Document: 496 U.S. 226 110 S.Ct. 2356 L.Ed.2d 191 BOARD OF EDUCATION the WESTSIDE COMMUNITY SCHOOLS (Dist. 66), et al., Petitionersv.Bridget C. MERGENS, By and Through Her Next Friend, Daniel N. al. No. 88-1597. Argued Jan. 9, 1990. Decided June 4, Syllabus Westside High School, a public secondary school that receives federal financial assistance, permits its students to join, on voluntary basis, number of recognized groups clubs, all which meet after hours premises. Citing Establishment Clause School Board policy requiring clubs have faculty sponsorship, petitioner officials denied request respondent Mergens for permission form Christian club would same privileges terms conditions as other student groups, except it no sponsor. After voted uphold denial, respondents, current former students, brought suit seeking declaratory injunctive relief. They alleged, inter alia, refusal permit proposed at violated Equal Access Act, prohibits schools receive assistance maintain "limited open forum" from denying "equal access" who wish within forum basis "religious, political, philosophical, or content" speech such meetings. In reversing District Court's entry judgment petitioners, Court Appeals held Act applied forbid discrimination against respondents' religious content, did not violate Clause. Held: The is affirmed. 867 F.2d 1076 (CA8 1989), Justice O'CONNOR delivered opinion with respect Parts I, II-A, II-B, II-C, concluding petitioners by official recognition club. Pp. 234-237. (a) provides, among things, exists whenever covered "grants an offering opportunity one more noncurriculum related premises." Its equal access obligation therefore triggered even if allows only "noncurriculum related" group meet. (b) Although does define crucial phrase group," term best interpreted in light Act's language, logic, nondiscriminatory purpose, Congress' intent provide low threshold triggering requirements, mean any directly relate body courses offered school. A relates school's curriculum group's subject matter actually taught, will soon be regularly course; concerns whole; participation required particular course results academic credit. Whether specific depend curriculum, determination factual findings well competence trial courts make. 237-247. (c) Westside's existing include group[s]" under foregoing standard. For example, Subsurfers, interested scuba diving, group, since taught whole way government similar might; result extra Thus, has maintained prohibited discriminating, based content students' speech, premises during noninstructional time. 243-247. (d) denial constitutes limited forum. apparently respondents informally school, they seek recognition, part activities program carries newspaper, bulletin boards, address system, annual Club Fair. Since meetings conduct forum, violates Act. P. 247. O'CONNOR, joined THE CHIEF JUSTICE, WHITE, BLACKMUN, concluded Part III not, face Westside, contravene logic Widmar v. Vincent, 454 263, 271-275, 102 269, 275-77, 70 440—which three-part test Lemon Kurtzman, 403 602, 612-613, 91 2105, 2111, 29 745 hold policy, state university level, Clause—applies force 247-253. Because grants both secular meets purpose prong test. 248-249. primary effect advancing religion. There difference between private endorsing religion, and, Congress passing high are mature enough likely understand endorse support merely basis. Moreover, expressly limits requires "noninstructional time," thereby avoids problems emulation teachers role models mandatory attendance requirements might otherwise indicate endorsement coercion. possibility peer pressure remains, there little risk coercion where formal classroom involved actively participate. 249-252. excessive entanglement religion complying provisions prohibit monitors participating in, nonschool persons directing, controlling, attending, "sponsorship" of, Indeed, create greater invasive monitoring prevent occur. 252-253. KENNEDY, SCALIA, agreeing Clause, that, accommodation mandated neutral one, context this case suffices inquire whether either two principles. First, cannot give direct benefits degree fact establishes faith, tends do so. County Allegheny American Civil Liberties Union, Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 492 573, 655, 109 3086, 3134, 106 472 (KENNEDY, J., concurring dissenting part). Any incidental accompany criteria lead establishment See 273-274, 276. Second, coerce participate activity. Cf. Allegheny, supra, 659, S.Ct., 3136. also satisfies standard, nothing facts demonstrates enforcement 258-259, 260-262. MARSHALL, BRENNAN, although could withstand scrutiny, inclusion type presently established without more, assure neutrality toward 263-270. introduction into reveals tension Free Speech Clauses, because failure stand apart can convey message endorses, rather than tolerates, speech. vigilance shown compliance elementary schools, see, e.g., Edwards Aguillard, 482 578, 583-584, 107 2573, 2577, 96 510, must extend actual effects policy. 263-264. plurality misplaces reliance substantially different character issue here. Widmar, wide-open independent affording many ideological organizations facilities; took concrete steps university's name was identified policies programs group; emphasized autonomy students. Here, contrast, currently recognize advocates controversial viewpoint explicitly promotes vital total educational means developing citizenship, shaping character, inculcating fundamental values. absence advocacy-oriented highly controlled environment provides fertile ground pressure. these circumstances, disassociate itself goals poses real danger viewed 264-269. take fully club's avoid appearing sponsor goals. It could, entirely discontinue encouraging clarify instrumentally overall mission. Or, sought continue general those engage so affirmatively disclaimed 269-270. announced REHNQUIST, C.J., JJ., joined, III, WHITE joined. filed judgment, post, p. 262. STEVENS, opinion, 270. Allen E. Daubman, Omaha, Neb., petitioners. Jay Alan Sekulow, Decatur, Ga., Bridget Mergens, etc., Solicitor Gen. Kenneth W. Starr, Washington, D.C., respondent, Court, III. 1 This us decide 98 Stat. 1302, 20 U.S.C. §§ 4071-4074, time, so, construed, First Amendment. 2 * Respondents Nebraska. At time filed, enrolled about 1,450 included grades 10 12; 1987-1988 year, ninth graders were added. Community Schools district. Petitioners Education (District 66); Wayne Meier, president board; James Findley, principal School; K. Hanson, superintendent district; A. Tangdell, associate 3 Students permitted join various may choose approximately 30 list together brief description each provided appears Appendix opinion. 4 Policy 5610 concerning "Student Clubs Organizations" recognizes "vital education wholesome attitudes, good human relations, knowledge skills." App. 488. shall sponsorship "clubs sponsored political organization, organization denies membership race, color, creed, sex belief." 6180 "Recognition Religious Beliefs Customs" "[s]tudents adhering set beliefs holding belief alike respected." 462. addition, 5450 "Freedom Expression," consistent authority board. 489. 5 written board formation clubs. Rather, wishing present their determines objectives district's "Mission Goals"—a broadly worded "blueprint" expresses commitment teaching academic, physical, civic, personal skills Id., 473-478. 6 January 1985, met Principal, Dr. requested According testimony trial, been, read discuss Bible, fellowship, pray together. Membership been regardless affiliation. 7 Findley request, Associate Superintendent Tangdell. February Tangdell informed had discussed Hanson he agreed her should denied. explained sponsor, have, March appealed education, but denial. 8 Respondents, through parents next friends, then United States Nebraska alleged petitioners' meetings, § 4071(a). further actions them Fourteenth Amendment rights freedom association, free exercise responded apply apply, unconstitutional. intervened action pursuant 28 2403 defend constitutionality 9 entered court defined concluded, curriculum-related tied function rejected constitutional claims, reasoning forth 440 (1981), reasonably legitimate pedagogical concerns, see Hazelwood Dist. Kuhlmeier, 484 260, 273, 108 562, 571, 592 (1988). Eighth Circuit reversed. (1989). erred related. noted "broad interpretation" advanced "would make [Equal Act] meaningless" allow "arbitrarily deny facilities unfavored content," "exactly enacting [Act]." 1078. instead found "[m]any WHS, including chess club, noncurriculum-related." 1079. Accordingly, "forbi[d] [respondents'] content." Ibid. 11 contention Noting extended decision "[a]ny attack [Act] predicated students." F.2d, 1080 (footnote omitted). "Congress considered maturity level before [Act]," held, factfinding, 12 We granted certiorari, 917, 3240, 587 (1989), now affirm. II 13 we invalidated, grounds, regulation use " 'for purposes worship teaching.' 265, 272. doing our (1971). particular, U.S., 271-274, 275-76. noted, however, "[u]niversity are, course, young adults. less impressionable younger able appreciate University's religion." 274, n. 14, 276-77, 14. 14 1984, schools. Under discriminating meeting meetings." 4071(a) (b). Specifically, provides: 15 "It unlawful Federal fair to, discriminate against, religious, 16 time." 4071(b). "Meeting" "those curriculum." 4072(3). "Noninstructional time" "time aside instruction begins ends." 4072(4). group" meet, obligations 17 specifies "shall deemed offer uniformly student-initiated; government, agents employees; materially interfere orderly school; directed, controlled, conducted, attended "nonschool persons." 4071(c)(1), (2), (4), (5). "Sponsorship" "the act promoting, leading, meeting. assignment teacher, administrator, employee custodial constitute meeting." 4072(2). If employees attend "nonparticipatory capacity." 4071(c)(3). State influence activity, require person compel agent contrary person's beliefs. 4071(d)(1), (4). 18 Finally, "authorize withhold school," 4071(e), "limit employees, order discipline premises, protect well-being faculty, voluntary," 4071(f). B 19 parties agree meaning 57-58. grant maintains forum"—i.e., groups" campus classes. Unfortunately, group." Our immediate task statutory interpretation. begin, language statute. See, Mallard Southern Iowa, 490 296, 300, 1814, 1818, 104 318 (1989); James, 478 597, 604, 3116, 3120, 92 483 (1986). common "curriculum" institution branches." Webster's Third New International Dictionary 557 (1976); Black's Law 345 (5th ed. 1979) ("The studies period, designated branch school"). 271, 570 (high newspaper produced journalism class curriculum). sensible interpretation anchored notion difficult question "unrelatedness curriculum" related." 21 definition sort "meeting[s]" accommodated statute, 4071(a), sheds some question. "The 'meeting' includes . 4072(3) (emphasis added). "directly implies fall category "curriculum 22 supports view, namely, just tangential attenuated relationship granting hand noncurriculum-related other, premised group. follows, then, least have. 23 nevertheless remains sufficiently ambiguous normally resort legislative history, 606, 3121, find history helpful. bill led extensively rewritten series multilateral negotiations passed House reported out committee Senate, Committee Reports shed adopted. During congressional debate subject, legislators referred definitions, thus cite favoring phrase. Compare 130 Cong.Rec. 19223 (1984) (statement Sen. Hatfield) (curriculum-related "really kind extension classroom"), ibid. (in response districts full what related, "[w]e limit discretion"). Laycock, Moments Silence: Status Private Speakers, 81 Nw.U.L.Rev. 1, 37-39 24 think significant, wide, bipartisan majorities reflects consensus broad purpose. intended perceived widespread H.R.Rep. 98-710, (1984); S.Rep. 98-357, pp. 10-11 (1984), indicates, sponsors contemplated validate status quo. show enacted appellate decisions 3-6 (discussing Lubbock Union Independent Dist., 669 1038, 1042-1048 (CA5 1982), cert. denied, 459 1155-1156, 103 800, 74 1003 (1983), Brandon Guilderland Bd. Ed., 635 971 (CA2 1980), 1123, 970, 71 (1981)); 6-9, 11-14 (same). reading views end allowing 25 commonsense requirements. 26 French planned teach near future. generally extent addresses solicits opinions, formulates proposals pertaining band orchestra classes, resulted credit, curriculum. existence trigger obligations. 27 On hand, unless stamp collecting community service fell determinations contend unduly hinders local control over activities, retain significant measure officially (1988); Bethel Fraser, 675, 3159, 549 traditional latitude determine appropriate subjects instruction. To chooses structure offerings obligations, matters interpretation, "[o]ur text, improve it." Pavelic & LeFlore Marvel Entertainment Group, 493 120, 126, 456, 460, 438 "materially school." 4071(c)(4); cf. Tinker Des Moines 393 503, 509, 89 733, 738, 731 (1969). preserves voluntary." applies district escape statute's simply forgo funding. doubt cases unrealistic option, clearly price federally funded pay opens groups. dissent suggests "an extracurricular 'noncurriculum related' (or purpose) advocacy partisan theological, ethical views." Post, 276; 291 (Act "controversial" "distasteful" facilities); ("noncurriculum" 'cannot properly curriculum' "). told, intention "track own jurisprudence," 279, 10, incorporating 271-272. suggestion flawed reasons. neither uses nor much hints doctrine somehow "incorporated" words operative refers forum," specifically subsection, presumably aware used art, Perry Ed. Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 45-49, 948, 954-57, 794 import concept suppose done explicitly. deliberate choice term—and term—can establish standard cases. Nw.U.L.Rev., 36 'limited forum' artificial construct, comparisons ['limited forum'] misleading"). paraphrase dissent, "[i]f really [incorporate] reasons administrative clarity, kept hidden, statute debates preceding passage." 281-282, 15. 31 dissent's shows how treacherous be. view relevant, unreliable, 274-275, 5, 15, yet rests solely few passing, references 4. hazardous best, 'not knew meant,' 281, (quoting 38 (citation omitted)), reasonable interpret text place great comment Senator Levin extends rule Levin's understanding "rule," expressed breath statement relies, fails 19236 pending amendment student-initiated times") Senators, debate, warned stated reflect views. ("I am troubled you making here") Chiles); id., 19237 ("[T]here statements made floor today construed modifying my anyone's bill") Denton). thing said confidence Senators thought when That conclusion, bear weight places it. C 32 focus dispute clubs: Interact (a Rotary International); Chess Club; Subsurfers diving); National Honor Society; Photography Welcome introduce new school); Future Business Leaders America; Zonta (the female counterpart Interact); Student Advisory (student government); Forum government). 60. aspects Club, helps "further School's goal effective citizens members contribute fellow Brief 16. "advance science classes providing appreciation processes." 17. furthers "one essential Physical Department—enabling develop lifelong recreational interests." 18. "supplement[s] math enhances ability critical 18-19. Participation "promotes WHS Social Studies Department." 19. 33 anything remotely abstract goals, reject argument. almost having fora, evade strategically describing render hortatory. 19222 Leahy) ("[A] does, says"). As below explained: 34 "Allowing 'curriculum-related' meaningless. administration declare closed wanted tying goal. arbitrarily content. exactly [Act]. 35 Garnett Renton 403, 874 608, 614 (CA9 1989) ("Complete deference [to district] meaningless boards circumvent asserting related"). clear groups." physical swimming, Record, Tr. Preliminary Injunction Hearing 25, counsel oral argument diving Oral Arg. 6. Based might. 485-486. 170-171, 236. Similarly, encouraged play chess, 442-444, 6, credit class, 302-304. another Westside. acknowledged Peer Advocates program—a works special classes—does 231-233; 198-199 (participation course). fit record finding 37 activities" looks practice note conclusion supported activities. reprinted states Band "is regular curriculum"; Choir Distributive class"; "developed foreign classes"; Latin "designed taking language"; Publications "includes preparation yearbook (Shield) (Lance)"; Dramatics Orchestra These descriptions persuasive evidence inference, strongly admission, conclude remaining 315-316, Official 434-435. Given [the school's] 39 rest need decide—and express on—whether result. 40 created Amendment, integral mission, effectively incorporate program, platform proselytize 41 disagree. 275-77 (applying Lemon, 2111). open-forum nondiscrimination purpose," 275 (footnotes omitted), 272, 11, 275, ("[T]he University 'entanglement' attempting enforce exclusion 'religious worship' speech' accrued facilities, amount "confer imprimatur approval sects practices." endorsement; refused let others, demonstrate hostility license treat it, virtue such, subversive ideals unique disabilities." McDaniel Paty, 435 618, 641, 1322, 1335, 55 593 (1978) (BRENNAN, judgment). "[t]he [University's] provision [a] spectrum groups"—both nonreligious speakers—was important index effect." 277. 42 initial matter, prohibition "political, other" sufficient 586, 2579, 510 (1987) (Court deferential [legislative] articulation purpose"); Mueller Allen, 463 388, 394-395, 3062, 3066-67, 77 721 (1983) "reluctan[t] attribute unconstitutional motives States, particularly plausible State's discerned statute"). avowed purpose—to types speech—is undeniably secular. Corporation Presiding Bishop Church Jesus Christ Latter-day Saints Amos, 327, 335-336, 2862, 2868-2869, 97 273 (1987); Public Liberty Nyquist, 413 756, 773, 93 2955, 2965, 948 (1973). 2000e-2(a) (prohibiting employment grounds sex, national origin). Even motivated conviction valuable worthy protection, alone invalidate relevant possibly law. 'endorse disapprove religion,' Wallace Jaffree, 38, 56, 105 2479, 2489, 86 (1985) Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 690, 1355, 1368, 79 604 (O'CONNOR, concurring)). 43 Petitioners' urge aegis, compulsory laws bring (and ready-made audience evangelists), objective observer position perceive 593, 3101, (1989) (Establishment inquiry 'convey[s] attempt[s] favored preferred' ") 70, 2497 judgment)). 44 invalidated funds state-required parochial creating "a symbolic link enlisting—at eyes youngsters—the powers denomination operating Grand Rapids Ball, 473 373, 385, 3216, 3223, 87 267 (1985), forbids, Exercise Clauses protect. (1969) (no implied endorsement); West Virginia Barnette, 319 624, 63 1178, L.Ed. 1628 (1943) Note, Yale L.J. 499, 507-509 (summarizing research adolescent psychology). proposition everything fail censor complicated. "[P]articularly age massive media information years college [does not] justif[y] departing Widmar." Bender Williamsport Area 475 534, 556, 1326, 1339, 501 (1986) (Powell, dissenting). 45 confuse ("[S]tudents capable distinguishing State-initiated, sponsored, teacher-led student-initiated, student-led other"). due duly carefully coequal representative Government," Walters Radiation Survivors, 305, 319, 3180, 3188, 220 (1985); Rostker Goldberg, 453 57, 64, 101 2646, 2651, 69 lightly second-guess judgments, judgments empirical determinations. 46 4071(c)(2) (3), models" "mandatory requirements," 584, 2578; Illinois ex rel. McCollum 71, Champaign County, 333 203, 209-210, 68 461, 464, 649 (1948) (release invalid "released legal duty school] upon condition classes"). sure, fear mistaken inference largely self-imposed, impressions gives makes participants, 277, (noting handbook aims, policies, opinions members), evinces toward, 47 Third, initiate organize additional 221-222, counteract possible preference belief. 277 effect"). do, lawfully Jewish Young Democrats philosophy devoted study Nietzsche. ("At dominate university's] advancement forum's 'primary effect' 48 final risks urge, charged directing guiding leaders, ensuring balance presentation ideas. claim entangle day-to-day surveillance forbidden 49 direct, control, 4071(c)(3) 4071(c)(2), promote, lead, meeting, purposes," ibid., oversight ensure behavior, impermissibly Tony Susan Alamo Foundation Secretary Labor, 471 290, 305-306, 1953, 1963-64, 85 278 (1985). 11. 50 claims Clauses. reasons, 51 ordered. APPENDIX TO OPINION COURT Plaintiff's Trial Exhibit STUDENT ACTIVITIES August, 1984 52 BAND—This activity Extensions Marching Band, Ensembles, Pep Concert Jazz Band. Performances, presentations, presented throughout year. 53 CHESS CLUB—This playing chess. Opportunities 54 CHEERLEADERS—A girls sport cheerleader team up junior varsity varsity. boys cheerleaders consist sophomores, varsity, Tryouts spirit spring. CHOIR—This Boys Girls Glee, Warrior Voices, Chamber Choirs. [sic] determined enrollment tryouts. 56 CLASS OFFICERS—Voting selection senior officers following year being officer secure support, willing serve capacity 57 DISTRIBUTIVE (DECA)—This class. D.E. formulated beginning fall. 58 SPEECH DEBATE—This competitive debate. season first week November continues March. 59 DRILL SQUAD SQUIRES—These primarily concerned performing half football basketball games. Selection squads spring marching units athletic teams. 60 FUTURE BUSINESS LEADERS AMERICA (FBLA)—This designed pursuing field business. interest. 61 MEDICAL ASSISTANTS (FMA)—This interest area medicine. assists securing blood donations individuals Red Cross. Meetings inform opportunities medical field. Memberships accepted 62 INTERACT—This volunteer associated America. basic work community. 11th 12th grade boys; available INTERNATIONAL help people countries developed French, German, Spanish, encourage Sponsorship major 64 LATIN CLUB (Junior Classical League)—This language. competes situations competition well. JCL 65 MATH mathematics. periodically 66 PUBLICATIONS—This (Lance). learn areas. Quill Scroll student's involvement publications. 67 FORUM—Each homeroom elects member Their responsibility ideas, suggestions, informational staff government. Selections DRAMATICS—This plays, one-act musicals productions prior CREATIVE WRITING capability, prose poetry writing. publishes work. become member. PHOTOGRAPHY and/or photography. photos dark room use. ORCHESTRA—This Performances given orchestra. All signed try out. 72 OUTDOOR EDUCATION—This Outdoor Program. camp counselors leaders solicited Ed 73 SWIMMING TIMING TEAM—Offers chance Timing Team swimming season. Regular meets, invitational metro swim volunteers ADVISORY (SAB)—Is facet Members elected represent body. elections elected. submit consideration. 75 INTRAMURALS—Are times. Basketball latter February. Co-educational volleyball intramural Announcements formulate teams 76 COMPETITIVE ATHLETICS—Westside offers eighteen sports. Twenty-seven level. seasons procedures getting Bulletin published distributed opening ZONTA (Z Club)—Is International. Approximately hundred organization. Eleventh twelfth 78 SUBSURFERS—Is learning skin practical applications sport. pool WELCOME CLUB—Is helping School. Activities geared 80 WRESTLING AUXILIARY—Is supporting wrestling team. NATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY—Westside Society chapter bound rules regulations. seniors upper 15% agreement inducted juniors 7% scholarship leadership, service. selects believe qualities Induction NHS 82 whom SCALIA joins, judgment. 83 proper correct, I concur judgment; analytic premise controls differs employed plurality. write explain why O'CONNOR's 84 order. far cry (1981). STEVENS points consequences most life past conventional kind. apparent once left discretion comprehensive decision, make, limitations. decided favor intervention, faced formulating standards background protections complexities jurisprudence areas, one. While pretend ambiguity provisions, seems me rational indeed available, implications addresses. structural feature noted. 'nonparticipatory capacity.' Ante, 236 4071(c)(3)). nonparticipation several "be forum." 4071(c). altogether clear, satisfaction sole requirement "fair opportunity" answer today, prove satisfying But us, attempted comply means, implemented manner. 4071(c) "give 'establishes [state] so.' 3136, part) 678, 1361, (1984)). second principle controlling Nothing here authorize authorities require, encourage, 4071(c), (d), 4072(2); while session, 4071(b), 4072(4); attend, (d)(4). 88 test, asks officials, endorsed true impermissible "endorsed" religion; word insufficient dispositive. And elsewhere, literal application government's relation preference. inevitable "endorses" term, happens development intellect setting. violation occurs permissible ways his enrichment. imposes inquiry, undertaken sensitivity circumstances exist line coerced draw. No coercion, necessary invoke case. 90 BRENNAN majority "noncurriculum" "prohibit speech." 241. demonstrates, construction requirements." 240. track jurisprudence, argues, majority's faithful fora 267, When "created constitutionally enforcing "content-based exclusion" 278. respect, codifies already mandated: expressive access, raises serious differ case, mandates dedicated promoting values citizenship operation change themselves clubs' ante, 247-253 JJ.), separately emphasize plurality's analysis pays inadequate attention differences dismisses too distinctive pressures structured environment. 94 95 involves intersection guarantees—the long regarded controversy functioning system. Police Dept. Chicago Mosley, 408 92, 95-96, 2286, 2290, 212 (1972) ("To continued building politics culture, self-fulfillment individual, guaranteed right thought, censorship"). Constitution toleration suppression Nation's 512, 739, (1969); Keyishian Regents Univ. N.Y., 385 589, 603, 683, 629 (1967); 280-281, 574-75, (1988) demands 612, commitments, endorses tolerates Recognizing potential dangers school-endorsed practice, "vigilan[ce] schools." 2577-78, (1987). 40, 2481, (invalidating authorizing moment silence meditation prayer); schools). conferring nominally "neutral" save running afoul Clause.* addressed length conflict Widmar. There, afforded 100 organizations. 270-275, 274-77. 248-253. viewpoint. involve counseling 245-246. encourages conception 488; 231. mission comports acknowledgment "that vitally 'in citizens,' vehicles 'inculcating maintenance democratic system.' Education, Island Trees Pico, 457 853, 864, 2799, 2806, (1982) (plurality) Ambach Norwick, 441 68, 76-77, 99 1589, 1594, (1979)). nature effort realm inculcate endorsement. concedes, "district's values." 232. permissibly rounded student-athletes, student-musicians, student-tutors, forbids student-worshippers. Neutrality towards Constitution, noncontroversial triggered, ameliorate threat breadth beneficiaries suggest satisfy "secular purpose" 2111. 284-285, (STEVENS, affects houses numerous organizations, addition erroneously minimal. wide range groups' divergent contradictory very number, promote student-club instrumental understood encouragement, fostering civic identity appearance invitation transformed like reason, misplaced. Missouri 'be programs, products, members,' handbook). "as [and] citizenship." Socialist Alliance Democrats, 1310, 1312, approaches embodied difference, purposes, respective roles attempt lives. emphasizes Missouri, corresponding decrease likelihood Conversely, regards mechanism defining transmitting values, certainly signal practice. underlying varying capacities subtle endorsement, missions ways. tend universities administrators purported immaturity stood passage engaging wide-ranging discussion sensitive confirm nondiscrimination. though, advance comprehensiveness highlights posed Westside's. holds "[o]fficial Fair." 247 (citing 434-435). alerted system; material posted notices newspaper; recruited school-sponsored variety basis." 250. relatively fine distinction lost. truly robust presence pressure, especially commanded substantial portion precisely intolerance dangerous share classmates preferred." concedes "possibility pressure," 251, "official endorsement." dismissal facile. remain sensitive, favoritism disapproval others." 627-628, 3119, laws, brings every day better waking regulates virtually aspect quick dismiss problem mainstream adherents minority religions adhere disclaim resulting pressures. redefine program. redefinition construes accordingly. "limits groups," 251 (3)), 4071(b)). 253 4072(2)). perhaps importantly, whatever participants. 251. school-sanctioned develops "citizenship, value affirm responsive coverage, mandate commonplace facilities. dissenting. 111 dictionary necessary, sometimes sufficient, aid judge confronted construing opaque Congress. this, probe deeply patently bizarre Can Nation stating, substance, subjects—you your doors social distasteful be? not. review (Act), discloses narrower legislated today. 112 design easily summarized: quite Nevertheless, considerable difficulty resolved. correctly identifies three useful guides intent. says creates best.1 237. ambiguous, reference revealed history. 238-239. guarantee comparable 235, 239. ground, shared Act.2 113 fourth seem follow three. colleges, incidence whether, college.3 characteristics interpreting undefined step take, accordingly company 114 encompassed holdings. Kansas City had, abdicated content-based discriminations campus. had. 274; 279-80 Next, permitting 270-277, 274-78; also, 115 pose questions. ask existed Only answered asking college's. negative, ultimately proves dispositive considerations play. 116 considerably Missouri. 274. Over routinely participated whose unrelated courses, endorse. Alliance, Women's Democrats. 1980). speakers advocating transcendental humanism. allowed mirror instruction, advocated positions prevented endorsing. 117 affirmative Appeals, Court. answer. Before judicially, legislatively preclude Hatfield, cosponsor Act: "All [it] protect, say, certain 19218 (1984). recognized, codified "extending 1076, 1079, 1989).4 What failed recognize, None arguably partisan.5 118 Nor wise ignore difference. adult distinguish lack though suitable treating adults soon, alternatively children long, enduring educators. youth described "impressionability" "maturity," irrelevant restrictions surely honor assuming treated casually here.6 119 distinctions Missouri's An admits off compete along lines. strategy defensible desirable. wrong presume strategy—and dictated nationwide adoption—simply approved absurd invoked recognizing Swimming which, correspond offerings, grilled cheese sandwich. 120 construe curricular subjects—or encouragement concerns. Ku Klux Klan Communist Party facilities.7 More turn functioning. 121 decides plainly agrees disagrees ideas others. Again, Republican justify Republicans Communists, white supremacists, Scientists privilege. course. concern 122 Judge reviewed "tied institution." Pet. Cert. 25-26. He system "differs dramatically Bender." 26.8 dramatic 123 indicated, majority, compare Instead, argues propositions: first, groups; second, fashion reach definitional fiat. complete yields adopts. 124 observes, excluding—or believing legally obliged exclude—religious religious. lines Courts Appeals: prohibiting wished admit 1155, exclude (1981); 563 F.Supp. 697 (MD Pa.1983), rev'd, 741 538 (CA3 1984), vacated (1986).9 cases, desire City, purport conceded open. obvious go redress problem, equally expansive ending 125 correct says.' 244, quoting Leahy). If, signals creation manipulate defeat Congressional intent.10 suspect score.11 appear alter 245, by, soliciting comments accommodate coursework.12 says, "doing" mere bureaucratic procedure substance encompasses. 126 Not preferred manipulation, exceptionally evasion. believes borderline usually touch flag football, plays tackle football. Tackle equipment risk, stands swimming. Likewise, figuring cheerleading squad pep application. answer, suppose, Obviously, produce hard cases,13 127 recourse overwhelming. simple administered crafted. achieved exotic point Senate Gorton.14 Hatfield recommended him lawyers, capture judiciary's Clause.15 128 sometimes, muddles part, as, behind obscure. is—as Gorton guide terms. strategy, context. 242-243. becomes immediately "few" "passing" "general," ibid.; sheet anchors fast swept away gale confused utterances.16 129 wish, Gorton, chosen effectuate purposes. efforts articulate "public satisfactory. Cornelius NAACP Legal Defense Fund, Inc., 788, 833, 3439, 3465, 567 dissenting).17 Lawyers terminology forgiven occasionally stumble.18 Certainly precision ourselves unable obtain. "Our intended, assay naturally, artfully, pithily." Sullivan Everhart, 494 83, 106, 960, 973, (1990) My unnecessary decides.19 assumes.20 focuses run mistakenly school.21 obliges question: deem unwise 131 imposed receiving assistance. familiar innocuous deed, comes perilously close outright command organized prayer, ceremonies 132 always observances moved 2577-2578, symbol democracy pervasive destiny. keep divisive forces ." 231, 475, (Frankfurter, concurring). recognizes, 2372, exert sponsorship. law imitation operates, nonconformity outstanding characteristic children." McCollum, 227, concurring); Abington Schempp, 374 290-291, 1560, 1607-08, 844 (1963) Testimony indicated Bible convert Christianity. 185. product importance 252-253, 1587-88; 60, 51, 2491-92, individual expression conscience, (1969), (1943), collective organiza tiona "student club," responsibilities status—that absent intervention.22 133 district, Congress, welcomed "they break furniture."23 authority, when, if, exercised.24 rush embrace hurried clumsily drafted legislation.25 134 grounded structure, rendering unsatisfying: alters respected 863-864, (1982). allocation sense pedagogical, reasons.26 integrity education. "That [boards education] educating reason scrupulous protection Constitutional freedoms strangle mind source discount principles platitudes." 637, 1185; Brown 347 483, 686, 873 (1954); Jenkins, 495 33, 1651, (1990). regulate achieve 135 leads sweeping intrusion Government despite indication divest power shape sound Klan, gay frequent primacy inconsistent rigid groups."27 omitted deciding fora. reason—and intent—to constrain narrowly requires. 136 Against arguments interposes Noah famous dictionary. tome match put relies heavily dictionary's "curriculum." word, Act's; moreover, Neither Webster authorized assume precise antonym "Nonplus," "minus" incorrect "nonentity" "entity" all. Purely newly coined fairly describe "not "cannot Either definitions perfectly "sensible" considers unquestioned linkage "sensible." 137 respectfully dissent. holds, 249-250 JJ.); infra, 270, proscribes "conveying 'that preferred,' 627, 2497, judgment)), "impos[e] activity," 261 extensive ambiguity, 36-41 58-59; 34-40; Amicus Curiae 17-19, nn. 21-22 ); ("noncurriculum term); "larger objectives" Act); 1078-1079 1989); 613-614 1989). would, consider, now, Widmar's quoted Levin: "[T]he Supreme Vincent. enunciated Cong. Rec. Other agreed. 19221 Leahy); seeks bit. schools") Bumpers); 19239 Biden). (collecting debates). exchange told 1078-1079. completely inconclusive, Gorton's questions satisfactory succeeded, "Hatfield columns Record." 37. eventually lawyers say 19225 emphasis Hatfield's 245-246 history), deserves none. fortiori schools: "decisions activities." 278, (1981) Absent otherwise, teachers. 2, 2. 691, 3168, MARSHALL reads broadly, disagree reading. reading, dictum, distinction—acknowledged critical—between 265 (MARSHALL, conducive intellectual moral growth period. Unlike claimed one-sided subjects. 706-707. litigation drafted, sponsors. labeling means. Court: "In credit." 239-240. clarifies suggesting "[a] 'developed classes' prong. 246. seeing ichthyological topics biology adding oceanographic examples physics shops snorkeling gear. suggestions thanked made. 240 forced Nietzsche philology doctrine. causes difficulties nearly examined rubric. dealt arises. replacing another, read: "No engaged nature." attributed complex "too wanting something down precedent, experience." admission statements, astonishing using related," "open "highly specific" confusing. 20-21. inclined Professor observes opponent [of meant." 38. bill's supporters admitted murky, suggested nothing. 20946 Rep. Hyde). depart passage. gallant, commendable, vindicate peculiar diction. dogged persistence miss forest trees. single reference, sundered One can, deduce randomly character. Polonius, Claudius, Gertrude differing Hamlet's "antic disposition" Hamlet meaning. reader drama come unimpressed Widmar: actors draft 243, puzzling. "plac[es] Levin." fact, remark citations footnote, buttressed collected amicus curiae. supra. footnote singles importance, remarks Appeals. Still odder Levin. quotes saying, times." "generally." puts square opposition authorizes general; reservations Chiles Denton 243; context, men addressing connection Farber Nowak, Misleading Nature Analysis: Content Context Adjudication, Va.L.Rev. 1219, 1223-1225 L. Tribe, 12-24 (2d 1988). stumble pirouette: declares concede draw 242. implausible: drafting legislation finely choreographed. refers, succession distinction, public," 268, 273; Bender—an Act—observed accommodates 'generally open' 'limited' F.Supp., 705. month passed, Appeals' circle Bender. 538, 547, 1984); 550. slices thin: slicing. accept premise, conclusion. be, scope favor, opposite direction. consider (1971): "First, purpose; advances inhibits .; finally, foster 'an religion.' (Citations omitted.) compounds treatment issue. adopt NLRB Catholic Chicago, 490, 500, 1313, 1318, 533 (1979). briefly, rejects, question, too, closer suggests. facilitate 19216 Latterday 338, 2869, (characterizing "proper" "purpose lifting burdens religion," exemption "come packaged entities"). purpose: assembly particular. philosophic principally Lemon's examining issue, 249. plurality, misapplies distinction. legislator vote personal, thing, motive. motive prediction is, motive, legislator's cooperative behavior reduce crime rate. latter, former, presupposes analogous confers benefit With agree. survive scrutiny identify allegedly served "does "primary advantage doctrine." 592, 2582, Ten Commandments classrooms vindicated "fundamental code," Stone Graham, 449 39, 41, 192, 194, 199 (1980), recitation Lord's Prayer likewise saved assertions—true not—that serves "promotion contradiction materialistic trends times, perpetuation institutions literature." 223, 1572, (1963). sum, challenged desirable observe legislature behaved religiously abstained making) observation, us. encompassing explanation provides. rooms, rights, privileges, accorded clubs" least, resembles (1988), Stewart, Schools, Inculcation Values, J.Law 23, (stressing "cases interference communicative active dissemination ideas"). quotation Congressman Frank, spoke floor. 20933 enjoyed "wide, bipartisan" Houses, 239, provoked thoughtful, Chafee opposed bill; colleagues quality: "Legislation resolve discord cooperation drive excellence ever." 19248 Laycock summarizes follows: Senate. reports cast negotiated compromise midst Senate's adjourn Fourth July. repeatedly 1,000 version, senators sponsoring accurately observed cooks spoiled broth. large committed compromise, resisted caused deal apart. later precluded amendments hour." pedagogy, delicate immersing cross-currents ought educators experience needs affected culture live 271-272, 570. politics, often dependent communities. preferences. San Antonio Rodriguez, 411 49-53, 1278, 1305-07, ethics, surrendering distant politicians. Meyer Nebraska, 262 390, 399-403, 625, 626-28, 1042 (1923). 19217 guidance districts, forth. taken body, representing think, remedy right") Hatfield). deprived 20941 voluntarily Everything option. board") Goodling).

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