vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Xenon
Xenon was discovered in England by the Scottish chemist William Ramsay and English chemist Morris Travers in September 1898 , shortly after their discovery of the elements krypton and neon . They found xenon in the residue left over from evaporating components of liquid air . Ramsay suggested the name xenon for this gas from the Greek word ξένον ( xenon ) , neuter singular form of ξένος ( xenos ) , meaning ' foreign ( er ) ' , ' strange ( r ) ' , or ' guest ' . In 1902 , Ramsay estimated the proportion of xenon in the Earth 's atmosphere to be one part in 20 million .
Book of Enoch
The 1976 publication by Milik of the results of the paleographic dating of the Enochic fragments found in Qumran made a breakthrough . According to this scholar , who studied the original scrolls for many years , the oldest fragments of the Book of Watchers are dated to 200 -- 150 BC . Since the Book of Watchers shows evidence of multiple stages of composition , it is probable that this work was extant already in the 3rd century BC . The same can be said about the Astronomical Book .
Mitochondrion
In 1967 , it was discovered that mitochondria contained ribosomes . In 1968 , methods were developed for mapping the mitochondrial genes , with the genetic and physical map of yeast mitochondrial DNA being completed in 1976 .
Fingerprint
In the 1930s criminal investigators in the United States first discovered the existence of latent fingerprints on the surfaces of fabrics , most notably on the insides of gloves discarded by perpetrators .
Astronomical spectroscopy
In 1868 Norman Lockyer and Pierre Janssen independently observed a line next to the sodium doublet ( D and D ) which Lockyer determined to be a new element . He named it Helium , but it was n't until 1895 the element was found on Earth . In 1869 the astronomers Charles Augustus Young and William Harkness independently observed a novel green emission line in the Sun 's corona during an eclipse . This `` new '' element was incorrectly named coronium , as it was only found in the corona . It was not until the 1930s that Walter Grotrian and Bengt Edlén discovered that the spectral line at 530.3 nm was due to highly ionized iron ( Fe ) . Other unusual lines in the coronal spectrum are also caused by highly charged ions , such as nickel and calcium , the high ionization being due to the extreme temperature of the solar corona .
Mining industry of Nigeria
Bitumen was first discovered in 1900 , with focused exploration beginning in 1905 . Bitumen deposits are found in Lagos State , Ogun State , Ondo State , and Edo State . Conoco has performed a technical and economic evaluation of these deposits , and believes there to be over thirteen billion barrels of oil in these tar sands and bitumen seepages .
Earth
In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor ( LUCA ) of all organisms living on Earth .
Atlantic Ocean
The remainder of the ridge was discovered in the 1920s by the German Meteor expedition using echo - sounding equipment . The exploration of the MAR in the 1950s led to the general acceptance of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics .
California Gold Rush
Gold was also discovered in Southern California but on a much smaller scale . The first discovery of gold , at Rancho San Francisco in the mountains north of present - day Los Angeles , had been in 1842 , six years before Marshall 's discovery , while California was still part of Mexico . However , these first deposits , and later discoveries in Southern California mountains , attracted little notice and were of limited consequence economically .
Jupiter
In 1932 , Rupert Wildt identified absorption bands of ammonia and methane in the spectra of Jupiter .
Movable type
At least 13 material finds in China indicate the invention of bronze movable type printing in China no later than the 12th century , with the country producing large - scale bronze - plate - printed paper money and formal official documents issued by the Jin ( 1115 -- 1234 ) and Southern Song ( 1127 -- 1279 ) dynasties with embedded bronze metal types for anti-counterfeit markers . Such paper - money printing might date back to the 11th - century jiaozi of Northern Song ( 960 -- 1127 ) . Copperplate
Horseshoe
Existing references to the nailed shoe are relatively late , first known to have appeared around AD 900 , but there may have been earlier uses given that some have been found in layers of dirt . There are no extant references to nailed horseshoes prior to the reign of Emperor Leo VI and by 973 occasional references to them can be found . The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to `` crescent figured irons and their nails '' in AD 910 . There is very little evidence of any sort that suggests the existence of nailed - on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600 , though there is a find dated to the 5th century A.D. of a horseshoe , complete with nails , found in the tomb of the Frankish King Childeric I at Tournai , Belgium . English
Helium
Helium is named for the Greek Titan of the Sun , Helios . It was first detected as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by Georges Rayet , Captain C.T. Haig , Norman R. Pogson , and Lieutenant John Herschel , and was subsequently confirmed by French astronomer Jules Janssen . Janssen is often jointly credited with detecting the element along with Norman Lockyer . Janssen recorded the helium spectral line during the solar eclipse of 1868 while Lockyer observed it from Britain . Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element , which he named . The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists , Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet , who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite . In 1903 , large reserves of helium were found in natural gas fields in parts of the United States , which is by far the largest supplier of the gas today .
California Gold Rush
Lopez took the gold to authorities who confirmed its worth . Lopez and others began to search for other steambeds with gold deposits in the area . They found several in the northeastern section of the forest , within present - day Ventura County . In 1843 he found gold in San Feliciano Canyon near his first discovery . Mexican miners from Sonora worked the placer deposits until 1846 , when the Californios began to agitate for independence from Mexico , and the Bear Flag Revolt caused many Mexicans to leave California .
Atmosphere of Venus
The first vortex on Venus was discovered at the north pole by the Pioneer Venus mission in 1978 . A discovery of the second large ' double - eyed ' vortex at the south pole of Venus was made in the summer of 2006 by Venus Express , which came with no surprise .
Evolutionary developmental biology
Later , more specific similarities were discovered : for example , the Distal-less gene was found in 1989 to be involved in the development of appendages or limbs in fruit flies , the fins of fish , the wings of chickens , the parapodia of marine annelid worms , the ampullae and siphons of tunicates , and the tube feet of sea urchins . It was evident that the gene must be ancient , dating back to the last common ancestor of bilateral animals ( before the Ediacaran Period , which began some 635 million years ago ) . Evo - devo had started to uncover the ways that all animal bodies were built during development .
Maya calendar
The earliest known inscription with a Tzolk'in is an Olmec earspool with 2 Ahau 3 Ceh - 6.3. 10.9. 0 , September 2 , - 678 ( Julian astronomical ) .
Book of Enoch
Four fragmentary editions of the Astronomical Book were found at Qumran , 4Q208 - 211 . 4Q208 and 4Q209 have been dated to the beginning of the 2nd century BC , providing a terminus ante quem for the Astronomical Book of the 3rd century BC . The fragments found in Qumran also include material not contained in the later versions of the Book of Enoch .
History of Kenya
In 1995 Meave Leakey named a new species of hominid Australopithecus anamensis following a series of fossil discoveries near Lake Turkana in 1965 , 1987 and 1994 , and is around 4.1 million years old .
Wreck of the RMS Titanic
Grimm mounted a second expedition in June 1981 aboard the research vessel Gyre , with Spiess and Ryan again joining the expedition . To increase their chances of finding the wreck , the team employed a much more capable sonar device , the Scripps Deep Tow . The weather was again very poor , but all 14 of the targets were successfully covered and found to be natural features . On the last day of the expedition , an object that looked like a propeller was found . Grimm announced on his return to Boston that Titanic had been found , but the scientists declined to endorse his identification .
Tyrannosaurus
In 2001 , a 50 % complete skeleton of a juvenile Tyrannosaurus was discovered in the Hell Creek Formation in Montana , by a crew from the Burpee Museum of Natural History of Rockford , Illinois . Dubbed Jane , the find was initially considered the first known skeleton of the pygmy tyrannosaurid Nanotyrannus but subsequent research has revealed that it is more likely a juvenile Tyrannosaurus . It is the most complete and best preserved juvenile example known to date . Jane has been examined by Jack Horner , Pete Larson , Robert Bakker , Greg Erickson , and several other renowned paleontologists , because of the uniqueness of her age . Jane is currently on exhibit at the Burpee Museum of Natural History in Rockford , Illinois .
New World
In 1524 , the term was used by Giovanni da Verrazzano in a record of his voyage that year along the Atlantic coast of North America , land that is now part of the United States and Canada .
Mariana Trench
During surveys carried out between 1997 and 2001 , a spot was found along the Mariana Trench that had depth similar to that of the Challenger Deep , possibly even deeper . It was discovered while scientists from the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology were completing a survey around Guam ; they used a sonar mapping system towed behind the research ship to conduct the survey . This new spot was named the HMRG ( Hawaii Mapping Research Group ) Deep , after the group of scientists who discovered it .
Cowboy hat
The durability and water - resistance of the original Stetson obtained additional publicity in 1912 , when the battleship USS Maine was raised from Havana harbor , where it had sunk in 1898 . A Stetson hat was found in the wreck , which had been submerged in seawater for 14 years . The hat had been exposed to ooze , mud , and plant growth . However , the hat was cleaned off , and appeared to be undamaged .
Zebra mussel
The first appearance of the organism in northern Italy was in Lake Garda in 1973 ; in central Italy , they appeared in Tuscany in 2003 .
Für Elise
The score was not published until 1867 , 40 years after the composer 's death in 1827 . The discoverer of the piece , Ludwig Nohl , affirmed that the original autographed manuscript , now lost , was dated 27 April 1810 . The music was published as part of Nohl 's Neue Briefe Beethovens ( New letters by Beethoven ) on pages 28 to 33 , printed in Stuttgart by J.G. Cotta .
Enzyme
The discovery that enzymes could be crystallized eventually allowed their structures to be solved by x-ray crystallography . This was first done for lysozyme , an enzyme found in tears , saliva and egg whites that digests the coating of some bacteria ; the structure was solved by a group led by David Chilton Phillips and published in 1965 . This high - resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology and the effort to understand how enzymes work at an atomic level of detail .
Evolution of fish
The coelacanth was thought to have gone extinct 66 million years ago , until a living specimen belonging to the order was discovered in 1938
Italian language
The standard Italian language has a poetic and literary origin in the writings of Tuscan writers of the 12th century , and , even though the grammar and core lexicon are basically unchanged from those used in Florence in the 13th century , the modern standard of the language was largely shaped by relatively recent events . However , Italian as a language spoken in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history . In fact , the earliest surviving texts that can definitely be called Italian ( or more accurately , vernacular , as distinct from its predecessor Vulgar Latin ) are legal formulae known as the Placiti Cassinesi from the Province of Benevento that date from 960 -- 963 , although the Veronese Riddle , probably from the 8th or early 9th century , contains a late form of Vulgar Latin that can be seen as a very early Italian dialect . What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri , written in his native Florentine . Dante 's epic poems , known collectively as the Commedia , to which another Tuscan poet Giovanni Boccaccio later affixed the title Divina , were read throughout Italy and his written dialect became the `` canonical standard '' that all educated Italians could understand . Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language . In addition to the widespread exposure gained through literature , the Florentine language also gained prestige due to the political and cultural significance of Florence at the time and the fact that it was linguistically an intermediate between northern and southern dialects . Thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the official language of Italy .
Italian language
Within the Catholic church , Italian is known by a large part of the ecclesiastical hierarchy , and is used in substitution for Latin in some official documents .
Military history of Italy during World War II
In addition to the well - known campaigns in the western desert during 1940 , the Italians initiated operations in June 1940 from their East African colonies of Ethiopia , Italian Somaliland , and Eritrea .
Military history of Italy during World War II
In spring 1941 , Italy created a Montenegrin client state and annexed most of the Dalmatian coast as the Governorship of Dalmatia ( Governatorato di Dalmazia ) . A complicated four - way conflict between the puppet Montenegro regime , Montenegrin nationalists , Royalist remnants of the Yugoslav government , and Communist Partisans continued from 1941 -- 1945 .
Economic history of Italy
The 1970s and 1980s was also the period of investment and rapid economic growth in the South , unlike Northern and Central Italy which mainly grew in the 1950s and early 1960s . The `` Vanoni Plan '' ensured that a new programme to help growth in the South called `` Cassa per il Mezzogiorno '' ( Funds for the `` Mezzogiorno '' ( a slang for Southern Italy , literally meaning `` midday '' ) was put in place . Investment was worth billions of US dollars : from 1951 -- 1978 , the funds spent in the South was $11.5 billion for infrastructure , $13 billion for low - cost loans , and outrighted grants were worth $3.2 billion .
Italian language
After unification , a huge number of civil servants and soldiers recruited from all over the country introduced many more words and idioms from their home languages ( `` ciao '' is derived from Venetian word `` s - cia ( v ) o '' ( slave ) , `` panettone '' comes from Lombard word `` panetton '' etc . ) . Only 2.5 % of Italy 's population could speak the Italian standardized language properly when the nation was unified in 1861 .
Italian Australians
According to the latest Census figures , the population born in Italy in Western Australia is now over 26,000 , with a prevalence of those settled in the Perth Metropolitan Area , unlike the pre-war spatial distribution .
Allies of World War II
Italy became a co-belligerent of the Allies , and the Italian Co-Belligerent Army was created to fight against the German occupation of Northern Italy , where German paratroopers rescued Mussolini from arrest and he was placed in charge of a German puppet state known as the Italian Social Republic ( RSI ) . Italy descended into civil war until the end of hostilities after his deposition and arrest , with Fascists loyal to him allying with German forces and helping them against the Italian armistice government and partisans .
Military history of Italy during World War II
The Italian invasion of British Somaliland was one of the few successful Italian campaigns of World War II accomplished without German support . In the Sudan and Kenya , Italy captured small territories around several border villages , after which the Italian Royal Army in East Africa adopted a defensive posture in preparation for expected British counterattacks .
Italian language
From the late nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century , thousands of Italians settled in Argentina , Uruguay , southern Brazil , and Venezuela , where they formed a physical and cultural presence .
History of the Catholic Church
The 1882 school laws of Republican Jules Ferry set up a national system of public schools that taught strict puritanical morality but no religion . For a while privately funded Catholic schools were tolerated . Civil marriage became compulsory , divorce was introduced and chaplains were removed from the army .
History of Catholic education in the United States
There was a small Catholic population in the English colonies , chiefly in Maryland . It supported local schools , often under Jesuit auspices . The small Catholic Spanish communities in New Mexico and California , which joined the United States in 1848 , had little in the way of organized schooling .
History of the Catholic Church
In what is now the Western United States , the Catholic Church expanded its missionary activity but , until the 19th century , had to work in conjunction with the Spanish crown and military . Junípero Serra , the Franciscan priest in charge of this effort , founded a series of missions and presidios in California which became important economic , political , and religious institutions . These missions brought grain , cattle and a new political and religious order to the Indian tribes of California . Coastal and overland routes were established from Mexico City and mission outposts in Texas and New Mexico that resulted 13 major California missions by 1781 . European visitors brought new diseases that killed off a third of the native population . Mexico shut down the missions in the 1820s and sold off the lands . Only in the 19th century , after the breakdown of most Spanish and Portuguese colonies , was the Vatican able to take charge of Catholic missionary activities through its Propaganda Fide organization .
History of the Church of England
Many Roman Catholics consider the separation of the Church in England from Rome in 1534 to be the true origin of the Church of England , rather than dating it from the mission of St. Augustine in AD 597 . While Anglicans acknowledge that Henry VIII 's repudiation of papal authority caused the Church of England to become a separate entity , they believe that it is in continuity with the pre-Reformation Church of England . Apart from its distinct customs and liturgies ( such as the Sarum rite ) , the organizational machinery of the Church of England was in place by the time of the Synod of Hertford in 672 -- 673 , when the English bishops were first able to act as one body under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury . Henry 's Act in Restraint of Appeals ( 1533 ) and the Acts of Supremacy ( 1534 ) declared that the English crown was `` the only Supreme Head in earth of the Church of England , called Ecclesia Anglicana , '' in order `` to repress and extirpate all errors , heresies , and other enormities and abuses heretofore used in the same . '' The development of the Thirty - Nine Articles of religion and the passage of the Acts of Uniformity culminated in the Elizabethan Religious Settlement . By the end of the 17th century , the English church described itself as both Catholic and Reformed , with the English monarch as its Supreme Governor . MacCulloch commenting on this situation says that it `` has never subsequently dared to define its identity decisively as Protestant or Catholic , and has decided in the end that this is a virtue rather than a handicap . '' King
History of the Catholic Church
France remained basically Catholic . The census of 1872 counted 36 million people , of whom 35.4 million were listed as Catholics , 600,000 as Protestants , 50,000 as Jews and 80,000 as freethinkers The Revolution failed to destroy the Catholic Church , and Napoleon 's concordat of 1801 restored its status . The return of the Bourbons in 1814 brought back many rich nobles and landowners who supported the Church , seeing it as a bastion of conservatism and monarchism . However the monasteries with their vast land holdings and political power were gone ; much of the land had been sold to urban entrepreneurs who lacked historic connections to the land and the peasants . Few new priests were trained in the 1790 - 1814 period , and many left the church . The result was that the number of parish clergy plunged from 60,000 in 1790 to 25,000 in 1815 , many of them elderly . Entire regions , especially around Paris , were left with few priests . On the other hand , some traditional regions held fast to the faith , led by local nobles and historic families . The comeback was slow -- very slow in the larger cities and industrial areas . With systematic missionary work and a new emphasis on liturgy and devotions to the Virgin Mary , plus support from Napoleon III , there was a comeback . In 1870 there were 56,500 priests , representing a much younger and more dynamic force in the villages and towns , with a thick network of schools , charities and lay organizations . Conservative Catholics held control of the national government , 1820 - 1830 , but most often played secondary political roles or had to fight the assault from republicans , liberals , socialists and seculars . Third
English Reformation
The Roman Catholic Church 's refusal to countenance occasional attendance at Protestant services , as well as the excommunication of Elizabeth by Pope Pius V in 1570 , presented the choice to Roman Catholics more starkly . The arrival of the seminary priests , while it was a lifeline to many Roman Catholics , brought further trouble . Elizabeth 's ministers took steps to stem the tide : fines for refusal to attend church were raised from 12 d. per service to £ 20 a month , fifty times an artisan 's wage ; it was now treason to be absolved from schism and reconciled to Rome ; the execution of priests began -- the first in 1577 , four in 1581 , eleven in 1582 , two in 1583 , six in 1584 , fifty - three by 1590 , and seventy more between 1601 and 1608 . It became treasonable for a Roman Catholic priest ordained abroad to enter the country . Because the papacy had called for the deposing of the Queen , the choice for moderate Roman Catholics lay between treason and damnation . The List of Catholic martyrs of the English Reformation was extensive .