vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Roman calendar
After the establishment of the Roman Republic , years began to be dated by consulships and control over intercalation was granted to the pontifices , who eventually abused their power by lengthening years controlled by their political allies and shortening the years in their rivals ' terms of office . Having won his war with Pompey , Caesar used his position as Rome 's chief pontiff to enact a calendar reform in 46 BC , coincidentally making the year of his third consulship last for 446 days . In order to avoid interfering with Rome 's religious ceremonies , the reform added all its days towards the ends of months and did not adjust any nones or ides , even in months which came to have 31 days . The Julian calendar was supposed to have a single leap day on 24 February ( a doubled VI Kal . Mart . ) every fourth year but following Caesar 's assassination the priests figured this using inclusive counting and mistakenly added the bissextile day every three years . In order to bring the calendar back to its proper place , Augustus was obliged to suspend intercalation for one or two decades . The revised calendar remaining slightly longer than the solar year , the date of Easter shifted far enough away from the vernal equinox that Pope Gregory XIII ordered its adjustment in the 16th century .
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia 's official exclusion from the league , in 337 BC , Philip II was elected as the leader ( hegemon ) of its council ( synedrion ) and the commander - in - chief ( strategos autokrator ) of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire . Philip 's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece , contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire . The Persians offered aid to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341 -- 340 BC , highlighting Macedonia 's strategic need to secure Thrace and the Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment , as the Persian king Artaxerxes III further consolidated his control over satrapies in western Anatolia . The latter region , yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans , was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential .
History of democracy
The Athenian democracy , in its two centuries of life - time , twice voted against its democratic constitution ( both times during the crisis at the end of the Pelopponesian War of 431 to 404 BC ) , establishing first the Four Hundred ( in 411 BCE ) and second Sparta 's puppet régime of the Thirty Tyrants ( in 404 BCE ) . Both votes took place under manipulation and pressure , but democracy was recovered in less than a year in both cases . Reforms following the restoration of democracy after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants removed most law - making authority from the Assembly and placed it in randomly selected law - making juries known as `` nomothetai '' . Athens restored its democratic constitution again after King Phillip II of Macedon ( reigned 359 - 336 BCE ) and later Alexander the Great ( reigned 336 -- 323 BCE ) unified Greece , but it was politically over-shadowed by the Hellenistic empires . Finally , after the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC , Athens was restricted to matters of local administration .
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Over the next few years , Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly , campaigned against the Illyrian ruler Pleuratus I , deposed Arybbas in Epirus in favor of his brother - in - law Alexander I ( through Philip II 's marriage to Olympias ) , and defeated Cersebleptes in Thrace . This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over the Hellespont in anticipation of an invasion into Achaemenid Anatolia . In 342 BC , Philip II conquered a Thracian city in what is now Bulgaria and renamed it Philippopolis ( modern Plovdiv ) . War broke out with Athens in 340 BC while Philip II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of Perinthus and Byzantion , followed by a successful campaign against the Scythians along the Danube and Macedonia 's involvement in the Fourth Sacred War against Amphissa in 339 BC . Thebes ejected a Macedonian garrison from Nicaea ( near Thermopylae ) , leading Thebes to join Athens , Megara , Corinth , Achaea , and Euboea in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC . After the Macedonian victory there , Philip II installed an oligarchy in Thebes , yet was lenient toward Athens , wishing to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire . He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the League of Corinth that included the major Greek city - states except Sparta . Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia 's official exclusion from the league , in 337 BC , Philip II was elected as the leader ( hegemon ) of its council ( synedrion ) and the commander - in - chief ( strategos autokrator ) of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire . Philip 's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece , contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire .
Julian calendar
Because 46 BC was the last of a series of irregular years , this extra-long year was , and is , referred to as the `` last year of confusion '' . The new calendar began operation after the realignment had been completed , in 45 BC .
History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
During his early career , Caesar had seen how chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic had become . The republican machinery had broken down under the weight of imperialism , the central government had become powerless , the provinces had been transformed into independent principalities under the absolute control of their governors , and the army had replaced the constitution as the means of accomplishing political goals . Between his crossing of the Rubicon river in 49 BC , and his assassination in 44 BC , Caesar established a new constitution , which was intended to accomplish three separate goals . First , he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces , and thus bring order back to the empire . Second , he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome . And finally , he wanted to knit together the entire empire into a single cohesive unit .
Mycenaean Greece
The reasons for the end of the Mycenaean culture have been hotly debated among scholars . At present , there is no satisfactory explanation for the collapse of the Mycenaean palace systems . The two most common theories are population movement and internal conflict . The first attributes the destruction of Mycenaean sites to invaders .
Mycenaean Greece
Mycenaean Greece perished with the collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean , to be followed by the so - called Greek Dark Ages , a recordless transitional period leading to Archaic Greece where significant shifts occurred from palace - centralized to de-centralized forms of socio - economic organization ( including the extensive use of iron ) . Various theories have been proposed for the end of this civilization , among them the Dorian invasion or activities connected to the `` Sea Peoples '' . Additional theories such as natural disasters and climatic changes have been also suggested . The Mycenaean period became the historical setting of much ancient Greek literature and mythology , including the Trojan Epic Cycle .
Biafra
An ex Biafran officer , Sunday Onwuzor Nwiwe , Alias Bazoka , epitomized that Biafrans lost the war as a result of occidental conspiracy and hunger .
Hellenistic period
Thus , with the decline of the Greek polis , and the establishment of monarchical states , the environment and social freedom in which to excel may have been reduced . A parallel can be drawn with the productivity of the city states of Italy during the Renaissance , and their subsequent decline under autocratic rulers .
Carthage
When Carthage fell , its nearby rival Utica , a Roman ally , was made capital of the region and replaced Carthage as the leading center of Punic trade and leadership . It had the advantageous position of being situated on the outlet of the Medjerda River , Tunisia 's only river that flowed all year long . However , grain cultivation in the Tunisian mountains caused large amounts of silt to erode into the river . This silt accumulated in the harbor until it became useless , and Rome was forced to rebuild Carthage .
Thirteen Colonies
The first British Empire was largely destroyed by the loss of the American colonies , followed by a `` swing to the east '' and the foundation of a second British Empire based on commercial and territorial expansion in South Asia .
History of the Roman Empire
In April 375 Valentinian I led his army in a campaign against the Quadi , a Germanic tribe which had invaded his native province of Pannonia . During an audience with an embassy from the Quadi at Brigetio on the Danube , Valentinian suffered a burst blood vessel his brain while angrily yelling at the people gathered , resulting in his death on November 17 , 375 .
Balkan Wars
By 30 July , the Greek army was outnumbered by the counter-attacking Bulgarian army , which attempted to encircle the Greeks in a Cannae - type battle , by applying pressure on their flanks . The Greek army was exhausted and faced logistical difficulties . The battle was continued for 11 days , between 29 July and 9 August over 20 km of a maze of forests and mountains with no conclusion . The Greek King , seeing that the units he fought were from the Serbian front , tried to convince the Serbs to renew their attack , as the front ahead of them was now thinner , but the Serbs rejected it . By then , news came of the Romanian advance toward Sofia and its imminent fall . Facing the danger of encirclement , Constantine realized that his army could no longer continue hostilities , agreed to Eleftherios Venizelos ' proposal and accepted the Bulgarian request for armistice as this had been communicated through Romania .
Latin America
On 15 November 1889 , worn out by years of economic stagnation , in attrition with the majority of Army officers , as well as with rural and financial elites ( for different reasons ) , the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Stilicho had news of the coup at Bononia ( where he was probably waiting for Alaric ) . His small escort of barbarians was led by Sarus , who rebelled . His Gothic troops massacred the Hun contingent in their sleep , and then withdrew towards the cities in which their families were billeted . Stilicho ordered that these troops should not be admitted , but , now without an army , he was forced to flee for sanctuary , promised his life , and killed .
Ancient Egypt
After Egypt 's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom , the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country 's economy . Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis , and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small - scale civil wars . Yet despite difficult problems , local leaders , owing no tribute to the pharaoh , used their new - found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces . Once in control of their own resources , the provinces became economically richer -- which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes . In bursts of creativity , provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom , and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism and originality of the period .
Parthenon
Accounts written at the time conflict over whether this destruction was deliberate or accidental ; one such account , written by the German officer Sobievolski , states that a Turkish deserter revealed to Morosini the use to which the Turks had put the Parthenon ; expecting that the Venetians would not target a building of such historic importance . Morosini was said to have responded by directing his artillery to aim at the Parthenon . Subsequently , Morosini sought to loot sculptures from the ruin and caused further damage in the process . Sculptures of Poseidon and Athena 's horses fell to the ground and smashed as his soldiers tried to detach them from the building 's west pediment . ``
Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)
`` In the long period of crisis , disinvestments from the commercial and industrial sectors ( in the face of unprofitability , high risks , taxation , and forced lending ) and the destruction of asset value through foreign and domestic default undermined the remaining international stature of the commercial and financial sectors . Domestically , the disruption of institutions and the irregular access to markets plunged the once - protected sectors of employment ... into a crisis that tore at the venerable structure of the labor market and overwhelmed the Republic 's charitable system . This crisis hit hardest in the cities of Holland and Zeeland , which lost 10 percent of their population between 1795 and 1815 ... Deurbanization , re-agriculturalization , and pauperization dominated the final days of this economy . ''
Modern history
A series of international crises strained the League to its limits , the earliest being the invasion of Manchuria by Japan and the Abyssinian crisis of 1935 / 36 in which Italy invaded Abyssinia , one of the only free African nations at that time . The League tried to enforce economic sanctions upon Italy , but to no avail . The incident highlighted French and British weakness , exemplified by their reluctance to alienate Italy and lose her as their ally . The limited actions taken by the Western powers pushed Mussolini 's Italy towards alliance with Hitler 's Germany anyway . The Abyssinian war showed Hitler how weak the League was and encouraged the remilitarization of the Rhineland in flagrant disregard of the Treaty of Versailles . This was the first in a series of provocative acts culminating in the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the beginning of the Second World War .
Parthenon
In 1687 , the Parthenon was extensively damaged in the greatest catastrophe to befall it in its long history . As part of the Great Turkish War ( 1683 -- 1699 ) , the Venetians sent an expedition led by Francesco Morosini to attack Athens and capture the Acropolis . The Ottoman Turks fortified the Acropolis and used the Parthenon as a gunpowder magazine -- despite having been forewarned of the dangers of this use by the 1656 explosion that severely damaged the Propylaea -- and as a shelter for members of the local Turkish community . On 26 September a Venetian mortar round , fired from the Hill of Philopappus , blew up the magazine , and the building was partly destroyed . The explosion blew out the building 's central portion and caused the cella 's walls to crumble into rubble . Greek architect and archaeologist Kornilia Chatziaslani writes that `` ... three of the sanctuary 's four walls nearly collapsed and three - fifths of the sculptures from the frieze fell . Nothing of the roof apparently remained in place . Six columns from the south side fell , eight from the north , as well as whatever remained from eastern porch , except for one column . The columns brought down with them the enormous marble architraves , triglyphs and metopes . '' About three hundred people were killed in the explosion , which showered marble fragments over nearby Turkish defenders and caused large fires that burned until the following day and consumed many homes . Fragment
Renaissance
The demographic decline due to the plague had economic consequences : the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30 to 40 % in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400 . Landholders faced a great loss , but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall . The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also that lands were more abundant , and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives .
Peninsular War
The catastrophe was total . With the loss of 24,000 troops , Napoleon 's military machine in Spain collapsed . Stunned by the defeat , on 1 August Joseph -- who had no more than 23,000 troops in Madrid and believed that thousands of vengeful Spaniards were about to attack him -- evacuated the capital for Old Castile , while ordering Verdier to abandon the siege of Zaragoza and Bessières to retire from Leon ; the entire French army sheltered behind the Ebro . By this time , Girona had resisted a second siege . Europe welcomed this first check to the hitherto unbeatable Imperial armies -- a Bonaparte had been chased from his throne ; tales of Spanish heroism inspired Austria and showed the force of national resistance . Bailén set in motion the rise of the Fifth Coalition against Napoleon . According to Chandler :
Overthrow of the Roman monarchy
The semi-legendary Roman histories tell that while the king was away on campaign , his son Sextus Tarquinius raped a noblewoman , Lucretia . Afterwards she revealed the offence to various Roman noblemen , and then committed suicide . The Roman noblemen , led by Lucius Junius Brutus , obtained the support of the Roman aristocracy and the people to expel the king and his family and to institute a republic . The Roman army supported Brutus , and the king went into exile . Despite a number of attempts by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus to reinstate the monarchy , the citizens established a republic and thereafter elected two consuls annually to rule the city .
History of the United States (1945–64)
The rapid social and technological changes brought about a growing corporatization of America and the decline of smaller businesses , which often suffered from high postwar inflation and mounting operating costs . Newspapers declined in numbers and consolidated , both due to the above - mentioned factors and the event of TV news . The railroad industry , once one of the cornerstones of the American economy and an immense and often scorned influence on national politics , also suffered from the explosion in automobile sales and the construction of the interstate system . By the end of the 1950s , it was well into decline and by the 1970s became completely bankrupt , necessitating a takeover by the federal government . Smaller automobile manufacturers such as Nash , Studebaker , and Packard were unable to compete with the Big Three in the new postwar world and gradually declined into oblivion over the next 15 years . Suburbanization caused the gradual movement of working - class people and jobs out of the inner cities as shopping centers displaced the traditional downtown stores . In time , this would have disastrous effects on urban areas .
Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)
This political development had a number of important economic consequences . First of all , it led to an economic rupture with the Habsburg Empire , seen as a loose economic entity . By the time the Revolt erupted the disadvantages of being part of this empire ( heavy taxation to finance the military adventures of the Habsburg rulers ) began to outweigh the advantages of belonging to its trade network . One of these advantages had been enjoying the services of the Antwerp entrepôt .
History of the Roman Empire
A military coup drove Nero into hiding . Facing execution at the hands of the Roman Senate , he reportedly committed suicide in 68 . According to Cassius Dio , Nero 's last words were `` Jupiter , what an artist perishes in me ! ''
Overthrow of the Roman monarchy
Although the Senate had initially agreed to Tarquin 's request for a return of his family 's effects , the decision was reconsidered and revoked after the discovery of the conspiracy , and the royal property was given over to be plundered by the Roman populace .
Ancient Egypt
Part of a series on the History of Egypt Prehistoric Egypt pre -- 3100 BC Ancient Egypt Early Dynastic Period 3100 -- 2686 BC Old Kingdom 2686 -- 2181 BC 1st Intermediate Period 2181 -- 2055 BC Middle Kingdom 2055 -- 1650 BC 2nd Intermediate Period 1650 -- 1550 BC New Kingdom 1550 -- 1069 BC 3rd Intermediate Period 1069 -- 664 BC Late Period 664 -- 332 BC Classical antiquity Macedonian and Ptolemaic Egypt 332 -- 30 BC Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC -- 641 AD Sasanian Egypt 619 -- 629 Middle Ages Islamic Egypt 641 -- 969 Fatimid Egypt 969 -- 1171 Ayyubid Egypt 1171 -- 1250 Mamluk Egypt 1250 -- 1517 Early modern Ottoman Egypt 1517 -- 1867 French occupation 1798 -- 1801 Egypt under Muhammad Ali 1805 -- 1882 Khedivate of Egypt 1867 -- 1914 Modern Egypt British occupation 1882 -- 1922 Sultanate of Egypt 1914 -- 1922 Kingdom of Egypt 1922 -- 1953 Republic 1953 -- present Egypt portal
Hellenistic period
After Alexander the Great 's invasion of the Persian Empire in 330 BC and its disintegration shortly after , the Hellenistic kingdoms were established throughout south - west Asia ( Seleucid Empire , Kingdom of Pergamon ) , north - east Africa ( Ptolemaic Kingdom ) and South Asia ( Greco - Bactrian Kingdom , Indo - Greek Kingdom ) . The Hellenistic period was characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization which established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa . This resulted in the export of Greek culture and language to these new realms , spanning as far as modern - day India . Equally , however , these new kingdoms were influenced by the indigenous cultures , adopting local practices where beneficial , necessary , or convenient . Hellenistic culture thus represents a fusion of the Ancient Greek world with that of the Near East , Middle East , and Southwest Asia . This mixture gave rise to a common Attic - based Greek dialect , known as Koine Greek , which became the lingua franca through the Hellenistic world .
Punic Wars
During the mid-3rd century BC , Carthage was a large city located on the coast of modern Tunisia . Founded by the Phoenicians in the mid-9th century BC , it was a powerful thalassocratic city - state with a vast commercial network . Of the great city - states in the western Mediterranean , only Rome rivaled it in power , wealth , and population . While Carthage 's navy was the largest in the ancient world at the time , it did not maintain a large , permanent , standing army . Instead , Carthage relied mostly on mercenaries , especially the indigenous Numidians , to fight its wars . These mercenaries were primarily led by officers who were Carthaginian citizens . The Carthaginians were famed for their abilities as sailors , and many Carthaginians from the lower classes served in their navy , which provided them with a stable income and career .
Partition of Bengal (1905)
Part of a series on the History of Bangladesh Etymology Timeline Traditional Urheimat Ancient ( show ) Neolithic , c. 7600 -- c. 3300 BCE Bronze Age , c. 3300 -- c. 1200 BCE Iron Age , c. 1200 -- c. 200 BCE Janapada , c. 1200 -- c. 600 BCE Northern Black Polished Ware , c. 700 -- c. 200 BCE Pundra Kingdom , c. 700 -- c. 200 BCE Bengal in Mahabharata , c. 400 -- c. 325 BCE Gangaridai Kingdom , c. 350 -- c. 325 BCE Mauryan Empire , c. 325 -- c. 185 BCE Samatata Kingdom , c. 232 BCE -- c. 800 AD Shunga - Kushan Period , c. 185 BCE -- c. 75 AD Southwestern Silk Road , c. 114 BCE -- c. 1450 AD Indo - Roman trade relations , c. 30 BCE -- c. 600 AD Classical ( show ) Gupta Empire , c. 240 -- c. 550 AD Sylhet - Assam Varmans , c. 350 -- c. 650 Gauda Kingdom , c. 590 -- c. 626 Khadga dynasty , c. 650 -- c. 750 Pala Empire , c. 750 -- c. 1100 Arrival of Islam , c. 800 -- c. 1050 Harikela Kingdom , c. 900 -- c. 1050 Candra dynasty , c. 900 -- c. 1050 Sena dynasty , c. 1070 -- c. 1320 Deva dynasty , c. 1100 -- c. 1250 Medieval ( show ) Delhi Sultanate , c. 1204 -- c. 1338 Mamluk Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tugluq Dynasty Sonargaon Sultanate , c. 1338 -- c. 1352 Bengal Sultanate , c. 1352 -- c.