vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Australia–Canada relations
Australian trade did not fare nearly so well under the new agreement . Between 1931 and 1935 , Australian exports to Canada increased by less than 50 % . Some important Australian exports , including butter , meat and canned fruit , actually declined during this period . Australia pressed Ottawa to extend the agreement but met with little success . Australia 's discontent with Canadian trade policy increased sharply when Mackenzie King was re-elected in 1935 . The depression had strengthened Mackenzie King 's traditional opposition to imperial preferences , and he was anxious to seek freer trade with the United States . The 1935 Canada - United States trade agreement , which diminished the value of Australia 's preference on dried fruit , was hardly calculated to endear Canada to Australian policy - makers , whose devotion to imperial preferences remained undiminished . In the spring of 1936 , Canada paid the price for its poor reputation in Canberra when Australia unveiled its new `` trade diversion policy '' . In an ill - fated effort to secure its markets in Britain and to balance its trade with the United States , Australia proposed drastically limiting its imports . Worried that Canada might become an alternate source for restricted American products , Australia included Canada in its program . `` Here '' , declared Canada 's outraged under - secretary of state for external affairs , `` ( was ) economic nationalism with a vengeance . ''
Louisiana Purchase
Following the establishment of the United States , the Americans controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans . The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea . As the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants , many Americans , including Jefferson , assumed that the territory would be acquired `` piece by piece . '' The risk of another power taking it from a weakened Spain made a `` profound reconsideration '' of this policy necessary . New Orleans was already important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains . Pinckney 's Treaty , signed with Spain on October 27 , 1795 , gave American merchants `` right of deposit '' in New Orleans , granting them use of the port to store goods for export . Americans used this right to transport products such as flour , tobacco , pork , bacon , lard , feathers , cider , butter , and cheese . The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi , which had become vital to the growing trade of the western territories .
Economy of New Zealand
According to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , New Zealand and the United States `` share a deep and longstanding friendship based on a common heritage , shared values and interests , and a commitment to promoting a free , democratic , secure and prosperous world '' . This common background has not translated into a free trade agreement between the two countries .
History of the United States Merchant Marine
The record times of these steam ships ( the Atlantic crossing to New York in thirteen and a half days ) proved that steamers could make the trip in shorter time than the fastest sailing packet . The British government was farsighted enough to realize that the motive power of the immediate future was steam , and in 1839 heavily subsidized the Cunard Line , which began its career in 1840 with four side - wheeled wooden ships . The British Government , therefore , readily aided Samuel Cunard , as it did other owners , granting him a subsidy of $425,000 a year to carry the mails back and forth between Liverpool , Halifax , and Boston , with an occasional visit to Quebec . This policy of subsidization , which was continued to at least WW II by Great Britain , aided materially not only in giving her maritime interests a start in the new type of ships , but in helping them win and hold supremacy on the ocean . The Peninsular Company , afterwards the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company , was established in 1837 , and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company in 1840 , both subsidized . The
Great Depression
The decline in the U.S. economy was the factor that pulled down most other countries at first ; then , internal weaknesses or strengths in each country made conditions worse or better . Frantic attempts to shore up the economies of individual nations through protectionist policies , such as the 1930 U.S. Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act and retaliatory tariffs in other countries , exacerbated the collapse in global trade . By 1933 , the economic decline had pushed world trade to one - third of its level just four years earlier .
Fair trade
By 1968 , the oversized newsprint publication , the Whole Earth Catalog , was connecting thousands of specialized merchants , artisans , and scientists directly with consumers who were interested in supporting independent producers , with the goal of bypassing corporate retail and department stores . The Whole Earth Catalog sought to balance the international free market by allowing direct purchasing of goods produced primarily in USA and Canada , but also in Central and South America .
Adams–Onís Treaty
Adams said the U.S. had to take control because Florida ( along the border of Georgia & Alabama Territory ) had become `` a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy , civilized or savage , of the United States , and serving no other earthly purpose than as a post of annoyance to them . '' Spain asked for British intervention , but London declined to assist Spain in the negotiations . Some of President Monroe 's cabinet demanded Jackson 's immediate dismissal for invading Florida , but Adams realized that his success had given the U.S. a favorable diplomatic position . Adams was able to negotiate very favorable terms .
Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies
The American diet was changed through this friendship as well as due to the changes forced through boycott and hostilities with England . After a time , trade resumed with the West Indies but was limited to necessities . Items that sustained the war effort in America were traded , with crops such as rice from the Carolinas shipped out and coffee beans imported in order to brew America 's new beverage of choice .
History of the United States Merchant Marine
The need for administering the merchant marine during wartime was demonstrated during the First World War . Commerce warfare , carried on by submarines and merchant raiders , had a disastrous effect on the Allied merchant fleet . With the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917 , U-boats sank ships faster than replacements could be built . 1919
United States antitrust law
Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. , Ltd. v. Zenith Radio Corp. , 475 U.S. 574 ( 1986 ) held that the evidence needed to show unlawful collusion , contrary to the Sherman Act , must be enough to exclude the possibility of individual behavior . Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly , 550 U.S. 544 ( 2007 ) 5 to 2 , while Bell Atlantic and other major telephone companies were alleged to have acted in concert to share markets , and not compete in each other 's territory to the detriment of small businesses , it was held that in absence of evidence of an agreement , parallel conduct is not enough to ground a case under the Sherman Act § 1 Interstate Circuit , Inc. v. United States , 306 U.S. 208 ( 1939 ) Theatre Enterprises v. Paramount Distributing , 346 U.S. 537 ( 1954 ) , no evidence of illegal agreement , however film distributors gave first film releases to downtown Baltimore theatres , and suburban theatres were forced to wait longer . Held , there needed to be evidence of conspiracy to injure United States v. American Tobacco Company , 221 U.S. 106 ( 1911 ) found to have monopolized the trade . American Tobacco Co. v. United States , 328 U.S. 781 ( 1946 ) after American Tobacco Co was broken up , the four entities were found to have achieved a collectively dominant position , which still amounted to monopolization of the market contrary to the Sherman Act § 2 American Column & Lumber Co. v. United States , 257 US 377 ( 1921 ) information sharing Maple Flooring Manufacturers ' Assn . v. United States , 268 U.S. 563 ( 1925 ) United States v. Container Corp. , 393 U.S. 333 ( 1969 ) Airline Tariff Publishing Company , settlement with the US Department of Justice
New Deal
Reform was based on the assumption that the depression was caused by the inherent instability of the market and that government intervention was necessary to rationalize and stabilize the economy and to balance the interests of farmers , business and labor . Reforms targeted the causes of the depression and sought to prevent a crisis like it from happening again . In other words , financially rebuilding the U.S. while ensuring not to repeat history . Trade
Foreign policy of the United States
Many democracies have voluntary military ties with United States . See NATO , ANZUS , Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan , Mutual Defense Treaty with South Korea , and Major non-NATO ally . Those nations with military alliances with the U.S. can spend less on the military since they can count on U.S. protection . This may give a false impression that the U.S. is less peaceful than those nations .
Foreign trade of the United States
This article needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( March 2018 )
Atlantic slave trade
Historian John Thornton noted , `` A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce '' . He identified these as being the drive to find new and profitable commercial opportunities outside Europe as well as the desire to create an alternative trade network to that controlled by the Muslim Empire of the Middle East , which was viewed as a commercial , political and religious threat to European Christendom . In particular , European traders wanted to trade for gold , which could be found in western Africa , and also to find a maritime route to `` the Indies '' ( India ) , where they could trade for luxury goods such as spices without having to obtain these items from Middle Eastern Islamic traders .
Foreign trade of the United States
The United States is a partner to many trade agreements , shown in the chart below and the map to the right .
Mercantilism
Mercantilism developed at a time of transition for the European economy . Isolated feudal estates were being replaced by centralized nation - states as the focus of power . Technological changes in shipping and the growth of urban centres led to a rapid increase in international trade . Mercantilism focused on how this trade could best aid the states . Another important change was the introduction of double - entry bookkeeping and modern accounting . This accounting made extremely clear the inflow and outflow of trade , contributing to the close scrutiny given to the balance of trade . Of course , the impact of the discovery of America can not be ignored . New markets and new mines propelled foreign trade to previously inconceivable volumes , resulting in `` the great upward movement in prices '' and an increase in `` the volume of merchant activity itself '' .
History of the United States Merchant Marine
A second round of ocean - mail contracts was authorized by Congress on May 28 , 1864 . Pursuant to the provisions of this Act , the United States and Brazil entered into a ten - year contract for monthly voyages between the United States and South America . Of the $250,000 annual subsidy requirement , the United States contributed $150,000 and Brazil $100,000 . Subsequent subsidies to various individual American flag lines amounted to approximately $6,500,000 between 1864 and 1877 . Efforts by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company to increase its subsidies and the political scandals that grew out of these efforts , caused the Government to abrogate all subsidies to the Lines . Little more was done by the Government until the passage of the Ocean Mail Act in 1891 . 1866
History of the United States Merchant Marine
The volume of mail between the United States and Europe increased substantially during this period , and the capacity of the sailboat to deliver this mail efficiently and within a reasonable time was uncertain . Following the precedent established by England and other maritime nations , the federal government began its aid to ocean shipping with the overseas mail service . On March 3 , 1845 , Congress authorized the Postmaster General to invite bids on contracts to carry mail between the United States and abroad . Regular subsidized service between New York and Bremen , Havre , Liverpool and Panama was established under the Act of 1845 . Subsidy payments averaged between $19,250 and $35,000 per round trip , and aggregated government expenditures to 1858 amounted to $14,400,000 .
Louisiana Purchase
In 1803 , Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours , a French nobleman , began to help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson . Du Pont was living in the United States at the time and had close ties to Jefferson as well as the prominent politicians in France . He engaged in back - channel diplomacy with Napoleon on Jefferson 's behalf during a visit to France and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United States and Napoleon over North America .
Cherry blossom
In its colonial enterprises , Imperial Japan often planted cherry trees as a means of `` claiming occupied territory as Japanese space '' .
Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor
The intent of a preventive strike on Pearl Harbor was to neutralize American naval power in the Pacific , thus removing it from influencing operations against American , British , and Dutch colonies . Successful attacks on colonies were judged to depend on successfully dealing with the Pacific Fleet . Planning had long anticipated a battle in Japanese home waters after the U.S. fleet traveled across the Pacific , under attack by submarines and other forces all the way . The U.S. fleet would be defeated in a `` decisive battle '' , as Russia 's Baltic Fleet had been in 1905 . A surprise attack posed a twofold difficulty compared to longstanding expectations . First , the Pacific Fleet was a formidable force , and would not be easy to defeat or to surprise . Second , Pearl Harbor 's shallow waters made using conventional aerial torpedoes ineffective . On the other hand , Hawaii 's distance meant a successful surprise attack could not be blocked or quickly countered by forces from the continental U.S.
Osage Nation
Although the Osage favored the Union by a five to one ratio , they made a treaty with the Confederacy to try to buy some peace . As a result , after the war , they were forced to make a new treaty with the US during Reconstruction . They were forced to give up more territory in Kansas to European - American settlers . By a treaty in 1865 , they ceded another 4 million acres ( 16,000 km ) to the United States and were facing the issue of eventual removal from Kansas to Indian Territory .
New Zealand
Early in the 20th century , New Zealand was involved in world affairs , fighting in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression . The depression led to the election of the First Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy . New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work . A Māori protest movement developed , which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of the Treaty of Waitangi . In 1975 , a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty , and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985 . The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi , although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s .
Articles of Confederation
When the war ended in 1783 , certain special interests had incentives to create a new `` merchant state , '' much like the British state people had rebelled against . In particular , holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims . Also , manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods , but competition among states made this impossible without a central government .
History of the United States Merchant Marine
Privately owned American merchant ships helped deploy thousands of U.S. troops and their equipment , bringing high praise from the commander of U.S. Naval Forces in the Far East , Admiral Charles T. Joy . In congratulating Navy Captain A.F. Junker , Commander of the Military Sea Transportation Service for the western Pacific , Admiral Joy noted that the success of the Korean campaign was dependent on the Merchant Marine . He said , `` The Merchant Mariners in your command performed silently , but their accomplishments speak loudly . Such teammates are comforting to work with . ''
Foreign trade of the United States
The regulation of trade is constitutionally vested in the United States Congress . After the Great Depression , the country emerged as among the most significant global trade policy - makers , and it is now a partner to a number of international trade agreements , including the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) and the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) . Gross U.S. assets held by foreigners were $16.3 trillion as of the end of 2006 ( over 100 % of GDP ) .
Black Hawk State Historic Site
The Sauk developed military and economic ties with British Canada . Due to these ties , the Sauk expected British military assistance . Some of the Sauk traveled every year to British forts on far - away Lake Superior and near Detroit for trading and gift - giving .
American Revolution
In 1767 , the Parliament passed the Townshend Acts which placed duties on a number of essential goods , including paper , glass , and tea , and established a Board of Customs in Boston to more rigorously execute trade regulations . The new taxes were enacted on the belief that Americans only objected to internal taxes and not to external taxes such as custom duties . The Americans , however , argued against the constitutionality of the act because its purpose was to raise revenue and not regulate trade . Colonists responded by organizing new boycotts of British goods . These boycotts were less effective , however , as the Townshend goods were widely used .
History of the United States Merchant Marine
Government owned merchant vessels from the National Defense Reserve Fleet ( NDRF ) have supported emergency shipping requirements in seven wars and crises . During the Korean War , 540 vessels were activated to support military forces . From 1955 through 1964 , another 600 ships were used to store grain for the Department of Agriculture . Another tonnage shortfall following the Suez Canal closing in 1956 caused 223 cargo ship and 29 tanker activations from the NDRF . 1953
Economy of New Zealand
Since 1960s New Zealand has pursued free trade agreements with many countries to diversify its export markets and increase the competitiveness of New Zealand 's exports to the world . As well as reducing barriers to trade , Trade Agreements New Zealand has entered into are designed to ensure existing access is maintained . Trade agreements establish rules by which trade can take place and ensure regulators and officials in countries New Zealand is trading with work closely together .
History of the United States Merchant Marine
During the Korean War there were few severe sealift problems other than the need to re-mobilize forces following post -- World War II demobilization . About 700 ships were activated from the NDRF for services to the Far East . In addition , a worldwide tonnage shortfall between 1951 and 1953 required the reactivation of over 600 ships to lift coal to Northern Europe and grain to India during the first years of the Cold War . The commercial merchant marine formed the backbone of the bridge of ships across the Pacific . From just six ships under charter when the war began , this total peaked at 255 . According to the Military Sea Transportation Service ( MSTS ) , 85 percent of the dry cargo requirements during the Korean War were met through commercial vessels -- only five percent were shipped by air . More than $475 million , or 75 percent of the MSTS operating budget for calendar year 1952 , was paid directly to commercial shipping interests . In addition to the ships assigned directly to MSTS , 130 laid - up Victory ships in the NDRF were broken out by the Maritime Administration and assigned under time - charters to private shipping firms for charter to MSTS .
Samurai
Samurai were many of the early exchange students , not directly because they were samurai , but because many samurai were literate and well - educated scholars . Some of these exchange students started private schools for higher educations , while many samurai took pens instead of guns and became reporters and writers , setting up newspaper companies , and others entered governmental service . Some samurai became businessmen . For example , Iwasaki Yatarō , who was the great - grandson of a samurai , established Mitsubishi .
War of 1812
In 1814 the British began blockading the United States , and brought the American economy to near bankruptcy , forcing it to rely on loans for the rest of the war . American foreign trade was reduced to a trickle . The parlous American economy was thrown into chaos with prices soaring and unexpected shortages causing hardship in New England which was considering secession . The Hartford Convention led to widespread fears that the New England states might attempt to leave the Union , which was exaggerated as most New Englanders did not wish to leave the Union and merely wanted an end to a war which was bringing much economic hardship , suggested that the continuation of the war might threaten the union . But also to a lesser extent British interests were hurt in the West Indies and Canada that had depended on that trade . Although American privateers found chances of success much reduced , with most British merchantmen now sailing in convoy , privateering continued to prove troublesome to the British , as shown by high insurance rates . British landowners grew weary of high taxes , and colonial interests and merchants called on the government to reopen trade with the U.S. by ending the war .