, significant volume southbound St. continue south then—because location Park—make either left turn next few blocks away, before resuming southerly route force this divert east entering instead when leaves, make entire longer. With respect traffic, add trip homes slightly less convenient. 5 All owned whites made. B. City Approval 6 In 1970, requested four leading into subdivision. After receiving objections police, fire, sanitation departments, request.3 report regarding application Traffic Engineering Department noted much subdivision eliminated Trial Exhibit 14. Thereafter, July 9, 1973, members Civic Association filed with Shelby County Planning Commission formal "Application Close Streets Alleys" seeking permission 25 feet 13, App. 135. signed owners abutting homeowners block immediately Ibid.4 were: 7 "(1) Reduce streets. 8 "(2) Increase many those Snowden Junior High School. 9 "(3) 'traffic pollution' e.g., noise, litter, interruption living." Ibid., 13. 10 views interested November 1, recommended approved conditions applicants provide easement existing future utility company facilities funds relocate closure clearance fire department vehicles. 4, 130. Council hearing proponents opponents proposal views, adopted resolution Commission. 26. reconsidered additional hearings later dates never rescinded resolution.5 Exhibits 27-30, 41. 11 complaint officials Western Tennessee 1974, individuals associations, suing behalf alleged unconstitutional prayed injunction requiring keep open traffic.6 granted motion dismiss, complaint, amended, allege plaintiffs' own racial effect,7 they standing raise procedural action.8 12 Sixth Circuit first should dismissed failure state claim unless appears beyond doubt plaintiff can prove set his entitle him relief." 535 976, 978. construed, conferred benefits—"to wit, privacy quiet exclusive dead-end street"—on refused confer similarly situated residents. Ibid. Accordingly, if respondents closed "because color," valid 1983. F.2d., 979.9 13 Following remand, case transferred Judge McRae trial. Respondents amended pleadings and, pretrial discovery, reviewed closings during prior 10-year period well Drive. An elaborate order February contested issues fact: 14 "(a) Whether benefits color. 15 "(b) motivating factor 16 "(c) defendants agents complied sequence processing portion If not, extent comply." 87. 17 full trial detailed memorandum he found each fact. He specifically "did has citizens";10 proved;11 closing.12 18 reject erred focus issue made while denying blacks. F.2d, 400-401. Although recognized reasoning earlier induced such narrow focus, supported McRae's issue, need street-closing applications submitted violation 400402. demonstrate particular "badge slavery" without reference equal treatment issue.13 19 may legitimate effective means preserving character protecting problems caused excessive 402. concluded, here facts: "barrier precisely these undoubtedly them"; wide "an area."14 Before addressing legal issues, we consider conclusions findings. 20 factual predicates relates squarely rooted expressly "will disproportionate citizens." 161. described diverted "overwhelming black," ibid., inconvenience.15 note, although neither nor focused living Ave., makes clear minimal. motorist half mile necessitate turn.16 Thus going proceeding require sooner lengthening more turns.17 Moreover, even drive down North Parkway park. park longer closed, convenient.18 correct primarily black, great. 21 As second point, attached greater significance "barrier" warranted record. physical curb impede passage vehicles.19 several vehicular ample residences Park.20 diversion around affects motorists, suggestion limit social commercial neighboring communities.21 22 "undesirable" read suggesting viewed attitude view discounted composition evaluating undesirable character; "excessive public welfare factors safety, regardless race neighborhood." transcript indicates perceived problem number speed cars traveling Drive.22 Even statements self-serving, exclusionary desire.23 favored expressed concerns similar residents.24 Those opposed so believed drastic response adequate dangerous precedent.25 witness testified "someone" soliciting signatures petition favoring "undesirable traffic," solicitor mentioned excess danger signing.26 Unlike therefore believe supporting, undermining, validity decision. To making finding intent, requires us favor contrary conclusion. proved acted intent. 161.27 23 Finally, justified inferring cause ." 304. expert testimony credited provided estate broker called plaintiffs.28 His opinion, summarized Court, "there decrease experienced located closure." 155. admittedly speculated might envious better housing afford attentive upkeep "could detrimental future."29 our correctly find based speculation.30 24 summary, then, critical established these: interest neighborhood. followed fair impermissible factors. reason refuse owners. slight motorists. II Under recent decisions Washington v. Davis, 426 229, 96 2040, 48 597 Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 97 555, 50 450, absence proof forecloses official violates Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Petitioners ask claims likewise barred purpose. note initially coverage different prohibitions latter apply action, or, implemented 1983 (1976 ed., Supp.III), taken color law. decided, directly applicable private parties, Jones Alfred H. Mayer Co., 392 409, 88 2186, 1189; cf. Runyon McCrary, 427 160, 170-174, 2586, 2594-96, 49 415; settled "is mere prohibition State laws establishing upholding slavery, absolute declaration slavery involuntary servitude shall exist States." Cases, 109 18, 27, 27 L.Ed. 835. Thus, challenge case, provisions law cover well. Rather confront prematurely general specific unlawful purpose, provision applies case. deal statutory question. III Section provides: 26 "All right, every Territory, thereof property." effectuate remedial purposes statute, broadly construed language merely enforceability acquired acquire basis citizens. Hurd Hodge, 334 24, 68 847, 92 1187, permit enforcement covenants imposing restrictions sale though purchase sell unimpaired.31 Jones, supra, "must encompass refusal rent." U.S., 421-422, S.Ct., 2193, 2194.32 Sullivan Little Hunting Inc., 396 90 400, 386, interpreted term "lease" include assignable membership share recreational facilities.33 Tillman Wheaton-Haven Recreation Assn., 410 431, 93 1090, 35 403, extended preference nontransferable swim club membership.34 cases defined protected cases, like itself, concerned persons impaired race.35 28 Therefore, applied threshold inquiry relationship statute benefiting For whites. But theory. Alternatively, member respondent class. homes, then hampered Again, restriction.36 29 assess magnitude conclude constitutional rights. IV 30 31 "Neither servitude, except punishment crime whereof party duly convicted, States, place jurisdiction." 32 conferring upon measure places burden Relying Black's Palmer Thompson, 403 217, 91 1940, 438, argues enabling legislation enacted pursuant judicial characterization isolated constitute usurpation law-making power far imagination amendment's authors." Id., 227, 1946.37 33 Pursuant authority created Congress abolish "badges incidents slavery."38 exercise inconsistent self-executing force. 439, 2203: 34 " 'By unaided effect,' 'abolished slavery' 'established universal freedom.' itself that—a involved case—it least Enabling empowered more."39 terms anything slavery.40 It appropriate today leave event, 36 begin examination argument reiterating conclusion Council.41 Instead, motivate Proper management accommodation variety conflicting interests: motorist's unhindered destination, efficient services, parking, residents' relative quiet, pedestrians' safety. Local governments necessarily discretion policy accommodate interests. 37 tranquility. matter adopt rules avoid anticipated hazards revealed events. motivated, walking school.42 equally provides arguably unnecessary preventive community's reaction tragic accident planning prevented. Thomas Cusack Co. Chicago, 242 526, 190, 61 472. 38 comparative unquestionably zoning regulations, "quiet where yards wide, people few, motor vehicles restricted. Village Belle Terre Boraas, 416 94 1536, 1541, 39 797; Board Richards, 434 5, 98 54 accepted man's home castle. dignity densely populated apartment complex, Payton New York, 445 573, 1371, 63 639, affluent single-family homes.43 context, protection individual imposition burdens public. coupled strong enough overcome thoroughfare type multitude resolve day. Because concluding contrived pretextual, wisdom Railway Express Agency, Inc. 336 106, 109, 69 463, 465, 533. 40 thus rest, consequences symbolic fact most drivers 41 function regularly drive—not race; intended minimize involved, Almost regulation—whether temporary detour construction, limit, one-way no-parking sign—may differential adjacent nearby neighborhoods. urban frequently common ethnic heritage, regulation's often identifiable group. regard inevitable consequence form stigma severe trivialize great charter freedom. accept citizenship origin. This disclose decide speculate sort group prohibited itself. nonresidents routine citizenship; reflect 43 Reversed. 44 WHITE concurring judgment. 45 civil sought Amendments §§ discriminate. Neither "so stark discrimination" inferred. consequence, following instructions initial 1983.1 address violations, implicitly allegations fell basis. ultimate appellate disturb court's purposeful discrimination. Without explicitly saying so, intent.2 writ certiorari precise point. 46 answer certiorari. parties briefs proceeded assumption. However, holdings below, raised petitioners, briefed inexplicably assumes role factfinder, peruses cold record, rehashes sua sponte purports questions argued. surprising dissent quite way. becoming imbroglio majority dissent, I prefer took There good disregard Rule 21.1(a), states "[o]nly forth included therein Court." 47 determine nonintentional declares "[a]ll language, person's irrelevant existence declared No person enumerated white. Purposeful discrimination clearly proscription, understanding legislative history enactment derived. 1865 after War. announced demise slavery.3 "Congress enforce article legislation." legally abolished, foresaw implementation command eradicate completely deep-seated institution 1866 practical measure. When 39th undertook consideration proposed growing perception plight resolved adoption Amendment.4 words contemporary observer: "The government republic has, proclaiming emancipation slaves, commenced revolution south, yet, completed it. Only negative accomplished. slaves emancipated form, free labor yet put fact." S.Exec.Doc.No. 2, Cong., 1st Sess., (1865). Individual Southern begun enacting so-called Black Codes,5 technically resurrecting Republican direction. generally Flack, Adoption 11-54 (1908). addition, former subjected serious abuses hands majority. Joint Committee Reconstruction, H.R.Rep.No. 30, xvii passim (1866). stem tide oppression. 426-429, 2195-97, 1189, nn. 34-45 (1968). Senator Trumbull, sponsor bill, abundantly clear: "Since abolition Legislatures assembled insurrectionary passed relating freedmen, nearly discriminated them. They deny them rights, penalties, still impose very imposed abolished. bill destroy discriminations, carry amendment." Cong.Globe, 474 51 theme sounded Trumbull repeated numerous occasions lengthy floor debates Houses Congress. supporters emphasized time again blatant deprivations See, e. g., id., 322, 339-340, 474-475, 516-517, 1123, 1151-1152, 1159-1160, 1833-1835. insure accomplished theory: 52 "[The Amendment] free. give secure little importance abstract truths principles carried effect, availing themselves benefits. And what avail now Constitution exist, late slaveholding enforced depriving African descent privileges essential freemen? 53 "It intention rights." (remarks Sen. Trumbull). basic amendment Constitution. object declare abolished pages your Constitution, deed. 1152 Mr. Thayer). nothing suggests facially neutral measures happened incidental slaves.6 On contrary, surrounding continued direct, intentional masters. scope statute. showing animus discriminate race. disturbing found. error, concur reversal, remand further proceedings opinion. 55 MARSHALL, whom BRENNAN BLACKMUN join, dissenting. 56 easier appear. Petitioner acting behest owners, main all-white enclave Negro explanation too familiar: "protecting neighborhood" preventing traffic" Too Nation's history, code phrases These signify discrimination, apparently today's decision, forbidden majority, purporting rely developed trial, concludes erection barrier. federal permits carve out enclaves dissent. 57 "whether 'in manifestations' become discriminations," necessary 'sif[t] weig[h] circumstances' 'nonobvious involvement conduct [can] attributed true significance.' Reitman Mulkey, 387 369, 378, 87 1627, 1632, 830 (1967), quoting Burton Wilmington Parking Authority, 365 715, 722, 81 856, 860, (1961). key majority's takes facts, consequently parts detail. 58 treats involving dispute over race-neutral across road. My suggests, stake simple picture emerges careful disgruntled sharing Negroes, taking city, heedless harm acquiescing plan. 59 readily summary circumstances led litigation. would, emphasizing facts. First, found, "was World War characteristics maintained." 148. Second, wants out, Negro. third, stems entirely efforts Up agreement. characterizations At situation stop overwhelmingly coming street." Tr. 323. context us, revealing not. 60 According entitled panel gleaned [Negroes]; 'barrier them'; 'unique '; 'an area.' Ante, (footnote omitted). 62 By purportedly examining supporting points, able below mistaken "some motorists." 119. study convinces me, seriously relied Appeals. concedes "clearly whites." 110, n. 15. "impact" limited "inconvenience" suffered This, says get going; just go way take complete trip. 64 analysis ignores plain powerful message "inconvenience." Many logically lie subdivision.1 Until direct lived near straight Now told essence: "You you don't 'protected' thought telling 22-23, (testimony N. Greene); Eleanore Cross). 111 Dr. Marvin Feit). conceded "[o]bviously, [Hein Park] stay subdivision." 317. my judgment, constitutes believe.2 65 Circuit's finding, communities. really attempts downplay calling vehicles." 112. beside bring suit exclusion Their goal preserve fact, persons. creating deeding landowners. Nothing excluding pedestrians choose. 136, 217-219, 317-318. What (and thus, Park) ends mostly section) begins. 66 psychological likely significant. unchallenged court, Feit, professor psychiatry University Tennessee, predicted reinforce feelings "favoritism" toward "serve monument hostility." 103, 104-105. testiof agent familiar prediction.3 it: "[Y]ou convince didn't helping Now, somebody with. 325. subscribe apparent "monument hostility" amounts "slight inconvenience." unlike determining suffer erection.4 attempt third Appeals, influences. disagreement inference drawn. insists asserts, ante, 114, "no evidence" considerations. proper reading produced deemed probative 267-268, 564, 565, 450 (1977).5 Sarah Terry. Terry, resident she urged explained her "the traffic." 140.6 reads referring prospect having common-sense Terry's word meant describe actually Of course, Negro.7 implies, Heights-type example, strongly deviated usual deciding particular, despite unambiguous "all" permitted signature consent Terry.8 Perhaps important, gave notice considering participation declined let examine file issue. it, minutes, objected time. Furthermore, is, according charge closings, ever control purposes. 297-298 Paul Goldstein). 313, 321-322 (comments judge). disputed aware barrier.9 moreover, unfortunate segregation—a past intercession Court.10 represent said motivation. Regardless conclusive, hardly accuracy exists.11 70 fully result construction attempting introduced C. Moore, years' experience field. Moore began predicting "more Utopia Memphis," families inner suburbs probably return there, "would enhanced greatly." 91-92. asked responded: "From standpoint lessening properties standpoint, tendency demoralizing—." 92. counsel petitioners interposed objection, eventually question, follows: 71 "In years industry, psychologically deterring, depressing creation haven, lower wouldn't illustrious price tags houses be, looking pastry store doesn't dime can't consequently, such, moralistic tend future." 95. 72 Surely Moore's uncontroverted values, traceable dismisses aspect "speculation." 117-118. Yet trouble crediting brief conclusory immediate negligible. am unable dismiss blithely balance comments. 73 gives insufficient weight Feit testified, Director Allegheny County, Pa., shift patterns lead increased hostility ultimately, police harassment 102-104, 118-120.12 indisputable view, combined genuine 74 sum, agree "[t]he city," 124, inconvenience," Indeed, foregoing, establishment determined districts effects. "one humiliations society historically visited" 404. ways. sent clear, sophisticated, race, reaching destinations south. Combined prospects decline values. firmly evaluate 75 Stat. "to prohibit therein. 436, 2201, 1189 435, 1092, (1973); 235, 386 (1969). bottom, recognizes, creates Negroes "not race." 122.13 Our construed. '[w]e seek ingenious analytical instruments,' exceptions 437, 2202, quotingUnited Price, 383 787, 801, 86 1152, 1160, 267 (1966). "[a] broad sweeping nature afforded 1866. 237, given require, difficult see how effect. 76 stated, substantial edge depress value, falling literal 1982.14 [Negro] 123. case.15 77 supports carving prevent. 422-437, 2194-2202, discussed detail, duplicate discussion here. examples suffice. 78 introduced, alike revolutionary eliminating supra: 79 "That indeed seen virtue friends enemies none. Opponents charged regulate 'determine [would] States,' threatening 'to [their] communit[ies]. .' 433, 2200 (footnotes omitted; emphasis added). 80 Van Winkle, Member quoted spoke length "dangers" inherent 1982: "I division men separate communities association fellows divine institutions. comes bound receive whose mingling superior inferior 498 82 Senate spite Winkle's fears, repudiating Negroes. "fully breadth approved." 2200. Lane, supporter answered arguments Winkle others explaining "invok[ing] prejudice" 603. legislation, customs laws. 1759. During House debate Act, Representative Cook argued perpetuated "under names forms" "[a]ny combination [a Negro's] join oppress him. 1124. recognize 427-428, 2197 Reconstruction "white communities." 1156, 1835; J. tenBroek, Law 181 (rev. ed. 1965). 83 mean suggest wish imply prevents inflict sad legacy actions effects fall ought closely scrutinized. When, here, decisionmaker knowledge enormously impact,16 heavy action. Absent justification, injured relief. government's survive minimal scrutiny. 84 sustaining points petitioners' "[p]roper "unquestionably legitimate" "residential tranquility," 126, 127.17 might, contends, "sufficient closing," 128, explain inflicted solely proffered explanations insufficient. "[A] possible motivations ensure save money validate otherwise action." 226, 1945, 438 (1971). Watson 373 537, 1314, 1320, 529 (1963); Cooper Aaron, 358 16, 1401, 1408, (1958); Buchanan Warley, 245 60, 74, 81, 149 (1917). simply unrealistic suggest, "symbolic significance," defies lessons assert symbolic, courts Compare Plessy Ferguson, 163 551, 1138, 1143, 256 (1896) ("We underlying fallacy plaintiff's consist assumption races stamps colored inferiority. act, chooses it"), Brown Education, 347 483, 494, 686, 691, 873 (1954) ("To generates feeling inferiority status hearts minds unlikely undone. Whatever amply modern authority"). sending loss understand why feels ignore 85 until barrier, statute's prohibitions. Certainly suspect surprised learn portions cited major concern elimination prejudice operation obviously damages stigmatizes short, falls reached conclusion, affirm judgment.18 end, began. Given characterize reasons, reaches follows inevitably. dab sense, paints emerging act "utopia," placed seal approval scheme. forbidden, "Section jurisdiction. Citizens Preserve Volpe, 401 402, 406, 814, 818, 136: "Overton 342-acre Memphis. contains zoo, nine-hole golf outdoor theater, trails, bridle path, art academy, picnic areas, 170 acres forest." up distinction request desire authorize. "abutting owners" application. written containing approximately 1,000 signatures. Litigation 4-5. 1977, intervene plaintiffs 46-54. certified consisted "black stand inherit adjoining along Subdivision." Stipulation Parties Maintenance Cause 23(b)(2) Class Action, Record Doc. 23; Order Granting Motion Amend Certification 67. original striking budget $750,000 federal-state financed 4. related remains "None [live] Drive; none deprived reasonable ingress egress property; wise unwise, 438. import closure, assertion administered fashion Plaintiffs complain citizen be." 29-30 "Plaintiffs asserted complaint. due process hearing." 31. "To establish section Greene color; motivation, egregious alternatively, ". instant allegations, residents, 979-980. "Upon established, undertakes shows alley procedure serves From alleys dedicated unused benefited 159. "This manner violation. "As heretofore indicated, placing Jackson, allowed logical Jackson. considerably movement departure northbound return. "However, "Similarly, directed [429 450]." 161-162. contended defects Due Process rejected contentions. 149-153, 162-163. oral contained inasmuch error discussed. purported element 404, paragraph: "Without endeavoring guidelines determination amount determinations district altogether complained description. Conversely, territory burdened uniform effort, preservation throughout city; unique 'undesirable.' corresponding result, visited Where humiliation rises level suitable remedy." 404 Evidence return." plainly unwise interfere services encourage vandalism Robert Miller, Executive testified: "[T]he council think anywhere anyway. goes miles strategic landmarks locations getting to." 206. One surprise anyone want light, alternative routes lights. 26, pp. 32-33 Hyman). driving accessible, route. 164-165. respondent's inconvenience: "Plaintiff compound experiences encountered person. convenient him, family neighbors emotional damage. Terry Circle northwest Avenue (T.E. 22). Insofar residence, 154. lives 11/2 Ave.-West intersection. 45. Greene's dissenting post, 140, partial northernmost buy 25-foot east-west strip width street. departments deem service cross strip, 24-foot gap barricade. breaker gap, details, signs, finalized." 148-149. difficulty homes: "Mrs. Elnora Priest Cross intervening plaintiff, She friend works someone contacts event emergency.2 "2 Mrs. friend; route." 31/2 62. Cross' barring Commission, resolution, deeded "closed public," testimony: "THE WITNESS: that. COURT: right. high roll curb, obstruction Do think, these— (Interjecting) so. hearings. "There wanted to, knowledge. Are happy tries pedestrian say, 'Bob Miller this.' Well, indicate you—well, me say this. Emergency plow though. No, public, thing fence nobody through. plant discourage automobiles closed; automobiles, trucks, "Thank Miller." 215-216. admitted, lots deeds vehicles, land 218-219. testify unclear bar foot "it conveyance 396. Bill Weber, studies counted 1,600 1,700 per 12-hour 200 hour peak morning afternoon periods. "we feel area." p. 11. Betsy Robbins, that: "We're active midst whole doorstep. hazardous greatest worry children. addition school 150 youngsters corner sign ignored swift Daily, myself rushing window hear screeching brakes. I'm terrified driver hit child." bear mind sued Mayor, chairman. claim. running parallel six-tenths apart "are thoroughfares." thoroughfare" bearing 31-32 Awsumb). Another night compromise, speedbreakers "hotrodders". Love). showed 22,505 Drive-North period, 820 exited onto Parkway. 34. moving reconsideration Councilman Alissandratos stated: "While certainly appreciate maintain standard neighborhood, operated maintained taxpayers' injustice president [sic] rest City." James). preferred compromise solution problem, low speedbreakers. Davis); ibid. Ford); 29-31 Alissandratos). closest hearing, trial: "Q. Were approached petition? Yes. Did trash thrown windows stuff littered. Based encounters, gain impression consideration? us; petition, meant. Memphis? Just How them? statement, now, pursue that." 114-115. drivers, bit hearsay whole. MARSHALL notes oppose prompt desegregation parks 1963, 529, 144, 10, 152; pre-World development influenced segregation common, 137, exists 142, 7. relevant, Council's erroneous MARSHALL's interpretation ambivalent since sometimes refers "strong inference" 153, elsewhere implies 'solely race,' welcomed transient mother finds herself "rushing brakes," 22, vehicle. named offered Respondent enhancement white-owned accessibility home. 38. homeowner depreciate 128. residence witnesses. quote full: any, area; there? intimately instrumental providing groups demoralizing— "Mr. Holmes: answer. qualified opinions. Wharton: strike answer, evaluation. down. Court: Right. background. (By Wharton) Would please response, Moore? 111-112. clinical assistant Psychiatry, Center Health Sciences, witness. Feit's "Dr. School Social Work, towards vandalism, harassment, arrests police. drivers." Over defendants' objection testifying matters expertise, 106-110, luncheon recess asking professional "A. particularly down, whereas rise nowhere go." 118-119. credit testimony. contracts willing sellers desired Solely confronted orders divesting titles ordering premises vacated. White sellers, petitioner enjoined selling circumstances, accorded meaning language." 34, 852. indicated power, discrimination: "At least, freedom includes whatever man buy, wherever live. much, promise Nation keep." 443, 2205. corporation organized operate Fairfax Va. rented assign lessee. lessor lessee corporation's refusal, grounds, approve assignment. lease guaranteed Freeman paid $129 monthly rental assignment Respondents' refusing interference Freeman's 'lease.' 236-237, 404-405. Any geographical 3/4-mile radius received preferences: recommendation current member, applying vacancy, pass successor title option membership. 1093. preferences owner homeowner's subsequent purchaser Furthermore: automatic waiting-list Presses bought them, Sullivan, dependent residency abridged diluted. "When organization links infuses bundle pays buying leasing mandate operates guarantee nonwhite resident, purchases, leases, holds resident." 1094. Wright Salisbury Club, Ltd., 632 309 (CA4 1980), country attaching encouraged assured Townsend, 525 482 (CA7 1975) (discriminatory home); Clark Universal Builders, 501 324 (CA7) (allegation forced prices available purchasing 1982), cert. denied, 419 1070, 95 657, 666 (1974); Gore Turner, 563 159 (CA5 1977) apartment); Scott Eversole Mortuary, 522 1110 (CA9 (alleged burial plots); Concerned Tenants Assn. Indian Trails Apartments, 496 F.Supp. (ND Ill.1980) (§ abandonment previously tenants complex tenants); Newbern Lake Lorelei, 308 407 (SD Ohio 1968) (discrimination modes negotiation property); Sims Commercial Travelers America, 343 112 (Mass.1972) (insurance 1982); Gonzalez Methodist University, 536 1071 1976) (no admission), 430 987, 1688, (1977). restriction distinguishes Fifth Jennings Patterson, 488 436 (1974). Jennings, barricade outskirts Dadeville, Ala., landowners side landowner adding town. plaintiffs, 442. 110-112, 15-18. Palmer, swimming pools desegregate slavery," conduct. 1946. enacted, 1981, protects contracts, 170, 2594, 440-441, 2203-04, 1980, 1985(3) conspiracies deprive laws, immunities laws," Griffin Breckenridge, 88, 104-105, 1790, 1799-1800, 338; 1990, 1994, prohibits peonage, Pollock Williams, 322 8, 792, 794, 1095; 1581, criminal peonage person, Clyatt 197 207, 218, 429, 726. continued: "For clause clothed 'Congress abolishing badges States.' (Emphasis "Surely rationally translate 439-440, 2203-04. authorized authorize ban 32, 38, supra. overruled Hodges 203 6, 65, 441-443, 78, 2204-2205, agreed disagreed Harlan's statement "by force, destroyed badges, freedom." 106-108, 113-116 22-27. 22-25 accompanying text, noted: confined filth, stench, unhealthy places. lay zones youth blessings seclusion clean air sanctuary people." 1541. instructed motivation." 979. rendered above dicta. meet (1977); (1976). otherwise. properly us. fear doomed second-class Major General Carl Schurz President Andrew Johnson. Sess. Johnson assigned task gathering information observations postwar region. lucid account journeys. describes precarious position freedmen subjected. South adjusting intervention, substitute unlikely. Schurz' admonition, peace harmony Union, highest lately rebellion build 'peculiar institution' spirit conflict fundamental political system; cherish peculiar American people, loyalty Union always uncertain." 46. themes Act. Apropos Codes, commented: "But accepting 'abolition slavery,' species serfdom, compulsory pledge. shape reactionary assume present inquire. hundred ways framing apprenticeship, vagrancy, contract serve purpose." 35. Codes collated E. McPherson, Political History America Period 29-44 (1871). discriminations arose vagrancy infer disparate-impact standard. overlooks congressional ostensibly statutes intentionally "Vagrant passed; which, pretense vagrants, calculated again; crimes slightest magnitude. 1123 (1866) Cook); 1151 Thayer), 1160 Windom). ordered non-enforcement Virginia Vagrant farmers combinations fixing wages unreasonably level, forcing unfair wage risk conviction observed: 'The therefore, compel penalty criminals, employers. wholly employers, easy foresee that, exists, temptation resisted, inadequate State. condition worse emancipated—a name.' 41-42. impact, system tantamount slave labor. Kohl, Hour Come Round Last: Va.L.Rev. 272, 276-283 Some neutral. Mississippi unemployed freedmen. 30. notes, bordered municipally attractions. central lies diverse visit friends, Greene), scenery, discuss infra, 145-147, impairments enjoyment Greene, "[B]ecause Black, piece collectively damage personally." 23. added "simply extension insult tolerated already." 39. Cross, closed. said, 'Closed,' me." 64. witnesses, 145-146. these, one, Charles Place, Place. Place surely come vague disadvantaged remains, explained: "Determining invidious demands sensitive circumstantial available. action—whether 'bears another' .—may important starting Sometimes pattern, unexplainable grounds governing face. rare [and ordinarily] alone determinative, look evidence. historical background evidentiary source, reveals series events shed light decisionmaker's Departures improper playing role. Substantive departures usually reached. administrative highly especially decisionmaking body, minutes meetings, reports. foregoing identifies, exhaustive, subjects existed." 266-268, 563-565 (citations footnotes 115-116, Emmanuel Goldberger, died motivated: Chairman, there's cars, You know isn't spell you. sitting well-to-do run away phoned man—I friendly years. wife speak So wrongs discussed, me[,] 'Leo niggers.' That[,] Chairman[,] here." Ex. opinions solicited practices. forms closed." 137. owning accurate, theory, obligation consult approving Put gently, worthy deference. petitions protesting stating: Closing symbolizes unmistakable shutting door integrated express impact. Witnesses involved. 2-3, 7, judge Negro, added: "[I]f [northern boundary predominently got doubts them." 324. (1963). motivation out. required, considerable 14, infra. deterred "conceived himself capability grant [the opinion] requirements Amendment." insofar willingness (the street) community. 978 Much comments decided. encompasses granting harmed likelihood taint absent. reliance relying instruct increase. absolutely contravening fall. implied future. 1094, (1973). 309, 314-316 1980). Like WHITE, examines required. requirement, sheer insensitivity animus. served mind. do. correct, demonstrated raises fails rebut sufficiently explanation. premise, inferred when, knew accordance sole procedure, meaningful opportunity successfully rebutted 152-153. 23, petitioned ratifies 31-34, 851-852, 1187 (1948). 1833 Rep. Lawrence) (statute State's infringe them). city." unprecedented. disposition ordinarily merits argument. comment. reserves bans because, 126. already degree exceeds Assuming implementing causing qualifies incident" understood debated, acknowledged areas. 38th 1465, 2944, 2962, 2979, 2982-2983, 2987 162-168 1981 168, 2593 415 (1976), doing spelling guarantees implicit 503-504 Howard); 602-603 Lane); R. Kluger, Simple 47, 627-629 (1975). hand drafting 2203, (1968), Consequently, fortiori enact forbidding alone. insist sustain discharged

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