vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Tyrannosaurus
While there is no direct evidence for Tyrannosaurus rex having had feathers , many scientists now consider it likely that T. rex had feathers on at least parts of its body , due to their presence in related species . Mark Norell of the American Museum of Natural History summarized the balance of evidence by stating that : `` we have as much evidence that T. rex was feathered , at least during some stage of its life , as we do that australopithecines like Lucy had hair . ''
Tapioca balls
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Penny board
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Charlotte's Web
The arachnid anatomical terms ( mentioned in the beginning of chapter nine ) and other information that White used , came mostly from American Spiders by Willis J. Gertsch and The Spider Book by John Henry Comstock , both of which combine a sense of poetry with scientific fact . White incorporated details from Comstock 's accounts of baby spiders , most notably the `` flight '' of the young spiders on silken parachutes . White sent Gertsch 's book to illustrator Garth Williams . Williams ' initial drawings depicted a spider with a woman 's face , and White suggested that he simply draw a realistic spider instead .
Seven Dwarfs
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Batesian mimicry
In imperfect Batesian mimicry , the mimics do not exactly resemble their models . Many reasons have been suggested for this . Imperfect mimics may simply be evolving towards perfection . They may gain advantage from resembling multiple models at once . Humans may evaluate mimics differently from actual predators . Mimics may confuse predators by resembling both model and nonmimic at the same time ( satiric mimicry ) . Kin selection may enforce poor mimicry . The selective advantage of better mimicry may not outweigh the advantages of other strategies like thermoregulation or camouflage . Only certain traits may be required to deceive predators ; for example , tests on the sympatry / allopatry border ( where the two are in the same area , and where they are not ) of the mimic Lampropeltis elapsoides and the model Micrurus fulvius showed that color proportions in these snakes were important in deceiving predators , but that the order of the colored rings was not .
List of Disney animated universe characters
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Nuchal lines
Posterior view of superior nuchal line ( labeled in red ) and muscles connecting to it . Base of skull . Inferior surface .
Evidence of common descent
Extensive research on the planktonic foraminifer Globorotalia truncatulinoides has provided insight into paleobiogeographical and paleoenvironmental studies alongside the relationship between the environment and evolution . In an extensive study of the paleobiogeography of G. truncatulinoides , researchers found evidence that suggested the formation of a new species ( via the sympatric speciation framework ) . Cores taken of the sediment containing the three species G. crassaformis , G. tosaensis , and G. truncatulinoides found that before 2.7 Ma , only G. crassaformis and G. tosaensis existed . A speciation event occurred at that time , whereby intermediate forms existed for quite some time . Eventually G. tosaensis disappears from the record ( suggesting extinction ) but exists as an intermediate between the extant G. crassaformis and G. truncatulinoides . This record of the fossils also matched the already existing phylogeny constructed by morphological characters of the three species . See figure 6a . Radiolaria
Dodo
Of these 2 sorts off fowl afforementionede , For oughtt wee yett know , Not any to bee Found out of this Iland , which lyeth aboutt 100 leagues From St. Lawrence . A question may bee demaunded how they should bee here and Not elcewhere , beeing soe Farer From other land and can Neither fly or swymme ; whither by Mixture off kindes producing straunge and Monstrous formes , or the Nature of the Climate , ayer and earth in alltring the First shapes in long tyme , or how .
Reactions to On the Origin of Species
From Hooker 's account , Draper `` droned on for an hour '' , then for half an hour `` Soapy Sam '' Wilberforce replied with the eloquence that had earned him his nickname . This time the climate of opinion had changed and the ensuing debate was more evenly matched , with Hooker being particularly successful in defence of Darwin 's ideas . In response to what Huxley took as a jibe from Wilberforce as to whether it was on Huxley 's grandfather 's or grandmother 's side that he was descended from an ape , Huxley made a reply which he later recalled as being that `` ( if asked ) would I rather have a miserable ape for a grandfather or a man highly endowed by nature and possessed of great means and influence and yet who employs these faculties and that influence for the mere purpose of introducing ridicule into a grave scientific discussion I unhesitatingly affirm my preference for the ape '' . No verbatim record was taken : eyewitness accounts exist , and vary somewhat .
Reactions to On the Origin of Species
Lyell was troubled both by Huxley 's belligerence and by the question of ape ancestry , but got little sympathy from Darwin who teased him that `` Our ancestor was an animal which breathed water , had a swim bladder , a great swimming tail , an imperfect skull , and undoubtedly was a hermaphrodite ! Here is a pleasant genealogy for mankind . '' Lyell began work on a book examining human origins .
Peter and Rosemary Grant
`` Fission and fusion of Darwin 's finch populations . '' Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363 : 2821 -- 2829 , 2008 `` Pedigrees , assortative mating and speciation in Darwin 's finches . '' Proceedings of the Royal Society B 275 : 661 -- 668 , 2008 `` The calmodulin pathway and the evolution of elongated beak morphology in Darwin 's finches . '' Nature 442 : 563 -- 567 , 2006 ( with others ) `` Evolution of character displacement in Darwin 's finches . '' Science 313 : 224 -- 226 , 2006 `` Species before speciation is complete . '' Annals of the Missouri Botanical Gardens 93 : 94 -- 102 , 2006 `` The origin and diversification of Galápagos mockingbirds . '' Evolution 60 : 370 -- 382 , 2006 ( with others )
Species
DNA - DNA hybridisation results have however sometimes led to misleading conclusions about species , as with the pomarine and great skua .
Species
A ring species is a connected series of neighbouring populations , each of which can sexually interbreed with closely sited related populations , but for which there exist at least two `` end '' populations in the series , which are too distantly related to interbreed , though there is a potential gene flow between each `` linked '' population . Such non-breeding , though genetically connected , `` end '' populations may co-exist in the same region thus closing the ring . Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation . However , ring species are at best rare . Proposed examples include the herring gull - lesser black - backed gull complex around the North pole , the Ensatina eschscholtzii group of 19 populations of salamanders in America , and the greenish warbler in Asia , but there is evidence that none form genuine rings .
History of evolutionary thought
Therefore , the debate that immediately followed the publication of On the Origin of Species centered on the similarities and differences between humans and modern apes . Carolus Linnaeus had been criticised in the 18th century for grouping humans and apes together as primates in his ground breaking classification system . Richard Owen vigorously defended the classification suggested by Georges Cuvier and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach that placed humans in a separate order from any of the other mammals , which by the early 19th century had become the orthodox view . On the other hand , Thomas Henry Huxley sought to demonstrate a close anatomical relationship between humans and apes . In one famous incident , which became known as the Great Hippocampus Question , Huxley showed that Owen was mistaken in claiming that the brains of gorillas lacked a structure present in human brains . Huxley summarized his argument in his highly influential 1863 book Evidence as to Man 's Place in Nature . Another viewpoint was advocated by Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace . They agreed that humans shared a common ancestor with apes , but questioned whether any purely materialistic mechanism could account for all the differences between humans and apes , especially some aspects of the human mind .
Evidence of common descent
Evidence from island biogeography has played an important and historic role in the development of evolutionary biology . For purposes of biogeography , islands are divided into two classes . Continental islands are islands like Great Britain , and Japan that have at one time or another been part of a continent . Oceanic islands , like the Hawaiian islands , the Galápagos Islands and St. Helena , on the other hand are islands that have formed in the ocean and never been part of any continent . Oceanic islands have distributions of native plants and animals that are unbalanced in ways that make them distinct from the biotas found on continents or continental islands . Oceanic islands do not have native terrestrial mammals ( they do sometimes have bats and seals ) , amphibians , or fresh water fish . In some cases they have terrestrial reptiles ( such as the iguanas and giant tortoises of the Galápagos Islands ) but often ( for example Hawaii ) they do not . This despite the fact that when species such as rats , goats , pigs , cats , mice , and cane toads , are introduced to such islands by humans they often thrive . Starting with Charles Darwin , many scientists have conducted experiments and made observations that have shown that the types of animals and plants found , and not found , on such islands are consistent with the theory that these islands were colonized accidentally by plants and animals that were able to reach them . Such accidental colonization could occur by air , such as plant seeds carried by migratory birds , or bats and insects being blown out over the sea by the wind , or by floating from a continent or other island by sea , as for example by some kinds of plant seeds like coconuts that can survive immersion in salt water , and reptiles that can survive for extended periods on rafts of vegetation carried to sea by storms . Endemism
Comparative mythology
This suggests that the Greeks , Romans , and Indians originated from a common ancestral culture , and that the names Zeus , Jupiter , Dyaus and the Germanic Tiu ( cf . English Tues - day ) evolved from an older name , * Dyēus ph ter , which referred to the sky - god or , to give a perfect English cognate , the day - father in a Proto - Indo - European religion .
Primate
The red - tailed monkey associates with several species , including the western red colobus , blue monkey , Wolf 's mona monkey , mantled guereza , black crested mangabey and Allen 's swamp monkey . Several of these species are preyed upon by the common chimpanzee .
Evidence of common descent
William R. Rice and George W. Salt found experimental evidence of sympatric speciation in the common fruit fly . They collected a population of Drosophila melanogaster from Davis , California and placed the pupae into a habitat maze . Newborn flies had to investigate the maze to find food . The flies had three choices to take in finding food . Light and dark ( phototaxis ) , up and down ( geotaxis ) , and the scent of acetaldehyde and the scent of ethanol ( chemotaxis ) were the three options . This eventually divided the flies into 42 spatio - temporal habitats .
Evidence of common descent
Both subspecies Mimulus aurantiacus puniceus ( red - flowered ) and Mimulus aurantiacus australis ( yellow - flowered ) of monkeyflowers are isolated due to the preferences of their hummingbird and hawkmoth pollinators . The radiation of M. aurantiacus subspecies are mostly yellow colored ; however , both M. a . ssp . puniceus and M. a . ssp . flemingii are red . Phylogenetic analysis suggests two independent origins of red - colored flowers that arose due to cis - regulatory mutations in the gene MaMyb2 that is present in all M. aurantiacus subspecies . Further research suggested that two independent mutations did not take place , but one MaMyb2 allele was transferred via introgressive hybridization . This study presents an example of the overlap of research in various disciplines . Gene isolation and cis - regulatory functions ; phylogenetic analysis ; geographic location and pollinator preference ; and species hybridization and speciation are just some of the areas in which data can be obtained to document the occurrence of evolution . Radiotrophic
Reactions to On the Origin of Species
Huxley 's arguments with Owen continued in the Athenaeum so that each Saturday Darwin could read the latest ripostes . Owen tried to smear Huxley by portraying him as an `` advocate of man 's origins from a transmuted ape '' , and one of his contributions was titled `` Ape - Origin of Man as Tested by the Brain '' . This backfired , as Huxley had already delighted Darwin by speculating on `` pithecoid man '' -- ape - like man , and was glad of the invitation to publicly turn the anatomy of brain structure into a question of human ancestry . He was determined to indict Owen for perjury , promising `` before I have done with that mendacious humbug I will nail him out , like a kite to a barn door , an example to all evil doers . '' Darwin egged him on from Down , writing `` Oh Lord what a thorn you must be in the poor dear man 's side '' .
Red fox
Red foxes colonised the North American continent in two waves : during or before the Illinoian glaciation , and during the Wisconsinan glaciation . Gene mapping demonstrates that red foxes in North America have been isolated from their Old World counterparts for over 400,000 years , thus raising the possibility that speciation has occurred , and that the previous binomial name of Vulpes fulva may be valid . In the far north , red fox fossils have been found in Sangamonian deposits in the Fairbanks District and Medicine Hat . Fossils dating from the Wisconsian are present in 25 sites in Arkansas , California , Colorado , Idaho , Missouri , New Mexico , Tennessee , Texas , Virginia , and Wyoming . Although they ranged far south during the Wisconsinan , the onset of warm conditions shrank their range toward the north , and have only recently reclaimed their former American ranges because of human - induced environmental changes . Genetic testing indicates two distinct red fox refugia exist in North America , which have been separated since the Wisconsinan . The northern ( or boreal ) refugium occurs in Alaska and western Canada , and consists of the large subspecies V. v. alascensis , V. v. abietorum , V. v. regalis , and V. v. rubricosa . The southern ( or montane ) refugium occurs in the subalpine parklands and alpine meadows of the Rocky Mountains , the Cascade Range , and Sierra Nevada . It encompasses the subspecies V. v. macroura , V. v. cascadensis , and V. v. necator . The latter clade has been separated from all other red fox populations since the last glacial maximum , and may possess unique ecological or physiological adaptations .
Bogeyman
The word bogey is believed to be derived from the Middle English bogge / bugge ( `` hobgoblin '' ) and is generally thought to be a cognate of the German bögge , böggel - mann ( English `` Bogeyman '' ) . The word could also be linked to many similar words in other European languages : bogle ( Scots ) , boeman ( Dutch ) , Butzemann ( German ) , busemann ( Norwegian ) , bøhmand / bussemand ( Danish ) , bòcan , púca , pooka or pookha ( Irish ) , pwca , bwga or bwgan ( Welsh ) , puki ( Old Norse ) , pixie or piskie ( Cornish ) , puck ( English ) , mumus ( Hungarian ) , bogu ( Slavonic ) , buka ( Russian , бука ) , bauk ( Serbian ) , bubulis ( Latvian ) , baubas ( Lithuanian ) , bobo ( Polish ) , bubák ( Czech ) , bubačo ( Slovak ) , bebok ( Silesian ) , papão ( Portuguese ) , торбалан ( Bulgarian ) , Μπαμπούλας ( Greek ) , bua ( Georgian , ბუა ) , babau ( Italian ) , baubau ( Romanian ) , and papu ( Catalan ) .
Loggerhead sea turtle
The distinct populations of loggerheads have unique characteristics and genetic differences . For example , Mediterranean loggerheads are smaller , on average , than Atlantic Ocean loggerheads . North Atlantic and Mediterranean loggerhead sea turtles are descendants of colonizing loggerheads from Tongaland , South Africa . South African loggerhead genes are still present in these populations today .
Dodo
A similar cladogram was published in 2007 , inverting the placement of Goura and Dicunculus and including the pheasant pigeon ( Otidiphaps nobilis ) and the thick - billed ground pigeon ( Trugon terrestris ) at the base of the clade . The DNA used in these studies was obtained from the Oxford specimen , and since this material is degraded , and no usable DNA has been extracted from subfossil remains , these findings still need to be independently verified . Based on behavioural and morphological evidence , Jolyon C. Parish proposed that the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire should be placed in the Gourinae subfamily along with the Groura pigeons and others , in agreement with the genetic evidence . In 2014 , DNA of the only known specimen of the recently extinct spotted green pigeon ( Caloenas maculata ) was analysed , and it was found to be a close relative of the Nicobar pigeon , and thus also the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire .
Niche differentiation
Over time , two competing species can either coexist , through niche differentiation or other means , or compete until one species becomes locally extinct . Several theories exist for how niche differentiation arises or evolves given these two possible outcomes .
Extinction
In 2003 , scientists tried to clone the extinct Pyrenean ibex ( C. p. pyrenaica ) . This attempt failed : of the 285 embryos reconstructed , 54 were transferred to 12 mountain goats and mountain goat - domestic goat hybrids , but only two survived the initial two months of gestation before they too died . In 2009 , a second attempt was made to clone the Pyrenean ibex : one clone was born alive , but died seven minutes later , due to physical defects in the lungs .
Primate
Primatomorpha Dermoptera Primates Haplorhini Simiiformes Catarrhini Hominoidea Hominidae Homininae Hominini humans ( genus Homo ) chimpanzees ( genus Pan ) Gorillini gorillas ( genus Gorilla ) orangutans ( subfamily Ponginae ) gibbons ( family Hylobatidae ) Old World monkeys ( superfamily Cercopithecoidea ) New World monkeys ( parvorder Platyrrhini ) Tarsiiformes tarsiers ( superfamily Tarsioidea ) Strepsirrhini Lemuriformes lemurs ( superfamily Lemuroidea ) lorises and allies ( superfamily Lorisoidea ) prosimians monkeys great apes humans lesser apes
Reactions to On the Origin of Species
In late July Darwin read Wilberforce 's review in the Quarterly . It used a 60 - year - old parody from the Anti-Jacobin of the prose of Darwin 's grandfather Erasmus , implying old revolutionary sympathies . It argued that if `` transmutations were actually occurring '' this would be seen in rapidly reproducing invertebrates , and since it is n't , why think that `` the favourite varieties of turnips are tending to become men '' . Darwin pencilled `` rubbish '' in the margin . To the statement about classification that `` all creation is the transcript in matter of ideas eternally existing in the mind of the Most High ! ! '' , Darwin scribbled `` mere words '' . At the same time , Darwin was willing to grant that Wilberforce 's review was clever : he wrote to Hooker that `` it picks out with skill all the most conjectural parts , and brings forward well all the difficulties . It quizzes me quite splendidly by quoting the ' Anti-Jacobin ' against my Grandfather . ''
List of lemur species
Reports of new species continue to trickle in from the field . However , these reports require further scientific evaluation before their claims can be verified .
Grunge
In the early 2000s , grunge would make multiple regionally based resurgences , albeit minor ones . In 2005 , The Seattle Times made note of grunge - influenced groups returning in the Seattle scene . Similarly , The Guardian reported of grunge - influenced groups from Yorkshire , including Dinosaur Pile - Up , Pulled Apart by Horses , and Wonderswan . Also , in 2003 , the New York Times noted a resurgence in grunge fashion .
Moose
The size of the moose varies . Following Bergmann 's rule , population in the south ( A. a . cameloides ) usually grow smaller , while moose in the north and northeast ( A. a . burulini ) can match the imposing sizes of the Alaskan moose ( A. a . gigas ) and are prized by trophy hunters .
Ring Out, Wild Bells
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Evidence of common descent
Ring species often attract the interests of evolutionary biologists , systematists , and researchers of speciation leading to both thought provoking ideas and confusion concerning their definition . Contemporary scholars recognize that examples in nature have proved rare due to various factors such as limitations in taxonomic delineation or , `` taxonomic zeal '' -- explained by the fact that taxonomists classify organisms into `` species '' , while ring species often can not fit this definition . Other reasons such as gene flow interruption from `` vicariate divergence '' and fragmented populations due to climate instability have also been cited . Figure