vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Heart
The heart is the first functional organ to develop and starts to beat and pump blood at about three weeks into embryogenesis . This early start is crucial for subsequent embryonic and prenatal development .
Manhattan Project
In 1943 , development efforts were directed to a gun - type fission weapon with plutonium called Thin Man . Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron - generated plutonium - 239 , which was extremely pure , but could only be created in very small amounts . Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the Clinton X-10 reactor in April 1944 and within days Emilio Segrè discovered a problem : the reactor - bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium - 240 , resulting in up to five times the spontaneous fission rate of cyclotron plutonium . Seaborg had correctly predicted in March 1943 that some of the plutonium - 239 would absorb a neutron and become plutonium - 240 .
Metrication in the United States
Under the Mendenhall Order in 1893 , metric standards , developed through international cooperation under the auspices of BIPM , were adopted as the fundamental standards for length and mass in the United States . The definitions of United States customary units , such as the foot and pound , have been based on metric units since then .
Natural selection
Once he had his theory , Darwin was meticulous about gathering and refining evidence before making his idea public . He was in the process of writing his `` big book '' to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell . Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker decided to present his essay together with unpublished writings that Darwin had sent to fellow naturalists , and On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties ; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection was read to the Linnean Society of London announcing co-discovery of the principle in July 1858 . Darwin published a detailed account of his evidence and conclusions in On the Origin of Species in 1859 . In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others -- like William Charles Wells in 1813 , and Patrick Matthew in 1831 -- had proposed similar ideas , but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications . Charles
Mitochondrion
In 1939 , experiments using minced muscle cells demonstrated that cellular respiration using one oxygen atom can form two adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) molecules , and , in 1941 , the concept of the phosphate bonds of ATP being a form of energy in cellular metabolism was developed by Fritz Albert Lipmann . In the following years , the mechanism behind cellular respiration was further elaborated , although its link to the mitochondria was not known . The introduction of tissue fractionation by Albert Claude allowed mitochondria to be isolated from other cell fractions and biochemical analysis to be conducted on them alone . In 1946 , he concluded that cytochrome oxidase and other enzymes responsible for the respiratory chain were isolated to the mitochondria . Eugene Kennedy and Albert Lehninger discovered in 1948 that mitochondria are the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes . Over time , the fractionation method was further developed , improving the quality of the mitochondria isolated , and other elements of cell respiration were determined to occur in the mitochondria .
Original sin
Martin Luther ( 1483 -- 1546 ) asserted that humans inherit Adamic guilt and are in a state of sin from the moment of conception . The second article in Lutheranism 's Augsburg Confession presents its doctrine of original sin in summary form :
Pragmatism
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870 . Its origins are often attributed to the philosophers William James , John Dewey , and Charles Sanders Peirce . Peirce later described it in his pragmatic maxim : `` Consider the practical effects of the objects of your conception . Then , your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object . ''
Mail order
Sometimes supermarket products do mail order promotions , whereby people can send in the UPC plus shipping and handling to get a product made especially for the company .
History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
`` Our publishing houses have printed 300,000 copies , free of cost , and these have been distributed to the different tract societies , to be sold by our people .
History of evolutionary thought
The mathematical biologist Stuart Kauffman has suggested that self - organization may play roles alongside natural selection in three areas of evolutionary biology , namely population dynamics , molecular evolution , and morphogenesis . However , Kauffman does not take into account the essential role of energy ( for example , using pyrophosphate ) in driving biochemical reactions in cells , as proposed by Christian DeDuve and modelled mathematically by Richard Bagley and Walter Fontana . Their systems are self - catalyzing but not simply self - organizing as they are thermodynamically open systems relying on a continuous input of energy .
United Church of Christ
The Insurance Board is a nonprofit corporation collectively `` owned '' by the Conferences of the United Church of Christ . It is run by a president / CEO and a 19 - member Board , with the full corporate board consisting of Conference , Region and Presbytery ministers as well as laypeople . The IB administers a property insurance , liability insurance , and risk management program serving the United Church of Christ , the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) , and the Christian Church ( Disciples of Christ ) churches and related entities . Associated
United States Postal Service
Over a period of years , these facilities are expected to replace Processing & Distribution Centers , Customer Service Facilities , Bulk Mail Centers , Logistic and Distribution Centers , annexes , the Hub and Spoke Program , Air Mail Centers , and International Service Centers .
English contract law
Early common law cases held that performance of a contract always had to take place . No matter what hardship was encountered contracting parties had absolute liability on their obligations . In the 19th century the courts developed a doctrine that contracts which became impossible to perform would be frustrated and automatically come to an end . In Taylor v Caldwell Blackburn J held that when the Surrey Gardens Music Hall unexpectedly burnt down , the owners did not have to pay compensation to the business that had leased it for an extravagant performance , because it was neither party 's fault . An assumption underlying all contracts ( a `` condition precedent '' ) is that they are possible to perform . People would not ordinarily contract to do something they knew was going to be impossible . Apart from physical impossibility , frustration could be down to a contract becoming illegal to perform , for instance if war breaks out and the government bans trade to a belligerent country , or perhaps if the whole purpose of an agreement is destroyed by another event , like renting a room to watch a cancelled coronation parade . But a contract is not frustrated merely because a subsequent event makes the agreement harder to perform than expected , as for instance in Davis Contractors Ltd v Fareham UDC where a builder unfortunately had to spend more time and money doing a job than he would be paid for because of an unforeseen shortage of labour and supplies . The House of Lords denied his claim for contract to be declared frustrated so he could claim quantum meruit . Because the doctrine of frustration is a matter of construction of the contract , it can be contracted around , through what are called `` force majeure '' clauses . Similarly , a contract can have a force majeure clause that would bring a contract to an end more easily than would common law construction . In The Super Servant Two Wijsmuller BV contracted to hire out a self - propelling barge to J. Lauritzen A / S , who wanted to tow another ship from Japan to Rotterdam , but had a provision stating the contract would terminate if some event made it difficult related to the ' perils or dangers and accidents of the sea ' . Wijsmuller BV also had a choice of whether to provide either The Superservant One or Two . They chose Two and it sank .
Collectivization in the Soviet Union
Association for Joint Cultivation of Land ( Товарищество по совместной обработке земли , ТОЗ / TOZ ) , where only land was in common use ; agricultural artel ( initially in a loose meaning , later formalized to become an organizational basis of kolkhozes , via The Standard Statute of an Agricultural Artel adopted by Sovnarkom in March 1930 ) ; agricultural commune , with the highest level of common use of resources .
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Under the leadership of the priesthood hierarchy are five auxiliary organizations that fill various roles in the church : Relief Society ( a women 's organization ) , the Young Men and Young Women organizations ( for adolescents ages 12 to 18 ) , Primary ( an organization for children up to age 12 ) , and Sunday School ( which provides a variety of Sunday classes for adolescents and adults ) . Women serve as presidents and counselors in the presidencies of the Relief Society , Young Women , and Primary , while men serve as presidents and counselors of the Young Men and Sunday School . The church also operates several programs and organizations in the fields of proselytizing , education , and church welfare such as LDS Humanitarian Services . Many of these auxiliaries and programs are coordinated by the Priesthood Correlation Program , which is designed to provide a systematic approach to maintain worldwide consistency , orthodoxy , and control of the church 's ordinances , doctrines , organizations , meetings , materials , and other programs and activities . The
Interstate compact
Such compacts are distinct from Uniform Acts , which are model statutes produced by non-governmental bodies of legal experts to be passed by state legislatures independently .
Cytosol
Although it was once thought to be a simple solution of molecules , the cytosol has multiple levels of organization . These include concentration gradients of small molecules such as calcium , large complexes of enzymes that act together to carry out metabolic pathways , and protein complexes such as proteasomes and carboxysomes that enclose and separate parts of the cytosol .
United States Postal Service
Regional Distribution Centers ( RDCs ) , which will process all classes of parcels and bundles and serve as Surface Transfer Centers ; Local Processing Centers ( LPCs ) , which will process single - piece letters and flats and cancel mail ; Destination Processing Centers ( DPC ) , sort the mail for individual mail carriers ; Airport Transfer Centers ( ATCs ) , which will serve as transfer points only ; and Remote Encoding Centers ( RECs ) .
Lithuania
Elderships , numbering over 500 , are the smallest administrative units and do not play a role in national politics . They provide necessary local public services -- for example , registering births and deaths in rural areas . They are most active in the social sector , identifying needy individuals or families and organizing and distributing welfare and other forms of relief . Some citizens feel that elderships have no real power and receive too little attention , and that they could otherwise become a source of local initiative for addressing rural problems .
Age of Enlightenment
The `` Radical Enlightenment '' promoted the concept of separating church and state , an idea that is often credited to English philosopher John Locke ( 1632 -- 1704 ) . According to his principle of the social contract , Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience , as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control . For Locke , this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience , which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority .
Age of Enlightenment
Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality , respectively . While quite different works , Locke , Hobbes and Rousseau agreed that a social contract , in which the government 's authority lies in the consent of the governed , is necessary for man to live in civil society . Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law , in which all men are born equal and with the right to life , liberty and property . However , when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war , from which it is virtually impossible to break free . Therefore , Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an `` unbiased judge '' or common authority , such as courts , to appeal to . Contrastingly , Rousseau 's conception relies on the supposition that `` civil man '' is corrupted , while `` natural man '' has no want he can not fulfill himself . Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established . Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom . This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will , the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens .
Freedmen's Bureau
Northern mission societies raised funds for land , buildings , teachers ' salaries , and basic necessities such as books and furniture . For years they used networks throughout their churches to raise money for freedmen 's education and worship .
United Church of Christ
Local churches also are members of larger Conferences , of which there are 38 in the United Church of Christ . A conference typically contains multiple associations ; if no associations exist within its boundaries , the conference exercises the functions of the association as well . Conferences are supported financially through local churches ' contribution to `` Our Church 's Wider Mission '' ( formerly `` Our Christian World Mission '' ) , the United Church of Christ 's denominational support system ; unlike most associations , they usually have permanent headquarters and professional staff . The primary ecclesiastical function of a conference is to provide the primary support for the search - and - call process by which churches select ordained leadership ; the conference minister and / or his or her associates perform this task in coordination with the congregation 's pulpit search committee ( see above ) and the association to which the congregation belongs ( particularly its ministerial committee ) . Conferences also provide significant programming resources for their constituent churches , such as Christian education resources and support , interpretation of the larger UCC 's mission work , and church extension within their bounds ( the latter usually conducted in conjunction with the national Local Church Ministries division ) .
Political action committee
As of February 2012 , according to Center for Responsive Politics , 313 groups organized as Super PACs had received $98,650,993 and spent $46,191,479 . This means early in the 2012 election cycle , PACs had already greatly exceeded total receipts of 2008 . The leading Super PAC on its own raised more money than the combined total spent by the top 9 PACS in the 2008 cycle .
English contract law
In its essence a contract is an agreement which the law recognises as giving rise to enforceable obligations .
English contract law
A related doctrine is `` common mistake '' , which since the decision of Lord Phillips MR in The Great Peace is essentially the same in operation as frustration , except that the event making a contract impossible to perform takes place before , not after , a contract is concluded . A `` common mistake '' differs from the `` mistakes '' that take place between offers and acceptance ( that mean there is no agreement in the first place ) , or the so - called `` mistake about identity '' cases that follow from a fraudulent misrepresentation ( which typically makes a contract voidable , not void , unless in a written document and concluded at a distance ) , because it is based on performance becoming seriously difficult to perform . For instance , in Courturier v Hastie a corn shipment had decayed by the time two businesspeople had contracted for it , and so it was held ( perhaps controversially ) that the seller was not liable , because it was always physically impossible . And in Cooper v Phibbs the House of Lords held that an agreement to lease out a fishery was void because it turned out the lessee was in fact the owner . It is legally impossible to be leased something one owns . Again , the doctrine of common mistake may be contracted around , so in McRae v Commonwealth Disposals Commission it was held that despite the fact that a wrecked ship off the Great Barrier Reef never in fact existed , because a salvage business was actually promised by the Australian government that it was there , there was no common mistake . Like frustration , the doctrine operates only in narrow confines . In Bell v Lever Bros Ltd Lord Atkin stated that a mistake must be of such a ' fundamental character as to constitute an underlying assumption without which the parties would not have entered into the agreements ' . Post-war , Denning LJ added to the doctrine , beyond its narrow legal confines , in line with the more permissive approach recognised throughout civil law countries , most of the Commonwealth and the United States . In Solle v Butcher he held that in equity a contract could be deemed voidable ( rather than outright void ) if it would be ' unconscientious ' for a court to hold someone to a bargain . This gave the courts some flexibility in the kind of remedy they would grant , and could be more generous in the circumstances they allowed escape .
Rwandan genocide
AOCM respond to the needs of orphans who survived the genocide , in particular to promote the general welfare of its 40,000 members in 10,000 orphan - headed households . Its staff are all orphans themselves who head households . SURF helped AOCM build its capacity to advocate to give orphaned survivors of the genocide a stronger voice in Rwanda . AOCM is now an established and reputable , growing child - advocacy organisation .
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
CARP recognizes not only farmers but all landless workers as beneficiaries with the condition that they cultivate the land . The two main departments in charge of this program are Department of Agrarian Reform ( DAR ) and Department of Environment and Natural Resources ( DENR ) . Aside from the land distribution , it also provides the delivery of support services and security to the farmers .
Indigenous Australians
In 2004 , Prime Minister John Howard initiated contracts with Aboriginal communities , where substantial financial benefits are available in return for commitments such as ensuring children attend school . These contracts are known as Shared Responsibility Agreements . This saw a political shift from ' self determination ' for Aboriginal communities to ' mutual obligation ' , which has been criticised as a `` paternalistic and dictatorial arrangement '' .
English contract law
When a contract is formed , good consideration is needed , and so a gratuitous promise is not binding . That said , while consideration must be of sufficient value in the law 's eyes , it need not reflect an adequate price . Proverbially , one may sell a house for as little as a peppercorn , even if the seller `` does not like pepper and will throw away the corn . '' This means the courts do not generally enquire into the fairness of the exchange , unless there is statutory regulation or ( in specific contexts such as for consumers , employment , or tenancies ) there are two parties of unequal bargaining power . Another difficulty is that consideration for a deal was said not to exist if the thing given was an act done before the promise , such as promising to pay off a loan for money already used to educate a girl . In this situation the courts have long shown themselves willing to hold that the thing done was implicitly relying on the expectation of a reward . More significant problems arise where parties to a contract wish to vary its terms . The old rule , predating the development of the protections in the law of economic duress , was that if one side merely promises to perform a duty which she had already undertaken in return for a higher price , there is no contract . However , in the leading case of Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls ( Contractors ) Ltd , the Court of Appeal held that it would be more ready to construe someone performing essentially what they were bound to do before as giving consideration for the new deal if they conferred a `` practical benefit '' on the other side . So , when Williams , a carpenter , was promised by Roffey Bros , the builders , more money to complete work on time , it was held that because Roffey Bros would avoid having to pay a penalty clause for late completion of its own contract , would potentially avoid the expense of litigation and had a slightly more sensible mechanism for payments , these were enough . Speaking of consideration , Russell LJ stated that , `` courts nowadays should be more ready to find its existence ... where the bargaining powers are not unequal and where the finding of consideration reflects the true intention of the parties . '' In other words , in the context of contractual variations , the definition of consideration has been watered down .
ISO 9000
The global adoption of ISO 9001 may be attributable to a number of factors . In the early days , the ISO 9001 ( 9002 and 9003 ) requirements were intended to be used by procuring organizations , as the basis of contractual arrangements with their suppliers . This helped reduce the need for `` supplier development '' by establishing basic requirements for a supplier to assure product quality . The ISO 9001 requirements could be tailored to meet specific contractual situations , depending on the complexity of product , business type ( design responsibility , manufacture only , distribution , servicing etc ) and risk to the procurer . If a chosen supplier was weak on the controls of their measurement equipment ( calibration ) , and hence QC / inspection results , that specific requirement would be invoked in the contract . The adoption of a single Quality Assurance requirement also lead to cost savings throughout the supply chain by reducing the administrative burden of maintaining multiple sets of quality manuals and procedures .
Conquistador
After Mexico fell , Hernán Cortés 's enemies , Bishop Fonseca , Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar , Diego Columbus and Francisco Garay were mentioned in the Cortés ' fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy .
Themistocles
`` Timodemus of Aphidnae , who was one of Themistocles ' enemies but not a man of note , was crazed with envy and spoke bitterly to Themistocles of his visit to Lacedaemon , saying that the honors he had from the Lacedaemonians were paid him for Athens ' sake and not for his own . This he kept saying until Themistocles replied , ' This is the truth of the matter : if I had been a man of Belbina I would not have been honored in this way by the Spartans , nor would you , sir , for all you are a man of Athens . ' Such was the end of that business . ''