vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Human brain
The Edwin Smith Papyrus , an ancient Egyptian medical treatise written in the 17th century BC , contains the earliest recorded reference to the brain . The hieroglyph for brain , occurring eight times in this papyrus , describes the symptoms , diagnosis , and prognosis of two traumatic injuries to the head . The papyrus mentions the external surface of the brain , the effects of injury ( including seizures and aphasia ) , the meninges , and cerebrospinal fluid .
Autophagy
Alternatively , autophagy has also been shown to play a huge role in tumor cell survival . In cancerous cells , autophagy is used as a way to deal with stress on the cell . Once these autophagy related genes were inhibited , cell death was potentiated . The increase in metabolic energy is offset by autophagy functions . These metabolic stresses include hypoxia , nutrient deprivation , and an increase in proliferation . These stresses activate autophagy in order to recycle ATP and maintain survival of the cancerous cells . Autophagy has been shown to enable continued growth of tumor cells by maintaining cellular energy production . By inhibiting autophagy genes in these tumors cells , regression of the tumor and extended survival of the organs affected by the tumors were found . Furthermore , inhibition of autophagy has also been shown to enhance the effectiveness of anticancer therapies .
Tyrannosaurus
A study from Currie , Horner , Erickson and Longrich in 2010 has been put forward as evidence of cannibalism in the genus Tyrannosaurus . They studied some Tyrannosaurus specimens with tooth marks in the bones , attributable to the same genus . The tooth marks were identified in the humerus , foot bones and metatarsals , and this was seen as evidence for opportunistic scavenging , rather than wounds caused by intraspecific combat . In a fight , they proposed it would be difficult to reach down to bite in the feet of a rival , making it more likely that the bite marks were made in a carcass . As the bite marks were made in body parts with relatively scanty amounts of flesh , it is suggested that the Tyrannosaurus was feeding on a carcass in which the more fleshy parts had already been consumed . They were also open to the possibility that other tyrannosaurids practiced cannibalism . Other evidence for cannibalism has been unearthed . Pack
Smooth muscle tissue
Smooth muscle in various regions of the vascular tree , the airway and lungs , kidneys and vagina is different in their expression of ionic channels , hormone receptors , cell - signaling pathways , and other proteins that determine function . External
Lumbar vertebrae
The vertebral body of each lumbar vertebra is large , wider from side to side than from front to back , and a little thicker in front than in back . It is flattened or slightly concave above and below , concave behind , and deeply constricted in front and at the sides . Arch
Evidence of common descent
In addition , Cytochrome b is commonly used as a region of mitochondrial DNA to determine phylogenetic relationships between organisms due to its sequence variability . It is considered most useful in determining relationships within families and genera . Comparative studies involving cytochrome b have resulted in new classification schemes and have been used to assign newly described species to a genus , as well as deepen the understanding of evolutionary relationships . Endogenous
PageRank
For the analysis of protein networks in biology PageRank is also a useful tool .
Hippocampus
Areas of the hippocampus are shown to be functionally and anatomically distinct . The dorsal hippocampus ( DH ) , ventral hippocampus ( VH ) and intermediate hippocampus serve different functions , project with differing pathways , and have varying degrees of place cells . The dorsal hippocampus serves for spatial memory , verbal memory , and learning of conceptual information . Using the radial arm maze , lesions in the DH were shown to cause spatial memory impairment while VH lesions did not . Its projecting pathways include the medial septal nucleus and supramammillary nucleus . The dorsal hippocampus also has more place cells than both the ventral and intermediate hippocampal regions .
Eukaryote
Some eukaryotes , such as the metamonads such as Giardia and Trichomonas , and the amoebozoan Pelomyxa , appear to lack mitochondria , but all have been found to contain mitochondrion - derived organelles , such as hydrogenosomes and mitosomes , and thus have lost their mitochondria secondarily . They obtain energy by enzymatic action on nutrients absorbed from the environment . The metamonad Monocercomonoides has also acquired , by lateral gene transfer , a cytosolic sulfur mobilisation system which provides the clusters of iron and sulfur required for protein synthesis . The normal mitochondrial iron - sulfur cluster pathway has been lost secondarily .
Human brain
Human brain Human brain and skull Cerebral lobes : the frontal lobe ( pink ) , parietal lobe ( green ) and occipital lobe ( blue ) Details Precursor Neural tube System Central nervous system Neuroimmune system Artery Internal carotid arteries , vertebral arteries Vein Internal jugular vein , internal cerebral veins , external veins : ( superior and inferior cerebral veins , and middle cerebral veins ) , basal vein , terminal vein , choroid vein , cerebellar veins Identifiers Latin Cerebrum Greek ἐγκέφαλος ( enképhalos ) MeSH D001921 TA A14. 1.03. 001 FMA 50801 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata )
Health care in the United States
The federal Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services ( CMS ) publishes an on - line searchable database of performance data on nursing homes .
Pharynx
All vertebrates have a pharynx , used in both feeding and respiration . The pharynx arises during development in all vertebrates through a series of six or more outpocketings on the lateral sides of the head . These outpocketings are pharyngeal arches , and they give rise to a number of different structures in the skeletal , muscular and circulatory systems . The structure of the pharynx varies across the vertebrates . It differs in dogs , horses and ruminants . In dogs a single duct connects the nasopharynx to the nasal cavity . The tonsils are a compact mass which point away from the lumen of the pharynx . In the horse the auditory tube opens into the guttural pouch and the tonsils are diffuse and raised slightly . Horses are unable to breathe through the mouth as the free apex of the rostral epiglottis lies dorsal to the soft palate in a normal horse . In ruminants the tonsils are a compact mass which point towards the lumen of the pharynx .
Myelin
Functionally equivalent myelin - like sheaths are found in several invertebrate taxa including Oligochaete , Penaeid , Palaemonid , and Calanoids . These myelin - like sheaths share several structural features with the sheaths found in vertebrates including multiplicity of membranes , condensation of membrane , and nodes . However , the nodes in vertebrates are annular ; i.e. they encircle the axon . In contrast , nodes found in the sheaths of invertebrates are either annular or fenestrated ; i.e. they are restricted to `` spots . '' It is notable that the fastest recorded conduction speed ( across both vertebrates and invertebrates ) is found in the ensheathed axons of the Kuruma shrimp , an invertebrate , ranging between 90 and 200 m / s ( cf 100 - 120 m / s for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon . )
Bohr effect
Another special case of the Bohr effect occurs when carbon monoxide is present . This molecule serves as a competitive inhibitor for oxygen , and binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin . haemoglobin 's affinity for CO is about 250 times stronger than its affinity for O , meaning that it is very unlikely to dissociate , and once bound , it blocks the binding of O to that subunit . At the same time , CO is structurally similar enough to O to cause carboxyhaemoglobin to favor the R state , raising the oxygen affinity of the remaining unoccupied subunits . This combination significantly reduces the delivery of oxygen to the tissues of the body , which is what makes carbon monoxide so toxic . This toxicity is reduced slightly by an increase in the strength of the Bohr effect in the presence of carboxyhaemoglobin . This increase is ultimately due to differences in interactions between heme groups in carboxyhaemoglobin relative to oxygenated haemoglobin . It is most pronounced when the oxygen concentration is extremely low , as a last - ditch effort when the need for oxygen delivery becomes critical . However , the physiological implications of this phenomenon remain unclear .
Lumbar vertebrae
As with other vertebrae , each lumbar vertebra consists of a vertebral body and a vertebral arch . The vertebral arch , consisting of a pair of pedicles and a pair of laminae , encloses the vertebral foramen ( opening ) and supports seven processes . Body
Dead Sea
The Dead Sea area has become a location for health research and potential treatment for several reasons . The mineral content of the water , the low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere , the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation , and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each may have specific health effects . For example , persons experiencing reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure .
Endomembrane system
The plasma membrane of a cell has multiple functions . These include transporting nutrients into the cell , allowing waste to leave , preventing materials from entering the cell , averting needed materials from leaving the cell , maintaining the pH of the cytosol , and preserving the osmotic pressure of the cytosol . Transport proteins which allow some materials to pass through but not others are used for these functions . These proteins use ATP hydrolysis to pump materials against their concentration gradients .
Neuroanatomy of memory
The frontal lobes are located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned anterior to the parietal lobes . It is separated from the parietal lobe by the primary motor cortex , which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts associated with the precentral gyrus . The cortex here serves our ability to plan the day , organize work , type a letter , pay attention to details and control the movements of your arms and legs . It also contributed to your personality and behaviour .
Autophagy
The role of autophagy in cancer is one that has been highly researched and reviewed . There is evidence that emphasizes the role of autophagy both as a tumor suppressor as well as a factor in tumor cell survival . However , recent research has been able to show that autophagy is more likely to be used as a tumor suppressor according to several models .
Lobes of the brain
The frontal lobe contains most of the dopamine - delicate neurons in the cerebral cortex . The dopamine system is associated with reward , attention , short - term memory tasks , planning , and motivation . Dopamine tends to limit and select sensory information arriving from the thalamus to the forebrain . A report from the National Institute of Mental Health says a gene variant that reduces dopamine activity in the prefrontal cortex is related to poorer performance and inefficient functioning of that brain region during working memory tasks , and to a slightly increased risk for schizophrenia .
Physics of magnetic resonance imaging
In the static magnetic fields commonly used in MRI , the energy difference between the nuclear spin states corresponds to a radio - frequency photon . Resonant absorption of energy by the protons due to an external oscillating magnetic field will occur at the Larmor frequency for the particular nucleus .
Lumbar vertebrae
The first lumbar vertebra is level with the anterior end of the ninth rib . This level is also called the important transpyloric plane , since the pylorus of the stomach is at this level . Other important structures are also located at this level , they include ; fundus of the gall bladder , celiac trunk , superior mesenteric artery , termination of spinal cord , beginning of filum terminalis , renal vessels , middle suprarenal arteries , and hila of kidneys .
Endomembrane system
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer membrane that separates the cell from its environment and regulates the transport of molecules and signals into and out of the cell . Embedded in the membrane are proteins that perform the functions of the plasma membrane . The plasma membrane is not a fixed or rigid structure , the molecules that compose the membrane are capable of lateral movement . This movement and the multiple components of the membrane are why it is referred to as a fluid mosaic . Smaller molecules such as carbon dioxide , water , and oxygen can pass through the plasma membrane freely by diffusion or osmosis . Larger molecules needed by the cell are assisted by proteins through active transport .
Mitochondrion
The outer mitochondrial membrane , which encloses the entire organelle , is 60 to 75 angstroms ( Å ) thick . It has a protein - to - phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane ( about 1 : 1 by weight ) . It contains large numbers of integral membrane proteins called porins . These porins form channels that allow molecules of 5000 daltons or less in molecular weight to freely diffuse from one side of the membrane to the other . Larger proteins can enter the mitochondrion if a signaling sequence at their N - terminus binds to a large multisubunit protein called translocase of the outer membrane , which then actively moves them across the membrane . Mitochondrial pro-proteins are imported through specialised translocation complexes . The outer membrane also contains enzymes involved in such diverse activities as the elongation of fatty acids , oxidation of epinephrine , and the degradation of tryptophan . These enzymes include monoamine oxidase , rotenone - insensitive NADH - cytochrome c - reductase , kynurenine hydroxylase and fatty acid Co-A ligase . Disruption of the outer membrane permits proteins in the intermembrane space to leak into the cytosol , leading to certain cell death . The mitochondrial outer membrane can associate with the endoplasmic reticulum ( ER ) membrane , in a structure called MAM ( mitochondria - associated ER - membrane ) . This is important in the ER - mitochondria calcium signaling and is involved in the transfer of lipids between the ER and mitochondria . Outside the outer membrane there are small ( diameter : 60Å ) particles named sub-units of Parson .
Neuroanatomy of memory
The neuroanatomy of memory encompasses a wide variety of anatomical structures in the brain .
Wetland
The impact of maintaining biodiversity is seen at the local level through job creation , sustainability , and community productivity . A good example is the Lower Mekong basin which runs through Cambodia , Laos , and Vietnam . Supporting over 55 million people , the sustainability of the region is enhanced through wildlife tours . The U.S. state of Florida has estimated that US $1.6 billion was generated in state revenue from recreational activities associated with wildlife . Sustainable harvesting for medicinal remedies found in native wetlands plants in the Caribbean and Australia include the red mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle ) which possesses antibacterial , wound - healing , anti-ulcer effects , and antioxidant properties .
Substantia nigra
Dopamine and serotonin Degradation of substantia nigra associated with Parkinson 's disease . Horizontal MRI ( T1 weighted ) slice with highlighting indicating location of the substantia nigra . Enhanced Neuromelanin MRI with Color images ( RGB ) showing Substantia nigra pars compacta
Mitochondrion
Monocercomonoides appear to have lost their mitochondria completely and at least some of the mitochondrial functions seem to be carried out by cytoplasmic proteins now .
Factory Acts
Permanent deterioration of the physical constitution : The production of disease often wholly irremediable : and The partial or entire exclusion ( by reason of excessive fatigue ) from the means of obtaining adequate education and acquiring useful habits , or of profiting by those means when afforded
Dental anesthesia
Abnormal position of the mandibular foramen Needle bending during the injection The tooth and the surrounding tissue may not be fully anaesthetised due to accessory nerve supply Lingual nerve Long buccal nerve Mylohyoid nerve Auriculotemporal nerve Upper cervical nerve Complications
Tooth decay
Destroyed tooth structure does not fully regenerate , although remineralization of very small carious lesions may occur if dental hygiene is kept at optimal level . For the small lesions , topical fluoride is sometimes used to encourage remineralization . For larger lesions , the progression of dental caries can be stopped by treatment . The goal of treatment is to preserve tooth structures and prevent further destruction of the tooth . Aggressive treatment , by filling , of incipient carious lesions , places where there is superficial damage to the enamel , is controversial as they may heal themselves , while once a filling is performed it will eventually have to be redone and the site serves as a vulnerable site for further decay .
Military history of the United States during World War II
Many have chronic dysentery or other disease , and almost all show chronic fatigue states ... They appear listless , unkempt , careless , and apathetic with almost masklike facial expression . Speech is slow , thought content is poor , they complain of chronic headaches , insomnia , memory defect , feel forgotten , worry about themselves , are afraid of new assignments , have no sense of responsibility , and are hopeless about the future . '' Marine
Tooth decay
Tooth decay Synonyms Dental caries , cavities , caries Destruction of a tooth by dental caries . Pronunciation Caries / ˈkɛər. iː z / Specialty Dentistry Symptoms Pain , tooth loss , difficulty eating Complications Inflammation around the tooth , tooth loss , infection or abscess formation Duration Long term Causes Bacteria producing acid from food debris Risk factors Diet high in simple sugar , diabetes mellitus , Sjogren 's syndrome , medications that decrease saliva Prevention Low sugar diet , teeth brushing , fluoride Medication Paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) , ibuprofen Frequency 2.3 billion ( 2015 ) ( edit on Wikidata )
Neuron
Demyelination is the act of demyelinating , or the loss of the myelin sheath insulating the nerves . When myelin degrades , conduction of signals along the nerve can be impaired or lost , and the nerve eventually withers . This leads to certain neurodegenerative disorders like multiple sclerosis and chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy .
Mercury pollution in the ocean
Oceanic mercury pollution presents a serious threat to human health . The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) states that mercury consumption by people of all ages can result in loss of peripheral vision , weakened muscles , impairment of hearing and speech , and deteriorated movement coordination . Infants and developing children face even more serious health risks because mercury exposure inhibits proper brain and nervous system development , damaging memory , cognitive thinking , language abilities , attention , and fine motor skills . The case of Minamata disease that occurred in Minamata Bay , Japan in the 1950s demonstrated the frightening effects of exposure to extremely high concentrations of mercury . Adult patients experienced extreme salivation , limb deformity , and irreversible dysarthria and intelligence loss . In children and fetuses ( exposed to mercury through the mother 's consumption of contaminated seafood ) , extensive brain lesions were observed and the patients experienced more serious effects like cerebral palsy , mental retardation , and primitive reflexes . In order to avoid the toxic effects of mercury exposure , the United States EPA advises a mercury dose limit of 0.1 μg / kg / day .
Autophagy
Mitophagy is the selective degradation of mitochondria by autophagy . It often occurs to defective mitochondria following damage or stress . Mitophagy promotes turnover of mitochondria and prevents accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria which can lead to cellular degeneration . It is mediated by Atg32 ( in yeast ) and NIX and its regulator BNIP3 in mammals . Mitophagy is regulated by PINK1 and parkin proteins . The occurrence of mitophagy is not limited to the damaged mitochondria but also involves undamaged ones .
Tooth decay
Some dental researchers have cautioned against the use of dental explorers to find caries , in particular sharp ended explorers . In cases where a small area of tooth has begun demineralizing but has not yet cavitated , the pressure from the dental explorer could cause a cavity . Since the carious process is reversible before a cavity is present , it may be possible to arrest caries with fluoride and remineralize the tooth surface . When a cavity is present , a restoration will be needed to replace the lost tooth structure .
Heart valve
Regurgitation occurs when a valve becomes insufficient and malfunctions , allowing some blood to flow in the wrong direction . This insufficiency can affect any of the valves as in aortic insufficiency , mitral insufficiency , pulmonary insufficiency and tricuspid insufficiency . The other form of valvular heart disease is stenosis , a narrowing of the valve . This is a result of the valve becoming thickened and any of the heart valves can be affected , as in mitral valve stenosis , tricuspid valve stenosis , pulmonary valve stenosis and aortic valve stenosis . Stenosis of the mitral valve is a common complication of rheumatic fever . Inflammation of the valves can be caused by infective endocarditis , usually a bacterial infection but can sometimes be caused by other organisms . Bacteria can more readily attach to damaged valves . Another type of endocarditis which does n't provoke an inflammatory response , is nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis . This is commonly found on previously undamaged valves . A major valvular heart disease is mitral valve prolapse , which is a weakening of connective tissue called myxomatous degeneration of the valve . This sees the displacement of a thickened mitral valve cusp into the left atrium during systole .
Tooth decay
An extraction can also serve as treatment for dental caries . The removal of the decayed tooth is performed if the tooth is too far destroyed from the decay process to effectively restore the tooth . Extractions are sometimes considered if the tooth lacks an opposing tooth or will probably cause further problems in the future , as may be the case for wisdom teeth . Extractions may also be preferred by people unable or unwilling to undergo the expense or difficulties in restoring the tooth .
Mechanism of action of aspirin
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Keeping up with the Joneses
Inability to `` keep up with the Joneses '' might result in dissatisfaction , even for people whose status is high .