Document: 533 U.S. 98121 S.Ct. 2093150 L.Ed.2d 151 NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of United States Reports. Readers are requested notify Reporter Decisions, Supreme Court States, Washington, D. C. 20543, any typographical or other errors, order that corrections may be made goes press.GOOD NEWS CLUB, et al., PETITIONERSv.MILFORD CENTRAL SCHOOL No. 99-2036. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Argued February 28, 2001Decided June 11, 2001 Syllabus Under New York law, respondent Milford Central School (Milford) enacted a policy authorizing district residents use its building after school for, among things, (1) instruction education, learning, arts and (2) social, civic, recreational, entertainment uses pertaining community welfare. Stephen Darleen Fournier, eligible school's facilities upon approval their proposed use, sponsors Good News Club, private Christian organization for children ages 6 12. Pursuant Milford's policy, they submitted request hold Club's weekly afterschool meetings school. denied on ground use-to sing songs, hear Bible lessons, memorize scripture, pray-was equivalent religious worship prohibited by policy. Petitioners (collectively, Club), filed suit under 42 U.S.C. 1983 alleging, inter alia, denial application violated free speech rights First Fourteenth Amendments. The District ultimately granted summary judgment, finding matter nature, not merely discussion secular matters from perspective otherwise permits. Because had allowed groups providing limited public forum, court held it could deny Club access without engaging unconstitutional viewpoint discrimination. In affirming, Second Circuit rejected contention restriction was unreasonable, that, because quintessentially activities fell outside bounds pure moral character development, constitutional discrimination, Held: 1. when excluded meeting hours at Pp. 5-11. (a) parties so agree, this assumes operates forum. A State establishing such forum required does allow persons engage every type speech. It justified reserving certain topics. E.g., Rosenberger v. Rector Visitors Univ. Va., 515 819, 829. power restrict speech, however, limits. must discriminate against based viewpoint, ibid., reasonable light forum's purpose, Cornelius NAACP Legal Defense & Ed. Fund, Inc., 473 788, 806. 5-6. (b) By denying discriminated violation Free Speech Clause. That exclusion indistinguishable exclusions violative Clause Lamb's Chapel Center Moriches Union Dist., 508 384, where precluded group presenting films solely films, Rosenberger, university refused fund student addressed issues perspective. only apparent difference between inconsequential distinction teaches lessons through live storytelling prayer, whereas taught films. also dispositive: Given obvious content there issue, cannot said more "religious" deserve less protection. disagrees with Circuit's view something decidedly nature characterized properly as teaching morals development particular viewpoint. What purposes no logical kind invocation Christianity teamwork, loyalty, patriotism associations provide foundation lessons. discriminatory, need decide whether unreasonable purposes. 6-11. 2. Permitting meet premises would have Establishment defenses similar were Chapel, supra, 395-where found been shown during hours, sponsored school, open public, just church members, realistic danger think endorsing religion-and Widmar Vincent, 454 263, 272-273, n. 13-where university's already available groups. materially those Widmar, reliance unavailing. As who obtained parental consent, members. organizations. rejects attempt distinguish cases emphasizing involves elementary will perceive feel coerced participate take place grounds, even though occur nonschool hours. argument unpersuasive number reasons. Allowing speak grounds ensure, threaten, neutrality toward religion. Accordingly, faces an uphill battle arguing compels exclude Club. See, e.g., 839. To extent considers coercive pressure activities, cf. Lee Weisman, 505 577, 592-593, relevant parents choose attend meetings, themselves. (3) Whatever significance assigned context suggestion impressionable than adults, cf., id., 592, has never foreclosed conduct takes present. Lee, Edwards Aguillard, 482 578, 584, distinguished. (4) Even if consider possible misperceptions schoolchildren deciding violation, facts case simply do support conclusion. Finally, misperceive endorsement religion greater hostility convinced possibility witness premises, can find reason depart Widmar. 12-20. 3. raised valid claim, address claim excuse 12, 20. 202 F.3d 502, reversed remanded. ON WRIT CERTIORARI TO APPEALS FOR SECOND CIRCUIT Thomas, J., delivered Court, which Rehnquist, O'Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, JJ., joined, Breyer, joined part. Opinion Justice Thomas Court. 1 presents two questions. first question second concern permitting violate We conclude violates justifies violation. 2 * authorizes local boards adopt regulations governing facilities. particular, N. Y. Educ. Law 414 (McKinney 2000) enumerates several schools use. 1992, adopting seven 414's used App. Pet. Cert. D1-D3. Two stated here. First, "instruction branch learning arts." Id., D1. Second, "social, civic recreational events, welfare community, provided shall nonexclusive opened general public." Ibid. 3 Fournier reside within therefore long approved Together September 1996 Fourniers Dr. Robert McGruder, interim superintendent district, sought permission cafeteria. 98-9494 (CA2), p. A-81. next month, McGruder formally Fourniers' "a fun time singing hearing lesson memorizing scripture," ibid.-was "the worship." H1-H2. According prohibits "by individual purposes," activities. D2. 4 response letter counsel, attorney information clarify sent set materials distributed following description meeting: 5 "The opens session Ms. taking attendance. she calls child's name, child recites verse receives treat. After attendance, sings songs. Next members games involve, verses. then relates story explains how applies members' lives. closes prayer. distributes treats verses memorization." A30. reviewed concluded kinds engaged subjects rearing, perspective, but fact itself." A25. 1997, Board Education adopted resolution rejecting "for purpose conducting study." A56. 7 March petitioners, her daughter Andrea action Northern York. alleged Amendments, right equal protection Amendment, freedom Religious Freedom Restoration Act 1993, 107 Stat. 1488, 2000bb seq.1 8 moved injunction prevent enforcing thereby permit On April 14, injunction. 1997 until 1998 high resource middle special education room. N12. 9 August 1998, vacated motion judgment. 21 F. Supp. 2d 147 (NDNY 1998). "subject permitted [Milford's] policies." 154. claim. 10 appealed, divided panel Appeals affirmed. 502 (2000). allowing unreasonable. "quintessentially religious," 510, "fall 'moral development,' " 511, excluding Judge Jacobs dissenting he did constitute discrimination 384 (1993). 11 There conflict Courts basis Compare Gentala Tucson, 244 1065 (CA9 2001) (en banc) (holding city National Day Prayer organizers' city's events coverage costs services); Campbell St. Tammany's Bd., 206 (CA5 discrimination), cert. pending, 00-1194; Bronx Household Faith Community Dist. 10, 127 207 (CA2 1997) (concluding ban services constitutional), Church Rock Albuquerque, 84 1273 (CA10 1996) show film Jesus senior center discrimination); News/Good Sports Ladue, 28 1501 (CA8 1994) times Boy Scouts meet). certiorari resolve conflict. 531 923 II 12 standards we apply determine unconstitutionally speaker depend See Perry Assn. Local Educators' Assn., 460 37, 44 (1983). If traditional State's restrictions stricter scrutiny 45-46. previously declined district's opening pursuant creates 391-392. agreed created see Brief 15-17; Respondent 26, issue Instead, assume 13 When establishes "in [its forum] topics." 829 (1995); 392-393. 829, "reasonable served forum," 806 (1985). III 14 Applying test, constituted guided our analysis prior opinions, Rosenberger. Amendment films' discussions family values Likewise, refusal Concluding these cases, constitutes forum.2 15 serve variety purposes, including "pertaining community." interprets perspective." Appellee 6. For example, someone Aesop's Fables teach values. N11. Additionally, sponsor debate should amendment prayer schools, N6, "to influence boy's character, spiritual growth," N10-N11. short, "promote[s] children" building. 9. 16 Just permissible clear children. one disputes instructs overcome feelings jealousy, treat others well regardless children, obedient, nonsecular way. Nonetheless, nature-"the itself," F.3d, 507-it 17 Chapel,3 quite similarly use" category purposes." U.S., 387. Citing prohibition, wanted present "no doubt dealt permissible" rule, values, 394. 18 Like seeks standpoint. Certainly, presentations did, 959 F.2d 381, 388-389 1992). And easily instruct 'society's slide humanism ... counterbalanced loving home instilled early age,' 510. activity chooses inconsequential. Both modes Thus, like Chapel's 19 Our dispositive. University Virginia funding printing expenses publication, Wide Awake, offered emphasizes role students' Awake 'challenge[d] Christians live, word deed, according faith proclaim encourage[d] students what personal relationship Christ means.' 826. "select[ed] disfavored treatment journalistic efforts editorial viewpoints," unconstitutional. 831. Although prohibition matter, holding rely factor. say 20 Despite holdings Appeals, Milford, believed characterization warranted treating different 510 (the "is doing values"). "Christian viewpoint" unique, court, contains "additional layer" viewpoints not. 509. is, focused cultivate God Christ," religious." With observations, 511. disagree religious" "decidedly nature" 512 (Jacobs, dissenting) ("[W]hen quixotic matters"). unstated principle Appeals' reasoning conclusion discuss "pure" issues. principles taints way foundations thought We, reached reaffirm discussing discussed impermissible discrimination.4 IV 22 argues interest violating outweighs gaining words, avoid disagree. 23 state avoiding "may compelling," justify content-based 271 (1981). However, 394-395 (noting problem). not, confront case, interest. 24 previous explained "[t]he showing th[e] series members." 395. "there creed." groups, problem. 13. 25 defense fares better case. indistiguishable 26 attempts participate, hours.5 unpersuasive. 27 significant factor upholding governmental programs face attack towards religion." 839 (emphasis added). Mitchell Helms, 530 793, (2000) (slip op., 10) (plurality opinion) ("In distinguishing indoctrination attributable [the has] consistently turned neutrality, aid broad range regard religion" added)); ___ 3) (O'Connor, concurring judgment) ("[N]eutrality important government-aid challenges"). implication granting damage defies logic. "guarantee respected, offended, government, neutral criteria evenhanded policies, extends benefits recipients whose ideologies viewpoints, ones, diverse." nothing treated neutrally given about same topics ensure threaten it, 592-593 (1992), parents, meetings. parents' permission, into suggest confused Nor believe reasonably advanced. 29 Third, whatever 592; Grand Rapids Ball, 373, 390 (1985) (stating "symbolism union most likely tender years, experience beliefs consequently function environment much voluntary choice"), extended jurisprudence foreclose 30 None persuades us gone far. cites Weisman proposition heightened concerns protecting conscience subtle secondary schools," 592. attendance graduation exercise obligatory. 586. Santa Fe Independent Doe, 290 football took school-sponsored event forum). independent might 583. Here, being government sponsorship inapposite. 31 Equally unsupportive 578 (1987), Louisiana law proscribed evolution part curriculum, unless accompanied creationism, Edwards, mentioned susceptible classroom, particularly teachers models. 584. But facts. Moreover, note mandatory requirements meant advancement harshly felt students.6 actually advancing religion, impressionability issue. articulated believes too remote here give weight. involved curriculum schoolday attend. Obviously, individuals schoolteachers giving expressed present.7 32 Fourth, Clause, evidence young loiter classrooms ended. Surely aware sign forms. combined room room, classroom. instructors schoolteachers. all age normal classroom setting; 12.8 sum, circumstances theory small 33 inquire minds acute reality Students, kindergarten 12th grade, many, more, upperclassmen occupy writ large Any bystander conceivably suffer perceived endorsement. Cf. 835-836 (expressing chill expression). 34 operate, do, assumption risk counsel favor activity. decline employ using modified heckler's veto, group's youngest audience misperceive. Capitol Square Review Advisory Bd. Pinette, 753, 779-780 (1995) ("[B]ecause political large, inquiry perceptions saving isolated nonadherents discomfort . observer deemed history [speech place]" added)). countervailing related community. 835 ("Vital stake here"). And, violated, actions 35 Clause.9 V 36 Amendment. 37 38 judgment reversed, remanded further proceedings consistent opinion. 39 ordered. 40 41 Stevens, 43 Souter, opinion, Ginsburg, joined. NOTES: dismissed City Boerne Flores, 521 507 (1997). 147, 150, argued below 414, property activity, asserts sentence has, accordance closed [its] purely services," 27. elaborate, difficult discern Before cited Trietley Buffalo, 65 Div. 1, 409 S. 912 (1978), club "[r]eligious included enumerated section Law." 5-6, 2d, 915. conceded clubs incidental benefits, nonetheless club's campus. law. remarkable majority cite despite relevance necessarily expect appeals catalog reverses precedents. oversight incredible majority's attention directed turn. 513 ("I square Chapel"); 150; O9-O11 (District stating "that pinpoint critical case"); (CA2) 36-39; Appellants pp. 15, 36. insistence "religious worship," determination. compare event, mere worship, divorced Souter's recitation accurate. post, 4-5 (opinion J.). view, fashion Rosenberger: ideas conveyed. bar evangelical message conveys. "an service Post, 5. Regardless label Souter wishes substance worth noting although repeatedly directly concerns, record reflect offer day. superintendent's applications instruction." 507. generally Illinois ex rel. McCollum 71, Champaign Cty., 333 203 (1948), position element advanced compulsory laws. McCollum, excused study regular classes sectarian teachers, superintendent. circumstances, operation system assist[ed] [wa]s integrated program carried separate sects." 209. integration cooperation compelled refers Westside Schools (Dist. 66) Mergens, 496 226 (1990), "assumptions ability make distinctions [between Reverend school] tend informed, impressionable, peer average adults." 19. Four Justices Mergens capable 250-251 statement discerning prone older what, pressured do. significant, points violations schools. relies heavily Abington Township Schempp, 374 (1963), Pennsylvania's practice read each schoolday. inapposite involve Equal Access Act, 98 1302, 4071-4074, Congress recognized vulnerability misperceiving makes express recognition mention 4071(a). derive meaning choice briefed extensively, neither suggests remand assistance prefer developed facts, 7, Breyer yet dispositive 2, none inquiry. know when, extent, opted advantage time. concurring. 45 I join Court's write separately explain my views 46 Part regarding understanding consideration pressure, ante, endorsement, 14-15, 17-18, extent" factors relevant, belief (which hold) zero. pressure: Physical coercion here; so-called "peer pressure," considered coercion, arises attendant consequences association constitutionally protected, see, Roberts Jaycees, 468 609, 622 (1984); Alabama Patterson, 357 449, 460-461 (1958). play compulsion ideas-and exert receive (or one's it) protected Exercise Clauses, Heffron International Soc. Krishna Consciousness, 452 640, 647 (1981); Murdock Pennsylvania, 319 105, 108-109 (1943); Cantwell Connecticut, 310 296, 307-310 (1940), banned priest liberty proselytize patriot. 47 written expression occurs designated publicly announced terms." 770 (1995). true announced, boundaries drawn instead cross-section uses. context, "erroneous conclusions [about endorsement] count." 765. 401 (1993) (Scalia, hold, clearly, [a group] nondiscriminatory Clause] signify embrace sect"). 48 since gave clearly "us[e] community," D1), suppose subject-matter Lacking legitimate forum-"because it's Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. Hialeah, 520, 532-533, 546 (1993); Employment Div., Dept. Human Resources Ore. Smith, 494 872, 877-878 (1990)-respondent seem fail characterized. limits least (1985).1 49 understand point disagreement dissenters (and Appeals) petitioner's respondent's subject, 7-8.2 answer established decision supra. some Chapel. certainly did. 8; 509 "teachings obedience resisting jealousy"). 50 disagreement, rather, regards portions "purely" "discussions" morality urges "who Lord Savior" "[s]top ask strength 'want' obey Him," Supp.2d 156 1998) (internal quotation marks omitted), invites "don't "trust [their] Savior sin," ibid. presence additional religious, transforms other, nonreligious development. (Stevens, dissenting); (Souter, 509-511. Therefore, goes, 51 us[e] Shaping "pertain[s] endeavor developing Scouts, seek N10-N11; America Dale, 649 ("[T]he mission clear: '[t]o instill people' (quoting Scouts' statement)), attempted Biblical-based "d[id] morality" "it [was] far beyond viewpoint." 52 From require sterility demands petitioners. undoubtedly buttress exhortations keep "morally straight" "clean" lives, 649, reasons why good idea-because want scouts "better" "more successful" people, emulate admired past former President Gerald Ford. fostered-because wants expects "saintly" emulates Christ. independently premise based-that exists His necessary morality. defend premise, absolutely persuade true. must, say, faith. blatant go unanswered listeners country just, behavior God's useless exists. Effectiveness rests persuasiveness defends his premise-and defended. 53 819 (1995), struck down restriction. There, newspaper student-activity counterparts. paper printed material belief, 826 paper's self-described 'to encourage means' "); 865 (" 'The salvation Him confessing repenting sin. Christian's duty sinners salvation' paper)); 865-867 examples), refusing funds "provid[e] specific considered," 831 Court). premise. 54 emphasize speech-although agree exactly is. Stevens' "aimed principally proselytizing inculcating faith," 1; 5, begin with, above quotations show. 844 (referring approvingly dissent's "wor[k] evangelism"). addition, forum-which Stevens suggests, 2-3, restricted roundtable Those inculcate beliefs, furthermore "recruit respective groups," same, if, fears record, 3, prove (shudder!) divisive. 395 (remarking worries "public unrest" caused "proselytizing" "difficult presentation view"); Lynch Donnelly, 465 668, 684-685 (1984) "political divisiveness" invalidate inclusion crche municipal Christmas display); 310-311. 55 while agreeing proselytizing," thinks excludable essentially saying [no] intelligible content," further, "relevance" 269, 109 (refusing evangelism worship).3 surely proved correct today dissenters' inability themselves, subcategory fell. content, courts' competence administer. 6; 616-617 (1992) concurring) hardly imagine amenable federal judiciary, deliberately avoided possible," "comparative theology"). courts officials) competent, applying monitoring private, degree pervasiveness unacceptable. 844-845; endorse approach suffers wondrous diversity flaws. 56 57 words explanation, regard, inaccuracy reasonableness limitation us, (dissenting opinion). argued, both papers Memorandum Support Cross-Motion Summary Judgment 97-CV-0302 (NDNY), 20-22, brief appeal, 33-35, them passing challenged, 154 1998), apparently decided challenge brought petitioners preserved, merits, ("Taking criterion, precedent"). Neither mode speech-the songs plays games. perhaps lectures plays, debates concerts, placed N8, N14, N19 (allowing seminars, plays). distinction-between religion-but own pervasive unproblematic. 203, 225 (1963) (State official capacity religion). rule there, licensing entirely Kunz York, 340 290, 293-294 (1951), authority draw distinctions. 58 59 three observations. government's "neutrality" respect one, considerations judgment); 774, 777 judgment). indicated, perception endorsed critically important. 389-390 (1985); County Allegheny American Civil Liberties Union, Greater Pittsburgh Chapter, 492 573, 592-594 (1989). Today's purport change legal principle. 60 child, participating ("[A]n effects test challenged sufficiently adherents controlling denominations disapproval, choices"). day, helping whether, fact, "so dominate[s]" "forum" children's minds, transformed demonstration approval." 61 fully raises, procedural posture. grant School's affirmed now entitled either mean viewing disputed (including perceptions) favorably non moving party), s chool 62 party's side. "genuine issue[s]" "material fact," Fed. Rule Civ. Proc. 56(c), participant role, dissenting). Indeed, itself evidence, ("There ended"), hours"), identifies may, depending significance, (discussing participants "are setting"), assumptions ("Surely forms"), ("Any endorsement"). missing confirm parties, desire, fair opportunity fill evidentiary gap today's Rules 56(c) (summary appropriate genuine fact" movant law"), 56(f) (permitting supplementation appropriate). 63 dissenting. 64 invited educational purposes" understood encompass categories. topic view. (1993), illustrates category. 388 (observing "would [James] Dobson's undermining influences media returning traditional, stage"). amounts equivalent. 263 (1981), concerned 264-265 (describing involving worship"). intermediate aimed entity 276. Similarly, specified approaches rearing speakers 393-394. 66 But, censor authorized speaker, discretion "preserve control lawfully dedicated." Greer Spock, 424 828, 836 (1976); 226, 275, (1990) ("A extracurricular mission, accordingly 'decisions concerning activities' 278 judgment)). "control over nonpublic identity neutral." novel constitutionality limit scope created. More specifically, can, create admits two. 67 Distinguishing hand, proselytizing, comparable principal recruit new organization. decides authorize current classrooms, people expressing dislikes opinions. organized groups-for Democratic Party, Libertarian Ku Klux Klan-to current-events unique rather groups? Such recruiting introduce divisiveness cliques undermine mission. Lehman Shaker Heights, 418 298 (1974) (upholding advertising" transportation). 68 officials designed convert pose risk. recruitment, nonreligious) worship. Tammany Parish Board, 231 937, 942 ("Under jurisprudence, board inviting presented form disserve maintain neutrality"). resolved minimizes "intrusion Federal Government Epperson Arkansas, 393 97, 104 (1968) ("Judicial interposition Nation raises problems requiring care restraint... committed authorities"). 69 intend N13-N15 (testimony indicating man described Book Genesis" crime society's "lack God"). goal "promote gospel." N18. third types. done handed manner, effort.1 line various categories draw, valid, them.2 (1948) (Frankfurter, vital out divisive forces ..."). 70 close. amount "worship," clear, correctly classified falling forum.3 am persuaded did) permissibly rise level actual affirm Appeals. 71 reach out, IV, 72 respectfully dissent. affirmatively nonbelief wholly unrelated God. Nothing indicates "A perceptive sees day dark night, knows separated bright zone twilight." Buirkle Hanover Insurance Cos., 832 469, 483 (Mass. 1993). elides primarily belief. precisely mixture types predominated Awake. publications follows: articles racism, crisis pregnancy, stress, C.S. Lewis' evil will, reviews music. issues, featured stories homosexuality, missionary work, eating disorders, music interviews professors." contrast Awake's emphasis commentary diverse array topics, dominated exhortation, My 73 whom Ginsburg joins, 74 rules failed operating concludes intended gatherings mistaken points. unmistakably distinguished unchallenged applicability commits error reaching nor 75 arose (as does) implementing built accepted body designate forum-defining discussion. Specifically, "permit except dealing standpoint." 76 restricting arts" "[s]chool stated, "not object [Milford]'s C14. 77 sole was, therefore, News's misapplying amounted imposing viewpoint-based educational, purpose. disqualified Girl 4-H undisputed unlike standpoint C29-C31, narrowest definition term. 78 (Good discrimination"); ("The crux Use Policy neutral").1 realized criterion measure: morality." (district standpoint" childrearing "use social permitted" policy).2 differ night sampling shows correct. 79 close sample instructed tells sins forgiven receiving please Him... you received your Saviour sin, belong group-His family." C17-C18 (ellipsis original). plan teacher "lead and, reading verse, "[e]mphasize Bible, Word" "important-and true-because it." exhorts "[b]e sure 'unsaved' class respond Gospel" cautions "neglect[ing] responsibility." C20. 80 While utilizes games, heart "challenge" "invitation," repeated throughout lesson. During challenge, "saved" "already 'stop "want" Him.' They "[i]f Savior, life. don't to, will-we pray separately, individually... be, Him." 81 invitation, "invites" "unsaved" trust sin,' 'receiv[e] [him] sin.' C21. Word says sin died rose again you, forever life today. Please bow heads eyes. me raising hand. hand Jesus, everlasting life." 82 intends calling commit themselves act conversion.3 avoids resorting bland "teaching ignores reality, does, equally generic terms. Otherwise, indeed, stand church, synagogue, mosque. 83 dissent insisting acting instance reviewing application. demonstrate compelling News, erroneous yes. Whereas offend Amendment's fit derogation proper review. Collegiate Athletic 525 459, 470 (1999) ("[W]e below"). usual temptations trial remaining review nicety, objection turning hinge preference immutable rules. Respect rests, recognizing often learn deal considering worked conceived come seen differently moves appeal; contribute value benefit refinement course litigation. customary become reflects simple develop can. judge, balk having statements uncontradicted affidavits showing, conducts athletic conducted staff volunteers, immediately end many groups; membership, "dominate forum" heightens 851 concurring); 274 85 Of course, perform instance. majority, lack provide, complete be. doubtful underpinnings 86 obligation satisfy strict [government] complying obligations compelling"); viewed observer. concurring). effect "materially indistinguishable" Ante, absent 87 space observers pointed students, "are, adults," such, younger able appreciate University's 274, 14. effect, remarked "large campus" negated "any inference campus place." Not "available speakers," were, 100 University, "absence empirical [would] dominate University's] forum." 274-275; provision spectrum index effect"). enough university-student probably impression issued handbook explicit disclaimer name 'be identified aims, programs, products, opinions members.' 88 evening child-rearing (and, adult audience). 387, "had wide organizations," assurance "[u]nder creed ." 89 looks very little cohort relative maturity, pupils, six.4 schoolchildren, 583-584 grades 620, college grade pupils "distinction [that] warrants results," citation omitted). 90 anything sites wide-ranging intellectual exchange 850, 836-837. sheer seeing them, 850 ("Given nonreligious, antireligious competing supported endorses illogical"); 836-837, (emphasizing university-funded magazines containing "widely divergent viewpoints" believers competed footing aficionados "Plato, Spinoza, Descartes," "Karl Marx, Bertrand Russell, Jean-Paul Sartre"); 252 ("To student-initiated clubs, religion"). 91 timing format gatherings, imprimatur officialdom (not entire Chapel), four seemingly, follows Boards Association al. Amici Curiae 2:56 p.m., beginning 2:30 Tuesdays "during year," promptly 3:00, Lodging, Exh. W-1, remain closely instructor wait clear," "people room," P29, starting located third- fourth-grade rooms, temporal physical continuity routine seems whole attended; became site, went up three-fold. P12; AA2. 92 then, lacking process led devoid insight appellate judges contributed addressing this: exercises blur indoctrination, leaving pupil unable business latter know) away conclusion, consolation really gets judicial truncated, recommend result. policy's precedent, 2000), leaves untouched, forum"); ("Because law"). appeal explicitly challenged. true, notes, 8, name. followed substance, earlier author here, 1997), length. fall purview worship" determination program, 4. semantic, Appeals's "[i]t 'religious worship' described" below. distinguishes opinion), reflecting elements put afield legitimacy proceeding. classes, host activities), classes. focus assessing includes X2, peers heading end, "invitation." 93 met immaterial, 38. O'Connor 753 "on observers, naturally differing degrees knowledge," hypothetical observer."

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