Document: 429 U.S. 190 97 S.Ct. 451 50 L.Ed.2d 397 Curtis CRAIG et al., Appellants,v.David BOREN, etc., al. No. 75-628. Argued Oct. 5, 1976. Decided Dec. 20, Rehearing Denied Feb. 22, 1977. See 1124, 1161. Syllabus Appellant Craig, a male then between 18 and 21 years old, appellant Whitener, licensed vendor of 3.2% beer, brought this action for declaratory injunctive relief, claiming that an Oklahoma statutory scheme prohibiting the sale "nonintoxicating" beer to males under age females constituted gender-based discrimination denied 18-20 equal protection laws. Recognizing Reed v. Reed, 404 71, 92 251, 30 225, later cases establish classification by gender must substantially further important governmental objectives, three-judge District Court held appellees' statistical evidence regarding young males' drunk-driving arrests traffic injuries demonstrated was related achievement safety on roads. Held : 1. Since only relief against enforcement differential sought, controversy has been mooted as who became after had noted probable jurisdiction. See, e. g., DeFunis Odegaard, 416 312, 94 1704, 40 164. P. 192. 2. Whitener standing make challenge. Pp. 192-197. (a) No prudential objective thought be served limitations jus tertii can furthered here, where lower court already entertained constitutional challenge parties have sought resolution issue. 193-194. (b) in any event independently established third-party standing. She suffers "injury fact" since challenged provisions are addressed vendors like her, either obey incur economic injury or disobey statute suffer sanctions. In such circumstances, may resist efforts restrict their operations advocating rights third seeking access market. Eisenstadt Baird, 405 438, 1029, 31 349. 194-197. 3. Oklahoma's constitutes invidious violation Equal Protection Clause. Appellees' statistics (the most relevant which show .18% 2% 18-20-year-old group were arrested driving while influence liquor) do not warrant conclusion sex represents accurate proxy regulation drinking driving. 199-204. 4. The operation Twenty-first Amendment does alter application standards otherwise govern case. never recognized defeat claim Clause, principles cannot rendered inapplicable here reliance upon statistically measured but loose-fitting generalities concerning tendencies aggregate groups. 204-210. 399 F.Supp. 1304, reversed. Frederick Gilbert, Tulsa, Okl., appellants. James H. Gray, City, appellees. Mr. Justice BRENNAN delivered opinion Court. 1 interaction two sections statute, Okla.Stat., Tit. 37, §§ 241 245 (1958 Supp.1976),1 prohibits 18. question decided is whether denial laws Fourteenth Amendment. 2 This Western December 1972, age, beer. complaint ground it age. A convened 28 U.S.C. § 2281 sustained constitutionality dismissed action. 1304 (1975). We jurisdiction appellants' appeal, 423 1047, 96 771, 46 635 (1976). reverse. 3 * first address preliminary Craig attained we Therefore, moot Craig. 164 (1974).2 thus arises live rely objections her unconstitutionality age-sex differential. conclude she may. 4 Initially, should that, despite having opportunity so,3 appellees raised before objection Whitener's claimed unequal treatment premise law. F.Supp., at 1306 n. Indeed, oral argument acknowledged always "presumed" vendor, subject sanctions loss license proper party interest object sex-based regulatory provision. Tr. Oral Arg. 41. While concession certainly would controlling reach Court's authority exercise Art. III, see, Sierra Club Morton, 727, 732 3, 1361, 1365, 636 (1972); cf. Association Data Processing Service Organizations, Inc. Camp, 150, 151, 90 827, 829, 25 184 (1970), our decisions settled litigant's assertion constitutionally mandated, rather stem from salutary "rule self-restraint" designed minimize unwarranted intervention into controversies applicable questions ill-defined speculative. Barrows Jackson, 346 249, 255, 257, 73 1031, 1034, 1035, L.Ed. 1586 (1953); see also Singleton Wulff, 428 106, 123-124, 2868, 2877, 49 826 (1976) (Powell, J., dissenting). These enhanced restrictions standing, least resisted authoritative determination. decision us forgo consideration merits order await initiation new injured impermissibly foster repetitive time-consuming litigation guise caution prudence. Moreover, insofar continue presented vigorously "cogently," Holden Hardy, 169 366, 397, 383, 390, 42 780 (1898), deference direct class suit serve no functional purpose. Our Brother Blackmun's comment pertinent: "(I)t could assembled, whose fluid membership included some (males) with claims. But if right 'representative' extent anyway, there seems little terms effective advocacy allowing its by" present champion. supra, 117-118, 2875. 5 event, assert plainly inflicted sufficient guarantee "concrete adverseness," Baker Carr, 369 186, 204, 82 691, 703, 7 663 (1962), satisfy based requirements imposed III. legal duties created directly appellant. obliged heed discrimination, thereby incurring through constriction buyers' market, command suffer, words Assistant Attorney General, "sanctions perhaps license." repeatedly threshold "case controversy" mandated 113, S.Ct., 2873 (doctors receive payments abortion services "classically adverse" government payer); Sullivan Little Hunting Park, 396 229, 237, 400, 404, 24 386 (1969); U.S., 255-256, 1034-1035. 6 As lawfulness 245, entitled those concomitant "diluted adversely affected" fail statutes remain force. Griswold Connecticut, 381 479, 481, 85 1678, 1679, 14 510 (1965); Note, Standing Assert Constitutional Jus Tertii, 88 Harv.L.Rev. 423, 432 (1974). Otherwise, threatened imposition might deter other similarly situated selling males, ensuring "enforcement restriction (vendor) result indirectly parties' rights." Warth Seldin, 422 490, 510, 95 2197, 2211, 45 343 Accordingly, positions uniformly permitted restricting acting advocates seek market function. 349 supra ; supra.4 answered disposition supra. There, state disabilities claimant, convicted distributing package contraceptive foam party.5 directed Baird penalized his conduct, did hesitate again requirement III satisfied. 443, 1033. considering Baird's objections, fully defend privacy interests parties. Deemed crucial permit recognition "the impact interests." Id., 445, 1034. Just "(e)nforcement Massachusetts will materially impair ability single persons obtain contraceptives," id., 446, so too failure prevail continued "materially of" purchase overt criterion. Similarly, just law "prohibit(ed), use, distribution," consequently awkward challenger one position proscription, explicitly regulates than use leaving obvious claimant. 8 therefore hold raise challenges now consider arguments. II A. 9 Before defined commencement civil majority males. 15, 13 (1972 Supp.1976). contrast, criminally responsible adults 16. 10, 1101(a) (Supp.1976). After Appeals Tenth Circuit 225 (1971), distinction unconstitutional purposes establishing criminal responsibility adults, Lamb Brown, 456 F.2d 18, Legislature fixed both females. matters, Supp.1976), except simultaneously codified create exception gender-free rule. 10 Analysis appropriately begin reminder emphasized classifications distinguish "subject scrutiny Clause." 75, 253. To withstand challenge, previous objectives objectives. Thus, "reducing workload probate courts," 76, 254, "avoiding intrafamily controversy," 77, deemed insufficient importance sustain criterion appointment administrators intestate decedents' estates. Decisions following rejected administrative ease convenience sufficiently justify classifications. Stanley Illinois, 645, 656, 1208, 1215, 551 Frontiero Richardson, 411 677, 690, 93 1764, 1772, 36 583 (1973); Schlesinger Ballard, 419 498, 506-507, 572, 576-577, 610 And Terms ago, Stanton Stanton, 421 7, 1373, 43 688 (1975), expressly stating "controlling," 13, 1377, required invalidation Utah age-of-majority notwithstanding statute's coincidence furtherance State's purpose fostering "old notions" role typing preparing boys expected performance political worlds. 14-15, 1378.6 11 provided underpinning invalidated employing inaccurate other, more germane bases classification. Hence, "archaic overbroad" generalizations, 508, 577, financial servicewomen, 689 23, working women, Weinberger Wiesenfeld, 420 636, 643, 1225, 1230, 514 line determining eligibility certain entitlements. increasingly outdated misconceptions home "marketplace world ideas" characterizations incapable supporting schemes premised accuracy. Taylor Louisiana, 522, 535 17, 692, 700, 690 light weak congruence characteristic trait purported represent, necessary legislatures choose realign substantive gender-neutral fashion, adopt procedures identifying instances sex-centered generalization actually comported fact. 658, 1216; Cleveland Board Education LaFleur, 414 632, 650, 791, 801, 39 52 12 case, too, "Reed, feel . .," 1377. turn whether, difference respect warrants drawn statute. not. B controlling. applying teachings found requisite traffic-safety goal proffered General. It concluded introduced goal. C accept discussion identification underlying enhancement safety.7 Clearly, public health function local governments. However, view support closely serves achieve 15 variety surveys. First, analysis arrest 1973 "driving influence" "drunkenness" exceeded female same period.8 youths aged 17-21 overrepresented among killed accidents, numerically exceeding regard.9 Third, random roadside survey City revealed inclined drive drink counterparts.10 Fourth, Federal Bureau Investigation nationwide exhibited notable increase influence."11 Finally, gathered jurisdictions, particularly Minnesota Michigan, offered corroborate experience indicating pervasiveness youthful participation motor vehicle accidents imbibing alcohol. Conceding case free doubt," 1314, nonetheless showing substantiated "a rational basis legislative judgment classification." 1307. 16 Even accepted accurate, nevertheless offers answer here. focused surveys, 18-20-year-olds alcohol-related offenses, exemplifies ultimate unpersuasiveness evidentiary record. Viewed correlation actual activity seeks regulate alcohol broadly offense. disparity trivial sense, hardly form employment classifying device. Certainly maleness driving, considered unduly tenuous "fit."12 prior consistently decisionmaking factor even though rested far predictive empirical relationships this.13 17 exhibit shortcomings seriously impugn value analysis. Setting aside methodological problems,14 surveys adequately salient features None purports measure dangerousness opposed generally, detail particular since, low level, apparently considers beverage "nonintoxicating." 163.1 (1958); State ex rel. Springer Bliss, 199 Okl. 198, 185 P.2d 220 (1947). many studies, graphically documenting unfortunate alcohol, effort relate findings differentials involved here.15 centered attention drivers albeit diluted reached results viewed impressive justifying classification.16 There reason belabor unrealistic expect members judiciary officials well versed rigors experimental technique. merely illustrates proving broad sociological propositions dubious business, inevitably tension normative philosophy underlies Clause.17 Suffice say legitimate, fact, when once acquired (even companions), relationship becomes Reed's objective. 19 hold, therefore, invidiously discriminates D 20 Appellees argue, however, enforce policies distribution force response contention unclear. assumed "strengthened" police powers regulation, 1307, said review Clause) mandates relaxed." 1308. is, save history alcoholic beverages dates long adoption Eighteenth License Cases, How. 504, 579, 256 (1847), governments trade within borders implied Commerce Later century, Leisy Hardin, 135 100, 681, 34 128 (1890), undercut theoretical underpinnings Cases. led Congress, pursuant reinvigorate passage Wilson18 Webb-Kenyon Acts.19 Clark Distilling Co. Maryland R. Co., 242 311, 37 180, 61 326 (1917) (upholding Act); re Rahrer, 140 545, 865, 35 572 (1891) Wilson Act). With Amendment, uneasy Clause power temporarily subsided. 22 repealed 1933. wording Amendment20 follows Acts, expressing framers' clear intention constitutionalizing framework statutes. confirmed primarily normal Hostetter Idlewild Bon Voyage Liquor Corp., 377 324, 330, 84 1293, 1297, 350 (1964); Carter Virginia, 321 131, 139-140, 64 464, 469-470, 605 (1944) (Frankfurter, concurring); Finch & McKittrick, 305 395, 398, 59 256, 83 246 (1939). pro tanto repeal requires each provision "be context issues stake concrete case." 332, 1298; Department Revenue Beam 341, 1247, 362 Collins Yosemite Park Curry 304 518, 58 1009, 1502 (1938). 23 Once passing beyond relevance doubtful. commentator remarked: "Neither text nor suggests qualifies individual protected Bill Rights liquor concerned." Brest, Processes Decisionmaking, Cases Materials 258 Any departures historical limited sporadic. Two States successfully relied respond major importers importation manufacture grounds. Mahoney Joseph Triner 401, 952, 1424 (1938); Equalization California Young's Market 299 59, 64, 57 79, 81 38 (1936). arguments intoxicants, area transparently clear, n.9, touched purely matters traditionally merit mildest E. Seagram Sons Hostetter, 384 35, 47-48, 50-51, 86 1254, 1262-1263, 1263-1264, 336 (1966) (rejecting strength Ferguson Skrupa, 372 726, 729-730, 1028, 1030-1031, (1963) Williamson Lee Optical 348 483, 75 461, 99 563 (1955) ).21 involving Due Process treated sharp contrast. For example, objected mandatory "posting" name retail establishments characterization "excessive drink(er)," qualify scope due process rights. Wisconsin Constantineau, 400 433, 436, 91 507, 509, 27 515 (1971). true LaRue, 409 109, 115, 342 (1972), "strengthen" entertainment dispense liquor, performances "partake gross sexuality communication," 118, 397. Nevertheless, "strength" Rather, Moose Lodge 107 Irvis, 407 163, 178-179, 1965, 1974, 32 627 establishes work discriminations violate Following approach, federal courts declared lines restrain activities customers state-regulated irrespective White Fleming, 522 730 (CA7 1975); Women's Liberation Union R.I. Israel, 512 106 (CA1 Daugherty Daley, 370 338 (ND Ill.1974) (three-judge court); Seidenberg McSorleys' Old Ale House, Inc., 317 593 (SDNY 1970); Commonwealth Alcoholic Beverage Control Bd. Burke, 481 S.W.2d (Ky.1972); Sail'er Inn, Kirby, Cal.3d 1, Cal.Rptr. 329, 485 529 (1971); Paterson Tavern G. O. Hawthorne, N.J. 270 A.2d 628 (1970). posited justifications these differentiations, struck down aimed entire regulation. social science studies uncovered quantifiable differences dividing along racial ethnic strongly suggest need preventing discriminatory almost perceived invidious.22 sum, embodied 26 contained (1976 Supp.) 18-2023 reverse Court.24 ordered. POWELL, concurring. 29 I join am general agreement it. reservations appropriate standard evidence. add concurring statement. standard, agree precedent. find unnecessary, deciding read language imply. subsequent subjects critical examination normally applied "fundamental" "suspect classes" present.* relatively easy legitimacy asserted objective: promotion highway safety. turns legislature, chosen, adopted means bears " 'fair substantial relation' quoting Royster Guano 253 412, 415, 560, 561, 989 (1920). me tend generally men more, possibly various reasons women. so, persuaded facts inferences fairly them three-year sexes, especially easily circumvented virtually meaningless. Putting differently, bear fair relation legislation. 33 STEVENS, every impartially. apply different cases. Whatever criticism leveled judicial implying three applies double standard. believe what become known two-tiered claims describe completely logical method cases, employed explain reasonably consistent fashion. suspect careful explanation motivating contribute attempt articulate all-encompassing terms. principal opinion. obnoxious condemned,1 inoffensive accepted. objectionable because accident birth,2 mere remnant universally tradition discriminating bracket,3 because, reflects physical females, perverse.4 justification put forward offensive acceptable. totally irrational. indicate bracket drink. several why regard unacceptable. difficult intended cope problem safety,5 minimal effect very intoxicating prohibit consumption.6 data submitted accentuate unfairness treating all 18-21-year-old inferior counterparts. legislation imposes restraint 100% allegedly about probably violated relating consumption beverages.7 unlikely significant deterrent law-abiding 98%. assuming slight benefit, seem insult justified visiting sins BLACKMUN, part. Part II-D thereof. agree, STEWART, judgment. 41 old. 443-446, 1033-1035, 349; 510; 255-260, 1034-1037, 1586; Buchanan Warley, 60, 72-73, 16, 17-18, 62 149; 431-436 concur issue us. Every control dispensation borders. 342; 336; 1296, 350; 1424; 38. "(t)his empowers act total irrationality ." 120, 398 (concurring opinion). amounts irrationality. relies, whatever shortcomings, wholly prove somehow deleterious comes hands disparate sexes without colorably valid explanation, discrimination. 225. 44 Chief BURGER, dissenting. REHNQUIST's dissent, risk compounding confusion voting Court, few words. At outset arising status saloonkeeper customers. litigant own immunities." United Raines, 80 519, 523, 524 (1960). few, strictly exceptions rule; creative efforts, fits none them. 47 (1969), (1953), barrier asserting, forum, they Craig's successful prevented advent 21st birthday. danger interminable dilution litigate Cf. 445-446, 1034-1035, (1972). 48 Nor controlled (1965). ludicrous draw parallel intimate professional physician-patient undergirded relaxation rules Eisenstadt, carefully claimant "was simply fortuitous connection potential vendees, acted protect minority itself." McGowan Maryland, 366 420, 429-430, 1101, 1106-1108, 393 (1961); Brown States, 223, 230, 1565, 1569, 208 (1973). permitting vendees whenever arguably infringed introduces concept subscribe. 51 On merits, recently duty "to guaranteeing laws." San Antonio School Dist. Rodriguez, 33, 1278, society education housing "fundamental rights" textually independent status. 29-39, 1294-1300 (education); Lindsey Normet, 56, 862, (1972) (housing). Though today's go "suspect," makes disfavored Without disfavoring adopted, 425-426, 1104-1105, afforded agreeable judges, eight Members think irrational, striking violative Constitution unwise, unneeded, bit foolish. 53 REHNQUIST, affirm 54 55 First challenging treats less favorably women invoke stringent pertains types Second enunciation citation source, being "classifications objectives." Ante 197 (emphasis added). redeeming feature opinion, my mind, signals retreat joined plurality (1973), "suspect" pass "rational basis" expounded (1961), (1955), 56 sets forth four Justices concluding regarded center Nation's "long discrimination," 684, 1769, reflected whole range concerned ownership property electoral process. Noting pervasive persistent nature experienced part ready identifiability, invocation strict largely fact "statutory distinctions often relegating capabilities members." 686-687, 1770. 1377-1378, Subsequent Frontiero, declined class, holding imported elevated "intermediate" level scrutiny, invoked dealing raises differently countless unrelated upheld minimum rationality Jefferson Hackney, 406 535, 546-547, 1724, 1731-1732, 285 Richardson Belcher, 78, 81-84, 257-259, 231 Dandridge Williams, 471, 484-485, 1153, 1161-1162, 491 (1970); 1104-1105; Flemming Nestor, 363 603, 611, 1367, 1435 (1960); 488-489, 464-465. Most obviously unavailable kind special pattern past scrutiny. suggestion way peculiarly disadvantaged, systematic treatment, solicitude courts. discuss involved, sees implicating interest, let alone sense invoking observation affects ante, emphasizes involved. nothing works group, protection. 60 number opinions contain phrased dicta test sex, affecting 688, 1771; today, invalidate harmful impaired personal Constitution.1 plausible females,2 sex-discrimination ill-founded. talisman affected calls heavier burden review. "must objectives" out thin air. contains language, enough difficulty norm basis," "compelling interest" classification" counsel weightily insertion still another "standard" two. How divine important? determine "substantially" objective, achievement? Both phrases used diaphanous elastic invite subjective preferences prejudices legislation, masquerading judgments "important" or, "substantial" enough. leave anything popularly elected branches Government, invoked, achieved "important," second test, Judicial Branch worse Legislative Executive Branches serve. introduction adverb operational effects, neither expertise manage avoid mirroring development doctrine, thousands judges interpret fortunate. 63 rational-basis "permits wide discretion enacting affect groups citizens others. safeguard offended rests grounds irrelevant presumed practice, inequality. set conceived it." 1105 (citations omitted). 65 demand "mathematical nicety" elimination Those recognize practical problems require rough accommodations interests, respected unless reasonable 485, Whether ends better precisely approach inquiry traditional approach. 84, 258. 66 "accept(s) discussion" finding safety, proceeds examine record decide objective." Ante, 199, 200 (Whether "closely serv(e)" "substantially related" achievement, 197, told.) type done warning "(i)t technique." 204. One immerse oneself fine points analysis, weaknesses attempted denigration hand. 67 assembled indicated times counterparts, ratio 1.3 Accepting, does, comparison figures census data, indicates rate compared 68 Other (1) over five-year period 1967 drunken increased 138%, 93% male;4 (2) casualties female, deaths rise overall declined;5 (3) three-fourths them, average, drives half miles per year counterparts;6 (4) four-fifths preference three-fifths preference;7 (5) percentage admitting hours larger blood content greater .01% drivers.8 69 conveys impression legislature subjected equivalent doctoral statistics. Legislatures bodies, factual conclusions determination cause officer represents. situation, infer incidence drunk good deal higher arrest. 70 while, observes, relying report Presidential Commission cites footnote, distorted stereotyping, perfect. stereotypes suggests, conduct question, conform wild reckless image stereotype. 71 complains integration counts death correlated intoxication, 201 9; national breakdown 21-year-old 459, 11; records intoxication tied 201-202, nn. 12. surely take notice drunkenness casualties, offenders participated problem. latter point, 18-21-year-olds, dropped, irrelevant. 72 unreasonable expressed age-group predominant source intoxication-related arrests. Taking predicate, bar purchases including variety. lacks evaluate properties beverage, posture course defer inference taken quantity beverage. Quite apart alleged deficiencies evidence, appears face, fails notes (as females) figure "an 'fit' 20-year-old group. point misconceives inquiry. 74 depend "fit" singled out. excluded treatment. Therefore poses Notwithstanding critique habits pose hazard, sheer numbers hazard per-driver basis. clearest demonstration precise made equally flat anyone, group; fortiori given "tenuous femaleness. 1% population arrested. What protection, category 76 Cast terms, carries weight, call balance harm resulting overinclusiveness underinclusiveness. Vlandis Kline, 412 441, 448-452, 2230, 2234-2236, harmed minor implicates cry occasion supported similar reasoning. 640, 796, (1974); 651, 1212, prevention highways. 77 convenience. 451, 2236; 1215. apparent likely drive, plain faced atypical legislating categories trust, allowed whole, how 78 believed intoxicated counterparts; prefer admit females; proportion up population. Under irrational arbitrary making man immediately returns possession. give indication (except doubt arrested), conceivably question. process, accordingly upheld. Sections provide pertinent part: 241. "It shall unlawful person holds sell sell, barter containing one-half cent volume two-tenths (3.2) weight. 245. "A 'minor,' Section eighteen (18) years, twenty-one (21) years." Appellants certification representative Sosna Iowa, 393, 553, 558, 532 confirms gender-discrimination grounds, 1306, "(n)o (her) principle stated 21, (1960), "one whom heard attack impliedly situations unconstitutional." refused Georgia Civil Act official construed encompass "purely private actions" Raines rule remains setting, proposed mutually interdependent. threaten diminish others, consequently, properly deferred until day. Of course, relaxed threatens "chill" Lewis New Orleans, 415 130, 970, 214 chose him Massachusetts, anticontraception conviction, 440, pertaining anticipatory compel claimants cease proscribed existence structure claimant's altered litigative suit. And, certainly, offends governing actions. Steffel Thompson, 452, 1209, 505 Samuels Mackell, 401 66, 764, Younger Harris, 746, 669 Kahn Shevin, 351, 1734, 189 (1974) upholding classifications, perception laudatory remedying disadvantageous conditions suffered military life. 353-354, 1736-1737; 577. Needless say, enacted ensure availability compensation deprivations. That self-evident. face preserve materials capable clarifying enactments. nonexistence reveal was," "we promote generally." 1311 6. attorney Oklahoma, proposing legitimate rationale law, candidly he unable "indeed reason" 27. appeal adequate appellee's representation purpose, day statement General suffice inform legislature's selecting convenient, false, post hoc rationalization. disparities male-female offenses: 427 versus 966 102 drunkenness. assume situations, offer line, disproportionate persisted older ages; indeed, drunkenness, ages "even involvement ages." 1309. 14, infra. drew levels injured. exhibit, FBI 18-21 differential, 90% total. Obviously, embrace individuals drive. "underinclusiveness" discounted somewhat inherent sample, know extrapolating account large, avoided conjecture Idaho's lacked formal business (particularly men) proved defense dependency tests unsatisfactory, husbands dependent wives vice versa. 688-690, 1771-1772. reflection age-differential laws, 1378 distort accuracy comparative Hence "reckless" transformed statistics, whereas counterparts chivalrously escorted home. W. Reckless B. Kay, Female Offender 4, 16-17 (Report Law Enforcement Administration Justice, 1967). regime effect, lacking controls appraisal effectiveness prohibition. regard, disproportionately high and, growing document relative futility behavior although estimating individuals, any, 11, conducted during August 1972 78% male. Turning evaluation factoring nondrinkers, 84% 77% Further 16.5% 11.4% consumed interview. concentration discovered 14.6% 11.5% "The figures, variations, reflect essentially pattern." Plainly substantial. boundaries lifted analyzed, rose slightly exposure remained constant. Again, 1973, "compared interviewed, under-20 showed BAC (blood content)." Ibid. provides teenagers runs counter Act, 1890, reads "All liquors liquids transported Territory arrival powers, manner produced 121. 1913 "(t)he shipment transportation State, Territory, (for being) received, possessed, sold, .." 122. possession delivery therein liquors, thereof, hereby prohibited." dictum (1936), "(a) forbidden Fourteenth," recognize, indirectly, gender. accompanying demonstrates, recent permissibility limiting principle, follow freely favor Jews Italian Catholics expense Americans, available regularly demonstrate former lowest rates drinking. Haberman Sheinberg, Implicative Drinking Reported Household Survey: Corroborative Note Subgroup Differences, Q. J. Studies Alcohol 538 (1967); Wechsler, Thum, Demone, Dwinnell, Social Characteristics Blood Level, 132, 141-142 Kasey, Religious-Ethnic Differences Consumption, Health Soc. Behavior Schmidt Popham, Impressions Jewish Alcoholics, 931 demographic characteristics adolescents drinkers, black drink, followed Asian-Americans Spanish-Americans. "Whites American Indians proportions abstainers highest moderate/heavy heavy drinkers." Summary Final Report National Study Adolescent Behavior, Attitudes Correlates 147-148 (Center Research Triangle Inst., Apr. 1975) (percentage adolescent drinkers race: 15.2%; Asian-American 18.3%; Spanish-American 22.7%; white 25.3%; Indian 28.1%). past, notions propensities fashioning policies. typical recipient Indian; "half quarter breed Indian." Fla.Stat.Ann. 569.07 (1962 1976 (repealed 1972); Iowa Code Ann. 732.5 (1950 1967); Minn.Stat.Ann. 340.82 (1957) 1969); Neb.Rev.Stat. 53-181 1955); 76-34-1 (1953 1975 1955). onto reservations. June 1910, 2, Stat. 558; Ariz.Const., XX, 3; N.M.Const., XXI, 8; Okla.Const., I, 7. Indian-oriented common, prohibitions groups, notably German, Italian, Catholic immigrants. Higham, Strangers Land 25, 267-268, 295 society's questionable singling brunt evident opinions, agreeing dissatisfaction "two-tier" prominent decade. Although result-oriented substitute narrowly "upper-tier" precedential support. progeny, today "middle-tier" endorse welcome subdividing candor compels deferential takes sharper focus So much thoughtful discussions Gunther, Supreme 1971 Term Foreword: Search Evolving Doctrine Changing Court: Model Newer Protection, Wilkinson, Three Faces Equality, Va.L.Rev. 945 Insofar Goesaert Cleary, 335 163 (1948), inconsistent, disapproved. Undoubtedly reflecting Goesaert's longer obtains, reference cited earlier invalidating disparaged contemporary vitality Goesaert. 1379-1380, redefine cutoff choose, redefinition operates Men victims historic, disadvantaged "(S)ince race origin, immutable determined solely birth, 'the basic system burdens .,' Weber Aetna Casualty Surety 164, 175, 1400, 1406, 768." 686, 1770, 583. Apparently narrow survive Because capacity consume impairing contrary. exempts holders children, 18-year-old (but women) accounts 25% sales. 241, 243, knowing motivated surprised represented perpetuation stereotyped attitude maturity bracket. If relevant: "(A) pausing newly Habit, acceptable natural alien citizen, illegitimate; inertia distinguishing white. sort reaction pure prejudicial made." Mathews Lucas, 495, 520-521, 2755, 2769, 651 (Stevens, forbids forbidding possession, obtaining sources, friends female. impedes sexes. drivers, interview Over nonabstainers men, concentrations .01%. 203 separation illegitimate children surviving father mother, parental unfitness. parent companionship, care, custody, management 'come(s) momentum liberties derive shifting arrangements.' (1974), Florida's $500 tax exemption widows only. 355, 1737, understood dissenters. 357, 1738 (BRENNAN, MARSHALL, 202(g) Security benefits mothers fathers wage earner. treated, earners, minimizes security families. 1231. unaware time advanced, ultimately redound detriment reinforce roles opportunities proposition categorizations, implicitly carry weight differences. (1975); Seeing applicability situation hand, insubstantial consideration. Extract from: Investigation, Arrest Statistics September, October, November, 1973. Defendants' Exhibit Jurisdictional Statement A22. Police Department, A23. 8. Crime 1972. 6, App. 182-184. Public Safety, Statewide Collisions Exhibits A30-A31. Management Engineering Consulting, Safety Action Program Table A25. A27 (Table 3), A29 5). A25 1).

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