vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Black Hills
Today , the major city in the Black Hills is Rapid City , with an incorporated population of almost 70,000 and a metropolitan population of 125,000 . It serves a market area covering much of five states : North and South Dakota , Nebraska , Wyoming , and Montana . In addition to tourism and mining ( including coal , specialty minerals , and the now declining gold mining ) , the Black Hills economy includes ranching ( sheep and cattle , primarily , with bison and ratites becoming more common ) , timber ( lumber ) , Ellsworth Air Force Base , and some manufacturing , including Black Hills gold jewelry , cement , electronics , cabinetry , guns and ammunition .
Central Intelligence Agency
In France , the CIA had orders for economic intelligence ; a female CIA agent revealed her connections to the CIA to the French . Dick Holm , Paris Station Chief , was expelled . In Guatemala , the CIA produced the Murphy Memo , based on audio recordings made by bugs planted by Guatemalan intelligence in the bedroom of Ambassador Marilyn McAfee . In the recording , Ambassador McAfee verbally entreated `` Murphy '' . The CIA circulated a memo in the highest Washington circles accusing Ambassador McAfee of having an extramarital lesbian affair with her secretary , Carol Murphy . There was no affair . Ambassador McAfee was calling to Murphy , her poodle .
Black Hills
As the economy of the Black Hills has shifted from natural resources ( mining and timber ) since the late 20th century , the hospitality and tourism industries have grown to take its place . Locals tend to divide the Black Hills into two areas : `` The Southern Hills '' and `` The Northern Hills '' . The Southern Hills is home to Mount Rushmore , Wind Cave National Park , Jewel Cave National Monument , Black Elk Peak ( the highest point in the United States east of the Rockies , formerly known as Harney Peak ) , Custer State Park ( the largest state park in South Dakota ) , the Crazy Horse Memorial ( the largest sculpture in the world ) , and the Mammoth Site in Hot Springs , the world 's largest mammoth research facility .
Indian Rebellion of 1857
The orders went out to shoot every soul ... It was literally murder ... I have seen many bloody and awful sights lately but such a one as I witnessed yesterday I pray I never see again . The women were all spared but their screams on seeing their husbands and sons butchered , were most painful ... Heaven knows I feel no pity , but when some old grey bearded man is brought and shot before your very eyes , hard must be that man 's heart I think who can look on with indifference ... Blowing
World War I
This has become the most common perception of World War I , perpetuated by the art , cinema , poems , and stories published subsequently . Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front , Paths of Glory and King & Country have perpetuated the idea , while war - time films including Camrades , Poppies of Flanders , and Shoulder Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall far more positive . Likewise , the art of Paul Nash , John Nash , Christopher Nevinson , and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception , while popular war - time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate . Several historians like John Terraine , Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheffield have challenged these interpretations as partial and polemical views :
History of the United Kingdom
Historian Arthur Marwick sees a radical transformation of British society resulting from the Great War , a deluge that swept away many old attitudes and brought in a more equalitarian society . He sees the famous literary pessimism of the 1920s as misplaced , arguing there were major positive long - term consequences of the war to British society . He points to an energized self - consciousness among workers that quickly built up the Labour Party , the coming of partial woman suffrage , and an acceleration of social reform and state control of the economy . He sees a decline of deference toward the aristocracy and established authority in general , and the weakening among youth of traditional restraints on individual moral behavior . The chaperone faded away ; village druggists sold contraceptives . Marwick says that class distinctions softened , national cohesion increased , and British society became more equal .
Lexicographical order
a 1 + ⋯ + a n < b 1 + ⋯ + b n , ( \ displaystyle a_ ( 1 ) + \ cdots + a_ ( n ) < b_ ( 1 ) + \ cdots + b_ ( n ) , )
Megacity
Population tables of world cities World 's largest cities World 's largest cities proper World 's largest conurbations World 's largest urban areas World megacities World megalopolises
List of mathematical symbols
∃ n ∈ N : n is even . field extension extends ; over field theory K : F means the field K extends the field F . This may also be written as K ≥ F . R : Q inner product of matrices inner product of linear algebra A : B means the Frobenius inner product of the matrices A and B . The general inner product is denoted by ⟨ u , v ⟩ , ⟨ u v ⟩ or ( u v ) , as described below . For spatial vectors , the dot product notation , x y is common . See also bra -- ket notation . A : B = ∑ i , j A i j B i j ( \ displaystyle A : B = \ sum _ ( i , j ) A_ ( ij ) B_ ( ij ) ) index of a subgroup index of subgroup group theory The index of a subgroup H in a group G is the `` relative size '' of H in G : equivalently , the number of `` copies '' ( cosets ) of H that fill up G G : H = G H ( \ displaystyle G : H = ( \ frac ( G ) ( H ) ) ) division divided by over everywhere A : B means the division of A with B ( dividing A by B) 10 : 2 = 5 ⋮ ⋮ ( \ displaystyle \ vdots \ ! \ , ) \ vdots \ ! \ , vertical ellipsis vertical ellipsis everywhere Denotes that certain constants and terms are missing out ( e.g. for clarity ) and that only the important terms are being listed . P ( r , t ) = χ ⋮ E ( r , t 1 ) E ( r , t 2 ) E ( r , t 3 ) ( \ displaystyle P ( r , t ) = \ chi \ vdots E ( r , t_ ( 1 ) ) E ( r , t_ ( 2 ) ) E ( r , t_ ( 3 ) ) ) ≀ ≀ ( \ displaystyle \ wr \ ! \ , ) \ wr \ ! \ , wreath product wreath product of ... by ... group theory A ≀ H means the wreath product of the group A by the group H . This may also be written A H .
List of mathematical symbols
\ mathrel ( \ rlap ( \ , \ parallel ) ) requires \ setmathfont ( MathJax ) . parallel is parallel to geometry x ∥ y means x is parallel to y . x ∦ y means x is not parallel to y . x ⋕ y means x is equal and parallel to y . ( The symbol ∥ can be difficult to type , and its negation is rare , so two regular but slightly longer vertical bar characters are often used instead . ) If l ∥ m and m ⊥ n then l ⊥ n . incomparability is incomparable to order theory x ∥ y means x is incomparable to y . ( 1 , 2 ) ∥ ( 2 , 3 ) under set containment . # # ( \ displaystyle \ # \ ! \ , ) \ sharp cardinality cardinality of ; size of ; order of set theory # X means the cardinality of the set X . ( ... may be used instead as described above . ) # ( 4 , 6 , 8 ) = 3 connected sum connected sum of ; knot sum of ; knot composition of topology , knot theory A#B is the connected sum of the manifolds A and B. If A and B are knots , then this denotes the knot sum , which has a slightly stronger condition . A#S is homeomorphic to A , for any manifold A , and the sphere S . primorial primorial number theory n # is product of all prime numbers less than or equal to n . 12 # = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 11 = 2310 : : ( \ displaystyle :\ ! \ , ) such that such that ; so that everywhere : means `` such that '' , and is used in proofs and the set - builder notation ( described below ) . ∃ n ∈ N : n is even . field extension extends ; over field theory K : F means the field K extends the field F . This may also be written as K ≥ F . R : Q inner product of matrices inner product of linear algebra A : B means the Frobenius inner product of the matrices A and B . The general inner product is denoted by ⟨ u , v ⟩ , ⟨ u v ⟩ or ( u v ) , as described below .
Natural logarithm
s = x 2 m > 2 p / 2 , ( \ displaystyle s = x2 ^ ( m ) > 2 ^ ( p / 2 ) , )
Great Scott
Alternatively , but similarly , it has been suggested that it may be a corruption of the Austrian greeting Grüss Gott .
Lexicographical order
One of the drawbacks of the Roman numeral system is that it is not always immediately obvious which of two numbers is the smaller . On the other hand , with the positional notation of the Hindu -- Arabic numeral system , comparing numbers is easy , because the natural order on nonnegative integers is the same as the variant shortlex of the lexicographic order . In fact , with positional notation , a nonnegative integer is represented by a sequence of numerical digits , and an integer is larger than another one if either it has more digits ( ignoring leading zeroes ) or the number of digits is the same and the first digit which differs is larger .
Acronym
Numbers ( both cardinal and ordinal ) in names are often represented by digits rather than initial letters : as in 4GL ( Fourth generation language ) or G77 ( Group of 77 ) . Large numbers may use metric prefixes , as with Y2K for `` Year 2000 '' ( sometimes written Y2k , because the SI symbol for 1000 is k -- not K , which stands for kelvin ) . Exceptions using initials for numbers include TLA ( three - letter acronym / abbreviation ) and GoF ( Gang of Four ) . Abbreviations using numbers for other purposes include repetitions , such as W3C ( `` World Wide Web Consortium '' ) and T3 ( Trends , Tips & Tools for Everyday Living ) ; pronunciation , such as B2B ( `` business to business '' ) ; and numeronyms , such as i18n ( `` internationalization '' ; 18 represents the 18 letters between the initial i and the final n ) .
Great Depression
`` Countries that remained on the gold standard , keeping currencies fixed , were more likely to restrict foreign trade . '' These countries `` resorted to protectionist policies to strengthen the balance of payments and limit gold losses . '' They hoped that these restrictions and depletions would hold the economic decline . Countries that abandoned the gold standard , allowed their currencies to depreciate which caused their balance of payments to strengthen . It also freed up monetary policy so that central banks could lower interest rates and act as lenders of last resort . They possessed the best policy instruments to fight the Depression and did not need protectionism . `` The length and depth of a country 's economic downturn and the timing and vigor of its recovery is related to how long it remained on the gold standard . Countries abandoning the gold standard relatively early experienced relatively mild recessions and early recoveries . In contrast , countries remaining on the gold standard experienced prolonged slumps . '' Effect
Spain and the American Revolutionary War
Spain was seen to have received tangible results out of the war , especially in contrast to its ally France . The French king had invested huge amounts of manpower , funds and material resources for little clear military or economic gain . France had been left with crippling debts which it struggled to pay off , and which would become one of the major causes of the French Revolution that broke out in 1789 . Spain , in comparison , disposed of its debts more easily , partly due to the stunning increases in silver production from the mines in Mexico and Bolivia .
History of the United Kingdom
On 18 September , a referendum was held in Scotland on whether to leave the United Kingdom and become an independent country . The three UK - wide political parties -- Labour , Conservative and Liberal Democrats -- campaigned together as part of the Better Together campaign while the pro-independence Scottish National Party was the main force in the Yes Scotland campaign , together with the Scottish Green Party and the Scottish Socialist Party . Days before the vote , with the opinion polls closing , the three Better Together party leaders issued ' The Vow ' , a promise of more powers for Scotland in the event of a No vote . The referendum resulted in Scotland voting by 55 % to 45 % to remain part of the United Kingdom .
Gold standard
Many other countries followed Britain in returning to the gold standard , this was followed by a period of relative stability but also deflation . This state of affairs lasted until the Great Depression ( 1929 -- 1939 ) forced countries off the gold standard . In September 19 , 1931 , speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain to abandon the gold standard . Loans from American and French Central Banks of £ 50,000,000 were insufficient and exhausted in a matter of weeks , due to large gold outflows across the Atlantic . The British benefited from this departure . They could now use monetary policy to stimulate the economy . Australia and New Zealand had already left the standard and Canada quickly followed suit .
Gold standard
The unequal distribution of gold deposits makes the gold standard more advantageous for those countries that produce gold . In 2010 the largest producers of gold , in order , were China , Australia , U.S. , South Africa and Russia . The country with the largest unmined gold deposits is Australia . Some economists believe that the gold standard acts as a limit on economic growth . `` As an economy 's productive capacity grows , then so should its money supply . Because a gold standard requires that money be backed in the metal , then the scarcity of the metal constrains the ability of the economy to produce more capital and grow . '' Mainstream economists believe that economic recessions can be largely mitigated by increasing the money supply during economic downturns . A gold standard means that the money supply would be determined by the gold supply and hence monetary policy could no longer be used to stabilize the economy . The gold standard is often blamed for prolonging the Great Depression , as under the gold standard , central banks could not expand credit at a fast enough rate to offset deflationary forces . Although the gold standard brings long - run price stability , it is historically associated with high short - run price volatility . It has been argued by Schwartz , among others , that instability in short - term price levels can lead to financial instability as lenders and borrowers become uncertain about the value of debt . Deflation punishes debtors . Real debt burdens therefore rise , causing borrowers to cut spending to service their debts or to default . Lenders become wealthier , but may choose to save some of the additional wealth , reducing GDP . The money supply would essentially be determined by the rate of gold production . When gold stocks increase more rapidly than the economy , there is inflation and the reverse is also true . The consensus view is that the gold standard contributed to the severity and length of the Great Depression . Hamilton contended that the gold standard is susceptible to speculative attacks when a government 's financial position appears weak . Conversely , this threat discourages governments from engaging in risky policy ( see moral hazard ) . For example , the U.S. was forced to contract the money supply and raise interest rates in September 1931 to defend the dollar after speculators forced the UK off the gold standard .
Panic of 1837
Many individual states defaulted on their bonds , which angered British creditors . For a brief time , the United States withdrew from international money markets . Only in the late 1840s did Americans re-enter these markets . These defaults , along with other consequences of the recession , carried major implications for the relationship between the state and economic development . In some ways , the panic undermined confidence in public support for internal improvements . While state investment in internal improvements remained common in the South up until the Civil War , northerners increasingly looked to private investment , rather than public , to finance growth . Moreover , the panic unleashed a wave of riots and other forms of domestic unrest . The ultimate result was an increase in the state 's police powers , including more professional police forces .
Economy of Scotland
When Scotland ratified the 1707 Act of Union , despite Scotland 's national debt , taxes were low due to war avoidance and trade thrived from the Baltic to the Caribbean . ( For the purpose of balance to this perspective , see Darien scheme . ) As a consequence of the Act of Union Scotland 's established trade with France and the Low Countries was cut off abruptly . The economic benefits of Union which had been promised by proponents of the Act were slow to materialise , causing widespread discontent amongst the population . A
History of Mexico
Marketed on television , Fox made a far better candidate than he did president . He failed to take charge and provide cabinet leadership , failed to set priorities , and turned a blind eye to alliance building ... By 2006 , as political scientist Soledad Loaeza noted , `` the eager candidate became a reluctant president who avoided tough choices and appeared hesitant and unable to hide the weariness caused by the responsibilities and constraints of the office . '' ... He had little success in fighting crime . Even though he maintained the macroeconomic stability inherited from his predecessor , economic growth barely exceeded the rate of population increase . Similarly , the lack of fiscal reform left tax collection at a rate similar to that of Haiti ... Finally , during Fox 's administration , only 1.4 million formal - sector jobs were created , leading to massive immigration to the United States and an explosive increase in informal employment .
Maldives
For us swearing off fossil fuels is not only the right thing to do , it is in our economic self - interest ... Pioneering countries will free themselves from the unpredictable price of foreign oil ; they will capitalise on the new green economy of the future , and they will enhance their moral standing giving them greater political influence on the world stage .
Poverty in the United Kingdom
Absolute Poverty is better at judging poverty in the short term , whereas Relative Poverty is better at seeing long - term trends . This is because general concepts of poverty change with time , and Relative Poverty reflects this better .
Great Depression
But on the other hand , the depression led the area governments to develop new local industries and expand consumption and production . Following the example of the New Deal , governments in the area approved regulations and created or improved welfare institutions that helped millions of new industrial workers to achieve a better standard of living .
Third World
By the end of the 1960s , the idea of the Third World came to represent countries in Africa , Asia and Latin America that were considered underdeveloped by the West based on a variety of characteristics ( low economic development , low life expectancy , high rates of poverty and disease , etc . ) . These countries became the targets for aid and support from governments , NGOs and individuals from wealthier nations . One popular model , known as Rostow 's stages of growth , argued that development took place in 5 stages ( Traditional Society ; Pre-conditions for Take - off ; Take - off ; Drive to Maturity ; Age of High Mass Consumption ) . W.W. Rostow argued that Take - off was the critical stage that the Third World was missing or struggling with . Thus , foreign aid was needed to help kick - start industrialization and economic growth in these countries .
Marshall Plan
Bradford DeLong and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was `` History 's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program . '' They state :
Marshall Plan
Canada , like the United States , was damaged little by the war and in 1945 was one of the world 's richest economies . It operated its own aid program . In 1948 , the US allowed ERP aid to be used in purchasing goods from Canada . Canada made over a billion dollars in sales in the first two years of operation .
Jury trial
' For years , in an effort to avoid the slow - moving wheels of the U.S. judicial system , many American companies have forced their customers and employees to agree to settle disputes outside of the courts , through private arbitration ... but the rising cost of arbitration proceedings has led some companies to decide they might be better off in the court system after all ( so long as ) they do n't have to tangle with juries . The new tactic ( is to ) let disputes go to court , but on the condition that they be heard only by a judge . ' The article goes on to claim ' The list includes residential leases , checking - account agreements , auto loans and mortgage contracts . Companies that believe juries are biased toward plaintiffs hope this approach will boost their chances of winning in court . Critics say that unfairly denies citizens ' access to the full range of legal options guaranteed by the Constitution . '
Treaty of Versailles
The delegates of the Commonwealth and British Government had mixed thoughts on the treaty , with some seeing the French policy as being greedy and vindictive . Lloyd George and his private secretary Philip Kerr believed in the treaty , although they also felt that the French would keep Europe in a constant state of turmoil by attempting to enforce the treaty . Delegate Harold Nicolson wrote `` are we making a good peace ? '' , while General Jan Smuts ( a member of the South African delegation ) wrote to Lloyd - George , before the signing , that the treaty was unstable and declared `` Are we in our sober senses or suffering from shellshock ? What has become of Wilson 's 14 points ? '' He wanted the Germans not be made to sign at the `` point of the bayonet '' . Smuts issued a statement condemning the treaty and regretting that the promises of `` a new international order and a fairer , better world are not written in this treaty '' . Lord Robert Cecil said that many within the Foreign Office were disappointed by the treaty . The treaty received widespread approval from the general public . Bernadotte Schmitt wrote that the `` average Englishman ... thought Germany got only what it deserved '' as a result of the treaty . However , public opinion changed as German complaints mounted .
Emancipation Proclamation
As Lincoln had hoped , the Proclamation turned foreign popular opinion in favor of the Union by gaining the support of anti-slavery countries and countries that had already abolished slavery ( especially the developed countries in Europe ) . This shift ended the Confederacy 's hopes of gaining official recognition .
Foreign policy of the United States
Tures examined 228 cases of American intervention from 1973 to 2005 , using Freedom House data . A plurality of interventions , 96 , caused no change in the country 's democracy . In 69 instances , the country became less democratic after the intervention . In the remaining 63 cases , a country became more democratic . However this does not take into account the direction the country would have gone with no U.S. intervention . Opinion
Dominican Republic–Haiti relations
In the mid-twentieth century , the economies of the two countries were comparable . Since that time , the Dominican economy has grown while the Haitian economy has diminished . The economic downturn in Haiti has been the result of factors such as internal power struggles , rapid population growth , environmental degradation , and trade embargoes . Today , Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere . There is a lack of resources , and Haiti 's population density exceeds its neighbor 's by far . Despite the UN sending missions since the 1990s , in order to maintain peace , terrible conditions persist .