vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Horses in warfare
During the European Middle Ages , there were three primary types of war horses : The destrier , the courser , and the rouncey , which differed in size and usage . A generic word used to describe medieval war horses was charger , which appears interchangeable with the other terms . The medieval war horse was of moderate size , rarely exceeding 15.2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) . Heavy horses were logistically difficult to maintain and less adaptable to varied terrains . The destrier of the early Middle Ages was moderately larger than the courser or rouncey , in part to accommodate heavier armoured knights . However , destriers were not as large as draught horses , averaging between 14.2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) and 15 hands ( 60 inches , 152 cm ) . On the European continent , the need to carry more armour against mounted enemies such as the Lombards and Frisians led to the Franks developing heavier , bigger horses . As the amount of armour and equipment increased in the later Middle Ages , the height of the horses increased ; some late medieval horse skeletons were of horses over 15 hands .
Horses in warfare
The move to predominately infantry - based battles from 1300 to 1550 was linked to both improved infantry tactics and changes in weaponry . By the 16th century , the concept of a combined - arms professional army had spread throughout Europe . Professional armies emphasized training , and were paid via contracts , a change from the ransom and pillaging which reimbursed knights in the past . When coupled with the rising costs involved in outfitting and maintaining armour and horses , the traditional knightly classes began to abandon their profession . Light horses , or prickers , were still used for scouting and reconnaissance ; they also provided a defensive screen for marching armies . Large teams of draught horses or oxen pulled the heavy early cannon . Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies .
Horses in warfare
Heavy cavalry was believed to have been developed by the Ancient Persians , although others argue for the Sarmatians . By the time of Darius ( 558 -- 486 BC ) , Persian military tactics required horses and riders that were completely armoured , and selectively bred a heavier , more muscled horse to carry the additional weight . The cataphract was a type of heavily armoured cavalry with distinct tactics , armour , and weaponry used from the time of the Persians up until the Middle Ages .
Horses in warfare
Some of the earliest examples of horses being ridden in warfare were horse - mounted archers or spear - throwers , dating to the reigns of the Assyrian rulers Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III . However , these riders sat far back on their horses , a precarious position for moving quickly , and the horses were held by a handler on the ground , keeping the archer free to use the bow . Thus , these archers were more a type of mounted infantry than true cavalry . The Assyrians developed cavalry in response to invasions by nomadic people from the north , such as the Cimmerians , who entered Asia Minor in the 8th century BC and took over parts of Urartu during the reign of Sargon II , approximately 721 BC . Mounted warriors such as the Scythians also had an influence on the region in the 7th century BC . By the reign of Ashurbanipal in 669 BC , the Assyrians had learned to sit forward on their horses in the classic riding position still seen today and could be said to be true light cavalry . The ancient Greeks used both light horse scouts and heavy cavalry , although not extensively , possibly due to the cost of keeping horses .
Horses in warfare
Mounted police have been used since the 18th century , and still are used worldwide to control traffic and crowds , patrol public parks , keep order in processionals and during ceremonies and perform general street patrol duties . Today , many cities still have mounted police units . In rural areas , horses are used by law enforcement for mounted patrols over rugged terrain , crowd control at religious shrines , and border patrol .
Ranger's Apprentice
He was groomed for battle school and trained as a swordsman until his choosing day , where he announced that he wished to become a ranger . Therefore , unlike most rangers , he is an expert swordsman in addition to the bow . He is the master of unseen movement - usually only detectable by Halt . He is very charismatic and known to rib his ranger companions with good - natured humor , even the grim - faced Halt . Crowley - He is the commandant of the ranger core and bears many of the same characteristics as Halt , likely from their long history of shared experiences . However he does display openly a sense of humor and fondness for his rangers . He is a master strategist , and if you do n't believe that just ask him yourself . Jenny - One of the orphans of Araluen , she is a full - figured , pretty - faced blonde with a bubbly personality and a love for cooking - and the food that comes with . She catches many eyes in the kingdom and her apprenticeship under Master Chubb forms her into a well - respected chef . It also shapes her sense of confidence into an authoritative nature , allowing her to command a room and everyone in it . She also picks up her master 's habit of rapping deserving staff on the back of the head with her ladle . Tug - Tug is Will 's horse and certainly a character worthy of mention . As is often the case with rangers , Will spends a majority of his time alone with Tug and so they frequently converse in the way that people will with their animal companions . The shaggy grey horse is little more in appearance than a pony , though ranger horses are of a particular breed with incredible strength , stamina , and intelligence . He is trained to respond to an endless list of commands from his master and the bond between rider and horse is clear in the way that Tug never leaves Will 's side , even when he disagrees with his master 's risky and sometimes foolish plans .
Horses in warfare
Throughout the war , horses and mules were an essential form of transport , especially by the British in the rough terrain of Italy and the Middle East . The United States Army utilised a few cavalry and supply units during the war , but there were concerns that the Americans did not use horses often enough . In the campaigns in North Africa , generals such as George S. Patton lamented their lack , saying , `` had we possessed an American cavalry division with pack artillery in Tunisia and in Sicily , not a German would have escaped . ''
Horses in warfare
During the early modern period the shift continued from heavy cavalry and the armoured knight to unarmoured light cavalry , including Hussars and Chasseurs à cheval . Light cavalry facilitated better communication , using fast , agile horses to move quickly across battlefields . The ratio of footmen to horsemen also increased over the period as infantry weapons improved and footmen became more mobile and versatile , particularly once the musket bayonet replaced the more cumbersome pike . During the Elizabethan era , mounted units included cuirassiers , heavily armoured and equipped with lances ; light cavalry , who wore mail and bore light lances and pistols ; and `` petronels '' , who carried an early carbine . As heavy cavalry use declined armour was increasingly abandoned and dragoons , whose horses were rarely used in combat , became more common : mounted infantry provided reconnaissance , escort and security . However , many generals still used the heavy mounted charge , from the late 17th century and early 18th century , where sword - wielding wedge - formation shock troops penetrated enemy lines , to the early 19th century , where armoured heavy cuirassiers were employed . Chasseurs
Horses in warfare
Horses were probably ridden in prehistory before they were driven . However , evidence is scant , mostly simple images of human figures on horse - like animals drawn on rock or clay . The earliest tools used to control horses were bridles of various sorts , which were invented nearly as soon as the horse was domesticated . Evidence of bit wear appears on the teeth of horses excavated at the archaeology sites of the Botai culture in northern Kazakhstan , dated 3500 -- 3000 BC .
Horse latitudes
A likely and documented explanation is that the term is derived from the `` dead horse '' ritual of seamen ( see Beating a dead horse ) . In this practice , the seaman paraded a straw - stuffed effigy of a horse around the deck before throwing it overboard . Seamen were paid partly in advance before a long voyage , and they frequently spent their pay all at once , resulting in a period of time without income . If they got advances from the ship 's paymaster , they would incur debt . This period was called the `` dead horse '' time , and it usually lasted a month or two . The seaman 's ceremony was to celebrate having worked off the `` dead horse '' debt . As west - bound shipping from Europe usually reached the subtropics at about the time the `` dead horse '' was worked off , the latitude became associated with the ceremony .
Horses in warfare
The only remaining operationally ready , fully horse - mounted regular regiment in the world is the Indian Army 's 61st Cavalry .
Horses in warfare
Horses used for chariot warfare were not only trained for combat conditions , but because many chariots were pulled by a team of two to four horses , they also had to learn to work together with other animals in close quarters under chaotic conditions .
Horses in warfare
At the beginning of Operation Enduring Freedom , Operational Detachment Alpha 595 teams were covertly inserted into Afghanistan on October 19 , 2001 . Horses were the only suitable transportation for the difficult mountainous terrain of Northern Afghanistan . They were the first U.S. soldiers to ride horses into battle since January 16 , 1942 , when the U.S. Army 's 26th Cavalry Regiment charged an advanced guard of the 14th Japanese Army as it advanced from Manila .
Horses in warfare
Mounted charges were carefully managed . A charge 's maximum speed was 20 km / h ; moving faster resulted in a break in formation and fatigued horses . Charges occurred across clear rising ground , and were effective against infantry both on the march and when deployed in a line or column . A foot battalion formed in line was vulnerable to cavalry , and could be broken or destroyed by a well - formed charge . Traditional cavalry functions altered by the end of the 19th century . Many cavalry units transferred in title and role to `` mounted rifles '' : troops trained to fight on foot , but retaining mounts for rapid deployment , as well as for patrols , scouting , communications , and defensive screening . These troops differed from mounted infantry , who used horses for transport but did not perform the old cavalry roles of reconnaissance and support .
Horses in warfare
The German and the Soviet armies used horses until the end of the war for transportation of troops and supplies . The German Army , strapped for motorised transport because its factories were needed to produce tanks and aircraft , used around 2.75 million horses -- more than it had used in World War I. One German infantry division in Normandy in 1944 had 5,000 horses . The Soviets used 3.5 million horses .
Horses in warfare
During the period when various Islamic empires controlled much of the Middle East as well as parts of West Africa and the Iberian peninsula , Muslim armies consisted mostly of cavalry , made up of fighters from various local groups , mercenaries and Turkoman tribesmen . The latter were considered particularly skilled as both lancers and mounted archers . In the 9th century the use of Mamluks , slaves raised to be soldiers for various Muslim rulers , became increasingly common . Mobile tactics , advanced breeding of horses , and detailed training manuals made Mamluk cavalry a highly efficient fighting force . The use of armies consisting mostly of cavalry continued among the Turkish people who founded the Ottoman Empire . Their need for large mounted forces lead to an establishment of the sipahi , cavalry soldiers who were granted lands in exchange for providing military service in times of war .
Horses in warfare
The horse had been extinct in the Western Hemisphere for approximately 10,000 years prior to the arrival of Spanish Conquistadors in the early 16th century . Consequently , the Indigenous peoples of the Americas had no warfare technologies that could overcome the considerable advantage provided by European horses and gunpowder weapons . In particular this resulted in the conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires . The speed and increased impact of cavalry contributed to a number of early victories by European fighters in open terrain , though their success was limited in more mountainous regions . The Incas ' well - maintained roads in the Andes enabled quick mounted raids , such as those undertaken by the Spanish while resisting the siege of Cuzco in 1536 -- 7 .
Horses in warfare
The African slave trade was closely tied to the imports of war horses , and as the prevalence of slaving decreased , fewer horses were needed for raiding . This significantly decreased the amount of mounted warfare seen in West Africa . By the time of the Scramble for Africa and the introduction of modern firearms in the 1880s , the use of horses in African warfare had lost most of its effectiveness . Nonetheless , in South Africa during the Second Boer War ( 1899 -- 1902 ) , cavalry and other mounted troops were the major combat force for the British , since the horse - mounted Boers moved too quickly for infantry to engage . The Boers presented a mobile and innovative approach to warfare , drawing on strategies that had first appeared in the American Civil War . The terrain was not well - suited to the British horses , resulting in the loss of over 300,000 animals . As the campaign wore on , losses were replaced by more durable African Basuto ponies , and Waler horses from Australia .
Horses in warfare
The first use of horses in warfare occurred over 5,000 years ago . The earliest evidence of horses ridden in warfare dates from Eurasia between 4000 and 3000 BC . A Sumerian illustration of warfare from 2500 BC depicts some type of equine pulling wagons . By 1600 BC , improved harness and chariot designs made chariot warfare common throughout the Ancient Near East , and the earliest written training manual for war horses was a guide for training chariot horses written about 1350 BC . As formal cavalry tactics replaced the chariot , so did new training methods , and by 360 BC , the Greek cavalry officer Xenophon had written an extensive treatise on horsemanship . The effectiveness of horses in battle was also revolutionized by improvements in technology , including the invention of the saddle , the stirrup , and later , the horse collar .
Horse latitudes
A third explanation , which simultaneously explains both the northern and southern horse latitudes and does not depend on the length of the voyage or the port of departure , is based on maritime terminology : a ship was said to be ' horsed ' when , although there was insufficient wind for sail , the vessel could make good progress by latching on to a strong current . This was suggested by Edward Taube in his article `` The Sense of `` Horse '' in the Horse Latitudes '' ( Journal of Geography , October 1967 ) . He argued the maritime use of ' horsed ' described a ship that was being carried along by an ocean current or tide in the manner of a rider on horseback . The term had been in use since the end of the seventeenth century . Furthermore , The India Directory in its entry for Fernando de Noronha , an island off the coast of Brazil , mentions it had been visited frequently by ships `` occasioned by the currents having horsed them to the westward '' .
Horses in warfare
During the American Civil War ( 1861 -- 1865 ) , cavalry held the most important and respected role it would ever hold in the American military . Field artillery in the American Civil War was also highly mobile . Both horses and mules pulled the guns , though only horses were used on the battlefield . At the beginning of the war , most of the experienced cavalry officers were from the South and thus joined the Confederacy , leading to the Confederate Army 's initial battlefield superiority . The tide turned at the 1863 Battle of Brandy Station , part of the Gettysburg campaign , where the Union cavalry , in the largest cavalry battle ever fought on the American continent , ended the dominance of the South . By 1865 , Union cavalry were decisive in achieving victory . So important were horses to individual soldiers that the surrender terms at Appomattox allowed every Confederate cavalryman to take his horse home with him . This was because , unlike their Union counterparts , Confederate cavalrymen provided their own horses for service instead of drawing them from the government .
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
The color of Death 's horse is written as khlōros ( χλωρός ) in the original Koine Greek , which can mean either green / greenish - yellow or pale / pallid . The color is often translated as `` pale '' , though `` ashen '' , `` pale green '' , and `` yellowish green '' are other possible interpretations ( the Greek word is the root of `` chlorophyll '' and `` chlorine '' ) . Based on uses of the word in ancient Greek medical literature , several scholars suggest that the color reflects the sickly pallor of a corpse . In some modern artistic depictions , the horse is distinctly green .
Mustang
The mustang is a free - roaming horse of the American west that first descended from horses brought to the Americas by the Spanish . Mustangs are often referred to as wild horses , but because they are descended from once - domesticated horses , they are properly defined as feral horses . The original mustangs were Colonial Spanish horses , but many other breeds and types of horses contributed to the modern mustang , resulting in varying phenotypes . In the 21st century , mustang herds vary in the degree to which they can be traced to original Iberian horses . Some contain a greater genetic mixture of ranch stock and more recent breed releases , while others are relatively unchanged from the original Iberian stock , most strongly represented in the most isolated populations .
Trojan Horse
A more speculative theory , originally proposed by Fritz Schachermeyr , states that the Trojan Horse is a metaphor for a destructive earthquake that damaged the walls of Troy and allowed the Greeks in . In this theory , the horse represents Poseidon , who as well as being god of the sea was also god of horses and earthquakes . This theory is supported by the fact that archaeological digs have found that Troy VI was heavily damaged in an earthquake , but is hard to square with the mythological claim that Poseidon built the walls of Troy in the first place .
The Summer of the Beautiful White Horse
Aram was invited to ride on the horse with Mourad . The idea of Mourad stealing the horse drained away from Aram 's mind as when he felt that it would n't become stealing unless they offer to sell the horse . They enjoyed rides on the horse for a few hours . Mourad 's crazy behavior was considered to be of natural descent from their uncle Khosrov , even though his father , Zorab , was a practical man . Uncle Khosrove was an enormous man who was always furious , impatient , and irritable . He would roar for everyone to stop talking and say It is no harm , pay no attention to it . In fact , one day , when his son came and told them that their house was on fire , Khosrov silenced him by roaring `` Enough . It is no harm '' . After a short time of riding , Mourad wanted to ride alone on the horse . Aram had the same longing , but when he sat on the horse and kicked its muscles it reared and snorted and raced forward , eventually dropping Aram off its back . After half an hour they found the horse and hid it in the barn of a deserted vineyard of a farmer named Fetvajian which had once been his pride .
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Based on the above passage , a common translation into English , the rider of the White Horse ( sometimes referred to as the White Rider ) is generally referred to as `` Conquest '' . The name could also be construed as `` Victory '' , as in the translation found in the Jerusalem Bible ( the Greek words are derived from the verb νικάω , to conquer or vanquish ) . He carries a bow , and wears a victor 's crown .
Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull
Random House , Dark Horse Comics , Diamond Comic Distributors , Scholastic and DK published books , including James Rollins ' novelization of Kingdom of the Crystal Skull , a two - issue comic book adaptation written by John Jackson Miller and drawn by Luke Ross ( Samurai : Heaven and Earth ) , children 's novelizations of all four films , the Indiana Jones Adventures comic book series aimed at children , and the official Indiana Jones Magazine . Scholastic featured Indiana and Mutt on the covers of Scholastic News and Scholastic Maths , to the concern of parents , though Jack Silbert , editor of the latter , felt the film would interest children in archaeology .
Horses in warfare
Light cavalry continued to play a major role , particularly after the Seven Years ' War when Hussars started to play a larger part in battles . Though some leaders preferred tall horses for their mounted troops this was as much for prestige as for increased shock ability and many troops used more typical horses , averaging 15 hands . Cavalry tactics altered with fewer mounted charges , more reliance on drilled manoeuvres at the trot , and use of firearms once within range . Ever - more elaborate movements , such as wheeling and caracole , were developed to facilitate the use of firearms from horseback . These tactics were not greatly successful in battle since pikemen protected by musketeers could deny cavalry room to manoeuvre . However the advanced equestrianism required survives into the modern world as dressage . While restricted , cavalry was not rendered obsolete . As infantry formations developed in tactics and skills , artillery became essential to break formations ; in turn , cavalry was required to both combat enemy artillery , which was susceptible to cavalry while deploying , and to charge enemy infantry formations broken by artillery fire . Thus , successful warfare depended in a balance of the three arms : cavalry , artillery and infantry .
Horses in warfare
Two major innovations that revolutionised the effectiveness of mounted warriors in battle were the saddle and the stirrup . Riders quickly learned to pad their horse 's backs to protect themselves from the horse 's spine and withers , and fought on horseback for centuries with little more than a blanket or pad on the horse 's back and a rudimentary bridle . To help distribute the rider 's weight and protect the horse 's back , some cultures created stuffed padding that resembles the panels of today 's English saddle . Both the Scythians and Assyrians used pads with added felt attached with a surcingle or girth around the horse 's barrel for increased security and comfort . Xenophon mentioned the use of a padded cloth on cavalry mounts as early as the 4th century BC .
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
One interpretation held by evangelist Billy Graham , casts the rider of the white horse as the Antichrist , or a representation of false prophets , citing differences between the white horse in Revelation chapter 6 and Jesus on the white Horse in Revelation chapter 19 . In Revelation 19 , Jesus has many crowns . In Revelation 6 , the rider has just one ; a crown given , not taken . This indicates a third person giving authority to the rider to accomplish his work .