Document: 400 U.S. 112 91 S.Ct. 260 27 L.Ed.2d 272 State of OREGON, Plaintiff,v.John N. MITCHELL, Attorney General the United States. TEXAS, Plaintiff, v. John UNITED STATES, ARIZONA. IDAHO. Nos. 43, 44, 46, 47 Orig. Argued Oct. 19, 1970. Decided Dec. 21, [Syllabus from pages 112-115 intentionally omitted] Lee Johnson, Salem, Or., for plaintiff Oregon. Charles Alan Wright, Austin, Tex., Texas. Sol. Gen. Erwin Griswold defendant Mitchell and M. McGowan II, Gary K. Nelson, Phoenix, Ariz., Arizona. Robert Robson, Boise, Idaho, Idaho. [Amicus Curiae Information page 116 Mr. Justice BLACK, announcing judgments Court in an opinion expressing his own view cases. 1 In these suits certain States resist compliance with Voting Rights Act Amendments 1970, Pub.L. 91—285, 84 Stat. 314, because they believe that takes away them powers reserved to by Constitution control their elections.1 By its terms does three things. First: It lowers minimum age voters both state federal elections 21 18. Second: Based upon a finding Congress literacy tests have been used discriminate against on account color, enforces Fourteenth Fifteenth barring use such all elections, national, five-year period. Third: The forbids disqualifying national presidential vice-presidential electors not met residency requirements. 2 For reasons set out Part I this opinion, can fix as congressional, senatorial, but cannot voting local elections. expressed separate opinions, my Brothers DOUGLAS, BRENNAN, WHITE, MARSHALL join me concluding enfranchise 18-year-old citizens dissent judgment extend franchise THE CHIEF JUSTICE, HARLAN, STEWART, BLACKMUN interfere They, however, voter qualifications summary, it is vote provisions 1970 are constitutional enforceable insofar pertain unconstitutional unenforceable 3 II Congress, exercise power enforce Amendments, prohibit or other devices race Brethren judgment. Therefore literacy-test upheld. 4 III requirements provide absentee balloting electors. MARSHALL, concur My Brother stated considers statute unconstitutional. 5 Let be entered accordingly. 6 * Framers our provided Art. I, § 2, members House Representatives should elected people 'the Qualifications requisite Electors most numerous Branch Legislature.' Senators were originally legislatures, under Seventeenth Amendment also people, same Representatives. very beginning responsibility setting congressional was made subject make alter regulations, if deemed advisable do so.2 This done 4, which provides: 7 'The Times, Places Manner holding Elections Representatives, shall prescribed each Legislature thereof; may at any time Law Regulations, except chusing Senators.' (Emphasis supplied.) 8 Moreover, election regulations augmented Necessary Proper Clause. See McCulloch Maryland, Wheat. 316, L.Ed. 579 (1819). Classic, 313 299, 61 1031, 85 1368 (1941), where upheld regulate party primaries, Stone speaking construed interrelation clauses Constitution, stating: 9 'While, loose sense, right representatives sometimes spoken derived states statement true only sense authorized legislate extent has restricted action more general Article 8, clause 18 'To laws necessary proper carrying into execution foregoing powers." U.S., 315, S.Ct., 1037. 10 Ex parte Siebold, 100 371, 25 717 (1880); Yarbrough, 110 651, 152, 28 274 (1884); Swafford Templeton, 185 487, 22 783, 46 1005 (1902); Wiley Sinkler, 179 58, 17, 45 (1900). 11 breadth granted including voters, demonstrated fact legislatures ratified intended grant lay boundaries districts. ratifying conventions speakers 'argued given meant vindicate people's equality representation House,' Wesberry Sanders, 376 1, 16, 526, 534, 481 (1964), would 'most probably off districts.' And Colegrove Green, 328 549, 66 1198, 90 1432 (1946), no doubted Congress' rearrange districts according population; fight case revolved about judicial compel redistricting. 12 Surely qualification important than geographical embodied concept expected eradicate 'rotten boroughs,'3 prevent electing Congressmen large.4 There doubt district lines vastly significant effect permit go polls 13 Any dispelled Smiley Holm, 285 355, 52 397, 76 795 (1932). There, Chief Hughes writing unanimous discussed scope some length. He said: 14 matter 'times, places manner senators representatives.' comprehensive words embrace authority complete code times places, relation notices, registration, supervision voting, protection prevention fraud corrupt practices, counting votes, duties inspectors canvassers, making publication returns; short, enact procedure safeguards experience shows order fundamental involved. 15 'This confirmed second provides law regulations,' single exception stated. phrase 'such regulations' plainly refers character legislature prescribe respect exercising power, supplement substitute own. 'has supervisory over whole subject." Id., 366—367, 399. 16 allotted regarding became dissatisfied laws, could them.5 A newly created government hardly survive without ultimate rule itself fill offices laws. now before evidence dissatisfaction many hold, long line decisions Court, elections.6 Similarly, prerogative oversee conduct those offices. seriously contended less elections.7 17 On hand, preserve even Colonies had establish maintain independent governments, commands otherwise. HARLAN persuasively keep themselves, Tenth Amendment,8 major disagreement that, while agree States' officials, believe, contrary view, final No function essential existence governments determine within limits state, county, municipal nature machinery filling public Pope Williams, 193 621, 24 573, 48 817 (1904); Minor Happersett, Wall. 162, 627 (1875). 2,9 clear indication offices, adopted unless directs otherwise 4. plain history never imagined every President constable village alderman. obvious reserves limited through amendments specifically narrowed Fourteen, Fifteen, Nineteen, Twenty-four, assumed examples express limitations govern themselves. Equal Protection Clause destroy Nineteenth Twenty-fourth superfluous. brother BRENNAN's carried logical conclusion, would, guise insuring equal protection, blot leaving 50 little impotent figureheads. interpreting what means, stretched nullify retained throughout history. Of course, original design Founding Fathers altered Civil War various Constitution. Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, expressly 'enforce' prohibitions 'appropriate legislation.' Solicitor contends cases Amendment. 19 Above else, framers deny persons race. Loving Virginia, 388 87 1817, 1010 (1967); Gomillion Lightfoot, 364 339, 81 125, (1960); Brown Board Education, 347 483, 74 686, 98 873 (1954); Slaughter-House Cases, 36, 71—72, 394 (1873). While recognized instances protects discriminations race,10 see Reynolds Sims, 377 533, 1362, 506 (1964); Hadley Junior College District, 397 50, 791, (1970); Kotch River Port Pilot, 330 552, 67 910, 1093 (1947), cited therein, successfully argued strip carefully preserved surely discrimination between groups denial protection. Nor Enforcement people. unquestionably designed condemn forbid distinction, however trifling, 20 To fulfill goal ending racial direct indirect legislative encroachment rights guaranteed amendments, gave Amendments. These enforcement broad. Jones Alfred H. Mayer Co., 392 409, 439, 88 2186, 2203, 1189 (1968), held Thirteenth 'clothed 'Congress pass abolishing badges incidents slavery States." construing Amendment, stated: 'It said enforcing protecting immunities guaranteed. branch declare void violation prohibitions. enlarged.' 345, 676 (1880). added part.) South Carolina Katzenbach, 383 301, 86 803, 769 (1966) (Mr. Black dissenting grounds), test ban 1965, 79 437, power. 23 As broad is, unlimited. Specifically, there least guarantees First, legislation repeal Second, themselves convert enumerated central unrestrained inch Nation. Third, so sections undercut amendments' personal freedom discrimination, Katzenbach Morgan, 384 641, 651 n. 10, 1717, 1723, 828 (1966), undermine protections Bill we applicable States.11 Clauses interfered regulation electoral process. supra, outlawed New York's requirement English prerequisite applied Puerto Ricans educational qualifications. York overriden supra (Black, J., 1965. That proscribed areas. But division like provision qualified Amendments' discrimination. Where attempts remedy powers, enhanced avowed intention Cf. Harper Virginia Elections, 663, 670, 1079, 1083, 169 dissenting). enacting findings 21-year-old disenfranchise finding, made, supported substantial evidence. Since attempted invade area foundation hold exceeded attempting lower legislates domain exclusively States, need tied closely eliminating 26 invalidate part mean entire must fall effect. passing largely undetermined, therefore included severability provision: 'If application thereof person circumstance judicially determined invalid, remainder circumstances affected determination.' 318. case, Title III, lowering 18, invalid valid We fail follow will refused sever two distinct aspects III. longstanding canon statutory construction enactments enforced inconsistent particularly portion depend part. See, e.g., Watson Buck, 387, 962, 1416 (1941); Marsh 406, 969, 1426 (1941). Here, way dependent 29 extended 1965 conditions General. partial Gaston County 395 285, 89 1720, 309 (1969). constitutionality raised parties suits.12 30 prohibited until August 6, 1975, device resembling already Arizona maintains Arizona's requirement, Ariz.Rev.Stat.Ann. §§ 16—101, subsec. A, par. (1956). supersedes conflicting statutes Supremacy Federal 31 discriminatory disfranchise found late summer 1968, percentage registration nonwhite seven Southern substantially below white voters.13 striking show span four years remarkable impact minority group registration.14 areas large Spanish-American populations consistently averages. Arizona, example, counties eight Spanish surname excess 15% showed state-wide average.15 serious problem deficient among Indians. Congressional concern record Court. supra. Nation whole, statistics demonstrate participation greater tests.16 32 country's opportunities North South. children who denied equivalent education 'separate equal' Plessy Ferguson, 163 537, 1138, 41 256 (1896), overruled (1954), old enough vote. substantial, overwhelming, concluded condition political educated dual school system achievement. suggests inequality perhaps uppermost minds congressmen sponsored Act. hearings filled references inequality. Faced reduce Nation, nationwide appropriate amendments. 33 Finally, yet another reason upholding imposing tests, is—a dilemma touches corner land. color origin confined South, exists parts country. decided solve problems deal legislation. Compare 34 cast ballot he lived jurisdiction meet Furthermore, uniform rules insure fully effective voice What applies force here. Acting create government, vitally concerned up survive. Essential survival growth elective officials responsive possible whom represent. IV 35 Our today give Government conferred it, officers. save subsequent amendment taken them.17 generalities render agents absence specific limitations. 36 DOUGLAS. 37 302 Act, 318, affect different reasons. rely Privileges Immunities 38 18-year-olds across board. 39 suppose 1920, when giving women vote, experts relief 627, 1874 Term constitutionally restrict men. relied upon, thrust directed subsidiary reference Due Process much later, indeed 1961 Term—nearly century after adopted—that grounds struck down. 40 first down Strauder West 303, 664, 1879 Term.1 squarely apportionment justiciable question Clause, Baker Carr, 369 186, 82 691, 663. followed others, e.g.: one twice statewide merely rural smallest county;2 principle Houses bicameral legislature;3 receive just do.4 reapportionment cases, quite point here, though target HARLAN'S dissent. His painstaking review leads him conclude 'political' protected 'civil' protected. questions recurring issue beginning, recently reviewed Powell McCormack, 486, 1944, 491. Carr McCormack involved exclusion Congressman. versus 'justiciable' pro con cases; Harlan 330, 771 et seq., related occasions (Gray 372 368, 382, 83 801, 809, 821; 20, 536, 481; 589, 1395—1396, 506) views dimensions problem. 42 Those whether structured reflect approximate voter. whether, absent legislature, court apportionment. kind issues irrelevant Reapportionment, shows, presented tangle partisan politics geography, economics, urban life, constituencies, nonlegal factors play varying roles. competency courts challenged. Yet justiciable. None so-called 43 far concerned, whit controversy disqualifies types employment, Goesaert Cleary, 335 464, 69 198, 93 163, imposes heavier punishment class offender whose crime intrinsically different. Skinner Oklahoma, 316 535, 62 1110, 1655. economic, social, field which, indicated Appendix civil deeply embedded composed 'chosen People' 'shall 'elected people.' speaks 'right vote'—not 665, 159, 274, 44 new mainly African descent. principle, congress, colored citizen, discrimination.' tradition 555, 1378, freely candidate one's choice essence democratic society, restrictions strike heart representative government.' choose, secured Constitution,' 1037, 1368, highest order. concerns matters; sense. Interference rise consistent Court; claim always justiciable.5 Whatever distinction following War, rights, passed 669, 169, 'Notions constitutes treatment purposes change.' harmony BRENNAN: 'We understood broadly worded injunction capable being interpreted future generations accordance vision needs generations.' Post, 278. Hence tendered present 'political,' turn, 'enforced' Congress. Carrington Rash, 380 89, 775, 675, Texas bar person, qualified, member armed services. Occupation, held, invidious condemns. Evans Cornman, 398 419, 1752, 370, residents enclave treated purposes. 666, 1081, affluence payment fee.' Kramer Union Free School 1886, 583, barred board bachelor. So turns excluded 'a interest meeting decisions.' 632, 1892. Cipriano City Houma, 701, 1897, 647, 'property taxpayers' issuance revenue bonds utility violated benefits burdens bond indiscriminately property owner nonproperty alike.' 705, 1900. June 23, Phoenix Kolodziejski, 399 204, 1990, 523, violates obligation real taxpayers. looked 'compelling interest' restrictions. 'nonproperty owners' 'substantially interested securities owners,' id., 212, 1996, presumptively 'when ways governmental decision referendum, weighted franchise.'6 209, 1994. November 9, summarily affirmed (310 F.Supp. 1172) basis Kolodziejski. Parish St. Stewart, 884, 136, 129, Louisiana taxpayers.' 49 cl. 18.' 650, 828. 'Correctly viewed, positive authorizing discretion determining needed secure Amendment.' 1723. might well reduction brands unfair defense responsibilities imposed' them. 301(a)(1), males drafted extends females relevant, female component families prospective caught war hit hard it. men alike share fateful decision. 51 said, why draw 18? Why 17? degree maturity entitles franchise. They 'generally considered American mature contract, marry, drive automobile, gun, responsible criminal behavior adult.'7 advised mandatory attendance not, practice, beyond items leeway raise free society,' 561—562, 1381, 506. 'fundamental liberties asserted classifications restrain scrutinized confined.' 169. rights. Here dealing principles enshrined noted, parallel reach Marshall described 421, 579: 'Let end legitimate, let constitution, means appropriate, adapted end, prohibited, consist letter spirit constitutional.' Equality certainly 'with constitution.' Much Constitution8 'Manner Elections,' Amendments—the Fifteenth—made vast in-roads standard 1721, involves discretion; entrusted courts. If then across-the-board too claim, listed show. inequalities based violate again. seem Certainly word limitation applicability matters alone. if, measure constitution,' difficulty Gray 381, 821: conception Declaration Independence, Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, Seventeenth, thing—one vote.' 53 reasoned 'stake' modern 18-year-olds, peace, equality. 566, (whose reasoning approved 379, 808, 821), service protect 54 sustain made. 55 likewise find objections Idaho residence insubstantial. 56 Literacy. Lassiter Northhampton Election Board, 360 45, 985, 1072, apply selecting 'discriminatory' contravene 'any restriction acting pursuant imposed.' 51, 990. federal, 57 Section 201 bars denying device' defined, inter alia, include literacy.9 traveled distance 828, earlier Rico. sufficiently broad, enable abolish muster 648—651, 1722—1724. 58 question, Clause': 59 say Rican warranted intrusion interests served requirement. judgment, assess weigh considerations—the risk pervasiveness services, effectiveness evil, adequacy availability alternative remedies, significance nullification completed sixth grade school. us resolution factors. able perceive resolve conflict did.' 653, 1724. 60 sustained attack language discriminate. 654, 1725. went 'as furthering intelligent franchise, ability read understand Spanish-language newspapers radio television programs available inform affairs.' 655, 1726. took further step toward sustaining type 309. suspended 'test device,' literacy, Director Census 1964, 50% registered voted.10 County, Carolina, classified thereupon suspended. suit remove noted deprived black opportunities, turn chance test.' 291, argued, employed formula disparities races rates. 292, 1723—1724. remedies range ones wide. defect literate Negroes turned Negro schools. reasonable infer compelled endure segregated inferior education, fewer achieve better-educated contemporaries. Government's showing, County's schools subliterate others inducement enter remain school.' 295—296, 63 incidence literacy. tests; weapon minorities, Americans Mexican ancestry, Indians; informed write. know desiderata influenced legislation; inappropriate. 64 Residence. 202 relate Vice President. abolishes durational residency11 required days prior election. days. 65 parochial State, city 'in impermissible purpose 202(a)(4). 202(a)(3) denies privileges immunities.12 chosen 'by People several States.' officers privilege immunity citizenship. 274; re Quarles, 158 532, 959, 960, 1080; Twining Jersey, 211 78, 97, 14, 18—19, 97; Burroughs 290 287, 78 484; 1037—1038, 1368.13 that: 'No abridge Durational effect, says 'choice means' presents primarily addressed Congress.' 547, 291. relevance adopts sought remedied, necessity, efficacy 548, 68 respecting permissible efforts APPENDIX TO OPINION OF MR. JUSTICE DOUGLAS Cases 70 STATUTES WHICH DISCRIMINATED AGAINST CERTAIN BUSINESSES 71 Gulf, C. & S.F.R. Co. Ellis, 165 150, 255, 666; Atchison, T. Vosburg, 238 56, 1119 (railroad pay attorney fees loses suit, businesses not). Kentucky Finance Corp. Paramount Auto Exchange, 262 544, 636, 1112; Power Mfg. Saunders, 490, 678, 1165 (burdens placed out-of-state corporations litigation). FAVORED 72 Connolly Sewer Pipe 184 540, 431, 679 (exemption antitrust agricultural goods); Smith Cahoon, 283 553, 582, 75 1264 (act exempting motor vehicles insurance requirements); Mayflower Farms Ten Eyck, 297 266, 457, 80 675 allowing milk dealers sell regulated price); Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection Ins. Harrison, 301 459, 838, 1223 (statute permitting mutual, stock, companies act salaried representatives), Morey Dowd, 354 77 1344, 1485 (American Express exempted licensing 'currency exchanges'). TAXING STRUCK DOWN 73 Concordia Fire Illinois, 292 830, 1411; Iowa-Des Moines Bank Bennett, 284 239, 133, 265; Cumberland Coal Revision, 48, 146; Quaker Cab Pennsylvania, 277 389, 927; Louisville Gas Coleman, 32, 423, 770; Hanover Harding, 494, 179, 372; Schlesinger Wisconsin, 270 230, 260, 557; Sioux Bridge Dakota 441, 190, 340; F. S. Royster Guano 253 412, 560, 989; R. Greene, 216 400, 536. TREATMENT CONVICTED CRIMINALS Rinaldi Yeager, 305, 1497, 577 requiring unsuccessful appellants jail cost trial transcript); Baxstrom Herold, 107, 760, 620 convict sanity hearing jury commitment); 1655 (sterilization convicts). INDIGENTS Douglas California, 353, 814, 811 (Rule Criminal Procedure did counsel appeal indigents); Shapiro Thompson, 618, 1322, 600 (denial welfare requirement). LEGITIMACY Glona Guarantee 391 73, 1515, 441 (mother sue wrongful death illegitimate child); Levy Louisiana, 68, 1509, 436 (illegitimate recovery mother). ALIENS Truax Raich, 239 33, 7, 131 limiting number aliens 20%); Takahashi Fish Game Commission, 334 410, 92 1478 fishing ineligible citizenship). concurring From standpoint Court's during era revision suffrage, ushered ago 663 (1962), difficult here bedrock structure bring crossroad marked formidable 'Stop' sign. sign compels pause allow carry sanctioning state-determined simple legislation, consider sound doctrine truth require changes thus accomplished amendment. determination validity respects. Orig., Oregon enjoin 18.1 47, seeks declaration conform suspend test, requires applicants write names. governing residency, Among changes, Idaho's 60-day lowered days; 30-day county intrastate migrants abolished; formerly domiciled emigrated register homes; six months. relevant constitutions opinion. Each contests suit.2 primary reliance follow, am allocate fit authorize qualifications, either source fixed suspension basis. fitting begin quotation leading 39th proposed 1866: 'Every embodies framers. transcript minds. meaning place open doubt, signification, err framers; increases proportion left question.' Cong. Globe, Cong., 1st Sess., 677 (1866) (Sen. Sumner). Believing undoubtedly sound, enlightenment provisions. This, me, undertaking unavoidably led ordinary Except willing close eyes interpretations preconceived attain particular goal, think makes legitimate A. Historical Setting3 departure considering suffrage be, think, pre-existing entitled, three-fifths slave population counted.4 section established respective legislatures. veto, times, choosing President, choice.5 Nothing controlled guarantee Republican Form Government, appears IV, 4.6 War. At war, million freed slaves none permitted Confederacy overwhelmingly sympathetic rebellion. comparative handful neither former nor Confederate sympathizers, lodged vexing question. series proclamations 1865, Andrew Johnson laid groundwork rebels unwilling loyalty oath.7 Radicals, ardently favor resurgent rebellion, freedmen, ensure continued Radical government. ardor cooled ran northern prejudice. time, States—Maine, Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, imposed special voters.8 referenda year, enfranchising proposals roundly beaten Connecticut, Minnesota, Territory Colorado, District Columbia. Gillette, 3, 25—26. Such popular rebuffs Radicals pull horns hope protracted process reconstruction advisability meantime, southern lest combination southerners Democrats obtain frustrate goals. acute. With freeing slaves, Three-Fifths Compromise ceased predictions precise change varied doing calculating, consensus entitled and, rallying cries kept author gives description mood convened:9 'Of movements influencing developed session Thirty-ninth outstanding. volume private comment indicates viewed prime importance. cry changed was, reality, this, accomplish them: removal danger Democratic dominance consequence restoration. repudiation obligations, assumption rebel debt, invariably representation. Sentiment disqualification ex-Confederates, natural growth, suited movement conservative Republicans, received emphasis serve platform.' When met, Thaddeus Stevens, successful obtaining agreement Joint Committee Reconstruction, members, 'inquire formed confederate America, report they, them, represented *.' 30, (1865) (hereafter Globe). All papers relating referred Fifteen debate. result, foreseen, assert Reconstruction put hands secret committee. began work 1866, due course reported joint resolution. H.R. amend proposal taxes population, proviso 'whenever abridged representation.' Globe 351. 94 decrease college seats pre-war position instead increase 15. House, although somewhat balky, lengthy 538. Senate proved intractable. An odd Democrats, moderate extreme combined defeat measure, basing opposition fear freedmen assertedly 673 687 95 Second Freedmen's Bureau debated. Both bills list secured, voting.10 Senator Trumbull, behalf Judiciary Committee, 'I want negro bill.' 606. counterpart exhibited reluctance. 1162 (Cong. Wilson Iowa). Despite considerable uncertainty measures, ultimately passed. midst debates bases representation, vetoed Bill, grounds. narrowly sustained, shortly President's bitter Washington's Birthday speech. actions, month later veto removed lingering hopes support thoroughgoing plan reconstruction. token increased Radicals' articulated country upcoming taking. 96 product add 63, foreshadowed follows: 97 liberty, property.' 1034. Congressman Bingham Ohio, opposed believed 1292—1293. immediately dropped.11 99 background loggerheads come months deliberations; friends foes prodded develop alternative. unable produce anything get adherence three-fourths committed confronted widespread necessity platform fall. awareness response situation. B. Language Measures 101 Sections follows:12 102 'Sec. 1. States; deprive law; 103 2. apportioned Union, numbers, excluding Indians taxed. whenever, male twenty-one age, rebellion crime, reduced bear age.' 2286. 104 historical context, abandonment eager. token, affecting placing seen constitutionalization 1866 concededly goals Amendment.13 105 conclusions may, confidently asserted, easy explain how contemporary observers result.14 simply occurred plenary explicit since speaker pursued contention opposite rarely explained arrived conclusions. 106 unravel seldom articulated, starting prohibiting 'which enjoying full membership society. 107 necessarily Many accepted jurisprudence day, man fell categories: natural, civil, political. citizens, arising organization, character.15 Others similar remarks Howard Michigan, spokesman detail contain something view. 2766, quoted infra, 187; nn. 57, infra; cf. Blake McClung, 172 256, 165, 172, 432 (1898) (dictum). 108 substantive relegated secondary role, materials clear.16 clauses, appear face correspond latter 13, property, not. 109 Other saw Committee's enfranchisement, disfranchisement, doubts removed. Bingham, 2542, 185. characterization figures Stevens Senate, contested remarks, Congress; repeating interpretation, result below, unambiguously three, opponents fairly characterized raising possibility.17 Further understanding events. enacted c. 153, 428 (1867). required, precedent readmission adopt providing enjoyed year disfranchised treason common-law felony; so, readmitted become 111 next development came ratification stalled. After Northern Arkansas 22, 1868, 72. condition' constitution amended Three 25, promise Georgia, Alabama, Florida ratify happy coincidence, assent sufficient suggested, therefore, exacted caution ratification. 40th content enfranchisement Negroes. 46. alone result. Less known nearly office well. two-thirds margin. 3d 1318, 1428 (1869). conference committee, Stewart Conkling Boutwell, Logan, provision, 1563, 1593, Inauguration Day week away, report. 1564, 1641. generally Gillette 58—77. actions unclear, unlikely provoked idea covered field; rationale seemingly unnecessary. 113 41st remaining Confederacy. admitting recited good-faith franchise18 '(t)hat lawful citizen race, previous servitude, State.' Jan. 26, 1870, 62, (Virginia); Feb. 67, (Mississippi); Mar. 39, 80, (Texas). 114 susceptible interpretation succeeding Congresses. reading adopted, prejudice recognition basic States.19 clarification needed, thought contemplated once asked, 'Why (state) inhabitants?' 174, 115 'no descriptive stood.' Brief 75. wholly inaccurate. Aside restrictions, taxation Western satisfied declared citizens.20 seems observe politicians framed familiar makeup electorate. event, proof ample measure.21 Assuming, then, represents deliberate selection penalized, it? notes 'it intended—although used—to Defendant, 20. Undoubtedly purpose. attention focused unaware penalizing impose Their adoption awkward phrasing significant. 117 sure, argue rhetorical flourish, alleged prohibition argument unreasonable untenable light record; fatal us. 118 sensible explanation penalize halfway practical North. politically acceptable precisely regional consequences avoidance suffrage. BLACK states: '(I)t themselves.' Ante, 127. detailed unmistakably clear. 119 look Journal Reconstruction.22 exact sequence presumably deliberations secret,23 lost years.24 Nevertheless Journal, illustrates thoughts participated drafting 120 Two features emerge startling clarity. regularly rejected explicitly plans postpone leave discretion, abandon altogether. exactly corresponded ballot. 121 correspondence start. Five One State; contained racially restricted. Kendrick 41—44. subcommittee five two, reducing present. Stevens' motion 51; minor subsequently 51. 122 whichever empowered privileges' 'equal enjoyment liberty consideration proposal. attended four. 57. meeting, replaced mention privileges, similar. 61; post, 258-259, text 63. centralization work—a few suffrage—that dropped. 260. 123 antecedent Dale Owen, Stevens.25 Originally 1876 date. 84. However, pressured delegations wanted nothing years.26 moved correspondingly 10-year 101. 124 replacing Owen's proposal, read: 125 persons, servitude' 126 now-familiar language: 127 law, laws.' 106. 128 summary style leaves unclear change. himself rather voted immediate enfranchisement,27 things proposal.28 speeches floor.29 129 Before examine debates, reasons, discussions disqualifications. detract guides interpretation. individual Negroes, views: all; standards ballot, lead correct, shared almost opponents. mere refutation Even unsupportable assumptions (1) (2) whenever rational (3) agreed rationality theory still fails D. 130 May debate 127, Resolution proposing explaining delay coming reconstruction, apologized advance: proposition committee desired. falls short wishes, fulfills hopes. obtained Not consulted. Upon careful survey ground, nineteen loyal induced mire stringent this.' 2459. 132 climate referring failure freedmen. mistake recounted effort 'would distant period.' dead, 'slaughtered puerile pedantic criticism,' 'unless (less efficient, admit) pass, postponed ages.' Ibid. 133 section-by-section study results achieved entitlement '(w) hatever man,' redress, competence testify. access polls, despite preceding apology remarkable.30 134 Turning again voting. 135 exclude her adult right, she forfeit proportion. universal shear forever hopeless executive.' 136 take coercive 'That injurious.' indicate admitted good defeated discriminated against, hastened enfranchisement. allowed proportional credit. 'But forward. stride vain dead 2460. 137 dealt length prominent Committee. Bingham's summation, fashion. supporters Garfield Ohio,31 Kelley Pennsylvania,32 Boutwell Massachusetts (a Committee),33 Eliot Massachusetts,34 Beaman Michigan,35 Farnsworth Illinois,36 regret quotations margin indicate, attributed pass. corresponds introductory 138 obviously omission drawback Thayer Pennsylvania,37 Broomall Pennsylvania,38 Raymond York,39 McKee Kentucky,40 Miller Pennsylvania,41 Banks Massachusetts,42 Eckley Ohio.43 139 speak address terms. Spalding Ohio,44 Longyear Michigan,45 Shellabarger Ohio.46 Washburne Morrill York, Blow Missouri—-did participate 140 Democrats. seeming exception, plausible. Finck Ohio Shanklin attacks 2460—2462, 'tyrannical oppressive.' 2501. Eldridge Wisconsin47 Randall Pennsylvania48 affirmatively temporarily abandoned crusade returned amendments.49 141 No. Boyer Pennsylvania Rogers great comfort prove inconclusive issue. Each, speech, sentence bill, ultimately, indirectly, race.' 2467. Rogers, commenting uncertain observed: privilege.' 2538. 142 statements innocuous alone, noteworthy delivered tirade suffrage;50 unusually calm fact. interpret portions speeches.51 143 Phelps Maryland Niblack Indiana, adduced voiced sentiments 5, debate.52 speech urging soft policy define suffrage—or proprio vigore. 2398. repeat sentiment contradicted proper; indeed, all, along Colleagues. 2545.53 144 Niblack, day remarks: 145 notice offer opportunity: "Add fifth 146 "Provided, article jurisdiction, third hereof prescribed." 2465. 147 Like Phelps, unnecessary debates. heard call ascertained opportunity arise demand 2545. 148 Debate Without equivocation, 149 give, regulating 150 excludes conclusion subjected save, republican choose directly supposed Madison, despotic thereby 2542. 151 arose briefly rebuttal. attacked saying unenforceable. contradict—or refer to—Bingham's 2544. thereafter. 152 contradict minimize record. once, debate, supporter criticize correct Republicans observed 'exclusively 2542 (Bingham). tacitly 'inconclusive.' pale discussed.54 153 gag rule, proceeded leisurely pace. normally Fessenden Maine, Chairman weak illness deliver duty presenting devolved Michigan.55 minced words. 154 classes creature law. regarded lying society exist depotism (sic).' 2766. 155 meddle right.' personally preferred enfranchised, ratified. 156 prepared sanction concession fairly, misunderstanding subject. fourths restriction, 157 Howard's forthright attempt completely concerned; least, discovered remark impression.56 some, muddied clarity spoke.57 frequent Wade Ohio,58 Poland Vermont,59 Nevada,60 Howe Wisconsin,61 Henderson 2943. Grimes respond. expressed. informative Hendricks Indiana,65 Cowan Pennsylvania,66 Davis Kentucky,67 Maryland.68 159 Howard, opened last 160 retain possessed, itself. them; endeavor ever Legislatures assume 3039. 161 Shortly thereafter approved. 3041 3042. 162 brief discussion generally, chiefly begun freedmen.69 sent 3149. E. Collateral Evidence Intent 164 suggested understanding, nonetheless inconclusive. Primary typified Summer variety provisions, territories, form construction. comforted assured statements, construct counter-argument: properly interpreted, precluded existing to, preclude argument, logically fallacious, understandably opinions filed hand other, given, 167 170, inclusion demonstrates confer seek 5. one, distinguished positions. colleagues. 431—432; 276—277. observation. recognized, sort connection beside 166 disregarding analytical difficulties, blatant factual shortcomings. stated, subsequently, freedmen.70 Sumner position.71 assertion votes processes weight. Ratification 168 revealing. gubernatorial messages reports survived.72 examination reveals, divided equivocal enfranchisement,73 approached proponents unanimity passage enfranchisement.74 message Governor compete legislators viewpoint Chicago Tribune. journal repeatedly criticized Amendment's lack refuse ony James 177. examined, appear, result.75 scanty official supplemented sources. program, Johnson. campaign newspaper reactions, 170 tone formal openly document. 147. Indeed, submitted manuscript form. 3038. delicate follows:76 171 'Doubts entertained doubtful, your consent surrender exercised, attached. best method surmounting difficulty, eminently itself, possessed granted, advantage exercise. gentle persuasive, lead, hoped, citizenship, affording adequate have, ballot-box, self-protection. 173 'Holding views, idea, Unfortunately, form, hoping approbation 174 Newspapers underway, involving gradually ceased. 91. released press, seeing 'practical issue.' Cincinnati Daily Commercial, April 117. Herald editorially reflected push acceptance Johnson's rested 119. organ, 'sheer confidence public.' 545 (May 1866), 120. Tribune, complained objectionable 'surplusage,' 123, 'postponing, settling' 31, 146. continued, reporting vein. Times approaching, talks dreams forcing 1866. Commercial Boston commented 145. 175 picture emerges speeches. Although occasional Democrat equality,77 effects discovered. Howe, Lane, Sherman, Sumner, Delano, Schenck, Stevens. 159—168, 173, 178; Fairman, Does Incorporate Rights?, Stan.L.Rev. 70—78 (1949). 176 pointed above blacks intense. Between 1865 1869 impartial Colorado Territory, Minnesota (twice), Columbia, Nebraska Kansas, Missouri, York. Only Iowa Grant Presidency.78 inconceivable climate, expectation 177 Small wonder, early felt modifications minimal serious, 'inconclusive' undeserving attention. And, respect, transparent 178 remarkably bedevil reliable guide past. Instead, virtually agreement, clearly expressed, situation, bearing arises. confess astonishment irrelevant. 139—140. history,79 justification adequate. posture, justifying sketch outlines system. 180 being, delegated sovereign surrendered surrendered. Amdt. X. delegated, government80 distribution office, 1.81 V, concurrence asserts Fourteenth. survived amending process, Nineteenth, today.82 abolition (Amdt. XV), sex XIX), poll XXIV), forceful common 1869, 1919, 1962, respectively, empower 181 alters time. judiciary task applying changing circumstances, unforeseen application, implicitly, name underlying Framers.83 so; judiciary, appointed electorate, inherent norms rest elaboration precepts ordained disregards intent Framers, invaded realm committed, protect.84 182 justified substituting wise disregard understands expression respectful coordinate government,85 displace powers. goes Marshall's emphatically province department is.' Marbury Cranch 137, 177, (1803).86 inheres institutional restraints decisionmaking; insufficient making. check majority fundamentally keeping structure. adequately 1717 (1966). 183 enunciated Morgan lies relative factfinding 246—249. issues, better dispute basically control, reasonableness. place, covers adherents contrary. limit sorts adopt, reasoning. 'complex questions,' 248, mind disputes primary, objective facts ages forth. briefs ante, 141—143, 243—246, 279—280. dubious relevance, dispute. revolves around evaluation uncontested material.87 immaturity inexperience average 18-, 19-, 20-year-old justify life? Whether 'factual,' calls balance incommensurate interests. depends values perspective decisionmaker. reasonably differ. 186 judiciary. 266—330, 737—771 (1962) (Frankfurter, dissenting); 15, 634—641, 1893—1896 (1969) (Stewart, preeminently review, limited. abstain entering picture. 187 Judicial deference based, competence, regard body decide. Establishment Assuming demonstrably erred adjusting competing efficient congenial likely satisfactory replace Ferguson Skrupa, 726, 1028, (1963). 188 considerations apply, force, displacement ideas policy. sole body, value makes. authority, perspectives differ legislators, priori prefer figures, collective decision, nationwide, peculiar conditions. agrees colleagues argue, represent superior 189 'clear showing burden compelling interest.'88 238; 247 30. truly compelling' 'substantial,' 'necessary' preservation, undesirable. Equivalently, deem undesirable policy, 'compelling' 'substantial' ways. follows unwise, deems unwise. reason, objection acknowledged conclusion. 190 notion promulgated higher intimated 1079 brought fruition Kramer. determinations unmanageable, assistance legislature. role traditional scope, 'plain error' variously 'arbitrary capricious,' 'irrational,' 'invidious,' defer score convincing. bounds intervention sounder adjustment area, judge cause. arbiter belongs 191 sources virtue finds implicit authority. 192 controlling following: 2: (for Representatives) 194 4: 195 XVII: Senators) legislatures.' 196 clearer stating control. lends scheme find. Constitutional Convention, Madison articles Govt. ought either, degrees subvert Constitution.' Farrand, Records Convention 1787, pp. 249—250 (1911). Federalist 52, p. 326 (C. Rossiter ed. 1961): 197 dissatisfactory convention. convention appears, option. conformable established, safe because, constitutions, alterable feared 198 60, 371 1961) (Hamilton), 290, 199 200 'Each appoint, direct, Number Electors, *' Time Votes; 'Manner' electors.89 separately 'Times, Manner' Congressmen. shadow disappears utterly 203 contentions resolved, convenient individually Age 204 advanced declaratory clause. Its preventing purview 205 foreclose possibility empowers forbidden section, explore fair suggestion threatened hypothetical fanciful. stretching Congress—led recent Court—thought legislation.90 206 conclude, Residency 207 frivolous contend arrivals respects, forestalling violations 2,91 travel lines. 208 ballots counted citizenship (1884), 1031 remained voters. state-defined class, react status 170—175, (1875); Breedlove Suttles, 277, 283, 205, 207—208, 252 (1937); Snowden Hughes, 321 6—7, 497 (1944). Minors, felons, insane States.92 descendant Articles Confederation: 209 perpetuate mutual friendship intercourse inhabitants paupers, vagabonds fugitives justice excepted, 210 requirements.93 vestige envisioned shown, repeated unavailing 202. lines, Guest, 745, 757—758, 1170, 1177—1178, 630, S.cT. 1329, (1969), STEWART justifies solely travel. 285—287. impossible square authorizes accept position, reject former. 212 anchor interstate provision. 237—238. Past Clauses, discussed, Fifth Commerce 1329; 671, 1346—1351 (dissenting opinion). inapplicable laws; empowering 202, nebulous construct, travel, so. Literacy 213 registrants 214 prevalent unduly lend conscious unconscious.94 215 engage particularized inquiry make.95 re-evaluate sweeping approach reasonable.96 case. readily requested dismiss complaint granted. current test; reapply injunctive event proves necessary, confident V 217 following. troubled deciding stare decisis arriving outset continue myself constricted past reaches processes, perforce 84, 218 reflection reached stand casting convinced demands. annals developments march events imperatively called fresh decisions, mustered developments, albeit lesser extent, elimination residential Concluding, withstand scrutiny, depart perpetuating error decisis. 219 taking feel fortified evident malaise decisions. holds unconstitutional, relates well; infirm regards relies reaching uphold statute, 220 decide unshackled start entailed principle. 221 VOTING RIGHTS ACT AMENDMENTS PUB.L. STAT. 314 TITLE II—SUPPLEMENTAL PROVISIONS APPLICATION PROHIBITION OTHER STATES 222 Sec. 201. (a) Prior denied, comply device, Federal, conducted subdivision 4(a) 4(b) 223 (b) term read, write, understand, matter, achievement knowledge subject, possess moral character, (4) voucher class. RESIDENCE REQUIREMENTS FOR 224 hereby imposition precondition elections— 225 abridges President; 226 enjoy lines; 227 Constitution; 228 vote; 229 (5) fourteenth amendment; 230 (6) relationship 231 findings, declares above-stated amendment, 232 (c) subdivision; physically election, complied 233 (d) duly thirty election; unit therefor closing 234 (e) thirtieth satisfy resided satisfied, date residence, subdivision, satisfies, nonresident absence, subdivision. 235 (f) registration. 236 (g) adopting restrictive practices herein. SEPARABILITY 237 205. determination. III—REDUCING AGE EIGHTEEN IN FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL ELECTIONS DECLARATION FINDINGS 301. election— 240 eighteen vote—a citizens; 241 242 interest. 243 forth subsection (a), over. 244 302. older. EFFECTIVE DATE 245 305. title January 1971. ARIZONA CONSTITUTION 246 hereafter over, 'citizen' sex. REVISED ANNOTATED s 16—101. elector 248 Every resident he: 249 Is 250 Will regular 251 3. claims prompted reciting memory, prevented physical disability. name, 254 eligible intervening 255 convicted felony, restored idiot, guardianship register. amended, Laws 151, 16—107. Closing registrations 257 o'clock p.m. 258 eighth Monday thereof. 1958, 1; IDAHO 259 electors.—Except provided, old, actually territory months, offers elector; sixty electors; territory. CODE 34—401. voters.—Every (21) years, possessing following, elections: (30) days: seat precinct ninety (90) days, thereof, constitution; 261 34—408. Eligibility vote.—Each who, (60) period possesses 263 complies act. 264 34—409. Application residents. desiring qualify ten (10) affidavit executed duplicate presence auditor, *. 265 34—413. residents.—(1) applicant, receiving mark forthwith marked. fold auditor's conceal markings, deposit seal envelope furnished auditor. 266 34—1101. Absent authorized.—Any expects resides unable, disability, blindness, therefor, hereinafter provided. 267 34—1105. Return ballot.—On marking disabled blind refold theretofore folded inclose securely mail certified officer issued same; issuing 12:00 noon counted. Said marked, sealed secretly. Provided, disability blindness assisted OREGON 268 citizen: 269 older TEXAS Classes 271 wit: Persons age. 273 Idiots lunatics. paupers county. 275 Fourth: exceptions make. 276 Qualified registration; disqualifications attained offering annually, 'qualified elector' eligibility anticipation anticipatory nature. self-enacting ELECTION 278 5.01. 279 state: 280 281 282 felony pardoned. 5.02. Qualification voter, elector. code. modified code, general, special, municipality, party. 286 287 Titles 314. challenges ban, migration interest.1 Oregon, Texas, 301(a) granting older, interest.2 invoked 307, 807, orders enjoining franchise,3 limitations,4 Original again, founded 332 1658, 1660, 1889 (1947). Since, challenged easily 288 438, U.S.C. 1973 seq. (1964 ed., Supp. V), device,'5 subdivisions coverage 1973b(a), V). previously administered, Northampton 1072 (1959), nevertheless selective proscription Canvassing 'voluminous' combat 'insidious pervasive evil' 308—315, 808—812. Accordingly, 327 334, 818—822. that—at 19626—it administered manner. Notwithstanding fact, past, 'Gaston (had) systematically citizens.' 297, test,' administration inevitably proscribe. 296 1725—1726; 308, 333—334, 821—822. 289 challenge extension 'tests devices' does, (until 1975) Act's substance, argues quality administered; urges illiteracy resulting unlawful subdivisions. suggests, overridden cure bodies elsewhere assertions nondiscriminatory present, evils state-sponsored removes injury occurred. dominion philosophy range. peoples sink swim together, run prosperity salvation union division.' Baldwin G.A.F. Seelig, Inc., 294 511, 497, 500, 1032 (1935); Edwards 160, 173—176, 164, 166—168, legal significance' maintaining unequal systems.' 293 1724.7 291 contains information minorities previous, governmentally opportunity. told Subcommittee 'never privileged attend school.'8 Extensive testimony States.9 knowledge.10 inability Commission negative 'falls heavily surname.'11 Navajo Tribal Council testified Navajos Mexico, Arizona.12 legitimately anywhere inevitable education. Almost ago, decree 327—334, cover operate 289—293, persuaded potentially amply accordingly restricting undertaken regardless jurisdiction.13 rolls 202(d). are, 202(e), day. 202(b), (d). Provision 202(f). 295 conflicts voting; State's as, Admitting (1965), fraud, administrative consequence, weight vests strictly elections,15 century, unhindered settlement. Passenger How. 492, 702 (1849) (Taney, C.J.); Crandall Nevada, 35, 43—44, 744 (1868); Paul 168, 180, 357 (1869); (1966); 629—631, 634, 1328, 1329 1331, whatever flow,16 importance definition, operates exercised migration. incidental burdening ipso facto scrutiny 1331; Jackson, 390 570, 582—583, 1209, 1216 1217, (1968); Sherbert Verner, 374 398, 406 1790, 1795—1797, 965 onus demonstrating intrusive seeking burden. Speiser Randall, 513, 525—526, 1332, 1341—1342, 1460 (1958). 298 202(a)(2), (6). cognizance difficulty. Goldwater, testifying presently election.17 allows balloting. Code 34—409 unfeasibility lists credit sets Goldwater floor 'drawn proven practice themselves.'18 Thirty-seven day.19 inadequate fraud. provide, communications, frauds. 299 propriety disenfranchising prohibition, 301(a)(2), (b). litigation 300 recognize faced conceded single, narrow did, able. could, Regardless answer stronger 2; 989, (1959); 91, 777, (1965). settled exercises supra; 583 (1969); 370 (1970). classification, evenly applied, Hayes 350, 351—352, 578 (1887), 155, 256—257, 666 (1897); McLaughlin Florida, 379 184, 189—191, 286—288, cited. 303 preservative rights.' Yick Wo Hopkins, 356, 1064, 1071, (1886); 562, Williams Rhodes, 393 (1968). 'Any unjustified affairs undermines legitimacy 626, 1889. Consequently, exclusions violating State. Metropolitan Cas. Brownell, 580, 583—584, 538, 539—540, 1070 (1935). 'A exacting obtains.' 633, promote interest.' 1890; 704, 1899, 647 304 18- 21-year-olds promoting franchise.20 intelligence responsibility, permissibly whereby determines choice, actual Were otherwise, epithets cloak 422—423, 1754—1755. impermissible. 94, 779. must, care admittedly laudable 305 inquiry. presented, factor 625—626, 1888-1889. 'capricious factor,' 668, 1082, 425—426, 1756 1757. Accepting remains 306 ageas casts proposition. mechanisms insufficiently State.21 Forty-nine regard, elders.22 differences trivial warrant specialized critically responsibility.23 permits parental sexes.24 consistently.25 307 Uniform points way. beyond. disenfranchised 21.26 achievements level today, purports elders27 incremental finally, material whatsoever intelligence, attainment, 21. 308 remains. difference States—Georgia 1943, 1955—that vote.28 intelligently responsibly elders, ground belief Georgia Kentucky. spoke 18-yearolds interested, able, elders.29 bare strong indications propositions rest. clear, turn. B 310 often indicated, frequently analysis 'under conditions' alike, 71, 352, formulation raises, classification resulted conditions.' 311 Legislatures, wel courts, bound Cooper Aaron, 358 18—20, 1401, 1409—1411, comes cloaked presumption has, should, acted Pilots, 556, 563-564, 912, 915—916, (1947); 627—628, 1889—1890. '(a) aside conceived it.' 584, 540.30 312 But, stemming, review. 'salutary decision,' 'self-imposed (the Court) irresponsible Court's) unappealable power.' Fay 261, 282, 1613, 1624, 2043 inappropriate forum complex adjudication. Courts, overturn legislature's wrong 'arbitrary,' 'unreasonable.' Communist Party Subversive Activities Control 367 94—95, 1357, 1409—1410, 625 (1961); Carolene Products 144, 154, 778, 783—785, 1234 (1938); 539—540. Limitations stemming '(t)he article.' Should undertake investigation exists, stop exists. matter. 654—656, 1725 1727, exist, means. 656—657, 1727; 282—283, 1625; 347—348, re-examine them.' 1409, '(W)here regulatory end.' 294, 303—304, 377, 383, 1724; Galvan Press, 522, 529, 737, 741, 911 (1954).31 315 core question—the legitimacy, emphasized conflict, primacy England Medical Examiners, 375 411, 415—417, 461, 464—466, 440 Townsend Sain, 293, 311—312, 756—757, 770 (1963); Tarble's Case, 406—407, 597 (1872); Darby, 100, 119, 451, 609 identical legislative, judicial, findings. intrudes States—the longer interference compulsion embraced true, extending complete.' 347—348. C 317 persuades 154—200. 'that elections.' 154. accepted, corollary unpopular candidates desire. surprisingly, HARLAN's thesis disavowed litigation,32 amici curiae perhaps, Mississippi.33 today. flawed ascription 20th-century meanings 19th-century legislators. artificial simplicity era, presents, universal, beliefs premise citizens. 318 'deny laws,' More Writing Holmes tartly '(w)e imagine infringement Fourteenth.' Nixon Herndon, 540—541, 446, 759 (1927); Condon, 83, 87—89, 484, 485, 486—487, 984 (1932) (Cardozo, J.); Anderson Martin, 399, 454, 430 Traction 35—36, 12, (1907). shifting doctrinal Herndon office; encourage supra), all.34 319 us, Amendment,' 'to fit.' background, imperfect confusion, confusion resolve. historian observed, noticeable precision' tendency irregularity interpretation.' J. Problems Lincoln 515—516 (rev. 1951). postwar 320 decades pressing Nation's statesmen lawyers, especially Government. onset offered, best, peripheral guidance. greatest conflict—whether belligerent two. Another emancipate slaves; Emancipation Proclamation operative ended expired. resolved slavery, eleven unsettled. 24, 59—73, 342—404. questions. perplexing remained. Government; intimately Party's solution problems. James, Framing 169—173 (1956) James). 322 key 1860, won Presidency 40% Washington secession compromise computed critical 1865; abolished, hence increase. calculated carefully; Tribune delegation obtainable dominate House. 21—23. resurgence occur; 'faithless' 'trust,' 'men faithless' recover hitherto destruction Government.' Cong, Sess. Globe) 2918 (remarks Sen. Willey). looks grasp idealistic gains surrendered, return all-white 323 Temporarily, refusing seceded usually refusal grounds, theories forfeited secession. McKitrick, 93—119 (1960). permanent solution; seemed elect numbers—the 324 According census constituted 4,200,000 total 12,200,000 States—Mississippi Carolina—Negroes Negro. Thus, bringing about. Some, Chase, back proclamation. 5—7; W. Fleming, Documentary History (1906). vehicle 52—53; Van Alstyne, 'Right' Vote, Understanding Thirty-Ninth Supreme Review 49—51, Sept. 11—12 (reporting Bingham). Disagreement obstacle path suffrage; one. 70, 1868. suffered severe setbacks 1867 Right Vote 27, 32—38 325 Meeting winter spring facing dilemma: desperately reaction massive frame simultaneously constituents emerged Amendment.35 finally 'Representatives numbers. abridged, therein enforce, 329 began, aimed securing 'political privileges'—a surprising earliest versions '(Sec. 1.) privileges; Kendrick, (1914) Kendrick). 331 2.) numbers deducting therefrom privileges.' 43. 333 wish version Six subcommittee, offered privileges,' (emphasis added), Boutwell: 336 usage therein.' 54—55. 337 agree, chaired 338 property; 56. 339 language, proposed, arguably did. substitute: 340 (Art. 2); (5th Amendment).' 61. 341 7—6. 342 committee's preserved, guess breakdown intended. ranging radicals section's explicit, Democrat. radical, Stevens; moderate, Fessenden; Democrat, Grider. preservation can, plausibility, appeared Constitution.36 343 modified, joined attacking Representative Hale codes procedure, overridden,' 1063, Davis, Republican, 'perfect South.' 1085. Meanwhile, edited Henry Raymond, wondered 'simply preliminary enactment suffrage.' extensive Kelley, concluded, (was) 1063. proponents, date, failed floor. 215. 344 Owen 345 'Section servitude. 346 fourth July, thousand hundred seventy-six, Until 348 83—84. 349 favorite Amendment: 350 87. 351 10-to-2 party-line intricate inexplicable maneuvering. Four delete Grider against. submit slight modifications, submission hence. 98—100. 352 rewritten. deleted 1876, conformed 1876. rights' language. containing spectrum views. rewriting entirely 1875, wrote recalling conversation reportedly 'got noised abroad,' caucuses 'negro shape, Quoted eliminated, substituted version. Perhaps linguistic improvements modify realized elastic language—language scholar 'capable growth' 'receptive 'latitudinarian' construction.' Bickel, Segregation Decision, Harv.L.Rev. 61, (1955). moreover, equally plausible broader originated 353 obscurity. search begin, Howard. apparent equivocation noting accord whites, cautioned voting.' 2766.37 unambiguous initially be. 'lack typical period, excerpt Corfield Coryell, F.Cas. 546 (No. 3,230) (CCED Pa. 1823), immunities. 2765. ambiguous, immunity. incongruous statement: sure measures Republic, 355 breath first, breath, 356 ears; yet, uttered, listeners. 2—the construe citizen's exercised.' F.Cas., 552. ambiguity thought—that federally real, function; absolute noncitizen 'upon perfect citizens' Scott Sandford, 393, 407, 691 (1857). Accord, 584 benefit citizens;38 business, arbitrarily Ward 418, 430, 449 (1871). indicating whomever chose, arbitrary choices. Clause; simple, strong, Union. Aug. 160. way, reconcile words, 'from pertained impose(d) abuses understanding. 'Equality (did) involve 'regulation' National (but) require(d) Rights.' Are Nation? Or, unjust all.' 2459 original). Clearest Thomas Cooley 1871 edition Limitations, wrote: concentrate police object 'abridge States,' 'deprive law,' laws'; ineffectual.' Cooley, (2d 1871). 359 electorate privilege,' 2538, Boyer, 'intended ambiguous warn might, addition it: 'Provided, prescribed.' 361 alluded occasion unhappy 'support plan' 'not vote,39 demonstrated, will, furnishes conclusive amnesty 2964. Likewise, elsewhere,' 2513, radical 'if 'elsewhere,' jury-box ballot-box.' 2505. meanwhile, informing prevails you it,' 2544, looking forward 'further enabling acts provisions,' 3148, imperfections cured, deficiencies supplied, wisdom Report H.R.Rep.No. xxi (1866). press disagree; Lansing editorial columns, '(i)f vital struggle mulish obstinacy Johnson,' 'freedom' 'triumph amendment,' July 11, ratified, implement guaranteeing Cong.Globe, 2d 1966 1967 (1868) Stevens); 1008 (1869) 362 speeches, precision certainty confronting concepts ready solutions. seen, 1860's formulated problem—that creating fairness destroying foresight consistency uniformity reconciled imprecise 363 Some men, whites. distinguish distinctions appeared. 1064 (Congressman Stevens). overwhelming living Most illiterate uneducated. kidnaped traders adulthood, Given affairs, classifying treating differently another. Entirely reservations centuries Columbia 38th 2140—2141, 2239—2243, 2248 (1864). situation wholesale franchise: many, most, excluded. 93—96, 778 780; 632—633, 1892—1893; 424—426, 1756—1757; Tussman TenBroek, Laws, Calif.L.Rev. 341, 351—352 convenience overly resultant affected. Terrace 197, 218—222, 19—20, (1923); Rejection 114—115, 765, imputations unready constitute denials class.' indignantly imputations, arguing suppose' 'even were, instincts 'educated class,' 'little learning' thing Republic Letter Editor, Nov. 365 ill subtle lawyers assurances identifiable existed majorities Amendment—those whites dissimilar purposes, large, 'beyond doubt' existent consisting hints developing framework applied. 366 evidence, sum, plausibly differing papered foresee future. militated compromise. North, re-election constituencies rampant. forthcoming constituencies; chairman wrote, 'some Speakers advocated repudiate oppose P. 168. accused misrepresenting Delaware replied progress scriptural 'milk babes." 42. Apparently Ashley principles, asked 'power negroes responded, 'Well, sir, intend that. colleague; speak. proposition.' 2882. 368 intellectually Wendell Phillips, abolitionist leader, trick tide time,' 'float initiate him.' Speech Harris, Political Conflict America 437 (1876), 'all excitement dust thrown grand fundamental, indispensable 433. contemporaries vague imprecise. Hendricks, protested accurately define, citizenship,' 3039, 'objectionable phraseology, constructions.' too, aware vagueness. '(i)t curious length, barren discussion.' pre-Civil Court,40 'very modestly declined definition adjudicated happen practically arise.' clear-cut Rather hypothesis: partly formulate program expediency, interpreters resolving unresolved. hypothesis strikes turbulent resting hidden operation 'political.'41 desired firmer repeal42 vagaries decision.43 Or disenfranchisement qualified. Cong.Rec. 3053 (1919). (1937),44 tax imply allocations implying persuasive exclusive Bromwell, 373 'there construction, penalty, centuries, ever, obtains. insisted gentleman amounts inflicts penalty works forfeiture act, implication inflicted. proviso. penalty. disobey lose 'You statute-book punishing murder death. You thereby, implication, anybody commit murder. penal guaranty life abuse terms, Representatives; inflict color. override propose aid guarantee, 431—432. 48—68. conceivable potential remedy. scheme, superfluous: assuring beneficiaries Neither logic compellingly supplementary, indispensable, pressures conceptions federalism, guidance pending generations. remiss amidst uncertainty, misread cease D 378 rationally here.45 Proposals 1942.46 1968 1970,47 Senate. aware, discussed.48 historians outgrowth medieval military training physique heavy armor.49 knew whereas percent 1900 high school, today.50 insubstantial force;51 supervising establishment perform assigned tasks. entrusting service. 301(a)(1) Amendments.52 social biological decreasing. Dr. Margaret Mead, anthropologist, 'age dropping dropped years.'53 campaigns, Congressmen's youth.54 important, Kentucky, 1943 1955, respectively. Talmadge 'young (in States) sophisticated performance expectations.'55 381 653 656, 1724—1727. interest, 382 join, undertook provisions: (§ 201); 202); 302). upholds 201's 202's 302's (by BLACK. removing valid, base disagree alter—for elections—the 385 turning evaluate appraise altering requirements, judges enact. elementary devoted demonstration beneficent young casual reader impression idea. wider mark. contrary, 'judgment' 386 BLACK'S 'nullifies simple-minded modes hits onerous procedural effectively handicap abstract unrestricted Lane Wilson, 268, 275, 872, 876, 1281; 110. Because neutral creed, six, 1072. 309, unfairly '(T)he 15th S.Rep. pt. 89th U.S.Code Admin.News 2554. 808 811, 769. 387 impediment Nationwide reduces perceived regions likelihood voluntary facilitates another, eliminates prospect loss right. avoids drawing side Moreover entail diversion resources. evil manifests underlines reflects commitment solution. state-by-state concerning box. uniformity, paint brush confine controversies records. tests. chose geographic necessary.' 328, 819. Experience gained distance. one; consequently 389 residence. notwithstanding moved, disabilities Freedom State—freedom abide Union—is 600; 757 1177—1179, 239; 131; 744. 'All born naturalized wherein reside. discussing Cases: 'One consideration. volition, bona fide 394. confers article,' facilitate 757—760, 1368; 484. brings facilitation end. 579. considerations, unreasonably sanctions sanctions. steps resident. firm solved play. compact, Quite clearly, character. Wall., 79, overstep commerce, impinge Rights. prevents presidential. withholds perfectly plain. Representatives: 158, L.Ed.274; 64, purported repugnant gainsaid 396 Contrary Representatives,' 'make 'manner' remembered 'qualifications' plain, 'qualifications.' done, above, assure 1368. cannot, extrinsic draft 'at superseded States.'1 records Detail stead Legislatures.'2 same, States.'3 VI, Gouverneur Morris freehold qualifications.4 Oliver Ellsworth, George Mason, Bemjamin Franklin. Ellsworth favored aristocracy. disqualify electorate.5 Mason objection. dangerous Legislature.'6 401 Legislature.'7 402 seven-to-one vote,8 403 Alexander Hamilton chosen, remarked occasions, defined unalterable (i.e., Congress).' original.) 404 Different Twelfth specifies appoint direct.' college, specify 'direct' 29, 24. orderly corruption. review: 'Neither appointment made.' 289, approval 274: having election—the members—free diminished votes.' 546, 290. counted' amenable 1037 added). Fed.Cas. 552 3230) Pa.). 405 issue, intentional withholding move losing disabilities. unconditional diminishing available. maintained. strive avoid withhold secure. 202.9 undertakes Negroes10 females,11 407 relies, establishes assuming cases12 rightly decided. writes, Supra, 125. 408 immune Clause.13 note undoubted 625, 1888, 853; 989—990. suggest unimpeachable establishing such. really Obviously, done.14 409 interests' principal English. grounds: enhancing community conferring remedying services; tainted Ricans, decisional farreaching. elaborated command instruments lawsuit Swain 824, 759. 410 invalidates invidiously discrete insular minority. Unlike eradicating situations amount ambit clause, 'compelling.' concurred Harlan's Morgan. furthest reach. enormous decision's rationale. invoke (18-year-old vote) invokes directing (nationwide ban), 201, vote), 302, (abolition elections), standing delegates Story, Commentaries 280—292 (1st 1833). reveals prevailed. resolutions recommendation curtail adopted. con- vention Otherwise recommended providing: vested 4th article, neglect mentioned, subversive agreeably V. Elliot's Debates (1876). Cabot, delegate convention, highly prized colleagues: '(I)f conclusively branch, annihilate 26. Cabot Parsons, added: '* representatives, remedy; remedy, twelve states, influence commotions factions, hear impartially, restore sacred election.' 27. 14—16, 533—534, (1964). 1911, 13. Franklin differently. manner, continent. equality, diversity unjust. judged remedied supposedly opposing curb 403. Mosley, 904, 1355 (1915); 484 (1934), unheld electors, rejecting curtailed supreme residual constituency responsively possible. arises U.S.Const., Members Year BRENNAN (1965); crucial but, rather, See: First Gitlow 652, 1138 (1925); Cantwell 296, 900, 1213 (1940); 229, 680, 697 Fourth Mapp 643, 1684, 1081 Chicago, Q.R. 226, 581, 979 Malloy Hogan, 1489, Benton 784, 2056, 707 Sixth Gideon Wainwright, 335, 792, 799 Pointer 1065, 923 Klopfer 213, 988, Duncan 145, 1444, 491 Eighth Robinson 660, 1417, 758 (1962). Yuma contest 'does question' 'special competence"; cites approval. Answer O.T. Hearings 4249, 5538, Similar Judiciary, 91st Ser. 93. 818, 2456, 2507, 2029 (1969—1970). 401. novel Story vol. 284—285 1833): 'There 4), incongruous, absurd. introduced legislatures? unwarrantable transfer premeditated governments. flagrant comment. justly, self-existence self-organization, pleasure government? suppose, governments?' added.) (Footnote omitted.) tried petit 304, 664. affirmed. unconstitutional: jurors, discriminations. (The aim Amendment) color.' 310, Mann, 1441, 609; Swann Adams, 440, 569, 501; Kilgarlin Hill, 120, 820, 771; Avery Midland 474, 1114, 45; Moore Ogilvie, 1493, 45. 506; WMCA, Inc. Lomenzo, 1418, 568; Roman Sincock, 695, 1449, 620. practicable man's worth another's,' 7—8, 529—530, 481, 'vote-diluting discrimination' 'through widely inhabitants.' 530; Lucas Forty-Fourth Assembly 713, 1459, 632; Kirkpatrick Preisler, 1225, 519; Wells Rockefeller, 542, 1234, 535. 717; Guinn 347, 926, 1340; 1355; Saylor, 385, 1101, 1341. revenues paid nonowners realty. owners tenants customers. 209—211, 1994—1995. Engdahl, Constitutionality Statute, Geo.Wash.L.Rev. '(1) Senators. '(2) assemble Year, December, Day.' 201(b) defines 315. Drueding Devlin, 721 (Md.1964), aff'd, 792. Subsequently vacated moot Hall Beals, 200, 214. constitutional. Brown, 862 (N.D.Ohio 1970); Cocanower Marston, (Ariz.1970). Additionally, Piliavine Hoel, (W.D.Wis.1970). (absent Congress) 675; 583; 523. Accordingly (and elections) Burg Canniffe, (Mass.1970); Blumstein Ellington (M.D.Tenn.1970); Hadnott Amos, (M.D.Ala.1970); Bufford Holton, 843 (E.D.Va.1970). Citizens citizenship.' Arguably dicta Yarbrough. 252, elections; erroneously Yarbrough 817, holdings analyzed Harlan. 'are essentially vindication relationships involvement enforcement, communicating 772, 1185, (separate opinion) necessary. buttressed Thus effectuate named defendant. jurisdictional ruling, inquiries General, willingness drawn James), Vote: Politics Passage Gillette), Kendrick), Taxes Numbers, adding Persons, Service Years, taxed, fifths Persons.' 209—212, E.g., 760 (North Carolina). texts Thorpe, Constitutions (1909). tabular 128—129 33. (Freedmen's Bill); (Civil Bill). formally April, weeks off, 1095, 'April indefinitely.' (Mar. Citizenship 3041. abridgment franchise.' reads: Executive contracts, sue, parties, inherit, purchase, lease, sell, convey procedings security punishment, pains, penalties, ordinance, regulation, custom, notwithstanding.' Apr. connection, Professor Fairman's admonition remind ourselves surprised sharp. Eighty adjudication taught subtleties analysis.' 599 Trumbull); 1117 Iowa, quoting Kent's Bouvier's Dictionary); 1152 Thayer). nonexistent 477 Saulsbury); 1157 Thornton); 1292—1293 jurisprudential 'natural' bears nonjusticiable inappropriately questions.' 137—140. (1949), 8—9. 182-185. Also Representative, useless doubtless disfranchising unsuccessful. 53, 56—62, 69—72, 76. supervision, focus unlike testing basis, unpalatable officeholding eleventh hour, implies 1425 Boutwell); Butler): 1629 Sawyer). Hearings, 128—129. 141—142 Blaine); 2766—2767 Howard); 2769—2770 (Sens. Wilson); 3033 Henderson). reprinted 129. altogether successful. 108—109. 18—22. (1866), useful Results Varioloid, Atlantic Monthly 660 (June 1875). 109—112; 24; 666. select 52; Boutwell's Tennessee 70; 101; conforming (which made), 109. equal-rights omitted privileges. plan, enfranchised presented. 85. February thereto. 123. motives sheer speculation, general. later: unnecessary, negro; elector, nativeborn, specification assured: proceedings examined MARSHALL. 257—263. sheds section: time; transferred Unless, 'conspiracy theory' (quite) context. tell (sic) such, unanswerable unconvicted 2462. shall, Speaker, approve Could fifteen, country.' 2469. 'So desire, tends equalization existing; country—-and admit people—I doubly humiliated disgraced, even, hesitated equalizes 2508. fully, Manifestly enlarged borders denied. denial, hoped justice, disqualified crime. secured: demand; odious equalized, admitted.' 2511. established. manhood magnanimity wielded sword intrusted expectations, fondly cherished, doomed disappointment.' 2537. direction; incorporated thirds cordially best.' 2540. '(If added) thinking, body. 'Would unprecedented reside element 2464. not? Union? us?' 2498. 'deprived (the) gradual admission (of freedmen) inasmuch all. injurious, Well, proposition, report, aggregate just, justly 2502. Later, 'one fifth, eighth, tenth, floor.' Negroes' cross mind. men; nation, to-day; probably, unfit it; courage cuts traitor richly deserve.' settle complication 2510. insurgent authority; this: moment waive opinion.' 2532. persists man, offer, confining 2535. Spalding's 2509—2510. 'As gathering existed. proposes bondsmen free, population.' 2509. clearly: say, individual, cheerfully wish, heartily obtain.' 3146. Longyear's published 2536—2537. third. disappointed expectations people' briefly, section. 2512. Stevens) suffrage? gentlemen confiscation? butchery people? saving 2506. 'Gentlemen desire (federal suffrage), kneed Your timidity ingraft Union.' 2530. 'While (second) admits representation; suffer 3145. Boyer's 'monstrous proposition,' 176, incompatible 175. Rogers' harangues bill. monstrous ballot-box,' launched vitriol. participants parts,' 2467, nine-tenths years. Electoral College; 'inducement' asserted: dare to-day bill honorable oblivion advocate public, revealed recommend reconsidered App. 230. rejection 28. 115. amiss Phelps' foresaw colleagues, 264, mysterious dilute effectuated part, weaken above. Fessenden, discussion. 2763, 2769, 2770. gross misinterpretation 1825), 'gather intimation judiciary' indicates, dictum refulated Corfield, Jersey oyster beds residents, Campbell Morris, McH. 535 (Md.1797) (Samuel J.), Abbot Bayley, Pick. (Mass.1827) (Parker, C.J.), 12—15 office. clear-spoken man. recalled framing constrained article. maintained.' 1003 '(n)obody guarantied Constitution' bolster friends, Michigan Howard). yields reluctantly, got weakening yourself strengthen immensely accommodate majorities, can. direction, beneficial.' 2769. ('the South') Army. now, adoption, glad further.' 2963—2964. discharging solemn attainment proposed. refuses (But) utter impossibility difficulties cause clamor sorry 2) friend Nevada Stewart) representatives. doctrine; doctrine. prefer, myself, unite 219. 190m Mis souri,62 Yates Illinois.63 Sherman lukewarm, 2986, interpretation.64 Doolittle Party, 2942. desirability change, defended pointing 'Your Henderson, 115, prepared' plan. 3035. '(A)lthough grasping reign destinies, hasten blacks.' neighbors 2986. Carolina's improper Massachusetts' mentioned breath. them? fairer indirection, distinctly 2939. 'What amendment? Just whip less.' 2987. '(The section's) reached, shrinks coerce 240. consequently, (if wrong) redress.' 3027. 'With States') safety prescription acts, condition-precedent.' 3148. Kelley: 2469, Farnsworth: 2540, Eliot: 2511, 34, Higby: 3978 (debate electorate). Bingham: 185; 3979 Tennessee). Stevens: 2459—2460, 175—177; 69, Raymond: 2502, Ashley: Sumner: infra. Fessenden: H.R.Rep.No.30, XIII—XIV 197—198. Yates: 3038, Stewart: 2964, Wade: 2770, 2986—2987, uniformly Secondary Shellabarger, Cook, Julian, Lawrence Ohio. significantly substance 210; Julian Amendment; Independence. apparent. 175—177, (campaign 1866). 2508, 3976 caucus accompanying conformity therewith. V—VI, Sumner's therewith 'and law.' 2869 unfinished business 178. citations materials, 84—132 Fear Brevier Legis. Rep. (Indiana) 45—46, 88—89 (1867); Tenn.H.R.J. (Extra Sess.1866); Fla.S.J. (1866); N.C.S.J. (1866—1867); S.C.H.R.J. Tex.S.J. 422—423 Opponents Ark.H.R.J. 288—289 8—9 Relations, Md. H.R.Doc. MM, 1867); Mass.H.R.Doc.No.149, 7—9, 16—17 Wis.S.J. 102—103 Fla.H.R.J. 76—78 Ind.H.R.J. N.H.S.J. 71—72 equivocal. 'Are rightfully confers? divest infamous crime?' Ill.H.R.J. 47—48 Kan.S.J. Maine S.J. 25—26 Nev.S.J.App. Vt.S.J. W.Va.S.J. Wis.Assembly col. 72; 25—27. 1395 1396, (1964) text. 209—212. XV: XIX: XXIV: tax. (1966): 'Our (377 (1964),) requires.' Eight 709 Dist. Ariz. 523 disposed of. advert occasionally merits challenges. (1927), (1932), transferring party's executive primary. abortive primaries vote' 614 72, 1409 white-primary Allwright, 649, 757, 987 (1944), Terry (1953), instance branches votingage H.R.Doc.No.91—326 espoused reaffirmation 1409,3 (1958): '(Marbury) exposition respected Country feature system.' Contrast (1935), silent, casualty Indiana funds agencies settlement outside state.' 585, 541. expansion Lowering dilutes standard, debasement dilution 1378 (footnote omitted). vulnerable rests 'federal' 586, 587, 951 (1890), Ray Blair, 214, 224—225, 659—660, 894 (1952), officials. Hawaii Alaska, referenda, age; 20; Alaska A13, additional ownership creed sex, imposed, clearer. II: retains sovereignty, independence, confederation assembled.' needed. falling reinstatement 1973b(a) Pub.L.No. 91—285 reasonableness instant improperly 1886 88, 202(a) '(6) '(3) 16—101 (Supp. 1970) English), days' 34—408 (1963) Provisions 34—1101 34—1125. 4(c) 1973(c) reinstate county's test. abridging disparate bore responsibility.' 1724 supplied). (1969—1970) Hearings). Schooling Warren Trading Post Tax 685, 690—691, 1242. 1245—1246, 185—187; Extension ser. 223—225 1960 data 1955 1960, 4,388 74,804 74,821 Table Population, pts. 34. 399; 400—407. 678. Nakai disparity. permitted, 202(g). 148—150. 8; 1177—1178. 282. 6991. 34—1101, 34—1102, 34—1103 34—1121 34—1105 1969). 1971, applications 34—1002 1970). chimerical. addition, serves, more, exclusion. power; reason. mentioned—promotion 6970 (Library Legislative Reference survey). California Cal.Welf. Inst'ns Code, 602 juvenile defendants juveniles. Boches Goldfarb, Juvenile Practice 35—36 waiver outweighed possibility, slight, individuals appropriately 6970. woman marry consent, parent. Cal.Civ.Code, 4101 married Probate Procedure, contracts estate. (Supp.1970). Labor Department treats adults. Cal.Labor 1172, 3077 Cal.Civ.Proc.Code, Presumably illiterates graduates, vanishingly small. S.J.Res. (1970) Goldwater). 118. 1892—1893. Eighteen-year-olds elders. median 19-year-olds 12.2; 8.8 74. Census, Educational Attainment, table (Current Population Reports, Series P—20, 182) 1959, (Alaska) 20-year-olds (Hawaii). 6433—6434 Cook), 6929—6930 Ervin); (Gov. Maddox). vary Williamson Optical Okl., 488—489, 464 465, 563 inhibiting convenient, 1889; 96, O'Brien, 367, 1673, 1679, 672 1216—1217, Shelton Tucker, 479, 487—490, 247, 251—253, '§ 'statutes Court." 724. expresses, things, unreasonable. Unless unearth investigation, 10—13; 10—12; 19; 28—30. amicus Commonwealth 22; Mississippi 7—11. opinions. platform. Life Public Services William Pitt (1907); (1914). 262. thought, grants academic only. (1869), Stewart's leaders. Conner Elliott, 591, (1856). Ironically, 545—546, 1141, (1896). felt, enactment, repealable majority.' disenchantment led, March withdrawing appellate habeas corpus McCardle, 506, 508, 514—515, (1868). collection Note, Harv.J.Legis. 8312, 8316 (1942). 90th 242—246. 6955; Majority, Am.J.Legal Hist. Majority Presented Parliament (1967). 6435. Labor, Statistics, Employment Earnings, A—3 Kennedy), 5950—5951 Mansfield); 6433 Cook). 134—148. 223. Walter Menninger, psychiatrist, I. Hayakawa agreed. 36. Cook); 6434—6437 Goldwater); Talmadge, 6950—6951 Tydings). 6929. 164. 178—179. 207. 203. 206. attending (Ariz.1970); (E.D.Va.1970); Lester 505 (D.C.1970). XV. XIX; 627. 12. action, out. 241—246. 1234. relies. 'is

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