vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Evidence of common descent
Fossils are important for estimating when various lineages developed in geologic time . As fossilization is an uncommon occurrence , usually requiring hard body parts and death near a site where sediments are being deposited , the fossil record only provides sparse and intermittent information about the evolution of life . Evidence of organisms prior to the development of hard body parts such as shells , bones and teeth is especially scarce , but exists in the form of ancient microfossils , as well as impressions of various soft - bodied organisms . The comparative study of the anatomy of groups of animals shows structural features that are fundamentally similar ( homologous ) , demonstrating phylogenetic and ancestral relationships with other organisms , most especially when compared with fossils of ancient extinct organisms . Vestigial structures and comparisons in embryonic development are largely a contributing factor in anatomical resemblance in concordance with common descent . Since metabolic processes do not leave fossils , research into the evolution of the basic cellular processes is done largely by comparison of existing organisms ' physiology and biochemistry . Many lineages diverged at different stages of development , so it is possible to determine when certain metabolic processes appeared by comparing the traits of the descendants of a common ancestor .
Evidence of common descent
Prior to 2004 , paleontologists had found fossils of amphibians with necks , ears , and four legs , in rock no older than 365 million years old . In rocks more than 385 million years old they could only find fish , without these amphibian characteristics . Evolutionary theory predicted that since amphibians evolved from fish , an intermediate form should be found in rock dated between 365 and 385 million years ago . Such an intermediate form should have many fish - like characteristics , conserved from 385 million years ago or more , but also have many amphibian characteristics as well . In 2004 , an expedition to islands in the Canadian arctic searching specifically for this fossil form in rocks that were 375 million years old discovered fossils of Tiktaalik . Some years later , however , scientists in Poland found evidence of fossilised tetrapod tracks predating Tiktaalik .
Eukaryote
The division of the eukaryotes into two primary clades , bikonts ( Archaeplastida + SAR + Excavata ) and unikonts ( Amoebozoa + Opisthokonta ) , derived from an ancestral biflagellar organism and an ancestral uniflagellar organism , respectively , had been suggested earlier . A 2012 study produced a somewhat similar division , although noting that the terms `` unikonts '' and `` bikonts '' were not used in the original sense .
Minicomputer
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Lexicographical order
Given two different sequences of the same length , a a ... a and b b ... b , the first one is smaller than the second one for the lexicographical order , if a < b ( for the order of A ) , for the first i where a and b differ .
Comparative mythology
The anthropologist C. Scott Littleton defined comparative mythology as `` the systematic comparison of myths and mythic themes drawn from a wide variety of cultures '' . By comparing different cultures ' mythologies , scholars try to identify underlying similarities and / or to reconstruct a `` protomythology '' from which those mythologies developed . To an extent , all theories about mythology follow a comparative approach : as the scholar of religion Robert Segal notes , `` by definition , all theorists ( of myth ) seek similarities among myths '' . However , scholars of mythology can be roughly divided into particularists , who emphasize the differences between myths , and comparativists , who emphasize the similarities . Particularists tend to `` maintain that the similarities deciphered by comparativists are vague and superficial '' , while comparativists tend to `` contend that the differences etched by particularists are trivial and incidental '' .
Nature center
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Conquistador
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Xhosa language
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Branches of science
Applied science differs from fundamental science , which seeks to describe the most basic objects and forces , having less emphasis on practical applications . Applied science can be like biological science and physical science .
Classical period (music)
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Classical period (music)
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Evidence of common descent
Comparison of the DNA sequences allows organisms to be grouped by sequence similarity , and the resulting phylogenetic trees are typically congruent with traditional taxonomy , and are often used to strengthen or correct taxonomic classifications . Sequence comparison is considered a measure robust enough to correct erroneous assumptions in the phylogenetic tree in instances where other evidence is scarce . For example , neutral human DNA sequences are approximately 1.2 % divergent ( based on substitutions ) from those of their nearest genetic relative , the chimpanzee , 1.6 % from gorillas , and 6.6 % from baboons . Genetic sequence evidence thus allows inference and quantification of genetic relatedness between humans and other apes . The sequence of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene , a vital gene encoding a part of the ribosome , was used to find the broad phylogenetic relationships between all extant life . The analysis , originally done by Carl Woese , resulted in the three - domain system , arguing for two major splits in the early evolution of life . The first split led to modern Bacteria and the subsequent split led to modern Archaea and Eukaryotes .
Meroë
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Factor analysis
Factor analysis is related to principal component analysis ( PCA ) , but the two are not identical . There has been significant controversy in the field over differences between the two techniques ( see section on exploratory factor analysis versus principal components analysis below ) . PCA is a more basic version of exploratory factor analysis ( EFA ) that was developed in the early days prior to the advent of high - speed computers . From the point of view of exploratory analysis , the eigenvalues of PCA are inflated component loadings , i.e. , contaminated with error variance .
Scientific method
The classical model of scientific inquiry derives from Aristotle , who distinguished the forms of approximate and exact reasoning , set out the threefold scheme of abductive , deductive , and inductive inference , and also treated the compound forms such as reasoning by analogy .
Gospel of Mark
The gospels of Matthew , Mark and Luke bear a striking resemblance to each other , so much so that their contents can easily be set side by side in parallel columns . The fact that they share so much material verbatim and yet also exhibit important differences has led to a number of hypotheses explaining their interdependence , a phenomenon termed the Synoptic Problem . Traditionally , Mark was thought to be an epitome ( summary ) of Matthew : for example , Augustine of Hippo believed they were written in order , `` first Matthew , then Mark , thirdly Luke , lastly John '' and that Mark followed Matthew as `` his attendant and epitomizer '' . Today , the most widely accepted hypothesis is that Mark was the first gospel ( Marcan Priority ) and was used as a source by both Matthew and Luke , together with considerable additional material . The strongest argument for this is the fact that Matthew and Luke agree with each other in their sequence of stories and events only when they also agree with Mark .
Mark and recapture
A Bayesian analysis is provided by . The final answer depends on the priors and the type of search assumed but the approach gives , for Chapman 's assumptions ( and changing variables from the original notation ) ,
History of evolutionary thought
In 1796 , Georges Cuvier published his findings on the differences between living elephants and those found in the fossil record . His analysis identified mammoths and mastodons as distinct species , different from any living animal , and effectively ended a long - running debate over whether a species could become extinct . In 1788 , James Hutton described gradual geological processes operating continuously over deep time . In the 1790s , William Smith began the process of ordering rock strata by examining fossils in the layers while he worked on his geologic map of England . Independently , in 1811 , Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart published an influential study of the geologic history of the region around Paris , based on the stratigraphic succession of rock layers . These works helped establish the antiquity of the Earth . Cuvier advocated catastrophism to explain the patterns of extinction and faunal succession revealed by the fossil record .
Acronym
The distinction is not well - maintained . According to Merriam - Webster 's Dictionary of English Usage : `` A number of commentators ... believe that acronyms can be differentiated from other abbreviations in being pronounceable as words . Dictionaries , however , do not make this distinction because writers in general do not ... Initialism , an older word than acronym , seems to be too little known to the general public to serve as the customary term standing in contrast with acronym in a narrow sense . '' About the use of acronym to only mean those pronounced as words , Fowler 's Modern English Usage ( 3rd ed . ) states : `` The limitations of the term being not widely known to the general public , acronym is also often applied to abbreviations that are familiar but are not pronounceable as words ... Such terms are also called initialisms . ''
Precedent
In the latter meaning , the case in question can not be decided through referring to and / or relying on precedent . Since the legal issue under consideration has never been decided by an appeals court and , therefore , there is no precedent for the court to follow , the court uses analogies from prior rulings by appeals courts , refers to commentaries and articles by legal scholars , and applies its own logic . In cases of first impression , the trial judge will often ask both sides ' attorneys for legal briefs .
Cnidaria
It is difficult to reconstruct the early stages in the evolutionary `` family tree '' of animals using only morphology ( their shapes and structures ) , because the large differences between Porifera ( sponges ) , Cnidaria plus Ctenophora ( comb jellies ) , Placozoa and Bilateria ( all the more complex animals ) make comparisons difficult . Hence reconstructions now rely largely or entirely on molecular phylogenetics , which groups organisms according to similarities and differences in their biochemistry , usually in their DNA or RNA .
Geologic time scale
The identification of strata by the fossils they contained , pioneered by William Smith , Georges Cuvier , Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy , and Alexandre Brogniart in the early 19th century , enabled geologists to divide Earth history more precisely . It also enabled them to correlate strata across national ( or even continental ) boundaries . If two strata ( however distant in space or different in composition ) contained the same fossils , chances were good that they had been laid down at the same time . Detailed studies between 1820 and 1850 of the strata and fossils of Europe produced the sequence of geological periods still used today .
Eukaryote
The chronocyte hypothesis postulates that a primitive eukaryotic cell was formed by the endosymbiosis of both archaea and bacteria by a third type of cell , termed a chronocyte . The universal common ancestor ( UCA ) of the current tree of life was a complex organism that survived a mass extinction event rather than an early stage in the evolution of life . Eukaryotes and in particular akaryotes ( Bacteria and Archaea ) evolved through reductive loss , so that similarities result from differential retention of original features .
Medieval music
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Scientific method
The methodology of scientific inquiry is closely intertwined with the history of science itself . The development of rules for scientific reasoning has not been straightforward ; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science , and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of one or another approach to establishing scientific knowledge . Despite the disagreements about approaches , scientific method has advanced in definite steps . Rationalist explanations of nature , including atomism , appeared both in ancient Greece in the thought of Leucippus and Democritus , and in ancient India , in the Nyaya , Vaisesika and Buddhist schools , while Charvaka materialism rejected inference as a source of knowledge in favour of an empiricism that was always subject to doubt . Aristotle pioneered scientific method in ancient Greece alongside his empirical biology and his work on logic , rejecting a purely deductive framework in favour of teleology - based generalisations about nature .
Origin of replication
The specific structure of the origin of replication varies somewhat from species to species , but all share some common characteristics such as high AT content ( repeats of adenine and thymine are easier to separate because their base stacking interactions are not as strong as those of guanine and cytosine ) . The origin of replication binds the pre-replication complex , a protein complex that recognizes , unwinds , and begins to copy DNA .
Second Battle of the Marne
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Arrowhead
An arrowhead is a tip , usually sharpened , added to an arrow to make it more deadly or to fulfill some special purpose . The earliest arrowheads were made of stone and of organic materials ; as human civilization progressed other materials were used . Arrowheads are important archaeological artifacts ; they are a subclass of projectile points . Modern enthusiasts still `` produce over one million brand - new spear and arrow points per year '' .
Lexicographical order
In dictionary order , the word `` Thomas '' appears before `` Thompson '' because the letter ' a ' comes before the letter ' p ' in the alphabet . The 5th letter is the first that is different in the two words ; the first four letters are `` Thom '' in both . Because it is the first difference , the 5th letter is the most significant difference for the alphabetical ordering .
Recursion (computer science)
Multiply recursive problems are inherently recursive , because of prior state they need to track . One example is tree traversal as in depth - first search ; contrast with list traversal and linear search in a list , which is singly recursive and thus naturally iterative . Other examples include divide - and - conquer algorithms such as Quicksort , and functions such as the Ackermann function . All of these algorithms can be implemented iteratively with the help of an explicit stack , but the programmer effort involved in managing the stack , and the complexity of the resulting program , arguably outweigh any advantages of the iterative solution .
Charles City, Iowa
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Origin of language
Creativity drives grammatical change . This presupposes a certain attitude on the part of listeners . Instead of punishing deviations from accepted usage , listeners must prioritize imaginative mind - reading . Imaginative creativity -- emitting a leopard alarm when no leopard was present , for example -- is not the kind of behavior which , say , vervet monkeys would appreciate or reward . Creativity and reliability are incompatible demands ; for ' Machiavellian ' primates as for animals generally , the overriding pressure is to demonstrate reliability . If humans escape these constraints , it is because in our case , listeners are primarily interested in mental states .
Kitty Walker
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Primate
`` prosimians '' contain two monophyletic groups ( the suborder Strepsirrhini , or lemurs , lorises and allies , as well as the tarsiers of the suborder Haplorhini ) ; it is a paraphyletic grouping because it excludes the Simiiformes , which also are descendants of the common ancestor Primates . `` monkeys '' comprise two monophyletic groups , New World monkeys and Old World monkeys , but is paraphyletic because it excludes hominoids , superfamily Hominoidea , also descendants of the common ancestor Simiiformes . `` apes '' as a whole , and the `` great apes '' in particular , are paraphyletic because they exclude humans .
Origin of language
Critics of gestural theory note that it is difficult to name serious reasons why the initial pitch - based vocal communication ( which is present in primates ) would be abandoned in favor of the much less effective non-vocal , gestural communication . However , Michael Corballis has pointed out that it is supposed that primate vocal communication ( such as alarm calls ) can not be controlled consciously , unlike hand movement , and thus is not credible as precursor to human language ; primate vocalization is rather homologous to and continued in involuntary reflexes ( connected with basic human emotions ) such as screams or laughter ( the fact that these can be faked does not disprove the fact that genuine involuntary responses to fear or surprise exist ) . Also , gesture is not generally less effective , and depending on the situation can even be advantageous , for example in a loud environment or where it is important to be silent , such as on a hunt . Other challenges to the `` gesture - first '' theory have been presented by researchers in psycholinguistics , including David McNeill .
Morpheme
The purpose of the morphological analysis is to determine the minimal units of meaning in a language or morphemes by using comparisons of similar forms -- for example , comparing forms such as `` She is walking '' and `` They are walking '' rather than comparing either of these with something completely different like `` You are reading '' . Thus , we can effectively break down the forms in parts and distinguish the different morphemes . Similarly , the meaning and the form are equally important for the identification of morphemes . For instance , agent and comparative morphemes illustrate this point . An agent morpheme is an affix like - er that transforms a verb into a noun ( e.g. teach → teacher ) . On the other hand , -- er can also be a comparative morpheme that changes an adjective into another degree of the same adjective ( e.g. small → smaller ) . In this case , the form is the same , but the meaning of both morphemes is different . Also , the opposite can occur in which the meaning is the same but the form is different .
Origin of language
Certain elements of the lexical - phonological principle are known to exist outside of humans . While all ( or nearly all ) have been documented in some form in the natural world , very few coexist within the same species . Bird - song , singing nonhuman apes , and the songs of whales all display phonological syntax , combining units of sound into larger structures apparently devoid of enhanced or novel meaning . Certain other primate species do have simple phonological systems with units referring to entities in the world . However , in contrast to human systems , the units in these primates ' systems normally occur in isolation , betraying a lack of lexical syntax . There is new evidence to suggest that Campbell 's monkeys also display lexical syntax , combining two calls ( a predator alarm call with a `` boom '' , the combination of which denotes a lessened threat of danger ) , however it is still unclear whether this is a lexical or a morphological phenomenon .
Precedent
Persuasive precedent ( also persuasive authority ) is precedent or other legal writing that is not binding precedent but that is useful or relevant and that may guide the judge in making the decision in a current case . Persuasive precedent includes cases decided by lower courts , by peer or higher courts from other geographic jurisdictions , cases made in other parallel systems ( for example , military courts , administrative courts , indigenous / tribal courts , state courts versus federal courts in the United States ) , statements made in dicta , treatises or academic law reviews , and in some exceptional circumstances , cases of other nations , treaties , world judicial bodies , etc .
United States presidential election, 1860
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History of the United States Constitution
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History of New Mexico
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Iran hostage crisis
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