vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Gotham City
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Age of Enlightenment
In the Scottish Enlightenment , Scotland 's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities , reading societies , libraries , periodicals , museums and masonic lodges . The Scottish network was `` predominantly liberal Calvinist , Newtonian , and ' design ' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment '' . In France , Voltaire said that `` we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization '' . The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen , physician and chemist ; James Anderson , an agronomist ; Joseph Black , physicist and chemist ; and James Hutton , the first modern geologist . American
First voyage of James Cook
A voyage to explore the east coast of New Holland , with a view to a British colonization of the country , had been recommended in John Campbell 's editions of John Harris 's Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca , or Voyages and Travels ( 1744 -- 1748 , and 1764 ) , a book which Cook had with him on the Endeavour :
Thirteen Colonies
Historians in recent decades have mostly used one of three approaches to analyze the American Revolution :
European exploration of Africa
Diogo Cão Diogo de Azambuja Bartolomeu Dias Pêro de Alenquer João Infante João Grego Álvaro Martins Pêro Dias Gil Eanes Nuno Tristão Antão Gonçalves Dinis Dias Álvaro Fernandes Pêro de Sintra Fernão do Pó Alvise Cadamosto ( Venetian born ) António de Noli ( Genoese born ) Diogo Gomes Álvaro Caminha João de Santarém Pedro Escobar Duarte Pacheco Pereira Lopes Gonçalves ( and Atlantic Ocean )
Algonquian peoples
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Colonies in antiquity
More than thirty Greek city - states had multiple colonies around the Mediterranean world , with the most active being Miletus , of the Ionian League , with ninety colonies stretching throughout the Mediterranean Sea , from the shores of the Black Sea and Anatolia ( modern Turkey ) in the east , to the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula in the west , as well as several colonies on the Libyan coast of northern Africa , from the late 9th to the 5th centuries BC .
Devils Tower
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Illinois
`` Illinois '' is the modern spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers ' name for the Illinois Native Americans , a name that was spelled in many different ways in the early records .
Evidence of common descent
There exists evidence for vertebrate speciation despite limitations imposed by the fossil record . Studies have been conducted documenting similar patterns seen in marine invertebrates . For example , extensive research documenting rates of morphological change , evolutionary trends , and speciation patterns in small mammals has significantly contributed to the scientific literature ; once more , demonstrating that evolution ( and speciation ) occurred in the past and lends support common ancestry .
Thirteen Colonies
However , the colonists took pains to argue that they did not oppose British regulation of their external trade ; they only opposed legislation which affected them internally .
Nile
Travels in Ethiopia Above the Second Cateract of the Nile ; Exhibiting the State of That Country and Its Various Inhabitants Under the Dominion of Mohammed Ali ; and Illustrating the Antiquities , Arts , and History of the Ancient Kingdom of Meroe , G.A. Hoskins . Longman , Rees , Orme , Brown , Green , & Longman , London ; 1835 . Modern Egypt and Thebes : Being a Description of Egypt ; Including Information Required for Travelers in That Country , Sir Gardner Wilkinson , John Murray , London , 1843
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
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Evidence of common descent
Data about the presence or absence of species on various continents and islands ( biogeography ) can provide evidence of common descent and shed light on patterns of speciation .
Winchester Mystery House
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First Nations
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Colombian emeralds
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History of the United States Constitution
Scholars observe that it is unusual in world history for the minority in a revolution to have the influence that the `` old patriot '' Anti-Federalists had over the `` nationalist '' Federalists who had the support of the revolutionary army in the Society of the Cincinnati . Both factions were intent on forging a nation in which both could be full participants in the changes which were sure to come , since that was most likely to allow for their national union , guarantee liberty for their posterity , and promote their mutual long - term material prosperity . Slavery
Precedent
One of the most important roles of precedent is to resolve ambiguities in other legal texts , such as constitutions , statutes , and regulations . The process involves , first and foremost , consultation of the plain language of the text , as enlightened by the legislative history of enactment , subsequent precedent , and experience with various interpretations of similar texts .
Collagen
The evolution of collagens was a fundamental step in the early evolution of life , supporting the coalescence of multicellular life forms .
Encyclopédie
The Encyclopédie 's influence continues today . Historian Dan O'Sullivan compares it to Wikipedia :
Cultural impact of the Beatles
The impact of the Beatles -- not only on rock & roll but on all of Western culture -- is simply incalculable ... ( A ) s personalities , they defined and incarnated ' 60s style : smart , idealistic , playful , irreverent , eclectic . Although many of their sales and attendance records have since been surpassed , no group has so radically transformed the sound and significance of rock & roll ... ( they ) proved that rock & roll could embrace a limitless variety of harmonies , structures , and sounds ; virtually every rock experiment has some precedent on Beatles record . With
Elk
Members of the genus Cervus ( and hence early relatives or possible ancestors of the elk ) first appear in the fossil record 25 million years ago , during the Oligocene in Eurasia , but do not appear in the North American fossil record until the early Miocene . The extinct Irish elk ( Megaloceros ) was not a member of the genus Cervus , but rather the largest member of the wider deer family ( Cervidae ) known from the fossil record .
The Beatles
The Beatles ' first visit to the United States impacted a nation mourning the recent death of President John F. Kennedy . It has been mentioned that for many , particularly the young , it re-ignited the sense of excitement and possibility that momentarily faded in the wake of the assassination , helping set the stage for much of the revolutionary social changes to come in the decade . According to Mikal Gilmore :
Precedent
Essential to the development of case law is the publication and indexing of decisions for use by lawyers , courts and the general public , in the form of law reports . While all decisions are precedent ( though at varying levels of authority as discussed throughout this article ) , some become `` leading cases '' or `` landmark decisions '' that are cited especially often .
Boston African American National Historic Site
The two bills that I will sign today represent a three - pronged effort to preserve a vital , but long neglected , part of American heritage ; the history and culture of Americans of African ancestry and their role in the history of our nation .
Ciompi Revolt
Recent histories treat the conflict as a lens reflecting the issues of Florentine society in the late 14th century , and also as a catalyst for Florence 's autocratic rule . Moreover , to them , the rebellion is a lens that reflects history as an ever changing entity , as historians living in different times have different `` presents , '' and one 's present dictates how one views the past .
Hellenistic period
In some fields Hellenistic culture thrived , particularly in its preservation of the past . The states of the Hellenistic period were deeply fixated with the past and its seemingly lost glories . The preservation of many classical and archaic works of art and literature ( including the works of the three great classical tragedians , Aeschylus , Sophocles , and Euripides ) are due to the efforts of the Hellenistic Greeks . The museum and library of Alexandria was the center of this conservationist activity . With the support of royal stipends , Alexandrian scholars collected , translated , copied , classified and critiqued every book they could find . Most of the great literary figures of the Hellenistic period studied at Alexandria and conducted research there . They were scholar poets , writing not only poetry but treatises on Homer and other archaic and classical Greek literature .
Secession in the United States
Lacking an explicit clause in the Constitution with which to establish the Union 's perpetuity , the nationalists made their case , first , with a unique interpretation of the history of the country prior to the Philadelphia Convention ; second , with inferences drawn from certain passages of the Constitution ; and third , with careful selections from the speeches and writings of the Founding Fathers . The historical case begins with the postulate that the Union is older than the states . It quotes the reference in the Declaration of Independence to `` these united colonies '' , contends that the Second Continental Congress actually called the states into being ( i.e. , `` colonies '' no longer ) , notes the provision for a perpetual Union in the Articles of Confederation , and ends with the reminder that the preamble to the new Constitution gives as one of its purposes the formation of `` a more perfect Union '' .
Edmond Halley
`` Natural and moral history is embellished with the most beneficial increase of so many thousands of plants it had never before received , so many drugs and spices , such unaccountable diversity . Trade is raised to highest pitch , and this not in a niggard and scanty manner as when the Venetians served all Europe ... the empire of Europe is now extended to the utmost bounds of the Earth . '' Edmond
The Beatles
In Icons of Rock : An Encyclopedia of the Legends Who Changed Music Forever , Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz describe the Beatles ' musical evolution :
Trent Affair
Historians have given special credit to Seward and Lincoln for their handling of the crisis . Seward always favored handing back the captives . Lincoln , realizing the disaster that war would bring , also had to deal with an angry public opinion . Biographer James Randall argues that Lincoln 's contribution was decisive , as it lay :
Middle Ages
Changes also took place among laymen , as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits . Clothing for the elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold . Lords and kings supported entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces . Family ties within the elites were important , as were the virtues of loyalty , courage , and honour . These ties led to the prevalence of the feud in aristocratic society , examples of which included those related by Gregory of Tours that took place in Merovingian Gaul . Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some sort of compensation . Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men , with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul . In Anglo - Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers , but this was compensated for by the increased role played by abbesses of monasteries . Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under the protection and control of a male relative . Reconstruction
Electoral College (United States)
In his book A More Perfect Constitution , Professor Larry Sabato elaborated on this advantage of the Electoral College , arguing to `` mend it , do n't end it , '' in part because of its usefulness in forcing candidates to pay attention to lightly populated states and reinforcing the role of the state in federalism . Enhancement
Themistocles
Salamis was the turning point in the second Persian invasion , and indeed the Greco - Persian Wars in general . While the battle did not end the Persian invasion , it effectively ensured that all Greece would not be conquered , and allowed the Allies to go on the offensive in 479 BC . A number of historians believe that Salamis is one of the most significant battles in human history . Since Themistocles ' long - standing advocacy of Athenian naval power enabled the Allied fleet to fight , and his stratagem brought about the Battle of Salamis , it is probably not an exaggeration to say , as Plutarch does , that Themistocles , `` ... is thought to have been the man most instrumental in achieving the salvation of Hellas . '' Autumn
The Beatles
Other commentators such as Mikal Gilmore and Todd Leopold have traced the inception of their socio - cultural impact earlier , interpreting even the Beatlemania period , particularly on their first visit to the United States , as a key moment in the development of generational awareness . Referring to their appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show Leopold states : `` In many ways , the Sullivan appearance marked the beginning of a cultural revolution ... The Beatles were like aliens dropped into the United States of 1964 '' . According to Gilmore :
Great Scott
An early reference to Sir Walter Scott as the `` great Scott '' is found in a poem entitled `` The Wars of Bathurst 1830 '' published in The Sydney Monitor on 27 October 1830 ( i.e. still during Scott 's lifetime ) ; the pertinent line reading `` Unlike great Scott , who fell at Waterloo '' , in reference to Scott 's poorly - received The Field of Waterloo
Cuban Americans
In the last 15 years , due to the growth of interest around the world for genealogy , Cuban genealogy has become a major interest for Cuban Americans and a growing segment in the family research industry . This has complemented assimilation by preserving Cuban and colonial roots , while also adopting American culture and value .
Boston Tea Party
This is the most magnificent Movement of all . There is a Dignity , a Majesty , a Sublimity , in this last Effort of the Patriots , that I greatly admire . The People should never rise , without doing something to be remembered -- something notable And striking . This Destruction of the Tea is so bold , so daring , so firm , intrepid and inflexible , and it must have so important Consequences , and so lasting , that I cant but consider it as an Epocha in History .
Conscription in the United States
In addition , deferments provided an incentive for men to follow pursuits considered useful to the state . This process , known as channeling , helped push men into educational , occupational , and family choices they might not otherwise have pursued . Undergraduate degrees were valued . Graduate work had varying value over time , though technical and religious training received near constant support . War industry support in the form of teaching , research , or skilled labor also received deferred or exempt status . Finally , marriage and family were exempted because of its positive social consequences . This included using presidential orders to extend exemptions again to fathers and others . Channeling was also seen as a means of preempting the early loss of the country 's `` best and brightest '' who had historically joined and died early in war .
History of Calvinism
Martin Bucer , Wolfgang Capito , John Oecolampadius , and Guillaume Farel were also influential figures in the development of Reformed theology . These reformers came from diverse academic backgrounds , but later distinctives of Reformed theology can already be detected in their thought , especially the priority of scripture as a source of authority . Scripture was also viewed as a unified whole , which led to a covenantal view of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord 's Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace . Another Reformed distinctive present in these theologians was their denial of the bodily presence of Christ in the Lord 's supper . Each of these theologians also understood salvation to be by grace alone , and affirmed a doctrine of particular election ( the teaching that some people are chosen by God for salvation ) . Martin Luther and his successor Philipp Melanchthon were undoubtedly significant influences on these theologians , and to a larger extent later Reformed theologians . The doctrine of justification by faith alone was a direct inheritance from Luther .
Yule log
The events of Yule are generally held to have centred on Midwinter ( although specific dating is a matter of debate ) , and feasting , drinking , and sacrifice ( blót ) were involved . Scholar Rudolf Simek comments that the pagan Yule feast `` had a pronounced religious character '' and comments that `` it is uncertain whether the Germanic Yule feast still had a function in the cult of the dead and in the veneration of the ancestors , a function which the mid-winter sacrifice certainly held for the West European Stone and Bronze Ages . '' The traditions of the Yule log , Yule goat , Yule boar ( Sonargöltr ) still reflected in the Christmas ham , Yule singing , and others stem from Yule customs , and customs which Simek takes as `` indicat ( ing ) the significance of the feast in pre-Christian times . ''
Chola dynasty
The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power . It played a vital role in the expansion of the empire , including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Srivijaya . The navy grew both in size and status during the medieval Cholas reign . The Chola admirals commanded much respect and prestige . The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances . From 900 to 1100 , the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia , but was gradually reduced in significance when the Cholas fought land battles subjugating the Chalukyas of the Andhra - Kannada area in South India .
Pope
Documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole , though the detail of what this meant is unclear .
History of Native Americans in the United States
The Indians presented a reverse image of European civilization which helped America establish a national identity that was neither savage nor civilized . --
Themistocles
Undoubtedly the greatest achievement of Themistocles 's career was his role in the defeat of Xerxes 's invasion of Greece . Against overwhelming odds , Greece survived , and classical Greek culture , so influential in Western civilization , was able to develop unabated . Moreover , Themistocles 's doctrine of Athenian naval power , and the establishment of Athens as a major power in the Greek world were of enormous consequence during the 5th century BC . In 478 BC , the Hellenic alliance was reconstituted without the Peloponnesian states , into the Delian League , in which Athens was the dominant power . This was essentially a maritime alliance of Athens and her colonies , the Aegean islands , and the Ionian cities . The Delian league took the war to Persia , eventually invading Persian territory and dominating the Aegean . Under the guidance of Pericles , the Delian league gradually evolved into the Athenian Empire , the zenith of Athenian power and influence . Themistocles seems to have deliberately set Athens up as a rival to Sparta in the aftermath of Xerxes 's invasion , basing this strategy on Athenian naval power ( contrasted with the power of the Spartan army ) . Tension grew throughout the century between Athens and Sparta , as they competed to be the leading state in Greece . Finally , in 431 BC , this tension erupted into the Peloponnesian War , the first of a series of conflicts that tore Greece apart for the next century ; an unforeseen , if indirect , legacy of Themistocles 's .
Islamic Golden Age
Ibn Khaldun is regarded to be among the founding fathers of modern sociology , historiography , demography , and economics .
Enoch (ancestor of Noah)
Regarding the quotation in Jude , most of early Christianity considered it an independent quotation pre-dating the flood . Regarding the Book of Enoch itself Origen , Jerome and Augustin mention it , but as of no authority . Justin , Athenagoras , Irenaeus , Clemens Alexandrinus , Lactantius , and others borrowed an opinion out of this book of Enoch , that the angels had sexual relations with the daughters of men , of whom they had offspring ( ' the giants of the past ' ) . Tertullian , in several places , speaks of this book with esteem and would persuade us that it was preserved by Noah during the deluge . Elijah
Evidence of common descent
Computer science allows the iteration of self - changing complex systems to be studied , allowing a mathematical understanding of the nature of the processes behind evolution ; providing evidence for the hidden causes of known evolutionary events . The evolution of specific cellular mechanisms like spliceosomes that can turn the cell 's genome into a vast workshop of billions of interchangeable parts that can create tools that create tools that create tools that create us can be studied for the first time in an exact way .