Document: 543 U.S. 405 ILLINOISv.CABALLES. No. 03-923. Supreme Court of United States. Argued November 10, 2004. Decided January 24, 2005. After an Illinois state trooper stopped respondent for speeding and radioed in, a second trooper, overhearing the transmission, drove to scene with his narcotics-detection dog walked around respondent's car while first wrote warning ticket. When alerted at trunk, officers searched found marijuana, arrested respondent. At drug trial, court denied motion suppress seized evidence, holding, inter alia, that dog's alerting provided sufficient probable cause conduct search. Respondent was convicted, but reversed, finding because there were no specific articulable facts suggest activity, use unjustifiably enlarged routine traffic stop into investigation. Held: A sniff conducted during concededly lawful reveals information other than location substance individual has any right possess does not violate Fourth Amendment. Pp. 407-410. 207 Ill. 2d 504, 802 N. E. 202, vacated remanded. STEVENS, J., delivered opinion Court, in which O'CONNOR, SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, BREYER, JJ., joined. SOUTER, filed dissenting opinion, post, p. 410. GINSBURG, joined, 417. REHNQUIST, C. took part decision case. CERTIORARI TO THE SUPREME COURT OF ILLINOIS. Lisa Madigan, Attorney General Illinois, argued petitioner. With her on briefs Gary Feinerman, Solicitor General, Linda D. Woloshin Mary Fleming, Assistant Attorneys General. Wray States as amicus curiae urging reversal. him brief former Olson, Deputy Dreeben, James A. Feldman, John Drennan. Ralph Meczyk Lawrence H. Hyman.* JUSTICE STEVENS Court. 1 State Trooper Daniel Gillette interstate highway. police dispatcher report stop, Craig Graham, member Police Drug Interdiction Team, overheard transmission immediately headed dog. they arrived, shoulder road Gillette's vehicle. While process writing ticket, Graham car. The trunk. Based alert, entire incident lasted less 10 minutes. 2 convicted narcotics offense sentenced 12 years' imprisonment $256,136 fine. trial judge evidence quash arrest. He held had unnecessarily prolonged alert sufficiently reliable provide Although Appellate affirmed, concluding canine performed without "`specific facts'" "unjustifiably enlarg[ed] scope investigation." 510, 205 (2003). 3 question we granted certiorari, 541 U. S. 972 (2004), is narrow: "Whether Amendment requires reasonable, suspicion justify using drug-detection vehicle legitimate stop." Pet. Cert. i. Thus, proceed assumption officer conducting about except he been speeding; accordingly, have omitted reference might triggered modicum suspicion. 4 Here, initial seizure when highway based lawful. It nevertheless clear its inception can if manner execution unreasonably infringes interests protected by Constitution. v. Jacobsen, 466 109, 124 (1984). justified solely interest issuing ticket driver become unlawful it beyond time reasonably required complete mission. In earlier case involving occurred subsequent discovery contraband product unconstitutional seizure. People Cox, 202 462, 782 275 (2002). We may assume similar result would be warranted this being unlawfully detained. 5 state-court proceedings, however, judges carefully reviewed details Officer conversations precise timing radio transmissions determine whether improperly extended duration enable occur. recounted those accept court's conclusion entirely ordinary inquiries such stop. 6 Despite conclusion, initially became outside That is, characterized rather consequence constitutional violation. view, converted citizen-police encounter from investigation, shift purpose supported reasonable possessed narcotics, unlawful. our change character otherwise executed manner, unless itself infringed constitutionally privacy. Our cases hold did not. 7 Official "compromise privacy" search subject S., 123. possessing cannot deemed "legitimate," thus, governmental only possession "compromises privacy interest." Ibid. This expectation "that certain will come attention authorities" same "privacy society prepared consider reasonable." Id., 122 (punctuation omitted). Place, 462 696 (1983), treated well-trained "sui generis" "discloses presence or absence item." 707; see also Indianapolis Edmond, 531 32, 40 (2000). likewise concedes "drug sniffs are designed, properly generally likely, reveal contraband." Brief 17. argues error rates, particularly existence false positives, call premise dogs contraband, record contains findings support argument. Moreover, erroneous itself, private information, and, case, establish full-blown 8 Accordingly, dog—one "does expose noncontraband items remain hidden public view," 707—during implicate interests. exterior lawfully Any intrusion expectations rise level cognizable infringement. 9 consistent recent thermal-imaging device detect growth marijuana home constituted Kyllo States, 533 27 (2001). Critical fact capable detecting activity—in intimate home, "at what hour each night lady house takes daily sauna bath." 38. perfectly activity categorically distinguishable hopes concerning nondetection trunk judgment vacated, remanded further proceedings inconsistent opinion. 11 so ordered. CHIEF Notes: * Briefs ofamici reversal Arkansas et al. Mike Beebe, Arkansas, Lauren Elizabeth Heil, Dan Schweitzer, their respective follows: Troy King Alabama, Terry Goddard Arizona, Christopher L. Morano Connecticut, M. Jane Brady Delaware, Thurbert Baker Georgia, Mark J. Bennett Hawaii, G. Wasden Idaho, Steve Carter Indiana, Phill Kline Kansas, Charles Foti Louisiana, Steven Rowe Maine, Joseph Curran, Jr., Maryland, Michael Cox Michigan, Jon Bruning Nebraska, Peter Harvey New Jersey, Patricia Madrid Mexico, Roy Cooper North Carolina, Wayne Stenehjem Dakota, Jim Petro Ohio, Hardy Myers Oregon, Henry McMaster South Long Greg Abbott Texas, Shurtleff Utah, William Sorrell Vermont, Jerry Kilgore Virginia, Patrick Crank Wyoming; Association Chiefs Sotos. amici affirmance American Civil Liberties Union Barry Sullivan, Jacob I. Corré, R. Shapiro, Grossman; National Criminal Defense Lawyers Jeffrey T. Green, Wesley Hall, David Siegel. 13 dissenting. 14 I purposes determining car's unauthorized unjustified ground. accordingly affirm respectfully dissent. 15 categorized narcotics-seeking under 707. classification rests upon limited nature intrusion, experience shown untenable, trained sniffing do err. What learned fallibility years since Place decided reason reconsidering Place's against treating intentional portent very adds insistence call, uncritical adherence render indifferent suspicionless indiscriminate sweeps cars parking garages pedestrians sidewalks; preceded notice, escapes review should wait these developments occur before rethinking analysis, invites untoward consequences.1 16 heart both Court's today proposition sui generis reaction going response nothing contraband.2 See ibid. ("[T]he discloses item"); ante, 409 (assuming "a dog" "`the item'" (quoting supra, 707)). Hence, argument goes, devoid legal use, interests" Ante, 409. 17 infallible dog, creature fiction. get averages dogs, supposed infallibility belied judicial opinions describing animals perfect accuracy, owing errors handlers, limitations themselves, even pervasive contamination currency cocaine. See, e. g., Kennedy, 131 F. 3d 1371, 1378 (CA10 1997) (describing 71% accuracy rate); Scarborough, 128 1373, 1378, n. erroneously times out 19 working postal service 8% over career); Limares, 269 794, 797 (CA7 2001) (accepting gave positives between 7% 38% time); Laime State, 347 Ark. 142, 159, 60 W. 464, 476 (2001) (speaking made 50 errors); $242,484.00, 351 499, 511 (CA11 2003) (noting much 80% all circulation residue, "is little value"), grounds rehearing en banc, 357 1225 2004); Carr, 25 1194, 1214-1217 (CA3 1994) (Becker, concurring part) ("[A] substantial portion ... tainted traces controlled substances presence"). Indeed, study cited "generally reliable" shows artificial testing situations return anywhere 12.5% 60% time, depending length Reply Petitioner 13; Federal Aviation Admin., K. Garner al., Duty Cycle Detector Dog: Baseline Study (Apr. (prepared Auburn Inst. Biological Detection Systems). practical terms, alerts hundreds wrong dozens times. 18 Once recognized, ends justification claimed Amendment: necessarily signal opening container enclosed space whose emanations sensed crime. not, course, deny suspicion, cause, enclosure; demand certainty success contraband. point simply claim assumed, deliberate then taking characterization say searches scrutiny. And aura uniqueness disappears, basis reasoning, good otherwise, ignore actual function perform. They obtain contents spaces anything human senses could perceive, conventionally enhanced. independent third parties reach limitations, gathered government's own order traditional sort, crime disclose meant kept area searched. Thus practice functions undisclosed enclosures, used area. given step "intimate details" revealing just do, described (2001).3 makes sense, then, treat amounts practice, rely body cases, including Kyllo, deciding reasonable. As general proposition, drugs rule object enforcing criminal laws more, intrusions. 41-42 Since particular Caballes violating law,4 must stand fall ancillary led up it. true committed officer's presence, 31. There occasion authority arrest, Knowles Iowa, 525 113 (1998), more detain long enough check write consequence, reasonableness assessed relation delay chose impose, GINSBURG points 419-420, consequences stopping citation settled law. 20 Berkemer McCarty, 468 420, 439-440 (1984), followed Knowles, 117, analogue common detention investigation authorized 392 (1968). restricted incidental weapons warrants safety measure, id., 25-26, care keep automatically becoming foot door investigatory purposes; permissible bounded detention, 29-30.5 disclosed enquiry within limit give go further, government take advantage suspect's immobility unrelated detention. open sesame searches, holding someone receive offense. indication illegal speed unreasonable fruits suppressed. 21 Nothing relied 109 unsettled adopted Terry. federal agents analyzed powder already obtained. noted test cocaine, owner stake. explained, like significantly different indeed protection. 22 once analyzed, effectively end matter: either concealing, revealed else legitimately obvious police. But sniff, smell contraband; smells closed container. An affirmative therefore identify possess, informs instead merely chance yet put hands on. discover whatever lies within, owner's papers. Jacobsen show known disclosure follow missing car.6 23 far explicitly sense always free pass Amendment, reserves significance assumed intrusive walk car, For reason, reliance actually signaling recognition broad parked rightly concerned, 422, person pedestrian minding business sidewalk. stated reasoning provides apparent short excesses. sake providing workable framework analyze these, along, familiar fact, scrutiny Amendment.7 join GINSBURG's dissent,post, Without directly reexamining soundness analysis she demonstrates matter here offends (1968), I, too, adopt. Another proffered forsui status nonintrusive procedure. 696, 707 (1983). agree introduction (let alone walking down street) quite intrusive. Post, 421-422. concerned heat associated high-powered marijuana-growing lamps. search, stressed "Government [may not] us[e] explore previously unknowable physical intrusion." U.S., 40. difference dwelling issue bearing Nor significant Kyllo's imaging personal immediately, whereas following reaction; terms values stake justifications differ two practices, imager, remarkable pulled 71 miles I-80, maintains excessive comes us inPlace Government officials suspect luggage contained employed sniff. 698 how acted suspiciously line airport labeled fictional addresses). some variant plain-view doctrine excuses lack observes left plain occurs exhibited "no intention [the object] himself."Katz 389 347, 361 (1967) (Harlan, concurring). contrast, conceals possessions world, expect degree view enhanced somewhat technology, see, e.g., Dow Chemical Co. 227 (1986) (allowing aerial surveillance industrial complex), limits. 27, 33 (2001), explained doctrine, "[w]e reserved technological enhancement perception" turns mere observation laid special emphasis heightened surround trunks accorded York Belton, 453 454, 460, (1981) (holding arrest permit trunk). result, protections meaning face superhuman, fallible, techniques reasonableness, lest everything view. myself reserve possible unlike one. All prejudge explosives dangerous chemical biological carried terrorist who prompts individualized Suffice depends demonstrated risk. Unreasonable destructive deadly material suicide bombs societal risk 24 whom SOUTER joins, driving per zone posted 65 hour. Team heard making requested aid, informed asked usual documents — driver's license, registration, proof insurance. promptly refused consent calling validity Caballes' license outstanding warrants, returned Interrupted matter, still arrived after troopers marijuana. 506-507, 203 26 506, 2d, 202. Adhering (2002), two-part taken overall 508, 204. "whether action inception," related circumstances interference place." Brownlee, 186 501, 518-519, 713 556, 565 (1999) (in turn quoting Terry, 19-20)). "[I]t undisputed," observed, initiated"; dispositive inquiry "second test," "[t]he bears burden establishing remained 509, concluded failed offer sniff: "The odor note suggesting drugs." Lacking "specific facts" supporting 470-471, 281), ruled, "the impermissibly broadened 204.1 violated 28 upheld frisk suspicious behavior belief armed. 27-28. Terry-type [must be] inception, 20. applying several indicated limitation "scope" confined seizure; encompasses conducted. Hiibel Sixth Judicial Dist. Nev., Humboldt Cty., 542 177, 188 (2004) (an request himself "has immediate purpose, rationale, demands stop"); Hensley, 469 221, 235 (1985) (examining, intrusiveness detention"); Florida Royer, 460 491, 500 (1983) (plurality opinion) ("[A]n investigative temporary last longer necessary effectuate [and] methods least means available verify dispel . ."). 29 "A stop," relatively `is analogous so-called formal arrest.'" 113, 117 (1998) 439 (1984)); 415 (SOUTER, dissenting) (The "take detention.").2 apply Terry's reasonable-relation test, did, expanded valid Caballes. 30 hardly lengthened Cf. 407 ("A initial] mission."). merits repetition, instructs "reasonably (emphasis added). unwarranted nonconsensual expansion that, my judgment, runs afoul Amendment.3 31 rejects implicitly, application converted, rules, scope. 408. Dog reasons, hence disturb 408-409. 32 diminishes Amendment's force abandoning (was [justifiying] [initial] interference"). intimidating animal. Williams, 356 1268, 1276 2004) (McKay, ("drug lap dogs"). Injecting animal changes motorist. becomes broader, adversarial, cases) longer. who, Troopers knew, guilty six exposed embarrassment intimidation investigated, thoroughfare, drugs. Even "search," cf. (2000); surely traffic-violation-related never removed control ground well calculated apprehend guilty. Karo, 705, 717 (1984) (Fourth warrant requirement applies monitoring beeper [justify] believing wherever goes likely produce activity."); Minnesota Carter, 83, 110 (GINSBURG, ("Fourth protection, innocent only, regulating toward guilty."). Under today's decision, every distress law-abiding population. 34 seems me, correctly apprehended danger allowing despite presence. Today's clears way suspicionless, dog-accompanied along sidewalks lots. Compare, Ludwig, 1523, 1526-1527 1993) (upholding motel lot suspicion), Quinn, 815 153, 159 (CA1 1987) (officers moment performed), 706-707 piece seized, pre-sniff, drugs). motorists complaint stationed lights, circle waiting red green. 35 undermines situation-sensitive balancing contexts. example, Bond 529 334, 338-339 (2000), bus passenger bag placed overhead bin manipulation If exempt inspection, substitute permission bag, difference: option "No." 36 emphasis, detection only. explosives, security presented here, matter. ordinarily all-purpose sniffers, discrete purposes. agricultural products detection. Customs & Border Protection, Canine Enforcement Training Center Program Course Descriptions, http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/border_security/canines/training_program.xml (all Internet materials visited Dec. 16, 2004, Clerk file) training courses detection); Transportation Security Administration, Explosives Program, http://www.tsa.gov/public/display?theme=32 Administration's program); Dept. Agriculture, Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, USDA's Dogs: Protecting Agriculture (Oct. 2001), http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/detdogs.pdf USDA Beagle Brigade detector prohibited fruits, plants, meat); Jennings, Origins History Dogs, Sports Medicine Surgery 18-19 (M. Bloomberg, Dee, Taylor eds. 1998) narcotics-detector Patrol Customs, bomb Administration Secret noting possibility cross multiple tasks); Chapman, Dogs America 64, 70-79 (1990) narcotics- explosives-detection training). accompanying 507, ("Trooper ."); 37 distinguished threats safety. Michigan Sitz, 496 444 (1990), sobriety checkpoint. Balancing State's preventing drunk driving, extent accomplished through checkpoint program, stops involved, determined program 455. Ten interdiction Nation struggling stem, "general control" stops. 43-44 (internal quotation marks checkpoints Sitz designed eliminate "immediate, vehicle-bound threat life limb." 43. 38 bomb-detection vehicles doubt closer kinship Edmond. observed Edmond: "[T]he almost certainly appropriately tailored roadblock set thwart imminent attack. ." 44. course characterize 410 dissenting), immediate, present needs doctrine. 417, dissenting); Griffin Wisconsin, 483 868, 873 (1987) (permitting exceptions probable-cause requirements "special needs, normal need law enforcement," make impracticable Jersey O., 325, (Blackmun, judgment))). 39 reasons stated, rights when, wrongdoing, insufficient observations (1) said moving Chicago, visible belongings sport coats backseat; (2) smelled air freshener; (3) dressed business, unemployed; (4) seemed nervous. viewed together, said, "nothing vague hunch" "possible wrongdoing." 509-510, 204-205 proceeds [Caballes]."Ante, 407. TheBerkemer cautioned analogizing "not exceed bounds 439, 29. looked ordered motorist expired tags exit Pennsylvania Mimms, 434 106, 109-110 (1977) (per curiam), later reaffirmed analogy evaluating 117. inquiring unconstitutionally broadens CfFlorida Bostick, 501 429, (1991) (police questioning passenger, "No," constitute seizure).

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