vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Romance languages
Correspondence between Latin and Romance tenses Latin Portuguese Spanish Catalan Occitan French Rhaeto - Romance Italian Romanian Sardinian Present indicative Present indicative Present subjunctive Present subjunctive Imperfect indicative Imperfect indicative Imperfect subjunctive Personal infinitive -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Imperfect subjunctive / Personal infinitive Future indicative -- eres ( `` you are '' ) -- -- future of `` to be '' in Old French -- -- -- -- Perfect indicative Preterite Simple preterite ( literary except in Valencian ) Preterite Simple past ( literary ) -- Preterite ( Tuscan Standard Italian ) ; Literary Remote Past ( Regional Standard Italian in North ) ; Preterite / Perfect ( Regional Standard Italian in South ) Simple past ( literary except in the Oltenian dialect ) In Old Sardinian ; only traces in modern lang Perfect subjunctive -- Pluperfect indicative Literary pluperfect Imperfect subjunctive ( - ra form ) -- Second conditional in Old Occitan Second preterite in very early Old French ( Sequence of Saint Eulalia ) -- -- -- -- Pluperfect subjunctive Imperfect subjunctive Pluperfect indicative -- Future perfect Future subjunctive ( very much in use ) Future subjunctive ( moribund ) -- possible traces of future subjunctive in Old Occitan -- -- possible traces of future subjunctive in Old Italian Conditional in Old Romanian ( until 17th cent . ) -- New future infinitive+habeo voleo + infinitive habeo + infinitive New conditional infinitive+habebam infinitive+habuisset infinitive+habuit habeo + infinitive ( split apart from infinitive+habeo in 18th - century Romanian ) habebam + infinitive Preterite vs. present perfect ( in speech ) preterite only ( present perfect exists , but has different meaning ) both both ( but usually an analytic preterite vado + infinitive is used ) ? present perfect only present perfect only both ( Tuscan Standard Italian ) ; present perfect only ( Regional Standard Italian in North ) ; preference for preterite ( Regional Standard Italian in South ) present perfect only present perfect only
Romance languages
Reinforced demonstratives such as accu - ille arose as ille came to be used as an article as well as a demonstrative . Such forms were often created even when not strictly needed to distinguish otherwise ambiguous forms . Italian , for example , has both questo `` this '' ( eccu - istum ) and quello `` that '' ( eccu - illum ) , in addition to dialectal codesto `` that ( near you ) '' ( * eccu - tē - istum ) . French generally prefers forms derived from bare ecce `` behold '' , as in the pronoun ce `` this one / that one '' ( earlier ço , from ecce - hoc ; cf . Italian ciò ' that ' ) and the determiner ce / cet `` this / that '' ( earlier cest , from ecce - istum ) .
Italian language
Italian often was an official language of the various Italian states predating unification , slowly replacing Latin , even when ruled by foreign powers ( such as the Spanish in the Kingdom of Naples , or the Austrians in the Kingdom of Lombardy - Venetia ) , even though the masses spoke primarily vernacular languages and dialects . Italian was also one of the many recognised languages in the Austro - Hungarian Empire .
Romance languages
During the Renaissance , Italian , Portuguese , Spanish and a few other Romance languages developed a progressive aspect which did not exist in Latin . In French , progressive constructions remain very limited , the imperfect generally being preferred , as in Latin . Many Romance languages now have a verbal construction analogous to the present perfect of English . In some , it has taken the place of the old preterite ( at least in the vernacular ) ; in others , the two coexist with somewhat different meanings ( cf . English I did vs. I have done ) . A few examples : preterite only : Galician , Asturian , Sicilian , Leonese , Portuguese , some dialects of Spanish ; preterite and present perfect : Catalan , Occitan , standard Spanish ; present perfect predominant , preterite now literary : French , Romanian , several dialects of Italian , some dialects of Spanish ; present perfect only : Romansh
Renaissance
In all , the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly , both through the revival of ideas from antiquity , and through novel approaches to thought . Some scholars , such as Rodney Stark , play down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city - states in the High Middle Ages , which married responsive government , Christianity and the birth of capitalism . This analysis argues that , whereas the great European states ( France and Spain ) were absolutist monarchies , and others were under direct Church control , the independent city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented commercial revolution that preceded and financed the Renaissance .
Italian language
/ kekˈkɔːsa / / ˈkɔːsa / / ˈke / When ? Quando ? / ˈkwando / Where ? Dove ? / ˈdoːve / How ? Come ? / ˈkoːme / Why / Because perché / perˈke / Again di nuovo / ancora / di ˈnwɔːvo / ; / aŋˈkoːra / How much ? / How many ? Quanto ? / Quanta ? / Quanti ? / Quante ? / ˈkwanto / What is your name ? Come ti chiami ? ( informal ) / Qual è il suo nome ? ( formal ) / Come si chiama ? ( formal ) / ˌkomettiˈkjaːmi / / kwal ˈɛ il ˌsu. o ˈnoːme / My name is ... Mi chiamo ... / mi ˈkjaːmo / This is ... Questo è ... ( masculine ) / Questa è ... ( feminine ) / ˌkwesto ˈɛ / / ˌkwesta ˈɛ / Yes , I understand . Sì , capisco . / Ho capito . / si kaˈpisko / / ɔkkaˈpiːto / I do not understand . Non capisco . / Non ho capito . ( listen ) / noŋ kaˈpisko / / nonˌɔkkaˈpiːto / Do you speak English ? Parli inglese ? ( informal ) / Parla inglese ? ( formal ) / Parlate inglese ? ( plural ) ( listen ) / parˌlate iŋˈɡleːse / ( listen ) / ˌparla iŋˈɡleːse / I do not understand Italian . Non capisco l'italiano . / noŋ kaˌpisko litaˈljaːno / Help me ! Aiutami ! ( informal ) / Mi aiuti ! ( formal ) / Aiutatemi ! ( plural ) / Aiuto !
Romance languages
Subsequent changes often reduced the number of demonstrative distinctions . Standard Italian , for example , has only a two - way distinction `` this '' vs. `` that '' , as in English , with second - person and third - person demonstratives combined . In Catalan , however , a former three - way distinction aquest , aqueix , aquell has been reduced differently , with first - person and second - person demonstratives combined . Hence aquest means either `` this '' or `` that ( near you ) '' ; on the phone , aquest is used to refer both to speaker and addressee .
Renaissance
The Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt ( 1818 -- 1897 ) in his The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy ( 1860 ) , by contrast , defined the Renaissance as the period between Giotto and Michelangelo in Italy , that is , the 14th to mid-16th centuries . He saw in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of individuality , which the Middle Ages had stifled . His book was widely read and became influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance . However , Buckhardt has been accused of setting forth a linear Whiggish view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern world .
Italian language
Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy , having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society . Its development was also influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent , by the Germanic languages of the post-Roman invaders . The incorporation into Italian of learned , or `` bookish '' words from its own ancestor language , Latin , is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church . Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period , most literate Italian speakers were also literate in Latin ; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing -- and eventually speech -- in Italian . Its vowels are the second - closest to Latin after Sardinian . Unlike most other Romance languages , Italian retains Latin 's contrast between short and long consonants . As in most Romance languages , stress is distinctive .
Italian language
Latin ce - , ci - becomes / tʃe , tʃi / rather than / ( t ) se , ( t ) si / . Latin - ct - becomes / tt / rather than / jt / or / tʃ / : octō > otto `` eight '' ( cf . Spanish ocho , French huit , Portuguese oito ) . Vulgar Latin - cl - becomes cchi / kkj / rather than / ʎ / : oclum > occhio `` eye '' ( cf . Portuguese olho / oʎu / , French oeil / œj / < / œʎ / ) ; but Romanian ochi / okj / . Final / s / is not preserved , and vowel changes rather than / s / are used to mark the plural : amico , amici `` male friend ( s ) '' , amica , amiche `` female friend ( s ) '' ( cf . Romanian amic , amici , amică , amice , Spanish amigo ( s ) `` male friend ( s ) '' , amiga ( s ) `` female friend ( s ) '' ) ; trēs , sex → tre , sei `` three , six '' ( cf . Romanian trei , șase , Spanish tres , seis ) .
Romance languages
The remaining Romance languages survive mostly as spoken languages for informal contact . National governments have historically viewed linguistic diversity as an economic , administrative or military liability , as well as a potential source of separatist movements ; therefore , they have generally fought to eliminate it , by extensively promoting the use of the official language , restricting the use of the `` other '' languages in the media , characterizing them as mere `` dialects '' , or even persecuting them . As a result , all of these languages are considered endangered to varying degrees according to the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages , ranging from `` vulnerable '' ( e.g. Sicilian and Venetian ) to `` severely endangered '' ( Arpitan , most of the Occitan varieties ) . Since the late twentieth and early twenty - first centuries , increased sensitivity to the rights of minorities has allowed some of these languages to start recovering their prestige and lost rights . Yet it is unclear whether these political changes will be enough to reverse the decline of minority Romance languages .
Romance languages
The case system was drastically reduced from the vigorous six - case system of Latin . Although four cases can be constructed for Proto - Romance nouns ( nominative , accusative , combined genitive / dative , and vocative ) , the vocative is marginal and present only in Romanian ( where it may be an outright innovation ) , and of the remaining cases , no more than two are present in any one language . Romanian is the only modern Romance language with case marking on nouns , with a two - way opposition between nominative / accusative and genitive / dative . Some of the older Gallo - Romance languages ( in particular , Old French , Old Occitan , Old Sursilvan and Old Friulian , and in traces Old Catalan and Old Venetian ) had an opposition between nominative and general oblique , and in Ibero - Romance languages , such as Spanish and Portuguese , as well as in Italian ( see under Case ) , a couple of examples are found which preserve the old nominative . As in English , case is preserved better on pronouns .
Romance languages
A similar path was followed by Italian and Romanian . Romanian uses dumneavoastră `` your lordship '' , while Italian the former polite phrase sua eccellenza `` your excellency '' has simply been supplanted by the corresponding pronoun Ella or Lei ( literally `` she '' , but capitalized when meaning `` you '' ) . As in European Spanish , the original second - person plural voi serves as familiar plural . ( In Italy , during fascist times leading up to World War II , voi was resurrected as a polite singular , and discarded again afterwards , although it remains in some southern dialects . )
Romance languages
The term Romance comes from the Vulgar Latin adverb romanice , `` in Roman '' , derived from Romanicus : for instance , in the expression romanice loqui , `` to speak in Roman '' ( that is , the Latin vernacular ) , contrasted with latine loqui , `` to speak in Latin '' ( Medieval Latin , the conservative version of the language used in writing and formal contexts or as a lingua franca ) , and with barbarice loqui , `` to speak in Barbarian '' ( the non-Latin languages of the peoples living outside the Roman Empire ) . From this adverb the noun romance originated , which applied initially to anything written romanice , or `` in the Roman vernacular '' .
Gospel of Mark
Mark was written in Greek , for a gentile audience ( that they were gentiles is shown by the author 's need to explain Jewish traditions and translate Aramaic terms ) of Greek - speaking Christians : Rome ( Mark uses a number of Latin terms ) , Galilee , Antioch ( third - largest city in the Roman Empire , located in northern Syria ) , and southern Syria have all been offered as alternative places of authorship . The author may have been influenced by Greco - Roman biographies and rhetorical forms , popular novels and romances , and the Homeric epics ; nevertheless , he mentions almost no public figures , makes no allusions to Greek or Roman literature , and takes all his references from the Jewish scriptures , mostly in their Greek versions from the Septuagint . His book is not history in the modern sense , or even in the sense of classical Greek and Roman historians , but `` history in an eschatological or apocalyptic sense , '' depicting Jesus caught up in events at the end of time .
Romance languages
In the case of Italian , the convention of digraphs < ch > and < gh > to represent / k / and / g / before written < e , i > results in similar orthographic alternations , such as dimentico ' I forget ' , dimentichi ' you forget ' , baco ' worm ' , bachi ' worms ' with ( k ) or pago ' I pay ' , paghi ' you pay ' and lago ' lake ' , laghi ' lakes ' with ( g ) . The use in Italian of < ci > and < gi > to represent / tʃ / or / dʒ / before vowels written < a , o , u > neatly distinguishes dico ' I say ' with / k / from dici ' you say ' with / tʃ / or ghiro ' dormouse ' / g / and giro ' turn , revolution ' / dʒ / , but with orthographic < ci > and < gi > also representing the sequence of / tʃ / or / dʒ / and the actual vowel / i / ( / ditʃi / dici , / dʒiro / giro ) , and no generally observed convention of indicating stress position , the status of i when followed by another vowel in spelling can be unrecognizable . For example , the written forms offer no indication that < cia > in camicia ' shirt ' represents a single unstressed syllable / tʃa / with no / i / at any level ( / kaˈmitʃa / → ( kaˈmiːtʃa ) ~ ( kaˈmiːʃa ) ) , but that underlying the same spelling < cia > in farmacia ' pharmacy ' is a bisyllabic sequence consisting of the stressed syllable / tʃi / and syllabic / a / ( / farmaˈtʃia / → ( farmaˈtʃiːa ) ~ ( farmaˈʃiːa ) ) . Lenition
Latin America
The idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s , in the writing of the French Saint - Simonian Michel Chevalier , who postulated that this part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a `` Latin race '' , and that it could , therefore , ally itself with `` Latin Europe '' , ultimately overlapping the Latin Church , in a struggle with `` Teutonic Europe '' , `` Anglo - Saxon America '' and `` Slavic Europe '' . Further investigations of the concept of Latin America are by Michel Gobat in the American Historical Review , the studies of Leslie Bethell , and the monograph by Mauricio Tenorio - Trillo , Latin America : The Allure and Power of an Idea ( 2017 ) .
Italian language
( plural ) ( listen ) / parˌlate iŋˈɡleːse / ( listen ) / ˌparla iŋˈɡleːse / I do not understand Italian . Non capisco l'italiano . / noŋ kaˌpisko litaˈljaːno / Help me ! Aiutami ! ( informal ) / Mi aiuti ! ( formal ) / Aiutatemi ! ( plural ) / Aiuto ! ( general ) / aˈjuːtami / / ajuˈtaːtemi / / aˈjuːto / You are right / wrong ! ( Tu ) hai ragione / torto ! ( informal ) / ( Lei ) ha ragione / torto ! ( formal ) / ( Voi ) avete ragione / torto ! ( plural ) What time is it ? Che ora è ? / Che ore sono ? / ke ˌora ˈɛ / / ke ˌore ˈsono / Where is the bathroom ? Dov'è il bagno ? ( listen ) / doˌvɛ il ˈbaɲɲo / How much is it ? Quanto costa ? / ˌkwanto ˈkɔsta / The bill , please . Il conto , per favore . / il ˌkonto per faˈvoːre / The study of Italian sharpens the mind . Lo studio dell'italiano aguzza l'ingegno . / loˈstuːdjo dellitaˈljaːno aˈɡuttsa linˈdʒeɲɲo /
Hellenistic period
The term Hellenistic is a modern invention ; the Hellenistic World not only included a huge area covering the whole of the Aegean , rather than the Classical Greece focused on the Poleis of Athens and Sparta , but also a huge time range . In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which is often put under the heading of `` Hellenistic Art '' for convenience .
Colosseum
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages . In Italy , the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo , and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as Coloseumul ( Romanian ) , le Colisée ( French ) , el Coliseo ( Spanish ) and o Coliseu ( Portuguese ) .
Romance languages
Old French had a similar distinction to Italian ( cist / cest vs. cil / cel ) , both of which could function as either adjectives or pronouns . Modern French , however , has no distinction between `` this '' and `` that '' : ce / cet , cette < cest , ceste is only an adjective , and celui , celle < cel lui , celle is only a pronoun , and both forms indifferently mean either `` this '' or `` that '' . ( The distinction between `` this '' and `` that '' can be made , if necessary , by adding the suffixes - ci `` here '' or - là `` there '' , e.g. cette femme - ci `` this woman '' vs. cette femme - là `` that woman '' , but this is rarely done except when specifically necessary to distinguish two entities from each other . )
Republic
In Europe new republics appeared in the late Middle Ages when a number of small states embraced republican systems of government . These were generally small , but wealthy , trading states , like the Italian city - states and the Hanseatic League , in which the merchant class had risen to prominence . Knud Haakonssen has noted that , by the Renaissance , Europe was divided with those states controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by a commercial elite being republics .
Latin America
The term is not without controversy . Historian Mauricio Tenorio - Trillo explores at length the `` allure and power '' of the idea of Latin America . He remarks at the outset , `` The idea of ' Latin America ' ought to have vanished with the obsolescence of racial theory ... But it is not easy to declare something dead when it can hardly be said to have existed , '' going on to say , `` The term is here to stay , and it is important . '' Following in the tradition of Chilean writer Francisco Bilbao , who excluded Brazil , Argentina and Paraguay from his early conceptualization of Latin America , Chilean historian Jaime Eyzaguirre has criticized the term Latin America for `` disguising '' and `` diluting '' the Spanish character of a region ( i.e. Hispanic America ) with the inclusion of nations that according to him do not share the same pattern of conquest and colonization .
Lynette Scavo
This article consists almost entirely of a plot summary . It should be expanded to provide more balanced coverage that includes real - world context . Please edit the article to focus on discussing the work rather than merely reiterating the plot . ( January 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )
Romance languages
Some languages , e.g. French and Italian , have a partitive article that approximately translates as `` some '' . This is used either with mass nouns or with plural nouns -- both cases where the indefinite article can not occur . A partitive article is used ( and in French , required ) whenever a bare noun refers to specific ( but unspecified or unknown ) quantity of the noun , but not when a bare noun refers to a class in general . For example , the partitive would be used in both of the following sentences :
Romance languages
The Romance languages do not retain the Latin third - person personal pronouns , but have innovated a separate set of third - person pronouns by borrowing the demonstrative ille ( `` that ( over there ) '' ) , and creating a separate reinforced demonstrative by attaching a variant of ecce `` behold ! '' ( or `` here is ... '' ) to the pronoun .
Antonin Scalia
To pursue the concept of racial entitlement -- even for the most admirable and benign of purposes -- is to reinforce and preserve for future mischief the way of thinking that produced race slavery , race privilege and race hatred . In the eyes of government , we are just one race here . It is American .
Criticism of democracy
However Machiavelli 's definition of democracy was narrower than the current one . He hypothesized that a hybrid system of government incorporating facets of all three major types ( monarchy , aristocracy and democracy ) could break this cycle . Many modern democracies that have separation of powers are claimed to represent these kinds of hybrid governments . However , in modern democracies there is usually no direct correlation with Machiavelli 's idea , because of weakening of the separation of powers , or erosion of the original function of the various branches . For example , the modern United States executive branch has slowly accumulated more power from the legislative branch , and the Senate no longer functions as a quasi-aristocratic body as was originally intended , since senators are now democratically elected .
Romance languages
This was the pattern followed by the Romance languages : In the Romance languages that still preserved a functioning nominal case system ( e.g. , Romanian and Old French ) , only the combination of article and case ending serves to uniquely identify number and case ( compare the similar situation in modern German ) . All Romance languages have a definite article ( originally developed from ipse `` self '' but replaced in nearly all languages by ille `` that ( over there ) '' ) and an indefinite article ( developed from ūnus `` one '' ) . Many also have a partitive article ( dē `` of '' + definite article ) .
Renaissance
`` Rather than a period with definitive beginnings and endings and consistent content in between , the Renaissance can be ( and occasionally has been ) seen as a movement of practices and ideas to which specific groups and identifiable persons variously responded in different times and places . It would be in this sense a network of diverse , sometimes converging , sometimes conflicting cultures , not a single , time - bound culture '' .
Citizenship
Roman citizenship reflected a struggle between the upper - class patrician interests against the lower - order working groups known as the plebeian class . A citizen came to be understood as a person `` free to act by law , free to ask and expect the law 's protection , a citizen of such and such a legal community , of such and such a legal standing in that community '' . Citizenship meant having rights to have possessions , immunities , expectations , which were `` available in many kinds and degrees , available or unavailable to many kinds of person for many kinds of reason '' . The law itself was a kind of bond uniting people . Roman citizenship was more impersonal , universal , multiform , having different degrees and applications .