vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Atlantic Ocean
The oldest known mentions of an `` Atlantic '' sea come from Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC ( Sch . A.R. 1 . 211 ) : Atlantikoi pelágei ( Greek : Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει ; English : ' the Atlantic sea ' ; etym . ' Sea of Atlantis ' ) and in The Histories of Herodotus around 450 BC ( Hdt. 1.202. 4 ) : Atlantis thalassa ( Greek : Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα ; English : ' Sea of Atlantis ' or ' the Atlantis sea ' ) where the name refers to `` the sea beyond the pillars of Heracles '' which is said to be part of the ocean that surrounds all land . Thus , on one hand , the name refers to Atlas , the Titan in Greek mythology , who supported the heavens and who later appeared as a frontispiece in Medieval maps and also lent his name to modern atlases . On the other hand , to early Greek sailors and in Ancient Greek mythological literature such as the Iliad and the Odyssey , this all - encompassing ocean was instead known as Oceanus , the gigantic river that encircled the world ; in contrast to the enclosed seas well - known to the Greeks : the Mediterranean and the Black Sea . In contrast , the term `` Atlantic '' originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast . The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of million years ago .
Ship
Maritime trade was driven by the development of shipping companies with significant financial resources . Canal barges , towed by draft animals on an adjacent towpath , contended with the railway up to and past the early days of the industrial revolution . Flat - bottomed and flexible scow boats also became widely used for transporting small cargoes . Mercantile trade went hand - in - hand with exploration , self - financed by the commercial benefits of exploration .
Iliad
The biggest issue in reconciling the connection between the epic fighting of the Iliad and later Greek warfare is the phalanx , or hoplite , warfare seen in Greek history well after Homer 's Iliad . While there are discussions of soldiers arrayed in semblances of the phalanx throughout the Iliad , the focus of the poem on the heroic fighting , as mentioned above , would seem to contradict the tactics of the phalanx . However , the phalanx did have its heroic aspects . The masculine one - on - one fighting of epic is manifested in phalanx fighting on the emphasis of holding one 's position in formation . This replaces the singular heroic competition found in the Iliad .
Ancient Roman architecture
The ancient Romans employed regular orthogonal structures on which they molded their colonies . They probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples , as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by the Etruscans in Italy . ( see Marzabotto )
Neolithic Revolution
The Neolithic Revolution involved far more than the adoption of a limited set of food - producing techniques . During the next millennia it would transform the small and mobile groups of hunter - gatherers that had hitherto dominated human pre-history into sedentary ( non-nomadic ) societies based in built - up villages and towns . These societies radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food - crop cultivation , with activities such as irrigation and deforestation which allowed the production of surplus food .
Oral storytelling
It is likely that oral storytelling has been around as long as human language . Storytelling fulfills the need for human beings to cast their experiences in narrative form . Our ancestors probably gathered around the evening fires and expressed their fears , their beliefs and their heroism through oral narratives . This long tradition of storytelling is evident in ancient cultures such as the Australian Aborigines . Community storytelling offered the security of explanation ; how life and its many forms began and why things happen , as well as entertainment and enchantment . Communities were strengthened and maintained through stories that connected the present , the past and the future .
Moss
Recent research show that ancient moss could explain why the Ordovician ice ages occurred . When the ancestors of today 's moss started to spread on land 470 million years ago , they absorbed CO from the atmosphere and extracted minerals by secreting organic acids that dissolved the rocks they were growing on . These chemically altered rocks in turn reacted with the atmospheric CO and formed new carbonate rocks in the ocean through the weathering of calcium and magnesium ions from silicate rocks . The weathered rocks also released a lot of phosphorus and iron which ended up in the oceans , where it caused massive algal blooms , resulting in organic carbon burial , extracting more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Small organisms feeding on the nutrients created large areas without oxygen , which caused a mass extinction of marine species , while the levels of CO dropped all over the world , allowing the formation of ice caps on the poles .
Siege
Siege warfare dominated in Western Europe for most of the 17th and 18th centuries . An entire campaign , or longer , could be used in a single siege ( for example , Ostend in 1601 -- 04 ; La Rochelle in 1627 -- 28 ) . This resulted in extremely prolonged conflicts . The balance was that , while siege warfare was extremely expensive and very slow , it was very successful -- or , at least , more so than encounters in the field . Battles arose through clashes between besiegers and relieving armies , but the principle was a slow , grinding victory by the greater economic power . The relatively rare attempts at forcing pitched battles ( Gustavus Adolphus in 1630 ; the French against the Dutch in 1672 or 1688 ) were almost always expensive failures . Storming
Column
The Roman author Vitruvius , relying on the writings ( now lost ) of Greek authors , tells us that the ancient Greeks believed that their Doric order developed from techniques for building in wood . The earlier smoothed tree - trunk was replaced by a stone cylinder .
Ancient Egyptian deities
Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . The deities were generally said to be immanent in these phenomena -- to be present within nature . The types of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the deification of all the world 's air ; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of the earth , the Theban Necropolis ; and the god Sia personified the abstract notion of perception . Major deities often had many roles and were involved in several types of phenomena . For instance , Khnum was the god of Elephantine Island in the midst of the Nile , the river that was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood that fertilized the nation 's farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life - giving function , he was said to create all living things , fashioning their bodies on a potter 's wheel . Deities could share the same role in nature ; Ra , Atum , Khepri , Horus , and other deities acted as sun deities . Despite their diverse functions , most deities had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the universal order that was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . Some deities represented disruption to maat , however . Most prominently , Apep was the force of chaos , constantly threatening to annihilate the order of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society who could both fight disorder and foment it .
Famine
One famine would often lead to difficulties in the following years because of lack of seed stock or disruption of routine , or perhaps because of less - available labour . Famines were often interpreted as signs of God 's displeasure . They were seen as the removal , by God , of His gifts to the people of the Earth . Elaborate religious processions and rituals were made to prevent God 's wrath in the form of famine .
Iliad
The Iliad ( / ˈɪliəd / ; Ancient Greek : Ἰλιάς Iliás , pronounced ( iː.li. ás ) in Classical Attic ; sometimes referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium ) is an ancient Greek epic poem in dactylic hexameter , traditionally attributed to Homer . Set during the Trojan War , the ten - year siege of the city of Troy ( Ilium ) by a coalition of Greek states , it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles .
Ancient Egypt
Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines , beatings , facial mutilation , or exile , depending on the severity of the offense . Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution , carried out by decapitation , drowning , or impaling the criminal on a stake . Punishment could also be extended to the criminal 's family . Beginning in the New Kingdom , oracles played a major role in the legal system , dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases . The procedure was to ask the god a `` yes '' or `` no '' question concerning the right or wrong of an issue . The god , carried by a number of priests , rendered judgment by choosing one or the other , moving forward or backward , or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon .
Red Sea
In the 6th century BC , Darius the Great of Persia sent reconnaissance missions to the Red Sea , improving and extending navigation by locating many hazardous rocks and currents . A canal was built between the Nile and the northern end of the Red Sea at Suez . In the late 4th century BC , Alexander the Great sent Greek naval expeditions down the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean . Greek navigators continued to explore and compile data on the Red Sea . Agatharchides collected information about the sea in the 2nd century BC . The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ( `` Periplus of the Red Sea '' ) , a Greek periplus written by an unknown author around the 1st century AD , contains a detailed description of the Red Sea 's ports and sea routes . The Periplus also describes how Hippalus first discovered the direct route from the Red Sea to India .
Alternative energy
In the late medieval period , coal was the new alternative fuel to save the society from overuse of the dominant fuel , wood . The deforestation had resulted in shortage of wood , at that time soft coal appeared as a savior . Historian Norman F. Cantor describes how :
History of chemistry
Arguably the first chemical reaction used in a controlled manner was fire . However , for millennia fire was seen simply as a mystical force that could transform one substance into another ( burning wood , or boiling water ) while producing heat and light . Fire affected many aspects of early societies . These ranged from the simplest facets of everyday life , such as cooking and habitat lighting , to more advanced technologies , such as pottery , bricks , and melting of metals to make tools .
Rainbow
Rainbows occur frequently in mythology , and have been used in the arts . One of the earliest literary occurrences of a rainbow is in the Book of Genesis chapter 9 , as part of the flood story of Noah , where it is a sign of God 's covenant to never destroy all life on earth with a global flood again . In Norse mythology , the rainbow bridge Bifröst connects the world of men ( Midgard ) and the realm of the gods ( Asgard ) . Cuchavira was the god of the rainbow for the Muisca in present - day Colombia and when the regular rains on the Bogotá savanna were over , the people thanked him offering gold , snails and small emeralds . The Irish leprechaun 's secret hiding place for his pot of gold is usually said to be at the end of the rainbow . This place is appropriately impossible to reach , because the rainbow is an optical effect which can not be approached .
History of insurance
At some point in the 1st millennium BC , the inhabitants of Rhodes created the ' general average ' . This allowed groups of merchants to pay to insure their goods being shipped together . The collected premiums would be used to reimburse any merchant whose goods were jettisoned during transport , whether to storm or sinkage .
Conquistador
As a seafaring people in the south - westernmost region of Europe , the Portuguese became natural leaders of exploration during the Middle Ages . Faced with the options of either accessing other European markets by sea , by exploiting its seafaring prowess , or by land , and facing the task of crossing Castile and Aragon territory , it is not surprising that goods were sent via the sea to England , Flanders , Italy and the Hanseatic league towns .
Ancient Egyptian deities
Official religious practices , which maintained maat for the benefit of all of Ancient Egypt , were related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , who sought help from deities for their personal problems .
First Fleet
The weather became increasingly hot and humid as the Fleet sailed through the tropics . Vermin , such as rats , and parasites such as bedbugs , lice , cockroaches and fleas , tormented the convicts , officers and marines . Bilges became foul and the smell , especially below the closed hatches , was over-powering . While Phillip gave orders that the bilge - water was to be pumped out daily and the bilges cleaned , these orders were not followed on the Alexander and a number of convicts fell sick and died . Tropical rainstorms meant that the convicts could not exercise on deck as they had no change of clothes and no method of drying wet clothing . Consequently , they were kept below in the foul , cramped holds . On the female transports , promiscuity between the convicts , the crew and marines was rampant , despite punishments for some of the men involved . In the doldrums , Phillip was forced to ration the water to three pints a day .
Spanish Armada
In September 1588 , the Armada sailed around Scotland and Ireland into the North Atlantic . The ships were beginning to show wear from the long voyage and some were kept together by having their hulls bundled up with cables . Supplies of food and water ran short . The intention would have been to keep well to the west of the coast of Scotland and Ireland , in the relative safety of the open sea . There being no way of accurately measuring longitude , the Spanish were not aware that the Gulf Stream was carrying them north and east as they tried to move west and they eventually turned south much further to the east than planned , a devastating navigational error . Off the coasts of Scotland and Ireland the fleet ran into a series of powerful westerly winds , which drove many of the damaged ships further towards the lee shore . Because so many anchors had been abandoned during the escape from the English fireships off Calais , many of the ships were incapable of securing shelter as they reached the coast of Ireland and were driven onto the rocks and local inhabitants looted the ships . The late 16th century and especially 1588 , was marked by unusually strong North Atlantic storms , perhaps associated with a high accumulation of polar ice off the coast of Greenland , a characteristic phenomenon of the `` Little Ice Age '' . More ships and sailors were lost to cold and stormy weather than in direct combat .
Health care in the United States
The debate about U.S. health care concerns questions of access , efficiency , and quality purchased by the high sums spent . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) in 2000 ranked the U.S. health care system first in responsiveness , but 37th in overall performance and 72nd by overall level of health ( among 191 member nations included in the study ) . The WHO study has been criticized by the free market advocate David Gratzer because `` fairness in financial contribution '' was used as an assessment factor , marking down countries with high per - capita private or fee - paying health treatment . The WHO study has been criticized , in an article published in Health Affairs , for its failure to include the satisfaction ratings of the general public . The study found that there was little correlation between the WHO rankings for health systems and the stated satisfaction of citizens using those systems . Countries such as Italy and Spain , which were given the highest ratings by WHO were ranked poorly by their citizens while other countries , such as Denmark and Finland , were given low scores by WHO but had the highest percentages of citizens reporting satisfaction with their health care systems . WHO staff , however , say that the WHO analysis does reflect system `` responsiveness '' and argue that this is a superior measure to consumer satisfaction , which is influenced by expectations . Furthermore , the relationship between patient satisfaction and health care utilization , expenditures , and outcomes is complex and not well defined .
Health care in the United States
Active debate about health care reform in the United States concerns questions of a right to health care , access , fairness , efficiency , cost , choice , value , and quality . Some have argued that the system does not deliver equivalent value for the money spent . According to a 2004 Institute of Medicine ( IOM ) report : `` The United States is among the few industrialized nations in the world that does not guarantee access to health care for its population . '' A 2004 OECD report said : `` With the exception of Mexico , Turkey , and the United States , all OECD countries had achieved universal or near - universal ( at least 98.4 % insured ) coverage of their populations by 1990 . '' The 2004 IOM report observed that `` lack of health insurance causes roughly 18,000 unnecessary deaths every year in the United States '' , while a 2009 Harvard study conducted by co-founders of Physicians for a National Health Program , a pro-single payer advocacy group , estimated that 44,800 excess deaths occurred annually due to lack of health insurance . The group 's methodology has been criticized by economist John C. Goodman for not looking at cause of death or tracking insurance status changes over time , including the time of death . Further , a 2009 study by former Clinton policy adviser Richard Kronick found no increased mortality from being uninsured after certain risk factors were controlled for , and specifically criticized the methodology used by IOM .
Health care in the United States
The U.S. Census Bureau reported that 49.9 million residents , 16.3 % of the population , were uninsured in 2010 ( up from 49.0 million residents , 16.1 % of the population , in 2009 ) . A 2009 study in five states found that medical debt contributed to 46.2 % of all personal bankruptcies and in 2007 , 62.1 % of filers for bankruptcies claimed high medical expenses . Since then , health costs and the numbers of uninsured and underinsured have increased . A 2013 study found that about 25 % of all senior citizens declare bankruptcy due to medical expenses .
Human rights and development
Supported by UNFPA , Bangladesh is training midwives according to international midwifery standards . Hundreds of nurses have upgraded their knowledge with practical and theoretical training . In India more than two - thirds of maternal deaths occur in impoverished states due to the inability to get medical care in time . UNICEF and its partners are working to avoid these preventable maternal deaths through innovative schemes such as a conditional cash transfer programme for women who deliver in health facilities . In Sierra Leone a year after the launch of the Free Health Care 2010 initiative there was a 150 % improvement in maternal complications managed in health facilities and a 61 % reduction in the maternal mortality rate .
Cigarette
Leading consumers of cigarettes ( 1998 ) Country Population ( millions ) Cigarettes consumed ( billions ) Cigarettes consumed ( per capita ) China 1,248 1,643 1,320 USA 270 451 1,670 Japan 126 328 2,600 Russia 146 258 1,760 Indonesia 200 215 1,070
Wealth inequality in the United States
In 2013 UNICEF data on the well - being of children in 35 developed nations ranked the United States at 34 out of 35 ( Romania is the worst ) . This may reflect growing income inequality .
Helium
Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semipermeable membranes and other barriers is another method to recover and purify helium . In 1996 , the U.S. had proven helium reserves , in such gas well complexes , of about 147 billion standard cubic feet ( 4.2 billion SCM ) . At rates of use at that time ( 72 million SCM per year in the U.S. ; see pie chart below ) this would have been enough helium for about 58 years of U.S. use , and less than this ( perhaps 80 % of the time ) at world use rates , although factors in saving and processing impact effective reserve numbers .
Society of the United States
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Flint water crisis
Civil rights advocates characterized the crisis as a result of environmental racism ( Flint 's population is 56.6 % African American per the 2010 census ) , a term primarily referring to the disproportionate exposure of ethnic minorities to pollution as a result of `` poverty and segregation that has relegated many blacks and other racial minorities to some of the most industrialized or dilapidated environments . '' Columnist Shaun King , for example , wrote that the crisis was `` a horrific clash of race , class , politics and public health . ''