Document: 345 U.S. 571 73 S.Ct. 921 97 L.Ed. 1254 LAURITZENv.LARSEN. No. 226. Argued Jan. 6, 1953. Decided May 25, [Syllabus from pages 571-572 intentionally omitted] Mr. James M. Estabrook, New York City, for petitioner. Messrs. George Halpern and Richard Cantor, respondent. Justice JACKSON delivered the opinion of Court. 1 The key issue in this case is whether statutes United States should be applied to claim maritime tort. Larsen, a Danish seaman, while temporarily joined crew Randa, ship flag registry, owned by petitioner, citizen. Larsen signed ship's articles, written Danish, providing that rights members would governed law employer's contract with Seamen's Union, which was member. He negligently injured aboard Randa course employment, Havana harbor. 2 Respondent brought suit under Jones Act1 on side District Court Southern demanded jury. Petitioner contended applicable that, it, respondent had received all compensation he entitled. also contested court's jurisdiction. Entertaining cause, court ruled American rather than applied, jury rendered verdict $4,267.50. Appeals, Second Circuit, affirmed.2 Its decision, at least superficially, variance its own earlier ones3 conflicts one Appeals.4 We granted certiorari.5 3 question jurisdiction shortly answered. A recover damages Act personam against owner not rem itself.6 defendant appeared generally, answered tendered no objection his person. As frequently happens, contention there some barrier granting plaintiff's cast terms an exception subject matter. cause action our asserted here, power determine it or well founded fact. Cf. Montana-Dakota Utilities Co. v. Northwestern Public Service Co., 341 246, 249, 71 692, 694, 95 912. 4 Denmark has enacted comprehensive code govern relations her shipowners seagoing labor intentions controls claim. Though us decide, plausibly obligations growing out have been performed seaman. shipowner, supported here Government, asserts supplies full measure obligation usage international as accepted exclude application incompatible statute. 5 That allowance additional remedy sharply conflict policy letter plain general comparison two systems dealing shipboard accidents. Both assure ill seafaring worker conventional maintenance cure shipowner's cost, regardless fault negligence part anyone. But, we limit period within maximum possible can effected, Farrell States, 336 511, 69 707, 93 850, limits fixed twelve weeks, monetary measurement different. are sharpest treatment claims disability, partial complete, permanent, outlast liability cure, class belongs. Such injuries relieves state-operated plan similar workmen's systems. Claims such disability made but state's Directorate Insurance Against Consequences Accidents. They may presented directly through any Consulate. allowed administrative action, litigation, depend upon only fact injury extent disability. Our law, apart indemnity caused unseaworthiness, makes absence negligence. when established allows recovery elements pain suffering compensated lets In case, since found, permits larger law. If same were sustained absent provable, appear provide where ours not. 6 does deny case. stated brief 'A claimant select whatever forum desires receive benefits resulting choice' liable laws business country.' This provides optional cumulative based explicit Act, provision cases remedies obtained obtainable foreign Rather relies literal catholicity terminology. read literally, Congress conferred right requires nothing more plaintiff 'any seaman who shall suffer personal employment'. It requirement either employment slightest connection States. Unless relationship these national interest implied, extended opened courts alien men anywhere world service watercraft every nation—a hand Chinese junk, never outside waters, beyond wording. 7 But 1920 wrote all-comprehending words, clean slate, postscript long series enactments governing shipping. All regard seasoned body developed experience accustomed admiralty problems reconciling interests accommodating reach those other nations. 8 shipping set forth Title 46 Code, U.S.C.A., comprise patchwork separate enactments, tracing far back history many designed particular emergencies. While specific others being confined shipping, give evidence addressed itself their leave judicially determined context circumstance. By old Nation, construed apply areas transactions considered operative prevalent doctrines Thus, Palmer, Wheat. 610, 471, called interpret statute 1790, Stat. 115, punishing certain acts committed high seas person persons,' which, Chief Marshall observed, 'broad enough comprehend human being.' universality prohibition 'must limited state, objects legislature intended them', page 631, therefore performing proscribed state seas. 9 doctrine construction accord long-heeded admonition 'an ought violate nations if remains * *.' Charming Betsey, Cranch 64, 118, 208. See Nereide, 388, 389, 423, 769; MacLeod 229 416, 434, 33 955, 961, 57 1260; Sandberg McDonald, 248 185, 195, 39 84, 86, 63 200. And jurisprudence '* otherwise possible, will applying foreigners respect done them dominions sovereign enacting. rule bound subjects powers territory.' Lord Russell Killowen Queen Jameson (1896), Q.B. 425, 430. not, sometimes impairment sovereignty, limitation Congress. 'The sea', occasion observe, 'is peculiar sense rules depends acceptance States.' 517, 710, 850. On contrary, simply problem statutory commonplace federal system often decide 'any' 'every' reaches enacting authority's usual scope events transactions.7 10 before begins 1915 enactment LaFollette entitled, 'An To promote welfare seamen merchant marine States; abolish arrest imprisonment penalty desertion secure abrogation treaty provisions relation thereto; safety sea.' 38 1164. Many sections obvious implication restricted ships.8 Three specifically vessels,9 provoked considerable doubt debate.10 Others phrased face might anything less. category fell § 20, cryptic paragraph fellow-servant doctrine, ascribed little, any, effect. Chelentis Luckenbach S.S. 247 372, 501, 62 1171. 1920, Congress, title promotion *' relevant, provided aid mercantile fleet included revised now construction. 41 988, 1007. did so reference Federal Employers' Liability 45 U.S.C.A. 51 et seq., held citizen's Canada employer. Central R. Chisholm, 268 29, 402, 828. really effective security owner, lien.11 11 could unaware necessity imposed generality language warned definite directions contained events, ships accordance practices 12 places great stress assertion petitioner's commerce contacts ports frequent regular, basis incidents ships. virtue utility sea-borne lies important country. If, serve immediate interest, each exploit contact power, difficult see multiplicity conflicting overlapping burdens blight carriage sea. Hence, commercial generally deferred non-national impressive maturity universality.12 force extraterritorial laws, nor abdication nation, common consent civilized communities foster amicable workable relations. 13 International matters seek uniformity purport restrict nation making altering territory. However, aims stability order usages considerations comity, reciprocity long-range define domain own. Maritime like municipal attempted avoid resolve between competing ascertaining valuing points transaction states governments whose involved. criteria, general, arrived weighing significance connecting factors regulated served authority. candid satisfactory standards they profess perfect consistency. cannot unmindful mutual forbearance retaliations avoided; forget hold sufficient warrant logically strong country transaction. 14 us, factor tort—Denmark, because, among reasons, nationals; Cuba, because tortious conduct occurred Cuban waters. hired returned forum. review several alone combination, conceded influence choice tort claim, particularly weight accorded them. 15 1. Place Wrongful Act.—The solution most commonly torts place giving rise occurred, lex loci delicti commissi.13 locality, torts,14 indicate actionable wrong took place. test location wrongful act omission, however ashore, torts, varieties legal authority over waters she navigate. These range ports, harbors, roadsteads, straits, rivers canals form various states, bays gulfs, band littoral sea known territorial control large, unlimited, degree adjacent state. includes, course, probably settled Grotius anyone's property monopolized discovery, occupation, papal grant, prescription custom.15 16 uncompromisingly rights, voluntarily entering become well, except pursuance forego exertion power. Cunard Steamship Mellon, 262 100, 124, 43 504, 507, 67 894. seem standard unfitted enterprise conducted none usually modified constant flag. consistent practice applies principle unlike accidents occurring registry.16 locality test, what worth, affords support refers preference though point need neither party urges controlling. 17 2. Law Flag.—Perhaps venerable uniersal relevant gives cardinal importance Each conditions grant nationality ship, thereby accepting responsibility acquiring it. Nationality evidenced papers firmly successfully maintained regularity validity registration questioned registering state.17 18 said supersedes principle, even purposes criminal personnel deemed territory sovereignty (whose flies), lose character navigable another sovereignty.' concede government involved concurrent offenses Flores, 289 137, 155—159, 53 580, 584—586, 77 1086, cited. Some authorities reject, mischievous fiction, constructively floating flagstate,18 pragmatic must shipboard, change shows better owns her. 19 significant given ensign overbears determining supra, 158, 586, iterated 123, 507: 20 'And comity came understood discipline, things board, affected vessel, belonging her, involve peace dignity country, tranquillity port, left local dealt vessel belonged require. 21 repetition doctrine.19 22 favor prevail unless heavy counterweight appears. 23 3. Allegiance Domicile Injured.—Until recent times little seafarer subject, long-standing rule, pronounced after exhaustive authority, jurisdictional attributed crew. re Ross, 140 453, 472, 897, 902, 35 581.20 Surely during duty allegiance due. also, legitimate nationals permanent inhabitants maimed disabled self-support. later cases, prompted omission alleged citizen domiciliary.21 however, weigh seaman's coincide without resort fiction. Admittedly, resident direct examination leading questions living articles recited, cross-examination admitted, home Silkeburg, Denmark. His presence transitory created in, toward, him justify intervention another. 24 4. Defendant Shipowner.—A debarred citizens countries infringed.' Skiriotes State Florida, 313 69, 73, 61 924, 927, 85 1193. Steele Bulova Watch 344 280, 282, 252, 253. Until conflict, owners.22 knowledge years grown, shipowners, stringent seeking eagerly offered countries.23 Confronted operations, pressed formalities less nominal enforce them.24 again utmost liberality disregard formality appears Dane domicile. 25 5. Contract.—Place contract, York, chiefly invoke action. tort, differs cure. latter, 'In recognized consistently implied contracts employment. Created thus liability, predicated shipowner.' Aguilar Standard Oil 318 724, 730, 930, 933, 87 1107. DeZon President Lines, 660, 667, 814, 818, 1065. Calmar Corp. Taylor, 303 525, 527, 58 651, 652, 82 993. due breach. 26 contracting instance, contracts, fortuitous. takes fun, finds it; port needs practical effect contractus multitude put advantageous position others, unlikely run diminish hirings take best care seamen. 27 nonetheless considered, union control. Except forbidden public policy, tendency parties apply.25 aware prevent contemplates performance jurisdictions seas, settling flag-state code. arrangement natural compatible express implied. Belgenland, 114 355, 367, 860, 865, 29 152; Hanna Nielsen, Cir., 273 F. 171. think quite different result follow example, ship. 28 time relying attacks whole void do describe voyage definiteness Quoque, D.C., 261 414, affirmed Westwood, 266 696. holding originally 1873 Montapedia, 427; Elswick Tower, 241 706. merit. substantial 30 6. Inaccessibility Foreign Forum.—It argued, stressed amicus brief, justice adjudication save expense loss returning persuasive argument exercising discretionary adjudge controversy; judged. pointed out, (Panama) allow courts. doubtful view venue restrictions Union preclude sister Tennessee Coal, Iron & George, 233 354, 34 587, 997. 31 Confining ourselves hand, find disadvantaged obtaining instead necessitate delayed, prolonged, expensive uncertain litigation. stipulated There showing obtain relief entitled require leaving York. And, so, record indicates declined free transportation 32 7. urged perfected regular controversy 'doing business' process fall short necessary bring judgment Under respondent's contention, able defendant. denial attempts draw into controversies, slight connections, Hartford Accident Indemnity Delta Pine Land 292 143, 54 634, 78 1178; Home Dick, 281 397, 50 338, 74 926. purpose conflict-of-laws treated n way appropriate fortuitous circumstances Jurisdiction wide nature matter far-flung justification just obtainable. formerly vessel' causes.26 argued analogy seaman' apply. situation inverted. limitation-of-liability chosen sue transactions.27 Because plaintiffs submit themselves imposing Furthermore, harmony nations,28 advocated world. regards overwhelming preponderance both subjects, engaged commerce. latter event offset govern. condition access foreign-owned vessels submission liabilities consider good exact. interpreting intervene apparent recognition weakness argument, brash appeal briefs extend means benefiting enhancing costs operation competitive advantage sure prove negligence, Nor stop inquire whom greater lesser good. misaddressed. proprieties Counsel familiar traditional attitude us.29 36 below reversed remanded proceedings herewith. 37 Reversed remanded. BLACK agrees Appeals affirm judgment. CLARK, having heard oral consideration decision 'Any may, election, maintain trial jury, modifying extending common-law railway employees U.S.C. 688, 688. 196 F.2d 220. Paula, 91 1001, 1003, then Circuit inapplicable expressly refused dicta Fifth Arthur Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, 72 662, gave 'all nationality.' Paula prior decisions rendering 171; Pinar Del Rio, 984, 277 151, 48 457, 827. few later, Gambera Bergoty, 132 long-time resident, citizen, suffered serving Greek Kyriakos Goulandris, 151 132, (over dissent Judge Learned Hand) ashore employed shipowner. O'Neill White Star Line, 160 446, British Act.In Taylor Atlantic 179 597, 600, district dismissing Panamanian allegedly residing registry apparently Hand, writing court, indicated majority panel thought seamen, 'in spite free' Kyriakos. per curiam Taylor. No present exactly contrary results necessarily mean inconsistency. illustrate cases. Sonnesen Panama Transport 298 N.Y. 262, N.E.2d 569. arise suits Engel Davenport, 271 33, 410, 70 813. 810, 41. Plamals del Cheatham Reese, Choice Applicable Law, 52 Col.L.Rev. 959, statutes, puts fashion: 'There wherever applicable, precedence and, large extent, saves further decision. controlling be, dictates constitutional. although constitutes fundamental rarely practice. vast intrastate mind. out-of-state occurrences, therefore, ordinary rules. if, employs sweeping 'every contract' decedent.' draftsmen intended, sort taken literally Where, clear actually problem, courts, constitutionality, intentions.' Section 1, 569, requiring lost replaced, directed master report replacement consul first arrive thereafter. 2, 673, regulations affecting duties States'. 5, 656, complaint officers unseaworthy inadequately provisioned 'the consul' appoint someone make inquiry. 660—1, sanitation requirements 'merchant 13, 672, required complement minimum percentage able-bodied certified Secretary Commerce. concerned procedure followed consuls abroad involving §§ 4, 11, 14, 599, 601, 222, 481. demand wage payments coming port. closing portion section harbors open enforcement.' re-enacted, changes, 1898 prohibiting payment advance wages seamen; subsection 'This master, consignee, agent violated violation.' For Patterson Bark Eudora, 190 169, 821, 47 1002; 200, Strathearn Dillon, 252 348, 40 350, 64 607. 481, concerning lifeboats ports. Report House Committee Merchant Marine Fisheries, H.R.Rep.No.852, 63d Cong., 2d Sess., pp. 18, 20; Cong.Rec. 5761—5792. n. famous Story De Lovio Boit, C.C., Fed.Cas. 3776, Gall. 398; Sally, 382, L. Ed. 597 406, 320; Scotia, Wall. 170, 822; Dickenson, Nations Part National 101 U. Pa.L.Rev. 26, 792, 803—816. Slater Mexican 194 120, 581, 900; 828; Rheinstein, Wrong, Tul.L.rev. 165; cf. Carr Fracis Times (1902) A.C. 176; Uravic Jarka 282 234, 111, 75 312. Restatement, Conflict Laws, 404. Grotius, Jure Praedae, Carnegie Endowment publication 1950, 207, 220, 223, 231—233, 237. Dumbauld, Prize, J.Pub.L. 370, 387. Cuba Workmen's Compensation Decree 2687, November 15, 1933, Art. XI, XL. Virginius, seized Spanish en route Cuba. Grant 'if irregular fraudulent, crime tribunals competent question.' Attorney General position. restored. Moore's Digest 895 903. Higgins Colombos, Sea (2d ed.), 201. theoretical used prevailed 1928 Permanent Lotus, P.C.I.J., Series A, 10. criticism 193—195. leads Wildenhus' Case, 120 385, 565; Brown Duchesne, How. 183, 595. Bonsalem Byron 114; Cain Alpha Corp., 717; Grand Trunk Wright, 814; 405. Rainey P.S.S. Cor., 216 449. Jarka, supra; Shorter Bermuda West Indies 313; supra. Oriskany, F.Supp. 805; Clark Montezuma 217 App.Div., 172, 216, N.Y.S. 295. (including Denmark) still wholly predominantly register 808; Denmark, 7, 1937, McFee, Sea, 152—154. Study Investigation (Transfer Ships Registry), Hearings Senate Interstate Commerce Committee, S.Doc. 6857, 81st 1st Sess. Gerradin Fruit 60 927; Vermont Transp. Durning, 294, 55 306, 79 741. Yntema, 'Autonomy' Am.J.Comp.L. 341. Scotland, 105 24, 1001; Titanic, 718, 754, At decided purported vessel.' 1936 amended foreign, domestic, vessels. 49 1479, 183. 'It true Banana 213 347, 356, 511(512), 826, 832. foundation decline altogether ground domestic impose. Railroad Crosby, 222 473, 478, 480, (133), 56 274—276, L.R.A.,N.S., 40; Dicey, Confl.L.2d ed. 647. competent, enact jurisdiction, resorting mark out. Butler Boston Savannah 130 612, 1017. Titanic proceeding claimants come cut down vested English against, Englishmen England, appear. fit irrespective results, opinion, court. Scotland La Bourgogne (Deslions 210 95, 664, 973)? essential sued substantive law.' 732—733, 755 756 (per Holmes, J.). Limitation Ordonnance Louis XIV 1681. discussion Main Williams, 152 122, 486, 381. Peterhoff, 28, 57, 564: judgment, administer nations, liberty disadvantage

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