Document: 482 U.S. 451 107 S.Ct. 2502 96 L.Ed.2d 398 CITY OF HOUSTON, TEXAS, Appellant,v.Raymond Wayne HILL. No. 86-243. Argued March 23, 1987. Decided June 15, Syllabus Upon shouting at police in an attempt to divert their attention from his friend during a confrontation, appellee was arrested for "wilfully . interrupt[ing] city policeman by verbal challenge investigation" violation of municipal ordinance making it unlawful any person "to assault, strike or manner oppose, molest, abuse interrupt the execution duty." After acquittal Municipal Court, brought suit Federal District Court challenging ordinance's constitutionality and seeking, inter alia, damages attorney's fees. The held that not unconstitutionally vague overbroad on its face, but Appeals reversed, finding substantially since literal wording punished might deter significant range protected speech. Held: 1. A makes officer performance duty is therefore invalid face under First Amendment. question criminalizes substantial amount of, susceptible regular application to, constitutionally speech, accords unconstitutional enforcement discretion, as demonstrated evidence indicating that, although plain language violated scores times daily, only those individuals chosen unguided discretion are arrested. Appellant's argument because does inhibit exposition ideas, simply bans unprotected "core criminal conduct," persuasive. Since "assault" "strike" expressly pre-empted State Penal Code, enforceable portion prohibits interruptions thereby deals with speech rather than core conduct. Moreover, be prohibited if consists "fighting words" very utterance inflict injury tend incite immediate breach peace, limited such expressions broadly applies "in interrupt[s] policeman" impermissibly infringes freedom verbally oppose action. contention sweeping nature both inevitable essential maintain public order also without merit, narrowly tailored prohibit disorderly conduct fighting words, provides unfettered arrest words annoying offensive. Pp. 458-467. 2. Abstention—assertedly allow state courts reach readily available limiting construction would eliminate overbreadth—would inappropriate here. Even this case did involve Amendment facial challenge, which abstention particularly inappropriate, unambiguous thus construction. cannot severing discrete subsections entirety. had many opportunities narrow scope, appellant's claim chance construe unavailing light nonambiguity. Nor availability certification law itself render appropriate where, here, there no uncertain resolved. 467-471. 3. Although preservation liberty depends part upon maintenance social order, requires officers municipalities respond restraint challenges action, certain expressive disorder society committed individual must survive. 471—472. 789 F.2d 1103, affirmed. BRENNAN, J., delivered opinion WHITE, MARSHALL, BLACKMUN, STEVENS, JJ., joined. filed concurring opinion, post, p. ----. SCALIA, judgment, POWELL, judgment dissenting part, O'CONNOR, joined, Parts I II REHNQUIST, C.J., III Robert J. Collins, Houston, Tex., appellant. Charles Alan Wright, Austin, appellee. Justice BRENNAN Court. 1 This presents whether her duties 2 * Appellee Raymond Hill lifelong resident Texas. At time lawsuit began, he worked paralegal executive director Houston Human Rights League. member board Gay Political Caucus, helped found 1975, affiliated radio station, carried county press passes 1975. He lived Montrose, "diverse eclectic neighborhood" center gay political life Houston. App. 26-27. 3 incident sparked occurred Montrose area February 14, 1982. observed friend, Hill, intentionally stopping traffic busy street, evidently enable vehicle enter traffic. Two officers, one whom named Kelley, approached began speaking him. According "shortly thereafter" admitted Kelley's Hill." Juris. Statement B-2.1 first shouted: "Why don't you pick somebody your own size?" Officer Kelley responded: "[A]re interrupting me my official capacity officer?" then "Yes, why 40-41, 58, 71-74. Code Ordinances § 34-11(a), investigation." acquitted after nonjury trial Court.2 4 Ordinances, City Texas, 34-11(a) (1984), reads: 5 "Sec. 34-11. Assaulting interfering policemen. 6 "(a) It shall duty, summoned aid arrest."3 7 Following incident, Southern seeking (1) declaratory been applied him, (2) permanent injunction against enforce ordinance, (3) expunging records arrests (4) fees 42 U.S.C. §§ 1983 1988. 8 trial, introduced provided regarding frequency made type charged. testimony concerning several reporters ordinance. Finally, experience has four never convicted. 9 Hill's demonstrate applied.4 court rejected face. vague, stated, because: 10 "[t]he sufficiently definite put reasonable intelligence fair notice what actions forbidden. In particular, finds use 'interrupt' clear virtue commonly-understood, everyday definitions. Interrupt commonly means cause cease, someone middle something. Plaintiff, example, clearly 'interrupted' incident." B-8. 11 statute "the not, least facially, proscribe Amendment." Id., B-12. 12 panel reversed. 764 1156 (CA5 1985). city's suggestion rehearing en banc granted, Appeals, vote 8-7, upheld panel. 1103 (1986). agreed Court's conclusion "plainly encompasse[d] mere well physical conduct." 1109. Applying standard established Broadrick v. Oklahoma, 413 601, 93 2908, 37 830 (1973), however, concluded overbroad. "[a] expression punishable deterred statute." F.2d, 1110. 13 reviewed trial. disturb ruling reporters. conclude, other mentioned revealed "a realistic danger potential for, ordinance." Ibid. showed "is officially regarded penalizing interruption while line duty," id., 1109, employed make "arguing," "[t]alking," "[i]nterfering," "[f]ailing remain quiet," "[r]efusing silent," "[v]erbal abuse," "[c]ursing," "[v]erbally yelling," "[t]alking loudly, [w]alking through scene." 1113-1114.5 14 appealed, claiming erred holding facially abstaining until construed courts.6 We noted probable jurisdiction, 479 811, 17 (1986), now affirm. 15 elements overbreadth analysis familiar. Only may invalidated New York Ferber, 458 747, 769, 102 3348, 3361, 73 1113 (1982); supra. "We have should merely possible conceive single impermissible application. ." 630, S.Ct., 2925 (Brennan, dissenting). Instead, "[i]n vagueness law, court's task determine enactment reaches Hoffman Estates Flipside, Estates, Inc., 455 489, 494, 1186, 1191, 71 362 Kolender Lawson, 461 352, 359, n. 8, 103 1855, 1859, 75 903 (1983). Criminal statutes scrutinized particular care, e.g., Winters York, 333 507, 515, 68 665, 670, 92 L.Ed. 840 (1948); even they legitimate E.g., Kolender, supra, 8. 16 principal conduct" Brief Appellant 12. view, illustrates employ conduct, "as subterfuge control dissuade free expression." "content-neutral," chill speakers concludes overbroad.7 disagree characterization reasons. First, As conceded, Texas Code. Reply 10. explains, ibid., "any species assault encompassed within provisions [§§ 22.01, 22.02] Code,"8 1.08 "[n]o governmental subdivision agency enact covered code offense subject penalty." Tex. Ann. (1974). See Knott State, 648 S.W.2d 20 (Tex.App.1983) (reversing convictionobtained penal code). Accordingly, "unlawful officers.9 18 Second, contrary contention, protects criticism directed officers. "Speech often provocative challenging. [But it] nevertheless censorship punishment, unless shown likely produce present serious substantive evil rises far above inconvenience, annoyance, unrest." Terminiello Chicago, 337 1, 4, 69 894, 895, 1131 (1949). Lewis Orleans, 415 130, 94 970, 39 214 (1974), appellant yelled obscenities threats who asked husband driver's license. convicted crime " 'for wantonly curse revile obscene opprobrious toward reference actual duty.' 132, 972 (citation omitted). vacated conviction Critical our decision fact "punishe[d] spoken scope 'by peace.' 133, 972, quoting Gooding Wilson, 405 518, 525, 1107, 31 408 (1972); see ibid. (Georgia breach-of-peace invalid). Lewis, POWELL suggested exception recognized Chaplinsky Hampshire, 315 568, 62 766, 86 1031 (1942), require narrower cases involving addressed officer, properly trained reasonably expected 'exercise higher degree restraint' average citizen, less belligerently 'fighting words.' U.S., 135, 973 19 much more struck down Lewis. nor language, interrupt[s]" officer.10 Constitution crime.11 action risking characteristics we distinguish nation state.12 argues, encompasses some order. recalls observation Smith Goguen, 566, 581, 1242, 1251, 605 (1974): 21 "There areas human problems presented, legislatures establish standards great precision. Control broad requiring on-the-spot assessment need keep order." 22 further suggests comparable Colten Kentucky, 407 104, 1953, 32 584 (1972). 23 words,13 way resembles Colten.14 appreciate difficulties drafting precise laws, repeatedly laws provide annoy offend them.15 over century ago, [i]t certainly dangerous legislature could set net large enough catch all offenders, leave step inside say rightfully detained, large." United States Reese, (2 Otto) 214, 221, 563 (1876). Powell elaborated basis concern sweeping, dragnet laws: 24 "This Louisiana Supreme confers virtually unrestrained power charge persons violation. Many 'one-on-one' situations where witnesses arresting All required accept used him duties.* 25 "Contrary argument, unlikely genuine words' incompatible full adequate officer's duties. [I]t usually unnecessary [to person] addressing officer. tends invoked valid objectionable suspicious person. opportunity abuse, especially received open-ended interpretation, self-evident. 26 "* facts case, direct conflict 'who said what,' illustrate possibility abuse." 27 135-136, n., 973, 28 Houston's enforcement. admittedly 77, yet individuals—those discretion—are Far providing "breathing space" "First freedoms survive," NAACP Button, 371 415, 433, 83 328, 338, (1963), expression. conclude overbroad, err invalid. 29 urged us merits constitutional abstain reasons related underlying Railroad Comm'n Pullman Co., 312 496, 61 643, 85 971 (1941). constructions overbreadth.16 30 Abstention is, course, rule, Colorado River Water Conservation Dist. States, 424 800, 813, 1236, 1244, 47 483 (1976), reluctant based Amendment.17 "abstention [where] justifiably attacked abridging Dombrowski Pfister, 380 479, 489-490, 1116, 1122, (1965). "In case[s] force plaintiff commenced federal suffer delay state-court proceedings effect chilling right seeks protect." Zwickler Koota, 389 241, 252, 88 391, 397, 444 (1967). Amendment, find inappropriate. statute, pivotal determining "fairly interpretation will modify question." Harman Forssenius, 528, 534-535, 1177, 1181-1182, 50 (1965); Hawaii Housing Authority Midkiff, 467 229, 236, 104 2321, 2327, 81 186 (1984) (same). If obviously construction, "never [been] interpreted tribunal exercise jurisdiction." Harman, 535, 1182; see, Wisconsin Constantineau, 400 439, 91 511, 515 (1971) ("Where ambiguity proceed decide claim"); 250-251, 396-397, (citing cases). because, below agreed, meaning unambiguous. Its "turn choice between alternative meanings." Baggett Bullitt, 377 360, 378, 84 1316, 1326, (1964); cf. Babbitt Farm Workers, 442 289, 308, 99 2301, 2314, 60 895 (1979). can rest. For assaults applications law. 460—461, general prohibition "simply core" limited. 578, 1249 (emphasis deleted). proposed insufficient,18 doubtful remarkable job plastic surgery ordinance" save it. Shuttlesworth Birmingham, 394 147, 153, 89 935, 940, 162 (1969). sum, "[s]ince 'the naked question, uncomplicated [ambiguous language], Act unconstitutional,'Wisconsin (1971), jurisdiction required." Authority, 237, 2327. 33 relies heavily statute. true, factor controlling. stated above, when ambiguous, 534, 1181. declined deciding just days took effect. Brockett Spokane Arcades, 472 491, 105 2794, (1985). But event, misleading. appellate appear lacked opportunity. undisputed Courts, record 1976, numerous ordinance.19 There done so.20 fact, primary position throughout litigation insis[t] validity literally read." 1107. long interpretations, given jury instructions, constitute binding though written into Terminiello, 895. Thus, regularly 34 change analysis.21 procedure useful reducing burdens cost places litigants. Where affect resolution claim, expense chief drawbacks abstention, becomes important abstain. Bellotti Baird, 428 2857, 49 844 (1976). Nevertheless, importance abstain, careful note sufficient appropriate. 151, 2868. manifestly certify whose pending claim. demonstrated, 468-469, neither ambiguous construction.22 ask care rewrite statute.23 certification. IV 35 Today's reflects requirement restraint. mindful Cf. 37, 910 (dissenting opinion). recognizes, wisely think, freedom, affirm Appeals. 36 so ordered. concurring. 38 join except do agree implication—if exists—see ante, 461—462, (1972), good context facts, lend real support review case. dissented 1112, 136, legislation consideration words," teaching (1942). am still disassociate myself controlling authority before us, evident demonstrates, 462—463, 465, offensive values judgment. 40 Part Because believe avoid posed On merits, views expressed opinion. concur joins POWELL's 41 O'CONNOR joins, THE CHIEF JUSTICE II, SCALIA III, part. "for (1984). today violates Fourteenth Amendments Constitution. reached claims, instead certified declining principle write separately reasoning. 43 involves designed prevent interference Constitutional question. problem detain "no law." Ante, 471. contrary, think 44 challenged contain explicit intent requirement. Both parties acknowledge, imputation culpability 28-30, 31. 6.02(b) (1974) provides: "If definition prescribe culpable mental state, plainly dispenses element."1 imputed issue presented apparently assumes requisite person's utter interruption. plausible differently. proof intended speak, interfere 45 questions two ways: possibly resolve question; precise, satisfy vagueness. least, focus obviate statements protections role, place interpretive gloss Council chosen. 'authoritatively construe' 520, 1105, (1972) (quoting Thirty-seven Photographs, 402 363, 369, 1400, 1404, 822 (1971)). 46 obtaining authoritative Last year voters amended "court appeals [has] answer court." Const., Art. 5, 3-c. Rule Proc. (implementing aspect provision). explained recently, "[s]peculation about absence prior adjudication gratuitous stand willing address 510, 2805, (1985) (concurring). emphasized appropriateness presenting cases, 'save time, energy, resources hel[p] build cooperative judicial federalism.' 150-151, 2867-2868, (1976) Lehman Brothers Schein, 416 386, 1741, 1744, 215 (1974)).2 coupled seriousness invalidating ascertain appellee's claims. vacate remand instructions interpret dissent. 48 concludes, remaining issues presented.3 generally determination unsettled somewhat different Court.4 "provid[e] adjudicate controverted issue." Field, Cases: Scope Doctrine, 122 U.Pa.L.Rev. 1071, 1144 C. A. Miller, & E. Cooper, Practice Procedure 4242, 468 (1978). 501, 645 (abstaining "law appears furnish easy ample Commission's authority").5 affords remedy obtain apparent securing Tex.Civ.Prac. Rem. 37.001 et seq. (1986) (authorizing grant judgments). treats civil cases. appealable See, Services Life Ins. Co. Delaney, 396 855 (Tex.1965). exclusive V, held, exceptions, injunctive relief Liquor Board Canyon Creek Land Corp., 456 891, 894-896 (Tex.1970). quite bring ordinance—either court. short, sure ways certification, 473-475, convictions Neither these routes justify abstention. 51 Aside barriers created procedure, late stage raised weighs published similar "[t]his proposal comes nearly three years filing complaint attributable recent sought minimize." Mayor Philadelphia Education Equality League, 605, 628, 1323, 1337, 630 presentation doubts secured convinces 52 53 "deals speech." 460. view draws distinction none exists. terms ordinance—"oppose, duty"—include apply fully respect distinguishable. Orleans peace for: 54 'any Ordinance 828 M.C.S. 49-7). 55 language. explicitly this, stating words." 134, 972. By contrast, activity element communication. punish who—without saying word—obstructed access scene ongoing disturbance, indeed crime. punishes 56 And deal occasion include criticism, implication "challenge[s] officers," 461. "challenge" takes form opposition duty.6 situations, functionally indistinguishable protect. doubt municipality chooses near persistently engage conversation directing intersection. Similarly, individual, contentious abusive investigation observing pursuing suspected felony run beside street Similar tactics lawfully attempting interrogate believed 57 reflect failure apprehend ordinance—however construed—is primarily public's interest To sure, fine interferes purpose having unfortunately seems ignore extend protection molestation duty. B 58 Despite concerns "confe[r] self-evident." (POWELL, result). No placed Also, effort curtail wide contains sampling complaints 1981 People charged crimes "Failure silent stationary," "Remaining," "Refusing "Talking." 1113-1114 1986) (en banc). incidents involved charges officials acting proper sensitivity rights citizens. When government society's interests restricts framed precisely us. unconstitutional. 59 difficult, specifically frame "areas area, difficulty restrains serves interest, attempts draft accorded leeway. convinced, too comport Amendments. 473—474, reframed limit same protect interests. were lawful situation, upholding course "bo[w] us," Brown Shoe 370 294, 374, 82 1502, 1551, 510 (1962) (Harlan, part), affirmance. 63 Chief dissenting. 64 POWELL'S agree, courts, (BLACKMUN, dissent affirmance testified "motivation stop [the officers] hitting Charles." 40. 2, infra. explained: "I get careers damaged; families wouldn't understand; couldn't spend jail. prepared legal, nonaggressive nonviolent way, illegal activity, circumstances." 29. "shout[ed] abuses" B-2 added). district [Hill] 'shout[ed] abuses' Kelley." 1105 1986). 73-74 (testimony "abusive" language). consistent ignored attempted initial grabbed arm, turned around, told walk away. 57. Charles, "has nervous tic," went "into spasms," prompted "screa[m]" "Are fun me?" 14-15. "twitching" "erratic strange" manner, "didn't know [Charles] seizure being insolent what." 56-57. point, diverges. states "interrupte[d]" quoted text, crowd beginning form. 57-58, 61, 68-69. up wall, threatened hit flashlight. 14. then, according call out: "[T]he kid nothing wrong. want somebody, me." 16. applicability "possibility abuse" frequently turn "direct what.' infra, 2511. misdemeanor $200. B-1. follows. August 31, interrupted arrest. During arrest, wrote license plate numbers, walked arm's length side nearest revolver. leave, moved closer. arrested, tried, guilty. 1977, vice-squad cars parked bookstore, entered store announced system patrons prepare show identification. promptly left store, frustrating investigation. investigation, subsequently dismissed. October 3, 1982, eight months refusing car unknown unconscious inside. failed These summarized appendix 1113-1114. "[appellee] offered 200 November Violations frequent uses printed report charges." form, entitled "Complaint: Interrupting Policeman," preprinted followed blank fills description charge. 1108-1109. While noting majority "patently unlawful," instances malefactor described [in handwritten portion] failing silent." Over third prosecuted. claims engaged improper factfinding. notes applied, argues reviewing concluding Such foreclosed, City, "clearly erroneous" Civil 52(a). merit. An independent arguably Claiborne Hardware 886, 915-916, 50, 3409, 3426-3427, 1215 (1982). accepted "not appeal" reporters, disagreement lower appeal decision, threshold lacks standing past. irrelevant, seek prospective relief. threat enforcement" future activities, Steffel Thompson, 452, 475, 1209, 1223, 505 Compare, supra willingness future), Golden Zwickler, 103, 956, 113 (1969) (intervening event rendered appellee); B-3, (District activist 'systematically' harassed 'as result' sexual preferences"). "undergo prosecution" Doe Bolton, 410 179, 188, 739, 745, 201 already lends compelling "Hill's adopted role citizen provocateur" give Ellis Dyson, 421 426, 95 1691, 274 (1975). One strikes either arrest" prosecuted 22.01 (1974 Supp.1987), renders contact (or against) person, 22.02 causing bodily sections pertinent part: "Section 22.01. Assault. commits person: "(1) intentionally, knowingly, recklessly causes another including spouse; "(2) knowingly threatens imminent "(3) knows regard provocative." 22.02. Aggravated defined Section he: another; discharge informed officer; deadly weapon. "(b) actor presumed known assaulted wearing distinctive uniform employment officer." &Par; complaint. Record 138, 144-145. pre-emption issue; assumed assaults, conceded 10, partially pre-empted, extent ban pre-empts penalty 460-461, 42.01, State's comprehensive provision. Subsection 42.01(a)(1), "abusive, indecent, profane vulgar language" "by [it] peace," words. "practice commentary" annotated confirms section track forth pp. 124-125 Supp.1987). sweeps broadly. go unpunished, price worth paying preserve vitality '[I]f absolute assurance tranquility required, forget Under requirement, "free" consist platitudes. That kind protection.' Spence Washington, 418 405, 416, 2727, 2733, 842 (Douglas, concurring) today's powerless obstruction intersection." Post, 479. fail disperse response create hazard. What do, criminalizing officer—in authorizing interrupts observes "contentious abusive" offers example "run[s] [an felon] 463. running physically obstruct obstructing she aimed familiar echo common King Cook, Can.Crim.Cas.Ann. 32, (B.C. County Ct. 1906) ("Cook troublesome, talkative regards disfavour secret opinions [told] tone voice undoubtedly officer's] ears, man drunk unjustifiable. Now point crime, country like citizens express rendering themselves liable inciting others break law; policemen exempt Cabinet Ministers"); Levy Edwards, Car. P. 40, 171 Eng.Rep. 1094 (Nisi Prius 1823) (where constable breaks fight boys proceeds handcuff them, party objects telling 'you boy' wrong arrested); Ruthenbeck Judicial Bergen Cty., N.J. Misc. 969, 147 625 (1929) (vacating "You big muttonhead, czar around here?"). Note, Obstructing Public Officer, 108 388, 390-392, 406-407 (1960) ("[C]onduct operates, impair working efficiency agents. Yet countervailing lie stifling resist—the omnipotent, unquestionable officialdom—demands sacrifice forces private opposition. [T]he strongest allowing imponderable risk abuse—to realized ascertain—that lies allowed"). limits, course; peace" protected. 572, 769; 522-525, 1106-1107, 42.01 Kentucky stated: guilty if, alarm, creating thereof, "(f) Congregates refuses comply disperse. Ky.Rev.Stat. 437.016(1)(f) (Supp.1968); 108, 1956. "infringe[d] 111, 1957. 360-361, 1859-1860, (1983) (identification "full discretion"); 575, 1248, ("Statutory standardless sweep allows policemen, prosecutors, juries pursue personal predilections [thereby] entrusting lawmaking 'to moment-to-moment beat' "), Gregory 120, 946, 951, 134 (Black, concurring); Papachristou Jacksonville, 156, 170, 839, 847, 110 (vagrancy "furnishes convenient tool 'harsh discriminatory local prosecuting officials, groups deemed merit displeasure' Thornhill Alabama, 310 88, 97-98, 736, 741-742, 1093 (1940); Coates Cincinnati, 611, 615-616, 1686, 1689, (statute prohibiting "annoying" "contains obvious invitation enforcement"). Like ordinances effectively grants selectively content repugnant eternal temptation speaker correct conditions complains." Younger Harris, 401 65, 746, 764, 669 raise lost banc, tardy urge acquiescence insistence circumstances undercut bar considering (1971); 486-487, 1120-1121, Procunier Martinez, 396, 404, 1800, 1807, 224 (1974); 378-379, (1963); intentional "physical, verbal, acts" "arrests detentions." 30-31. proposals odds meaning, scope. necessarily lose intends cabin excessive discussed "physical equivalent Third, read detentions; were, limitation significantly force, years. 1111. 1,000 per Record). Indeed, Courts instructions. 104-105, plaintiff's Exhibits 5). "which determinative certifying precedent decisions Appeals." 214. state" offense, creates "inten[t] duties" justifies "narrow question" 474. implicitly concedes, choosing arrest; self-evident, overbreadth. "would hold little hope eliminating [overbreadth] pose result serving abstention- [or certification-] justifying end avoiding adjudication." 1326. entire court, confined 4248, 529-530 ordinances. Pollard 687 373, 374 (Tex.App.1985) (pet. ref'd 05-83-01161 Cr. (Jan. 29, 1986)). demonstrates advantages traditional procedure. saves sending directly empowered obviates procedural hinder efforts judgments courts. 476-477. 1551 (HARLAN, part); Gillespie Steel 379 148, 320, 199 (1964) (Stewart, concurring). Longshoremen Davis, 476 380, 403, 106 1904, 1918, 90 (REHNQUIST, judgment). "particularly 467. supports citation principle. ultimately [challenged state] irrelevant," 490, 1123, suggest[ed] vehicle" curing 1123. rationales straightforward rule second reason believes 'fairly question.' (1965)). 473-474, view. adequacy procedures examined strictly Pennzoil Texaco 481 14-17, 1519, 1527-1529, (1987). 1980 edition American Heritage Dictionary contest fight." implies "physically obstruct[s] investigation," 463, 11, constitutes 464, troubles indicated text page, State—in interest—should fall exceptions.

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