vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
French Revolution
In April 1793 , the Girondins indicted Jean - Paul Marat before the Revolutionary Tribunal for ' attempting to destroy the sovereignty of the people ' and ' preaching plunder and massacre ' , referring to his behaviour during the September 1792 Paris massacres . Marat was quickly acquitted but the incident further exacerbated the ' Girondins ' versus ' Montagnards ' party strife in the Convention .
History of the Knights Templar
Nicholson 's argument , however , is an assessment of the fleet in 1312 - according to the LaRochelle Theory , many ships would already have disappeared bound for many of the aforementioned destinations and stands to reason their fleet would seem depleted in the following years after the arrest of the Templars .
Spanish Inquisition
Many Moriscos were suspected of practising Islam in secret , and the jealousy with which they guarded the privacy of their domestic life prevented the verification of this suspicion . Initially they were not severely persecuted by the Inquisition , experiencing instead a policy of evangelization without torture , a policy not followed with those conversos who were suspected of being crypto - Jews . There were various reasons for this . Most importantly , in the kingdoms of Valencia and Aragon a large number of the Moriscos were under the jurisdiction of the nobility , and persecution would have been viewed as a frontal assault on the economic interests of this powerful social class . Still , fears ran high among the population that the Moriscos were traitorous , especially in Granada . The coast was regularly raided by Barbary pirates backed by Spain 's enemy the Ottoman Empire , and the Moriscos were suspected of aiding them .
Joseph McCarthy
McCarthy himself was taken aback by the massive media response to the Wheeling speech , and he was accused of continually revising both his charges and figures . In Salt Lake City , Utah , a few days later , he cited a figure of 57 , and in the Senate on February 20 , he claimed 81 . During a five - hour speech , McCarthy presented a case - by - case analysis of his 81 `` loyalty risks '' employed at the State Department . It is widely accepted that most of McCarthy 's cases were selected from the so - called `` Lee list '' , a report that had been compiled three years earlier for the House Appropriations Committee . Led by a former Federal Bureau of Investigation agent named Robert E. Lee , the House investigators had reviewed security clearance documents on State Department employees , and had determined that there were `` incidents of inefficiencies '' in the security reviews of 108 employees . McCarthy hid the source of his list , stating that he had penetrated the `` iron curtain '' of State Department secrecy with the aid of `` some good , loyal Americans in the State Department '' . In reciting the information from the Lee list cases , McCarthy consistently exaggerated , representing the hearsay of witnesses as facts and converting phrases such as `` inclined towards Communism '' to `` a Communist '' . Senator
Miranda v. Arizona
Over time , interrogators began to think of techniques to honor the `` letter '' but not the `` spirit '' of Miranda . In the case of Missouri v. Seibert , 542 U.S. 600 ( 2004 ) , the Supreme Court halted one of the more controversial practices . Missouri police were deliberately withholding Miranda warnings and questioning suspects until they obtained confessions , then giving the warnings , getting waivers , and getting confessions again . Justice Souter wrote for the plurality : `` Strategists dedicated to draining the substance out of Miranda can not accomplish by training instructions what Dickerson held Congress could not do by statute . ''
Gunfight at the O.K. Corral
Brocius waived the preliminary hearing so he and his case could be immediately transferred to Tucson . Wyatt and a deputy took Brocius in a wagon the next day to Tucson to stand trial , possibly saving him from being lynched . Wyatt testified that he thought the shooting was accidental . It was also demonstrated that Brocius ' pistol could be fired from half - cock . Fred White left a statement before he died two days later that the shooting was not intentional . Based on the evidence presented , Brocius was not charged with White 's death .
Themistocles
In the aftermath of the invasion , the Athenians began rebuilding their city under the guidance of Themistocles . They wished to restore the fortifications of Athens , but the Spartans objected on the grounds that no place north of the Isthmus should be left that the Persians could use as a fortress . Themistocles urged the citizens to build the fortifications as quickly as possible , then went to Sparta as an ambassador to answer the charges levelled by the Spartans . There , he assured them that no building work was on - going , and urged them to send emissaries to Athens to see for themselves . By the time the ambassadors arrived , the Athenians had finished building , and then detained the Spartan ambassadors when they complained about the presence of the fortifications . By delaying in this manner , Themistocles gave the Athenians enough time to fortify the city , and thus ward off any Spartan attack aimed at preventing the re-fortification of Athens . Furthermore , the Spartans were obliged to repatriate Themistocles in order to free their own ambassadors . However , this episode may be seen as the beginning of the Spartan mistrust of Themistocles , which would return to haunt him .
History of Vietnam
Modern Vietnamese have retroactively labelled figures like Trần Ích Tắc as `` traitor '' to Annam , even though the word for traitor did not exist in Vietnamese during his time and Vietnamese histories like Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư do not refer to him as a traitor .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
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Townshend Acts
Disputes brought to the board were almost exclusively resolved in favor of the British government . Vice admiralty courts claimed to prosecute vigorously smugglers but were widely corrupt -- customs officials falsely accused ship owners of possessing undeclared items , thereby seizing the cargoes of entire vessels , and justices of the juryless courts were entitled to a percentage of the goods from colonial ships that they ruled unlawful . Writs of assistance and blanket search warrants to search for smuggled goods were liberally abused . John Hancock , the wealthy New England merchant , had his ship `` Liberty '' seized in 1768 on a false charge , incensing the colonists . Charges against Hancock were later dropped and his ship returned because of the fear that he would appeal to more scrupulous customs officials in Britain .
Worcester v. Georgia
Marshall 's language in Worcester may have been motivated by his regret that his earlier opinions in Fletcher v. Peck and Johnson v. M'Intosh had been used as a justification for Georgia 's actions . Joseph Story considered it similarly , writing in a letter to his wife dated March 4 , 1832 : `` Thanks be to God , the Court can wash their hands clean of the iniquity of oppressing the Indians and disregarding their rights . '' Samuel
Fortress of Solitude
On Lois & Clark : The New Adventures of Superman , the `` Fortress '' was conspicuously absent , presumably because the series ' aim was to explore the idea of Clark Kent being the true identity and Superman merely being the disguise ( therefore , the character would have no use for an otherworldly fortress ) . In the earlier issues of the John Byrne revamp of Superman , the Fortress was also absent so the show was probably following suit .
Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Later in his reign , Ernest 's actions managed to continually anger his sister - in - law . Though Victoria loved Ernest because he was Albert 's brother , she was displeased that Ernest was writing his memoirs , worrying about their contents mainly in regard to her dead husband . Despite their disputes , Ernest still met with Victoria and her family occasionally . In 1891 , they met in France ; Victoria 's lady - in - waiting commented `` the old Duke of Saxe - Coburg - Gotha has been here today with his wife . He is the Prince Consort 's only brother and an awful looking man , the Queen dislikes him particularly . He is always writing anonymous pamphlets against the Queen and the Empress Frederick , which naturally creates a great deal of annoyance in the family '' .
History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
`` `` I declined even to discuss with General Aguinaldo the question of the future policy of the United States with regard to the Philippines , that I held out no hopes to him of any kind , committed the government in no way whatever , and , in the course of our confidences , never acted upon the assumption that the Government would cooperate with him -- General Aguinaldo -- for the furtherance of any plans of his own , nor that , in accepting his said cooperation , it would consider itself pledged to recognize any political claims which he might put forward . '' '' Aguinaldo
English Reformation
Consequently , in the same year the Act of First Fruits and Tenths transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical income from the Pope to the Crown . The Act Concerning Peter 's Pence and Dispensations outlawed the annual payment by landowners of one penny to the Pope . This Act also reiterated that England had `` no superior under God , but only your Grace '' and that Henry 's `` imperial crown '' had been diminished by `` the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions '' of the Pope .
Modern history
Society in the Japanese `` Tokugawa period '' ( Edo society ) , unlike the shogunates before it , was based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi . The daimyōs ( feudal lords ) were at the top , followed by the warrior - caste of samurai , with the farmers , artisans , and traders ranking below . In some parts of the country , particularly smaller regions , daimyōs and samurai were more or less identical , since daimyōs might be trained as samurai , and samurai might act as local lords . Otherwise , the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time . Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value . As a result , the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time . This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well - to - do peasants , ranging from simple local disturbances to much bigger rebellions . None , however , proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers . India
History of the motorcycle
The motorcycle also became a recreational machine for sport and leisure , a vehicle for carefree youth , not essential transportation for the mature family man or woman , and the Japanese were able to produce modern designs more quickly , more cheaply , and of better quality than their competitors . Their motorbikes were more stylish and more reliable , so the British manufacturers fell behind as mass - market producers .
Australia–Canada relations
But in the end , the Canadian view prevailed . At the Washington Conference in 1921 the Anglo - Japanese Treaty was replaced with the Washington Naval Treaty , a virtually unenforceable set of multilateral disarmament agreements designed to strengthen Pacific stability . The treaty compelled the Royal Australian Navy to scuttle their flagship battlecruiser HMAS Australia , whereas the Canadians did not have any capital ships of their own . The new arrangement was cold comfort in Australia , where the Canadian victory rankled for a long time to come . A Liberal protege of Laurier , Mackenzie King was elected in December 1921 . Unlike his predecessor Meighen , an imperialist at heart who opposed the Anglo - Japanese Treaty only as a matter of necessity , King shared his mentor 's determination to avoid all external entanglements that would weaken the bonds that held together French and English Canada . During his first years of office he asserted Canada 's right to control its own foreign policy to better suit Canada 's interests . When it was decided to convene an imperial conference in the spring of 1923 , King resolved to use the occasion to repudiate the whole notion of an imperial foreign policy . The prospect of challenging the British Empire during his first overseas assignment filled the self - effacing prime minister with dread . `` I am filled with terror , '' he confided to his diary , `` at the thought of having to speak many times and ( at ) my inability to work out themes . ''
Gerardus Mercator
It is no great matter whether those that die on this account be guilty or innocent , provided we terrify the people by these examples ; which generally succeeds best , when persons eminent for learning , riches , nobility or high stations , are thus sacrificed . Rupelmonde
Samurai
In a letter dated 29 January 1552 , St Francis Xavier observed the ease of which the Japanese understood prayers due to the high level of literacy in Japan at that time :
The Man in the High Castle
The television series diverges from the novel in many significant respects . Both the Pacific States of America and the Eastern American puppet state appear to be mere provinces of the Japanese and German empires without any apparent autonomous ( even quisling ) government institutions whatsoever . The Rocky Mountain States become an anarchic Neutral Zone . World War II appears to have ended following the destruction of Washington , D.C. with an A-bomb , rather than a land invasion as in the book . As for Hitler himself , while elderly , he is apparently mostly hale in his Season 1 finale appearance , though other characters elsewhere in the season do reference his supposed physical infirmity . In the novel , the Italian Empire is a minor power which controls North Africa and the Middle East ; in the series , however , it is shown through maps that these territories are part of the Nazi Empire , suggesting that either the Italian Empire was annexed after the war or is self - governing within the Reich .
Samurai
The translator of Hagakure , William Scott Wilson observed examples of warrior emphasis on death in clans other than Yamamoto 's : `` he ( Takeda Shingen ) was a strict disciplinarian as a warrior , and there is an exemplary story in the Hagakure relating his execution of two brawlers , not because they had fought , but because they had not fought to the death '' .
Carthage
The Greeks were favourably impressed by the constitution of Carthage ; Aristotle had a separate study of it made which unfortunately is lost . In his Politica he states : `` The government of Carthage is oligarchical , but they successfully escape the evils of oligarchy by enriching one portion of the people after another by sending them to their colonies . '' `` ( T ) heir policy is to send some ( poorer citizens ) to their dependent towns , where they grow rich . '' Yet Aristotle continues , `` ( I ) f any misfortune occurred , and the bulk of the subjects revolted , there would be no way of restoring peace by legal means . '' Aristotle remarked also :
Economic history of Argentina
He mentioned that the government in Buenos Aires was so eager to be on good terms with Britain and gain recognition of the declaration of independence that most official institutions ( as the Bank ) were under British control , and that Britain had similar control over the Argentine economy to that metropole of a colony , without the financial , civil or military costs . Even the lack of an Argentine merchant fleet allowed Britain to manage the maritime trade . Forbes 's testimony should be appraised in perspective of the contemporary Anglo - American commercial rivalry , In light of the partial nature of the account and of his `` jealousy , even antipathy '' towards the English in Rio de la Plata .
Mexico City
The 16th century saw a proliferation of churches , many of which can still be seen today in the historic center . Economically , Mexico City prospered as a result of trade . Unlike Brazil or Peru , Mexico had easy contact with both the Atlantic and Pacific worlds . Although the Spanish crown tried to completely regulate all commerce in the city , it had only partial success .
John C. Calhoun
Unlike Jefferson , Calhoun rejected attempts at economic , social , or political leveling , claiming that true equality could not be achieved if all classes were given equal rights and responsibilities . Rather , to ensure true prosperity , it was necessary for a stronger group to provide protection and care for the weaker one . This meant that the two groups should not be equal before the law . For Calhoun , `` protection '' ( order ) was more important than freedom . Individual rights were something to be earned , not something bestowed by nature or God . Calhoun was concerned with protecting the interests of the Southern States ( which he identified with the interests of their slaveholding elites ) as a distinct and beleaguered minority among the members of the federal Union ; his idea of a concurrent majority as a protection for minority rights has gained some acceptance in American political thought . Political scientist Malcolm Jewell argues , `` The decision - making process in this country resembles John Calhoun 's ' concurrent majority ' : A large number of groups both within and outside the government must , in practice , approve any major policy . ''
Great Depression
France 's relatively high degree of self - sufficiency meant the damage was considerably less than in nations like Germany .
Criticism of democracy
US President James Madison devoted the whole of Federalist No. 10 to a scathing critique of democracy and offered that republics are a far better solution , saying : `` ... democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention ; have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property ; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths . '' Madison offered that republics were superior to democracies because republics safeguarded against tyranny of the majority , stating in Federalist No. 10 : `` the same advantage which a republic has over a democracy , in controlling the effects of faction , is enjoyed by a large over a small republic '' .
Samurai
Some clans were originally formed by farmers who had taken up arms to protect themselves from the Imperial magistrates sent to govern their lands and collect taxes . These clans formed alliances to protect themselves against more powerful clans , and by the mid-Heian period , they had adopted characteristic Japanese armor and weapons .
Samurai
The conduct of samurai served as role model behavior for the other social classes . With time on their hands , samurai spent more time in pursuit of other interests such as becoming scholars . Edo
Japanese honorifics
However , when referring to oneself , the title is used indirectly , as using it directly is perceived as arrogant . Thus , a department chief named Suzuki will introduce themselves as 部長 の 鈴木 Buchō - no - Suzuki , rather than × 鈴木 部長 * Suzuki - buchō .
Mercantilism
The second school , supported by scholars such as Robert B. Ekelund , portrays mercantilism not as a mistake , but rather as the best possible system for those who developed it . This school argues that rent - seeking merchants and governments developed and enforced mercantilist policies . Merchants benefited greatly from the enforced monopolies , bans on foreign competition , and poverty of the workers . Governments benefited from the high tariffs and payments from the merchants . Whereas later economic ideas were often developed by academics and philosophers , almost all mercantilist writers were merchants or government officials .
One man, one vote
However , in Baker v. Carr , 369 U.S. 186 ( 1962 ) the United States Supreme Court overturned the previous decision in Colegrove holding that malapportionment claims under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment were not exempt from judicial review under Article IV , Section 4 , as the equal protection issue in this case was separate from any political questions .
Jay Treaty
Starting at swords ' point in 1794 , the Jay treaty reversed the tensions , Perkins concludes : `` Through a decade of world war and peace , successive governments on both sides of the Atlantic were able to bring about and preserve a cordiality which often approached genuine friendship . '' Perkins suggests that , except perhaps the opening of trade with British India , `` Jay did fail to win anything the Americans were not obviously entitled to , liberation of territory recognized as theirs since 1782 , and compensation for seizures that even Britain admitted were illegal '' . He also speculates that a `` more astute negotiator than the Chief Justice '' would have gotten better terms than he did . He quoted the opinion of `` great historian '' Henry Adams that the treaty was a `` bad one '' :
Appeasement
( Chamberlain ) had successfully demonstrated how a government in a democracy could influence and control the press to a remarkable degree . The danger in this for Chamberlain was that he preferred to forget that he exercised such influence , and so increasingly mistook his pliant press for real public opinion ... the truth of the matter was that by controlling the press he was merely ensuring that the press was unable to reflect public opinion .
Parens patriae
The Supreme Court recognized a different kind of paren patriae suit in Georgia v. Pennsylvania R. Co . While the earlier cases were common - law actions to prevent or repair harm to a state 's `` quasi-sovereign '' interests . Georgia now sought relief under the federal antitrust statute , alleging that 20 railroads had conspired to restrain trade and to fix prices in a manner that would favor shippers in other States ( particularly Northern States ) to the detriment of Georgia shippers and the state 's economy . The Court upheld Georgia 's claim as parens patriae with respect to injunctive relief , but did not consider whether the antitrust laws also authorized damages for an injury to the State 's economy , because the ICC 's approval of the challenged rates barred any damage recovery .
Perfect competition
Often , governments will try to intervene in uncompetitive markets to make them more competitive . Antitrust ( US ) or competition ( elsewhere ) laws were created to prevent powerful firms from using their economic power to artificially create the barriers to entry they need to protect their economic profits . This includes the use of predatory pricing toward smaller competitors . For example , in the United States , Microsoft Corporation was initially convicted of breaking Anti-Trust Law and engaging in anti-competitive behavior in order to form one such barrier in United States v. Microsoft ; after a successful appeal on technical grounds , Microsoft agreed to a settlement with the Department of Justice in which they were faced with stringent oversight procedures and explicit requirements designed to prevent this predatory behaviour . With lower barriers , new firms can enter the market again , making the long run equilibrium much more like that of a competitive industry , with no economic profit for firms . In
Samurai
Social mobility was high , as the ancient regime collapsed and emerging samurai needed to maintain a large military and administrative organizations in their areas of influence . Most of the samurai families that survived to the 19th century originated in this era , declaring themselves to be the blood of one of the four ancient noble clans : Minamoto , Taira , Fujiwara and Tachibana . In most cases , however , it is hard to prove these claims .