vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Nine Years' War
The Treaty of Nijmegen ( 1678 ) and the earlier Treaty of Westphalia ( 1648 ) provided Louis XIV with the justification for the Reunions . These treaties had awarded France territorial gains , but because of the vagaries of the language ( as with most treaties of the period ) they were notoriously imprecise and self - contradictory , and never specified exact boundary lines . This imprecision often led to differing interpretations of the text resulting in long - standing disputes over the frontier zones -- one gained a town or area and its ' dependencies ' , but it was often unclear what these dependencies were . The machinery needed to determine these territorial ambiguities was already in place through the medium of the Parlements at Metz ( technically the only ' Chamber of Reunion ' ) , Besançon , and a superior court at Breisach , dealing respectively with Lorraine , Franche - Comté , and Alsace . Unsurprisingly , these courts usually found in Louis XIV 's favour . By 1680 the disputed County of Montbéliard ( lying between Franche - Comté and Alsace ) had been separated from the Duchy of Württemberg , and by August , Louis XIV had secured the whole of Alsace with the exception of Strasbourg . The Chamber of Reunion of Metz soon laid claims to land around the Three Bishoprics of Metz , Toul , and Verdun , and most of the Spanish Duchy of Luxembourg . The fortress of Luxembourg itself was subsequently blockaded with the intention of it becoming part of Louis XIV 's defensible frontier . Holy
Congress of Vienna
Russia was given most of the Duchy of Warsaw ( Poland ) and was allowed to keep Finland ( which it had annexed from Sweden in 1809 and held until 1917 ) . Prussia was given three fifths of Saxony , parts of the Duchy of Warsaw ( the Grand Duchy of Posen ) , Danzig , and the Rhineland / Westphalia . A German Confederation of 38 states was created from the previous 360 of the Holy Roman Empire , under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor . Only portions of the territory of Austria and Prussia were included in the Confederation . The Netherlands and the Southern Netherlands ( approx . modern - day Belgium ) were united in a monarchy , the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , with the House of Orange - Nassau providing the king ( the Eight Articles of London ) . To compensate for the Orange - Nassau 's loss of the Nassau lands to Prussia , the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg were to form a personal union under the House of Orange - Nassau , with Luxembourg ( but not the Netherlands ) inside the German Confederation . Swedish Pomerania , given to Denmark a year earlier in return for Norway , was ceded by Denmark to Prussia . France received back Guadeloupe from Sweden in return for yearly installments to the Swedish king . The neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed . Hanover gave up the Duchy of Lauenburg to Denmark , but was enlarged by the addition of former territories of the Bishop of Münster and by the formerly Prussian East Frisia , and made a kingdom . Most of the territorial gains of Bavaria , Württemberg , Baden , Hesse - Darmstadt , and Nassau under the mediatizations of 1801 -- 1806 were recognized . Bavaria also gained control of the Rhenish Palatinate and parts of the Napoleonic Duchy of Würzburg and Grand Duchy of Frankfurt . Hesse - Darmstadt , in exchange for giving up the Duchy of Westphalia to Prussia , received Rhenish Hesse with its capital at Mainz . Austria regained control of the Tyrol and Salzburg ; of the former Illyrian Provinces ; of Tarnopol district ( from Russia ) ; received Lombardy - Venetia in Italy and Ragusa in Dalmatia . Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of Württemberg and Baden , and the Austrian Netherlands were also not recovered . Habsburg princes were returned to control of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Modena .
Central Powers
Central Powers Mittelmächte ( German ) Központi hatalmak ( Hungarian ) İttifak Devletleri ( Turkish ) Централни сили ( Bulgarian ) Military alliance 1914 -- 1918 Allied Powers ( and their colonies ) Central Powers ( and their colonies ) Neutral Powers Quadruple Alliance : Germany Austria - Hungary Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Co-belligerent states : Dervish State Transvaal Sultanate of Darfur Client states : Azerbaijan Belarus Courland and Semigallia Crim Don Finland Jabal Shammar Kuban Lithuania Northern Caucasus Poland Ukraine Georgia United Baltic Duchy Capital none ( de jure ) Berlin ( de facto ) Political structure Military alliance Historical era World War I Dual Alliance ( Germany / Austria - Hungary ) 7 October 1879 Established 28 June 1914 Ottoman -- German Alliance 2 August 1914 Bulgaria -- Germany treaty 6 September 1915 ( secret ) 14 October 1915 ( public ) Dissolved 11 November 1918
Triple Alliance (1882)
Triple Alliance Dreibund Hármas szövetség Triplice alleanza Tripla Alianță Military alliance 1882 -- 1915 The Triple Alliance in 1913 Capital none ( de jure ) Berlin ( de facto ) Political structure Military alliance Historical era Belle Époque Dual Alliance ( Germany / Austria - Hungary ) 7 October 1879 Triple Alliance ( Germany / Austria - Hungary / Italy ) 20 May 1882 Romania secretly joins 18 October 1883 Italy leaves 3 May 1915 Preceded by Succeeded by Dual Alliance ( 1879 ) Central powers
Articles of Confederation
The Articles , however , were unsigned , and the date was blank . Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27 , 1778 . They ordered a final copy prepared ( the one in the National Archives ) , and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification .
Timeline of World War I
Dates Events January 5 -- 17 Austro - Hungarian offensive against Montenegro , which capitulates . Details January 6 -- 7 Battle of Mojkovac January 6 -- 8 Battle of Sheikh Sa'ad , a phase of the First Siege of Kut . January 9 The Gallipoli Campaign ends in an Allied defeat and an Ottoman victory . Details January 10 -- February 16 Battle of Erzurum . January 11 Corfu occupied by the Allies . Details January 13 Battle of Wadi , a phase of the First Siege of Kut . Details January 21 Battle of Hanna , a phase of the First Siege of Kut . January 24 Reinhard Scheer is appointed commander of Germany 's Hochseeflotte . Details January 27 Conscription introduced in the United Kingdom by the Military Service Act 1916 . Details February 5 -- April 15 Trebizond Campaign . February 12 Battle of Salaita Hill . February 21 The Battle of Verdun begins . February 26 Battle of Agagia , Senussi rebellion suppressed by the British . February 28 German Kamerun ( Cameroon ) surrenders . Details March 1 Germany resumes unrestricted submarine warfare . Details March 1 -- 15 Fifth Battle of the Isonzo . March 2 -- August 4 Battle of Bitlis . March 8 Battle of Dujaila : a British attempt to relieve Kut failed . Details March 9 Germany declares war on Portugal . Portugal officially enters the war . Details March 11 -- 12 Battle of Latema Nek . March 14 The Manifesto of the Sixteen , declaring Kropotkinist - anarchist support of the Allied war effort , is published . Details March 18 Battle of Kahe . March 18 -- April Lake Naroch Offensive . April 24 -- 29 Easter Rising by Irish rebels for independence from the United Kingdom . Details April 24 -- 30 The Kienthal Conference , the second meeting of the anti-war socialist Zimmerwald Movement , is held in Kienthal , Switzerland . Details April 27 -- 29 Gas attacks at Hulluch . April 29 The British forces under siege at Kut surrender to the Ottomans , first siege of Kut ends .
Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states for ratification in November 1777 . The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16 , 1777 ; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779 , 14 months into the process . The lone holdout , Maryland , refused to go along until the landed states , especially Virginia , had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union . It would be two years before the Maryland General Assembly became satisfied that the various states would follow through , and voted to ratify . During this time , Congress observed the Articles as its de facto frame of government . Maryland finally ratified the Articles on February 2 , 1781 . Congress was informed of Maryland 's assent on March 1 , and officially proclaimed the Articles of Confederation to be the law of the land .
French Revolution
The stalemate was broken in the summer of 1794 with dramatic French victories . They defeated the allied army at the Battle of Fleurus , leading to a full Allied withdrawal from the Austrian Netherlands . They followed with a campaign that swept the allies to the east bank of the Rhine and allowed the French , by the beginning of 1795 , to conquer the Dutch Republic itself . The House of Orange was expelled and replaced by the Batavian Republic , a French satellite state . These victories led to the collapse of the coalition against France . Prussia , having effectively abandoned the coalition in the fall of 1794 , made peace with revolutionary France at Basel in April 1795 , and soon thereafter Spain , too , made peace with France . Of the major powers , only Britain and Austria remained at war with France .
Secession in the United States
In late 1777 the Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states . The confederation government was administered de facto by the Congress under the provisions of the approved ( final ) draft of the Articles until they achieved ratification -- and de jure status -- in early 1781 . In 1786 delegates of five states ( the Annapolis Convention ) called for a convention of delegates in Philadelphia to amend the Articles -- which would require unanimous consent of the thirteen states .
Articles of Confederation
Articles of Confederation Page I of the Articles of Confederation Created November 15 , 1777 Ratified March 1 , 1781 Location National Archives Author ( s ) Continental Congress Signatories Continental Congress Purpose First constitution for the United States ; replaced by the current United States Constitution on March 4 , 1789
World War I
Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic . The legend of the `` stab in the back '' and the wish to revise the `` Versailles diktat '' , and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics . Even a man of peace such as ( Gustav ) Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt . As for the Nazis , they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanize the German nation into a spirit of revenge . Like a Fascist Italy , Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its own policies .
World War I
By the end of the war or soon after , the German Empire , Russian Empire , Austro - Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist . National borders were redrawn , with 9 independent nations restored or created , and Germany 's colonies were parceled out among the victors . During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , the Big Four ( Britain , France , the United States and Italy ) imposed their terms in a series of treaties . The League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict . This effort failed , and economic depression , renewed nationalism , weakened successor states , and feelings of humiliation ( particularly in Germany ) eventually contributed to the start of World War II .
Causes of World War II
One of the Nazi party 's points was `` We demand the unification of all Germans in the Greater Germany on the basis of the people 's right to self - determination . ''
National Convention
When the Convention met the military situation was undergoing an extraordinary transformation that seemed to confirm the Girondin prophecies of easy victory . After Valmy the Prussians withdrew to the frontier , and in November French troops occupied the left bank of the Rhine . The Austrians , who had besieged Lille in October , were defeated by Dumouriez at the Battle of Jemappes on 6 November and evacuated the Austrian Netherlands . Nice was occupied and Savoy proclaimed its union with France . These successes made it safe to quarrel at home .
Codetermination in Germany
1848 The Frankfurt Parliament processed a minority proposal for industry organisation that included boundaries for corporate power by setting up works councils . 1850 The first workers ' committees were established in four printing houses in Eilenburg , Saxony . 1891 After the repeal of the Sozialistengesetz workers ' committees could be founded freely . However , this happened only where there were active unions . 1905 In reaction to a strike in the Ruhr coalmines , the Prussian Berggesetz introduced workers ' committees in mining companies with more than 100 workers . 1916 The Auxiliary Services Act ( 1916 ) ( Gesetz des Vaterländischen Hilfsdiensts ) created workers ' committees for all companies producing for the war effort with more than 50 workers . These committees had the right to be consulted in social affairs . 1920 The Betriebsrätegesetz ( Works Council Act ) mandated consultative bodies for workers in businesses with more than 20 employees . The social and economic interests of workers were to be represented and considered to the management . 1934 After the Nazis seized power , works councils were abolished and unions were broken up . 1946 / 47 The Allied Control Council , through the Kontrollratsgesetz No. 22 , allowed works councils as in the Weimar Republic . 1951 The Montan - Mitbestimmungsgesetz ( Coal , Steel and Mining Codetermination Law ) required codetermination in businesses with more than 1,000 employees through workers ' representatives making up one half of the supervisory boards . 1952 The Betriebsverfassungsgesetz mandated participation of workers at shopfloor level through works councils . 1955 The Bundespersonalvertretungsgesetz allowed codetermination among members of the civil services in the Federation and the German states . 1972 The Betriebsverfassungsgesetz was updated and reissued . 1976 The Mitbestimmungsgesetz required codetermination in all companies with more than 2,000 employees .
Republic
Republicanism expanded significantly in the aftermath of World War I , when several of the largest European empires collapsed : the Russian Empire ( 1917 ) , German Empire ( 1918 ) , Austro - Hungarian Empire ( 1918 ) , and Ottoman Empire ( 1922 ) were all replaced by republics . New states gained independence during this turmoil , and many of these , such as Ireland , Poland , Finland and Czechoslovakia , chose republican forms of government . Following Greece 's defeat in the Greco - Turkish War ( 1919 -- 22 ) , the monarchy was briefly replaced by the Second Hellenic Republic ( 1924 -- 35 ) . In 1931 , the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic ( 1931 -- 39 ) resulted in the Spanish Civil War that would be the prelude of World War II .
Switzerland–European Union relations
3 December 1972 : free trade agreement with the European Communities is approved by 72.5 % of voters 6 December 1992 : joining the European Economic Area is rejected by 50.3 % of voters . This vote strongly highlighted the cultural divide between the German - and the French - speaking cantons , the Röstigraben . The only German - speaking cantons voting for the EEA were Basel - Stadt and Basel - Landschaft , which border on France and Germany . 8 June 1997 : the federal popular initiative `` negotiations concerning EU membership : let the people decide ! '' on requiring the approval of a referendum and the Cantons to launch accession negotiations with the EU ( `` Négociations d'adhésion à l'UE : que le peuple décide ! '' ) is rejected by 74.1 % of voters . 21 May 2000 : the Bilateral agreements with the EU are accepted by 67.2 % of voters . 4 March 2001 : the federal popular initiative `` yes to Europe ! '' ( `` Oui à l'Europe ! '' ) on opening accession negotiations with the EU is rejected by 76.8 % of voters . 5 June 2005 : the Schengen Agreement and the Dublin Regulation are approved by 54.6 % of voters . 25 September 2005 : the extension of the free movement of persons to the ten new members of the European Union is accepted by 56.0 % of voters . 26 November 2006 : a cohesion contribution of one billion for the ten new member states of the European Union ( Eastern Europe Cooperation Act ) is approved by 53.4 % of voters . 8 February 2009 : the extension of the free movement of persons to new EU members Bulgaria and Romania is approved by 59.61 % of voters . 17 May 2009 : introduction of biometric passports , as required by the Schengen acquis , is approved by 50.15 % of voters . 17 June 2012 : the federal popular initiative `` international agreements : let the people speak ! '' ( `` Accords internationaux : la parole au peuple ! '' ) on requiring all international treaties to be approved in a referendum launched by the Campaign for an Independent and Neutral Switzerland is rejected by 75.3 % of voters . 9 February 2014 : the federal popular initiative `` against mass immigration '' , which would limit the free movement of people from EU member states , is accepted by 50.3 % of voters .
Renaissance
The word Renaissance , literally meaning `` Rebirth '' in French , first appeared in English in the 1830s . The word also occurs in Jules Michelet 's 1855 work , Histoire de France . The word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements , such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century .
World War I
Ludendorff drew up plans ( codenamed Operation Michael ) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front . The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British and French forces with a series of feints and advances . The German leadership hoped to end the war before significant U.S. forces arrived . The operation commenced on 21 March 1918 , with an attack on British forces near Saint - Quentin . German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) .
American Revolutionary War
Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782 , while preliminaries between Britain , Spain , France , and the Netherlands continued until September 1783 . The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14 , 1784 . Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved , the first reaching France in March 1784 . British ratification occurred on April 9 , 1784 , and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12 , 1784 . The war formally concluded on September 3 , 1783 .
Armistice of 11 November 1918
Matthias Erzberger , a civilian politician . Count Alfred von Oberndorff ( de ) , from the Foreign Ministry Major General Detlof von Winterfeldt , army Captain Ernst Vanselow , navy
Second Battle of the Marne
Second Battle of the Marne Part of the Western Front of World War I German Offensives 1918 Date 15 July -- 6 August 1918 Location Marne River near Paris , France 49 ° 5 ′ N 3 ° 40 ′ E ﻿ / ﻿ 49.083 ° N 3.667 ° E ﻿ / 49.083 ; 3.667 Coordinates : 49 ° 5 ′ N 3 ° 40 ′ E ﻿ / ﻿ 49.083 ° N 3.667 ° E ﻿ / 49.083 ; 3.667 Result Entente victory Belligerents France United States United Kingdom Kingdom of Italy Siam German Empire Commanders and leaders Ferdinand Foch Paul André Maistre Antoine de Mitry Marie Émile Fayolle Charles Mangin Henri Gouraud Erich Ludendorff Karl von Einem Bruno von Mudra Max von Boehn Johannes von Eben Strength 44 French divisions 8 American divisions 4 British divisions 2 Italian divisions 408 heavy guns 360 field batteries 346 tanks 52 divisions 609 heavy guns 1,047 field batteries Casualties and losses : 95,165 dead or wounded : 16,552 dead or wounded : 12,000 dead or wounded : 9,000 dead or wounded 139,000 dead or wounded 29,367 captured 793 guns lost
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire
Within three minutes , the Greene Street stairway became unusable in both directions . Terrified employees crowded onto the single exterior fire escape , which city officials had allowed Asch to erect instead of the required third staircase . It was a flimsy and poorly anchored iron structure which may have been broken before the fire . It soon twisted and collapsed from the heat and overload , spilling about 20 victims nearly 100 feet ( 30 m ) to their deaths on the concrete pavement below . Elevator operators Joseph Zito and Gaspar Mortillalo saved many lives by traveling three times up to the ninth floor for passengers , but Mortillalo was eventually forced to give up when the rails of his elevator buckled under the heat . Some victims pried the elevator doors open and jumped into the empty shaft , trying to slide down the cables or to land on top of the car . The weight and impacts of these bodies warped the elevator car and made it impossible for Zito to make another attempt . William Gunn Shepard , a reporter at the tragedy , would say that `` I learned a new sound that day , a sound more horrible than description can picture -- the thud of a speeding living body on a stone sidewalk '' . Even once firefighters arrived , their ladders were only long enough to reach as high as the sixth to seventh floors .
Casualties of the Iraq War
For the latest casualty numbers see the overview chart at the top of the page . See also the icasualties.org site :
First Battle of the Marne
First Battle of the Marne Part of the Western Front of World War I German soldiers ( wearing distinctive pickelhaube helmets with cloth covers ) on the front line at the First Battle of the Marne . Date 6 -- 12 September 1914 Location Marne River near Brasles , east of Paris , France 49 ° 1 ′ N 3 ° 23 ′ E ﻿ / ﻿ 49.017 ° N 3.383 ° E ﻿ / 49.017 ; 3.383 Coordinates : 49 ° 1 ′ N 3 ° 23 ′ E ﻿ / ﻿ 49.017 ° N 3.383 ° E ﻿ / 49.017 ; 3.383 Result Decisive Franco - British victory Belligerents France United Kingdom Germany Commanders and leaders Joseph Joffre Joseph Gallieni Helmuth von Moltke Strength 1,071,000 39 French divisions 6 British divisions 1,485,000 ( on 2 August ) 27 German divisions Casualties and losses 250,000 ( including 80,000 dead ) 13,000 ( including 1,700 dead ) 250,000 ( including 67,700 dead )
Military history of Australia during World War I
Ultimately the Gallipoli campaign was a disastrous failure . It did not achieve any of the objectives that had been given as a justification for it , and due to the inexperience of high commanders and mismanagement there were an unacceptably high number of casualties amongst the participating troops , not only from as a result of combat , but also due to widespread disease that resulted from poor sanitation and hygiene in the front lines and a breakdown in the casualty clearance and resupply and logistics systems . It has been estimated that over the course of the campaign there were 26,111 Australian casualties with 8,141 killed . Other Allied casualties -- killed and wounded -- included : 7,571 New Zealanders , 120,000 British and 27,000 French .
Transport in London
The following table shows the number of casualties , grouped by severity , on the roads of Greater London ( including the City of London ) , over recent years .
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire
Plans for the memorial include steel panels that wrap around the building , as well as upper and lower panels that will list the names of the victims and tell the story of the fire . A reflective steel beam will extend from the corner of the building to the eighth floor , the place of origin for the fire .
National identification number
The RUN or RUT has 7 or 8 digits ( for people alive today ; in the past , there were persons with a 5 - or 6 - digit one , but have died off ) plus a check digit or letter ( xx. xxx. xxx - z , z is ( 0 - 9 , K ) ) .