Document: 458 U.S. 457 102 S.Ct. 3187 73 L.Ed.2d 896 WASHINGTON, et al., Appellantsv.SEATTLE SCHOOL DISTRICT NO. 1, al. No. 81-9. Argued March 22, 1982. Decided June 30, Syllabus In 1978, appellee Seattle School District 1 (District) enacted the so-called Plan for desegregation of its schools. The plan makes extensive use mandatory busing. Subsequently, a statewide initiative (Initiative 350) was drafted to terminate busing purposes racial integration in public schools State Washington. prohibits school boards from requiring any student attend other than one geographically nearest or next his home. It sets out number broad exceptions this requirement, however: may be assigned beyond neighborhood if he requires special educational programs, is overcrowded unsafe, it lacks necessary physical facilities. These permit assign students away their virtually all nonintegrative required by policies. After passed at November 1978 general election, District, together with two districts, brought suit against appellant Federal Court, challenging constitutionality Initiative 350 under Equal Protection Clause Fourteenth Amendment. Court held unconstitutional on ground, inter alia, that established an impermissible classification violation Hunter v. Erickson, 393 385, 89 557, 21 616, and Lee Nyquist, 318 F.Supp. 710 (WDNY), summarily aff'd, 402 935, 91 1618, 29 105, "because permits non-racial reasons but forbids reasons." court permanently enjoined implementation initiative's restrictions. Appeals affirmed. Held : violates Clause. Pp. 467-487. (a) When allocates governmental power nonneutrally, explicitly using nature decision determine decisionmaking process, action "places burdens minorities within process," U.S., 391, S.Ct., 560, thereby "making more difficult certain religious [than members community] achieve legislation interest." Id., 395, 563. Such structuring political process "no permissible [is] denying [members minority] vote, equal basis others." 560. 467-470. (b) must fall because does "not attemp[t] allocate principle," 563, instead uses issue define structure, thus imposing substantial unique minorities. worked major reordering State's process. Before adoption initiative, what programs would most appropriately fill district's needs—including involving assignment desegregation—was committed local board's discretion. passage 350, authority over these areas remained hands. By placing desegregative state level, "differentiates between treatment problems matters afforded same area." F.Supp., 718. And works something "mere repeal" law entity created it. future attempts integrate Washington lodging question new remote level government. This enactment racially beneficial uniquely difficult, therefore imposes direct undeniable minority interests. 470-484. (c) Contrary appellants' suggestion, Erickson not effectively overruled Davis, 426 229, 96 2040, 48 597, Arlington Heights Metropolitan Housing Dev. Corp., 429 252, 97 555, 50 450. While Davis considered classifications facially unrelated race, like case—involved attempt criteria community's structure. so doing, there directly invidiously curtailed "the operation those processes ordinarily relied upon protect minorities." United States Carolene Products Co., 304 144, 152-153, n. 4, 58 778, 783-784, 82 L.Ed. 1234. § principle—that meaningful unjustified distinctions based race are impermissible—is still vital. 484-487. 9th Cir., 633 F.2d 1338, Kenneth O. Eikenberry, Olympia, Wash., appellants. Michael W. Hoge, Seattle, appellees. Justice BLACKMUN delivered opinion Court. We presented here extraordinary question: whether elected board Amendment defend program attack State. 2 * A. 3 (District), which largely coterminous city charged administering 112 educating approximately 54,000 students. About 37% children Negro, Asian, American Indian, Hispanic ancestry. Because segregated housing patterns have imbalanced schools, historically has taken steps alleviate isolation students; since 1963, permitted transfer help cure District's imbalance.1 4 Despite efforts, 1977 came increasing pressure accelerate desegregation.2 response, Board Directors (School Board) resolution defining "racial imbalance" as situation exists when combined enrollment exceeds districtwide average 20 percentage points, provided single . no will exceed percent body." 473 996, 1006 (WD Wash.1979). resolved eliminate such imbalance beginning 1979-1980 academic year.3 5 September 1977, implemented "magnet" program, designed enhancing offerings encouraging voluntary transfers. A "disproportionate amount overall movement" inspired undertaken Negro students, however, ibid., found actually increased 1970-1971 1977-1978 years. concluded reassignment eliminated. Accordingly, "Seattle Plan" desegregation. plan, reassignments, desegregates elementary "pairing" "triading" predominantly white attendance areas, basing assignments zones rather race. makeup secondary moderated "feeding" them desegregated App. 142-143. represents results roughly numbers allows spend half careers attending near homes. Brief Appellee p. 5. 6 1978-1979 year, apparently effective: "has substantially reduced district remain imbalanced." 1007. B 7 late shortly before formally adopted residents who opposed strategies being discussed formed organization called Citizens Voluntary Integration Committee (CiVIC). organization, "was founders' opposition Plan," attempted enjoin Board's through litigation court; efforts failed, CiVIC integration.4 proposal, known shall indirectly require student's place residence offers course study pursued student. ." See Wash.Rev.Code 28A.26.010 (1981).5 then set out, requirement: "requires education, care guidance," "there health safety hazards, either natural man made, barriers obstacles school," unfit inadequate overcrowding, unsafe conditions lack facilities." ibid. also specifically proscribed seven enumerated methods "indirec[t]" assignment—among redefinition zones, pairing "feeder" schools—that part Plan. 28A.26.030. envisioned only circumstance: did purport "prevent competent jurisdiction adjudicating constitutional issues relating schools." 28A.26.060. 8 Its proponents placed ballot election. During ensuing campaign, concluded, leadership "acted legally responsibly," address "its appeals biases voters." 1009. At time, court's findings demonstrate directed solely general, particular. Thus, "[e]xcept effect balancing, drafters preserve districts maximum flexibility students," id., 1008, racially-balancing purposes" "permits most, all, present 1010.6 campaigning measure, officials accurately represented result loss purposes," evident campaign focused almost exclusively wisdom "forced busing" integration. 9 On 8, months after went into effect, margin, drawing 66% vote statewide. failed attract majority support legislative both Seattle. whole, some 61% vote. Within month, Tacoma Pasco Districts,7 initiated Western Washington, several community organizations intervened District;8 behalf defendants. 10 9-day trial, made detailed fact. determined "[t]hose crowded located where preponderance families live." 1001. Yet implemented, "will prevent balancing significant cause system become presently is," make impossible maintain balance," "doubtful" prospects 1010; see 1001, 1011. Except busing, "almost currently taking [Washington] 350." 1010. while bias factor 'busing' obtain voters were moved "a reasons," "[i]t ascertain [o]r relative impact electorate." 11 three independent reasons. first 616 (1969), (WDNY 1970) (three-judge court), 105 (1971), 1012. invalid discriminatory purpose factors motivated conception initiative." 1013.9 Finally, reasoned unconstitutionally overbroad, absence order barred even had engaged de jure segregation foster integration.10 1016. 12 merits, divided panel Ninth Circuit affirmed, relying entirely Court's rationale. 1338 (1980).11 subjecting treatment, "both creates constitutionally-suspect radically restructures allowing state-wide usurp traditional policies." 1344. doing so, continued, "remove[s] existing authority, large capability, enact desegregate 1346 (emphasis original footnote omitted). contrary principles supra, supra. acknowledged different successor rescind Here, body—the electorate—rescinded policy voluntarily locally already subject control." F.2d, 1346.12 13 various officers appealed noted probable significance our Nation's education. 454 890, 384, 70 204 (1981). II 14 guarantees right full participation life community. dispute, course, given ethnic groups denied franchise, precluded entering reliable manner. White Regester, 412 755, 93 2332, 37 314 (1973); Nixon Herndon, 273 536, 47 446, 71 759 (1927). But reaches structure treats individuals equals," Mobile Bolden, 446 55, 84, 100 1490, 1509, 64 (1980) (STEVENS, J., concurring judgment), yet subtly distorts way ability legislation. 15 principle received clearest expression case involved overturn antidiscrimination Akron, Ohio. Akron City Council, pursuant ordinary processes, fair ordinance. citizenry, referendum procedure, 390, 6; 393-394, n., 562, (Harlan, concurring), amended charter provide ordinances regulating real estate transactions " 'on color, religion, national origin ancestry approved electors voting regular election said ordinance effective.' 387, 558. suspended forbidding discrimination, approval [fair housing] could take effect." 389-390, 559-560. essence, amendment changed requirements type legislation: barring discrimination Council citywide. To preventing grounds, ordinance, needed Council. 16 striking down amendment, recognized that, face, provision "draws among groups." differentiate "between sought law's protection discriminatio[n] sale rental regulate property pursuit ends," "disadvantag[ing] benefit laws bar discriminations otherwise market favor." "reality," burden imposed arrangement necessarily "falls minority. needs did, might bothersome that." Ibid. then, served "explicitly treating differently matters." 389, 559. constitutionally suspect: disadvantage particular group making dilute person's give smaller representation another comparable size." 393, 562 added). 17 application doctrine setting strikingly similar now us. That New York education system, appointed conferred officials. effort facto York's Buffalo—a municipality implement plan. developments proceeding, Legislature statute appointed—though "assign[ing] compell[ing] [students] account achieving [racial] equality school." 712.13 18 Applying Hunter, three-judge invalidated statute, noting "[t]he Commissioner [of Education] prohibited acting [student assignment] involved." 719. view, "place[d] policies deal level" "treating original). drew distinction affirmed judgment without opinion. (1971). 19 cases yield simple central principle. As Harlan institutions allocating according "neutral principles"—such executive veto, typically burdensome amending constitutions—are attack, though they "make favorable legislation." 394, 562. every laws, "provid[e] just framework diverse society fairly compete." generally restructure path everyone seeking secure benefits action. analysis kind, said, 560 added), 563 added) concurring). III believe properly Lee, we find dispositive here. principle." Instead, Noting nowhere mentions "race" "integration," appellants suggest overtones; inapposite simply neutrally seriously advanced, despite facial neutrality little doubt drawn purposes. Neither sponsors, nor difficulty perceiving settled 350. text carefully tailored interfere busing.14 Proponents candidly "represented purposes." 1008. And, noted, fact bus "for all," electorate surely aware this, "assured" '99% state' "—those lacked programs—"would affected 1008-1009. reasonable 'because of,' merely 'in spite adverse effects upon" Personnel Administrator Massachusetts Feeney, 442 256, 279, 99 2282, 2296, 60 870 (1979). 22 Even accepting view purpose, States—which position during litigation, supports maintains integration, unlike peculiarly "racial" all. 17, 18. Again, persuaded. undoubtedly true, suggests, cannot classified race: Negroes whites counted supporters opponents should equally clear well exposure "ethnic diversity classroom." Columbus Education Penick, 443 449, 486, 2941, 2991, 61 666 (1979) (POWELL, dissenting). Milliken Bradley, 418 717, 783, 94 3112, 3146, 41 1069 (1974) (MARSHALL, dissenting).15 neither serves distinguish assume favored benefited Akron's Cf. Havens Realty Corp. Coleman, 455 363, 376-377, 1114, 1122-1123, 214 (1982); Gladstone, Realtors Village Bellwood, 441 91, 111, 115, 1601, 1614, 1615, 66 23 event, open bottom inures primarily minority, purpose. come principal instrument awakening child cultural values, preparing him later professional training, helping adjust normally environment." Brown Education, 347 483, 493, 74 686, 691, 98 873 (1954). environment shaped groups, can measure success learn function in—and fully accepted by—the larger Attending ethnically accomplish goal citizenship pluralistic society," Estes Branches Dallas NAACP, 444 437, 451, 716, 723, 62 626 dissenting), while, hope, teaching "to live harmony mutual respect" heritage. 485, 5, 2946, Nyquist settles point, proposition implicated doctrine.16 24 integration—particularly ordered federal court—now engenders considerably controversy sort debated Hunter. 448-451, 722-723 violation, desirability efficacy For purposes, enough consider "legislation Given focus suffices trigger doctrine. 25 satisfied practical work reallocation kind condemned removes problem—and problem—from body, Those favoring elimination seek relief legislature, electorate. decisions, policy, remains vested board. Indeed, exempting 350's proscriptions nonracial assigning expressly championing surmount higher hurdle persons mechanisms modified effective government.17 very obvious sense, "disadvantages barring" "as regulate" decisions; reality falls minority." 26 States, response line analysis, argue power. They note retains plenary Washington's amounts nothing unexceptional example intervention own system. functions "super board," Tr. Oral Arg. involves itself policy. argument continues, body usually decisions area, change forbidden Crawford Los Angeles 527, 3211, 948. 27 glance seem potent argument, traditionally been accorded widest latitude ordering internal Holt Civic Club Tuscaloosa, 439 60, 71, 383, 292 (1978), boards, creatures State, obviously announced legislature. "insisting distribute desires furnish[es] justification violate Nor popular immunize it." 392, 561. here, intervene affairs boards; is, rather, exercised manner consistent Hunter: "[T]hough proceeded municipal legislation, chosen complex Having done vote." 392-393, 561-562.18 close examination statutes related convinces us applicable 28 outset, irrelevant itself, long erected comparative interests; much Lee.19 until board, Like National Boards Assn. Amicus Curiae 11, 14-16, ultimately responsible providing borders, Wash.Const., Art. IX; 28A.02.010 (1981); ch. 28A.41 (establishing uniform financing system); 90 Wash.2d 476, 585 P.2d procedural minimum standards met each school. See, e.g., §§ 28A.01.010, 28A.01.020 (length day year); 28A.27 (mandatory attendance); 28A.67 (teacher qualifications); 28A.05 28A.58.750-28A.58.754 (curriculum). meet responsibilities "state officials, committees," 28A.02.020, responsibility devise tailor emphatically boards. Thus "each common directors" "accountable proper [its] 28A.58.758(1). end, "vested final ensuring quality content extent program" for, many things, "[e]stablish[ing] performance criteria" personnel staff "according classroom needs," concerning hours instruction, establishing curriculum "relevant unusual characteristics district," evaluating materials. 28A.58.758(2). "develop identifying learning objectives district[s]," 28A.58.090; 28A.58.092, select instructional materials, 28A.58.103, stock libraries deem necessary, 28A.58.104, initiate variety optional programs. 28A.34.010, 28A.35.010, 28A.58.105. corporate powers. 28A.58.010, 28A.58.075, 28A.59.180. Significantly bused transportation. 28A.24.055. 30 notion firmly rooted disclosure reporting provisions ensure "accountability" people distric[t]." 28A.58.758(3). perhaps relevant Supreme discretion authorities settle denial "equal opportunity."20 Against Mandatory Bussing Palmason, 80 445, 453, 495 657, 663 (1972). squarely means furthering "administe[r] sound children." 456, P.2d, 664.21 ex rel. Brooks, 121, 492 536 (1972); Lukens Spokane 81, 147 Wash. 467, 474, 266 P. 189, 191 (1928).22 31 statutory concluding integrated sort. Wash.2d, 459-460, 666-667. hands plainly 718.23 similarly restructured reason challenge determinations courts familiar law. 769, 3139 (WHITE, 32 reach conclusion surprise, faced scheme supra,24 actions attributed addressed Michigan vests education: 'The [Michigan] retain control administered throughout agencies carry delegated [them] legislature.' 794, 3151 quoting Lansing 367 Mich. 591, 595, 116 N.W.2d 866, 868 (1962). 726, 3118, fulfill responsibility, funding, teacher certification, curriculum, term, routes textbooks, disciplinary procedures, circumstances remove members. 795-796, 3151-3152 727, 3118 (describing controls education); 768, 3139, dissenting) (same); (same). 33 "[n]o tradition deeply schools," "Michigan provides 741-742, 3125-3126. Relying declined interdistrict remedy acts segregation. If operating separate entities adjudication segregative why apply issue. 34 again Lee. There, complete N.Y.Educ.Law 305, 306, 308-310 (McKinney 1969 Supp.1981). reallocated ways: transferred shifted legislature.25 restructuring declared "conceive compelling judgment. ; indeed, imagine precise parallel.26 C 35 sure, repeal modification more, never viewed embodying presumptively classification." 539, 3218, Dayton Brinkman, 526, 531, 2971, 2976, 720 (1979); polity express displeasure procedure "arouses passionate opposition." (concurring opinion). Had defeated referendum, example, "Negroes [have lost] important battle, been] protection." 36 pernicious do arouse controversy." 396, situations promulgated usual used legislation.27 "If institution fair, always expected win," 562; token, subjected debilitating often insurmountable disadvantage. IV suggesting recent read it, applied "disparate impact" analysis: neutral Appellants contend swept away, along disparate-impact approach protection, 597 (1976), 450 (1977). James Valtierra, 137, 1331, 678 38 unquestionably correct "purposeful 'the condition offends Constitution,' 274, 2293, Swann Charlotte-Mecklenburg 16, 1267, 1276, 554 "central prevention official conduct discriminating race." 239, 2047. inquiry intent sense accord disparate considerations. Appellants' suggestion somehow conflicts misapprehends insisted particularized motivation cases: "A classification, regardless purported motivation, upheld justification." 272, 2292. challenged inherently suspect category.28 39 There immediate crucial difference cited dealt terms minorities," intended underprivileged citizens whom disproportionately represented. mean, gives rise classification. mechanism conscious legislation—and legislation—is singled peculiar disadvantageous "rests 'distinctions race.' "29 141, 1333, allocation places overcome "special condition" prejudice, "curtail[s] 153, 1234 (1938). implicates judiciary's role safeguarding interests "relegated powerlessness command majoritarian process." San Antonio Independent Dist. Rodriguez, 411 28, 1278, 1296, (1973).30 40 considerations above, rested vital century—that core Just infected less powerless criterion exclude "from proces[s]." 94, 1514 Certainly, requirement "desegregation laws," unanimous legislature suspect. questionable "designed ameliorate relations confirmed exempted procedure. —and, explained, here—was examples, V reaching conclusion, undervalue magnitude interest reserved assignment. chosen, elaborate system; having obligated operate confines That, believe, do.31 42 43 Affirmed. POWELL, THE CHIEF JUSTICE, REHNQUIST, O'CONNOR join, dissenting. 44 two-to-one binding affects transportation violations affect establish 45 compels adopt integration.1 hold unconstitutional. Rather, holds level—rather level—violates 46 I dissent unprecedented intrusion Districts obligation detrimental children. "[T]he leaves free powers government judicial branches." Hughes Superior 339 460, 718, 722, 985 (1950). my decide concern state, local, majority.2 forth districts. establishes rule prohibiting "directly requir[ing] residence." avoided individual instances education; hazards school; nearby overcrowded, lacking includes limitations scope "preclude establishment offering specialized enriched choose attend, option offered students." 28A.26.050. Moreover, critical case, left untouched Initiative: "This chapter 28A.26.060.3 49 filed enacted. joined Districts4 plaintiffs, argued violated agreed, and, split decision, 1344 (CA9 1980).5 guide reviewing established. begin with, held, intimated, absent treat race-specific remedies, strict University California Regents Bakke, 438 265, 2733, 57 750 (1978). 51 particular, offend Amendment.6 affirmative duty finding 24, 1280, (1971); 433 406, 417, 2766, 2774, 53 851 Certainly violation. balance requirement. once accomplished further Pasadena Spangler, 427 424, 2697, 599 (1976). 52 well-established "extraordinarily wide creating types subdivisions conferring them." (1978).7 Constitution dictate division judiciary governing bodies. run matter level. delegate limitation freedom fashion "plac[e] 560-61 54 sum, prior certainly regime bodies unreviewable them. 55 Application demonstrates serious error today's decision—an cuts heretofore unquestioned assignments. interferes violations. constitutional.8 56 arises District—in then-established policy—chose specific questioned time thereafter, mind canceled violating Constitution. alter decided. argues agree identical easy answer seems sense. creation supreme enactment. Until abolish altogether, conform lawful lawful. Under undoubted whenever board—or indeed instrumentality—adopts arguably Once adopted, subordinate explanation subordination ultimate sovereign act respect strange notion—alien forever preempt State—the power—to bizarre result. 59 State—in moving policy—has impede enforcement barrier remedial order. authorize approve form degree. Children races schooling, 'ethnic classroom.' Ante, 472, dissenting).9 560-61, interference distribution justified. reflection work. respect. require, dealing race—or schools—must henceforth submitted people. precisely do: "resolved process" "desirability [mandatory] desegregation" unlawful 474. dissatisfied appeal redress. pre-empt policies, formulate regulations. inherent continued sovereignty States. Any chooses disadvantaged. democratic winners losers. unfairness violation.10 Nonetheless, "imposes minorities" ante, 470. holding supra.11 [antidiscrimination] 559-60. Although neutral, embody classification: discrimination." pass favor minorities, 63 Nothing invasion authority. assumed minorities,12 redrawn altered. plenary. altered adopts concededly area regulation comparatively burdened State.13 therefore, irrelevant. today disrupts normal government.14 theory decisionmaking, addressing perplexing how best educate multi-racial where, acted first.15 65 asked limits adopt—on volition—mandatory reassignments balance. Absent obligation, State—exercising agencies—should reject debatable restriction liberty. denies deprives opportunity unresolved questions resulting busing.16 affecting taken. strip sovereignty. structure.17 1971, middle prompted recall four voted program. narrowly failed. Several threatened legal effort, Mayor leaders, letter dated May 20, urged definition measurable goals leading Public Schools mandated remedy." 139. members' "desire ward off desire funds, relieve black disproportionate borne perception promotes attainment preparation reserves propose bills, polls, legislature." II, 1. initiatives petition 8% registered governor last preceding gubernatorial 1a. electorate, repealed years, although years two-thirds house 41. Comment, Judicial Review Laws Enacted Popular Vote, Wash.L.Rev. 175 codified 28A.26.010-28A.26.900 300,000 769,040 enrolled Ninety-five transported 1002. Along comprehensive Since 1965, closures caused patterns; attended homes, Pasco's body. 1002-1003. closures, controlled magnet transfers—though busing—to enhance 1003-1004. intervenor plaintiffs alleged segregation, dual bifurcated conclusions question, allegations go trial Appeals. "subjectively [had] purpose," "[a]s subjective secret raises impenetrable barrier." 1014. looked objective factors, "marked [a] departure norm autonomy restricted marked "departure norm" "an administrative unit [to be] overridden coupled "racially initiative," "historical background," sequence events adoption," least motivating practiced practice. 458-459, 2947, alternative reasons, overbroad. 1342. award attorney's fees plaintiff state-funded entities. Juris. Statement C-1. reversed issue, abused fees. fell language statutes, U.S.C. 1988 3205 (1976 ed., Supp.IV), 31, infra, publicly-funded advances eligible statutes." 1348. transfers infra. characterization dissenting judge agreed addresses problem. 1353. propriety race-conscious 586 North Carolina Swann, 43, 45, 1284, 1286, 300, 39, 312-314, 2753, 2759-2760, (1978) (opinion J.). seeks "clearly prohibited" efforts. 25. assuming significance, premise accurate. restrictions pupil requested authorized parents guardian." 712. "denie[d] non-voluntary improvement balance." 715 —as case—stemmed serve schools: "Voluntary plans Buffalo schools; appear increasing." operated "deny student[s] POWELL finds completely irrelevant, dismissing conclusory statement Washington] altered." Post, 498 fails relevance evil obstacle referenda amendment; was, structural achievement procedures enacting citywide Similarly reallocated. redraw matters—in ends, true well: invoking own. excessively formal exercise, revisions selective erect obstacles. passing strategies. Surely, ratification referendum. "modification [was] procedure," observation hardly added force written, POWELL's essay government," post, 493 observations segregation—is beside point. point litigation. narrow special, impermissible, "might legislation," 561; reserve themselves, distributed nonneutral vest encourage cast cooperative terms, assist implementing choosing. 28A.21.010(3), 28A.21.136(1) (3) cf. 28A.58.245(3). noted: "[A]s situated right. existed authorities." 452, 662. exclusive generally. Municipalities self-government, Amdt. 40; 35.22.020, 35.23.440, 35.27.370, 35.30.010 Wash.Rev.Code, Tit. 35A (Optional Municipal Code), municipalities ordinances. Newspaper-Web Pressmen's Union Local Wash.App. 462, 604 170 E. McQuillin, Law Corporations 19.23, 425 (3d rev. ed. 1981). Throughout dissent, insists decisionmaking," 498-499, developing previously own," 498, 14, doubts about altogether." 494. 495, 14. statements evidence basic misunderstanding decision. Our rights, predates objectionable process—that structures decisionmaking. evident, horribles paraded participate self-government—are case. clear, points opinion, race-neutral One amicus observes employ 1a-10a. removed capable exercising regard: inapposite, maintains, "blocked 'a pre-existing schools,' therefore—purportedly contrast 350—"interfere[d] segregation." 25, 715. affirmance ground interfered Buffalo's submission inaccurate. guilty practicing intentional Arthur 573 134, 137 (CA2 1978). notes, "pre-existing schools"—but issued segregated. Appeal Dixon, N.Y.Educ. Dept. Reports 115 (1965). 714-715. segregation; explained straightforward phenomenon graphically demonstrated longstanding Tacoma, functioned undue controversy. Plan, matter, unlikely communities able communities. furthers scrutiny explicit classifications. hold, implies, 494, "identical action" not. singling inevitably dangers motivation. restructured, JUSTICE BRENNAN context, breadth [the] negates suggestion" improper Walz Tax Comm'n, 397 664, 689, 1409, 1422, 697 (1970) Appeals' 12, arguing receive awards contention merit. parties covered statutes. Supp. IV) ("In enforce sections 1981, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986 title court, discretion, allow prevailing party, fee costs") added); ("Upon entry failure comply fourteenth [it] pertain[s] history suggests meant contrary, Courts unanimity publicly funded services awarded Dennis Chang, 611 1302 1980); Holley Lavine, 605 638 1979), cert. sub nom. Blum Holley, 913, 1843, (1980); Lund Affleck, 587 75 (CA1 1988, Congress awarding organization. H.R.Rep.No.94-1558, (1976) (citing Incarcerated Men Allen County Jail Fair, 507 281 (CA6 1974). underlying congressional us: source limited budgets, "encourage[s] compliance civil rights laws." 1306. 1306-1307. incongruous pay feel need sue disturb term "mandatory refer busing—or reassignments—for Seattle's districts—one white. Unlike Angeles, 948, interpretation Constitution—although Constitution—Initiative hinder enforcing closings Only 1002 (WDWash.1979). addition closings, relies techniques—magnet Judge Wright dissented. classify deals bearing relations. associated reason—e.g., integration—are another—e.g., avoid hazards. understand exercise create altering Charged holdings overbroad intent. He conclusion. majority. today. dissent. 1282, (1971) ("Absent judicially basis. All things equal, desirable pupils homes"). difficulties Extensive threaten liberty privacy J.); Keyes Denver, Colo., 413 240-250, 2686, 2713-18, 548 (1973) part). assigns consistently "[a] 2292, "[A]ccording country, resides pleasure." Luther Borden, How. 47, 581 (1849). Community Communications Co. Boulder, 40, 53-54, 835, 842, 810 Sailors 387 109, 87 1549, 1552, 650 (1967) ("Save unless county, runs afoul federally protected right, vast leeway management affairs"); Kagama, 118 375, 379, 1109, 1111, 228 (1886) (under Constitution, Government, "[t]here exist two"). mere race-related place." 538, 3218. schooling neutral. legitimately unlimited too great races. distant ideal light experience cities, conclude lead greater 142, 1334, ("[O]f lawmaking 'disadvantages' deny protection. holding, presumably referendums group. analyze veto filibuster likely 'disadvantage' shifting up people"). discussion summary 1970), affirmances precedential force. Metromedia, Inc. Diego, 453 490, 500, 101 2882, 2888, 69 800 "is reasoning supporting review." Zobel Williams, 64, 13, 2309, 2315, 72 672 (1982). far 545, 32, 3222, indicates, court-ordered reassignments. "next nearest"—rather nearest—school promote repeatedly states matters—and —in 475, understood "fair alone automatic requirement." Gordon Lance, 403 1889, 1891, contrast, matters—covering relations, administration 15, Racial burdened. respect, disadvantaged regulations intrudes admissions committee developed affirmative-action fire, dictated dean school, faculty university president, chancellor regents unclear "more" requires. employment thereafter ever intervene. wonder whether—under component Fifth Amendment—even Government assert superior areas. dubious past intervening matters, 477, thrust unpersuasive. indicates character activity. Common Provisions Code nearly 200 pages long, matters. IX, 2; 518, 95 range wholly degree satisfy generally, ending elsewhere. 49.60.010 seq. Article "It paramount ample residing borders preference caste, sex." interpreted section prohibit 657 thought rendered Responding manner." 480, 23. puzzling odds surprising Washington—with exception mentioned below—will idea lawfully do. say Plan." 485-486, 29. Apparently saying else State—or legislature—may validly prescribe standards. perceive logic for—a repealing effect. compelled former member accept privilege add personal note. board—responsible serves—is qualified agency district. reversal experiment social merit 438-448, 716-722 merits

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