vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
London Company
In an extensive publicity campaign , Wingfield , Gosnold and a few others , circulated pamphlets , plays , sermons and broadsides throughout England to raise interest in New World investments . Shareholders could buy stock individually or in groups . Almost 1,700 people purchased shares , including men of different occupations and classes , wealthy women , and representatives of institutions such as trade guilds , towns and cities . Investors , called `` adventurers '' , purchased shares of stock to help finance the costs of establishing overseas settlements . Money from the sale of stock was used to pay for ships and supplies and to recruit and outfit laborers . A single share of stock in the Virginia Company cost 12 pounds 10 shillings , the equivalent of more than six months ' wages for an ordinary working man .
Practice Statement
`` Their Lordships regard the use of precedent as an indispensable foundation upon which to decide what is the law and its application to individual cases . It provides at least some degree of certainty upon which individuals can rely in the conduct of their affairs , as well as a basis for orderly development of legal rules . Their Lordships nevertheless recognise that too rigid adherence to precedent may lead to injustice in a particular case and also unduly restrict the proper development of the law . They propose therefore , to modify their present practice and , while treating former decisions of this house as normally binding , to depart from a previous decision when it appears right to do so . In this connection they will bear in mind the danger of disturbing retrospectively the basis on which contracts , settlement of property , and fiscal arrangements have been entered into and also the especial need for certainty as to the criminal law . This announcement is not intended to affect the use of precedent elsewhere than in this House . ''
English contract law
Consideration cases Dyer 's case ( 1414 ) 2 Hen V 5 , 26 Bret v JS ( 1600 ) Cro Eliz 756 Lampleigh v Brathwait ( 1615 ) EWHC KB J 17 Pillans v Van Mierop ( 1765 ) 97 ER 1035 Stilk v Myrick ( 1809 ) EWHC KB J58 Shadwell v Shadwell ( 1860 ) EWHC CP J88 Callisher v Bischoffsheim ( 1870 ) LR 5 QB 449 Foakes v Beer ( 1884 ) UKHL 1 Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co ( 1892 ) EWCA Civ 1 Combe v Combe ( 1952 ) EWCA Civ 7 Pao On v Lau Yiu Long ( 1979 ) UKPC 2 Atlas Express Ltd v Kafco ( 1989 ) QB 833 Williams v Roffey Bros Ltd ( 1989 ) EWCA Civ 5 Re Selectmove Ltd ( 1993 ) EWCA Civ 8 see Consideration in English law
Trent Affair
Untrained and undisciplined , they showed up in all manner of dress , with belts of basswood bark and sprigs of green balsam in their hats , carrying an assortment of flintlocks , shotguns , rifles , and scythes . Their officers , prefacing orders with `` please '' , recoiled in horror as formations of the backwoodsmen zigzagged on command to wheel to the left .
Battles of Lexington and Concord
At about 3 am , Colonel Smith sent Major Pitcairn ahead with six companies of light infantry under orders to quick march to Concord . At about 4 am Smith made the wise but belated decision to send a messenger back to Boston asking for reinforcements .
House of Lords
For more serious problems with an individual Lord , the option is available to move `` That the noble Lord be no longer heard '' . This motion also is debatable , and the debate which ensues has sometimes offered a chance for the member whose conduct has brought it about to come to order so that the motion can be withdrawn . If the motion is passed , its effect is to prevent the member from continuing their speech on the motion then under debate . The Journals identify eleven occasions on which this motion has been moved since 1884 ; four were eventually withdrawn , one was voted down , and six were passed .
English Reformation
There was a slow consolidation in Roman Catholic strength in Mary 's latter years . The reconciled Roman Catholic Edmund Bonner , Bishop of London , produced a catechism and a collection of homilies . Printing presses produced primers and other devotional materials , and recruitment to the English clergy began to rise after almost a decade . Repairs to long - neglected churches began . In the parishes `` ... restoration and repair continued , new bells were bought , and churches ' ales produced their bucolic profits . '' Commissioners visited to ensure that altars were restored , roods rebuilt and vestments and plate purchased . Moreover , Pole was determined to do more than remake the past . He insisted on scripture , teaching and education , and on improving the clergy 's moral standards .
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
The result was a substantial influx of money that in turn encouraged the import of manufactured luxury goods ; by 1391 shipments from abroad routinely included `` ivory , mirrors , paxes , armour , paper ... , painted clothes , spectacles , tin images , razors , calamine , treacle , sugar - candy , marking irons , patens ... , ox - horns and quantities of wainscot '' . Imported spices now formed a part of almost all noble and gentry diets , with the quantities being consumed varying according to the wealth of the household . The English government was also importing large quantities of raw materials , including copper , for manufacturing weapons . Many major landowners tended to focus their efforts on maintaining a single major castle or house rather than the dozens a century before , but these were usually decorated much more luxurious than previously . Major merchants ' dwellings , too , were more lavish than in previous years . Decline
House of Lords
Traditionally there was no mechanism by which members could resign or be removed from the House of Lords ( compare the situation as regards resignation from the House of Commons ) . The Peerage Act 1963 permitted a person to disclaim their newly inherited peerage ( within certain time limits ) ; this meant that such a person could effectively renounce their membership of the Lords . This might be done in order to remain or become qualified to sit in the House of Commons , as in the case of Tony Benn ( formerly the second Viscount Stansgate ) , who had campaigned for such a change .
Whigs (British political party)
Hay ( 2000 ) argues that in the two decades after the defeat of Napoleon ( in 1815 ) Whig leaders welcomed the increasing political participation of the English middle classes . The fresh support strengthened their position in Parliament . Whigs rejected the Tory appeals to governmental authority and social discipline and extended political discussion beyond Parliament . Whigs used a national network of newspapers and magazines as well as local clubs to deliver their message . The press organised petitions and debates and reported to the public on government policy , while leaders such as Henry Brougham ( 1778 -- 1868 ) built alliances with men who lacked direct representation . This new approach to the grass roots helped to define Whiggism and opened the way for later success . Whigs thereby forced the government to recognise the role of public opinion in parliamentary debate and influenced views of representation and reform throughout the 19th century .
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
The British had received several requests from their German allies to try to relieve the pressure on them by launching diversionary operations against the French . Pitt had long been an advocate of amphibious strikes or `` descents '' against the French coastline in which a small British force would land , capture a settlement , destroy its fortifications and munitions supplies and then withdraw . This would compel the French to withdraw troops from the Northern front to guard the coast .
Munich Agreement
In the light of recent exchanges of view between our Governments , I think it may be useful for me to make the following statement about the attitude of His Majesty 's Government in the United Kingdom as regards Czecho - Slovakia .
Trent Affair
Lincoln was at first enthused about the capture and reluctant to let them go , but as reality set in he stated :
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
London held a special status within the English economy . The nobility purchased and consumed many luxury goods and services in the capital , and as early as the 1170s the London markets were providing exotic products such as spices , incense , palm oil , gems , silks , furs and foreign weapons . London was also an important hub for industrial activity ; it had many blacksmiths making a wide range of goods , including decorative ironwork and early clocks . Pewter - working , using English tin and lead , was also widespread in London during the period . The provincial towns also had a substantial number of trades by the end of the 13th century -- a large town like Coventry , for example , contained over three hundred different specialist occupations , and a smaller town such as Durham could support some sixty different professions . The increasing wealth of the nobility and the church was reflected in the widespread building of cathedrals and other prestigious buildings in the larger towns , in turn making use of lead from English mines for roofing .
English contract law
Remedies cases Robinson v Harman ( 1848 ) 1 Exch 850 Peevyhouse v. Garland Coal & Mining Co. , 382 P 2d 109 ( 1962 ) Ruxley Electronics Ltd v Forsyth ( 1995 ) Anglia Television Ltd v Reed ( 1972 ) 1 QB 60 Chaplin v Hicks ( 1911 ) 2 KB 786 Jarvis v Swans Tours Ltd ( 1972 ) Farley v Skinner ( 2001 ) Hadley v Baxendale ( 1854 ) The Achilleas ( 2008 ) British Westinghouse Ltd v Underground Ltd ( 1912 ) AC 673 Banco de Portugal v Waterlow ( 1932 ) Saamco v York Montague Ltd ( 1996 ) Sky Petroleum v VIP Petroleum ( 1974 ) 1 WLR 576 Patel v Ali ( 1985 ) Ch 283 Cooperative Insurance Ltd v Argyll Ltd ( 1997 ) Attorney General v Blake ( 2000 ) Wrotham Park Ltd v Parkside Homes Ltd ( 1974 ) 1 WLR 798 Surrey CC v Bredero Homes Ltd ( 1993 ) Rowland v Divall ( 1923 ) 2 KB 500 Dies v British Mining and Finance Corp Ltd ( 1939 ) 1 KB 724 Main
Battles of Lexington and Concord
The British forces began their return march to Boston after completing their search for military supplies , and more militiamen continued to arrive from neighboring towns . Gunfire erupted again between the two sides and continued throughout the day as the regulars marched back towards Boston . Upon returning to Lexington , Lt. Col. Smith 's expedition was rescued by reinforcements under Brigadier General Hugh Percy , a future duke of Northumberland styled at this time by the courtesy title Earl Percy . The combined force of about 1,700 men marched back to Boston under heavy fire in a tactical withdrawal and eventually reached the safety of Charlestown . The accumulated militias then blockaded the narrow land accesses to Charlestown and Boston , starting the Siege of Boston .
Norman conquest of England
To find the lands to compensate his Norman followers , William initially confiscated the estates of all the English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed part of their lands . These confiscations led to revolts , which resulted in more confiscations , a cycle that continued for five years after the Battle of Hastings . To put down and prevent further rebellions the Normans constructed castles and fortifications in unprecedented numbers , initially mostly on the motte - and - bailey pattern . Historian Robert Liddiard remarks that `` to glance at the urban landscape of Norwich , Durham or Lincoln is to be forcibly reminded of the impact of the Norman invasion '' . William and his barons also exercised tighter control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters , often forcing marriages to Normans .
Law
Examples of crimes include murder , assault , fraud and theft . In exceptional circumstances defences can apply to specific acts , such as killing in self defence , or pleading insanity . Another example is in the 19th - century English case of R v Dudley and Stephens , which tested a defence of `` necessity '' . The Mignonette , sailing from Southampton to Sydney , sank . Three crew members and Richard Parker , a 17 - year - old cabin boy , were stranded on a raft . They were starving and the cabin boy was close to death . Driven to extreme hunger , the crew killed and ate the cabin boy . The crew survived and were rescued , but put on trial for murder . They argued it was necessary to kill the cabin boy to preserve their own lives . Lord Coleridge , expressing immense disapproval , ruled , `` to preserve one 's life is generally speaking a duty , but it may be the plainest and the highest duty to sacrifice it . '' The men were sentenced to hang , but public opinion was overwhelmingly supportive of the crew 's right to preserve their own lives . In the end , the Crown commuted their sentences to six months in jail .
Ellipsis
i ... j k ... . l ... , l l , ... l m ... ? n ... !
English Reformation
In the autumn of 1536 there was a great muster , reckoned at up to 40,000 in number , at Horncastle in Lincolnshire . The nervous gentry managed , with difficulty , to disperse these masses -- who had tried unsuccessfully to negotiate with the king by petition . The Pilgrimage of Grace was a more serious matter . Revolt spread through Yorkshire , and the rebels gathered at York . Robert Aske , their leader , negotiated the restoration of sixteen of the twenty - six northern monasteries , which had actually been dissolved . However , the promises made to them by the Duke of Suffolk were ignored on the king 's orders . Suffolk was instructed to put the rebellion down . Forty - seven of the Lincolnshire rebels were executed , and 132 from the northern pilgrimage . Further rebellions took place in Cornwall in early 1537 , and in Walsingham ( in Norfolk ) . These received similar treatment .
Battles of Lexington and Concord
We ... find that a part of your Majesty ' s subjects , in the Province of the Massachusetts Bay , have proceeded so far to resist the authority of the supreme Legislature , that a rebellion at this time actually exists within the said Province ; and we see , with the utmost concern , that they have been countenanced and encouraged by unlawful combinations and engagements entered into by your Majesty 's subjects in several of the other Colonies , to the injury and oppression of many of their innocent fellow - subjects , resident within the Kingdom of Great Britain , and the rest of your Majesty ' s Dominions ...
Battles of Lexington and Concord
Rather than turn left towards Concord , Marine Lieutenant Jesse Adair , at the head of the advance guard , decided on his own to protect the flank of the British column by first turning right and then leading the companies onto the Common itself , in a confused effort to surround and disarm the militia . Major Pitcairn arrived from the rear of the advance force and led his three companies to the left and halted them . The remaining companies under Colonel Smith lay further down the road toward Boston . First
Timeline of young people's rights in the United Kingdom
March 2006 British Army An independent review commissioned by the Minister for Armed Forces into circumstances surrounding the deaths of four soldiers recruited under the age of 18 at Princess Royal Barracks , Deepcut between 1995 and 2002 , concludes that the deaths were self - inflicted , despite a catalogue of allegations of misconduct at the relevant times . The call for a public enquiry is rejected . 2006 End Child Poverty Following the Make Poverty History march and Live 8 events , NGOs launch a coalition to secure the Government 's 1999 pledge to halve the numbers of children living below the poverty line by 2010 and eliminate child poverty by 2020 . February 2006 Howard League for Penal Reform Publication of Lord Carlile 's inquiry into the treatment of children in penal custody . The 47 recommendations include : severely restricting physical intervention ; stopping the Strip searching of children ; and an end to prison segregation . 2007 Jersey Social Worker Simon Bellwood was dismissed after making a complaint about a `` Dickensian '' system in a secure unit where children as young as 11 were routinely locked up for 24 hours or more , in solitary confinement . Police subsequently commenced investigations at the site of former children 's home Haut de la Garenne . July 2007 UK Government The third report on progress is issued to the UN Committee responsible for monitoring implementation of the UNCRC . 2007 Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 The Act was extended to apply to prisoners and young offenders killed or injured whilst in custody , with effect from April 2008 . From monitoring and analysis of deaths in custody , NGO INQUEST propose an independent , overarching standing commission on custodial deaths , with statutory powers to address the breadth of social and political issues that arise when these deaths occur . November 2007 Scottish Government Following publication of the Shaw report `` Historical Abuse Systemic Review : Residential Schools and Children 's Homes in Scotland 1950 to 1995 '' , the Scottish Government proposed a truth and reconciliation forum for victims of historic abuse . The discussion paper named `` Acknowledgement and Accountability '' will be published 2008 / 9 .
Trent Affair
Some land reinforcements were sent in May and June . However when Palmerston , alarmed by the blockade and the Trent affair , pressed for increasing the number of regular troops in Canada to 10,000 , he met resistance . Sir George Cornwall Lewis , head of the War Office , questioned whether there was any real threat to Great Britain . He judged it `` incredible that any Government of ordinary prudence should at a moment of civil war gratuitously increase the number of its enemies , and , moreover , incur the hostility of so formidable a power as England . '' In the debate in Parliament on June 21 there was general opposition to reinforcements , based on political , military , and economic arguments . A long standing issue was the attempt by Parliament to shift more of the burden of Canadian defense to the local government . Colonial secretary Newcastle , felt that the requests by Williams were part of a pattern of the `` last few years '' in which he had `` been very fertile of demands and suggestions . '' Newcastle was also concerned that there were no winter quarters available for additional troops and he feared desertions would be a serious problem .
Practice Statement
-- Lord Gardiner 's statement in the House of Lords , July 26 , 1966 .
Lords Proprietor
This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( October 2011 )
English Reformation
Now the Visitation allowed for an inventory of what the monasteries possessed , and the visiting commissioners claimed to have uncovered sexual immorality and financial impropriety amongst the monks and nuns , which became the ostensible justification for their suppression . The Church owned between one - fifth and one - third of the land in all England ; Cromwell realised that he could bind the gentry and nobility to Royal Supremacy by selling to them the huge amount of Church lands , and that any reversion to pre-Royal Supremacy would entail upsetting many of the powerful people in the realm . For these various reasons the Dissolution of the Monasteries began in 1536 with the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act , affecting smaller houses -- those valued at less than £ 200 a year . Henry used the revenue to help build coastal defences ( see Device Forts ) against expected invasion , and all the land was given to the Crown or sold to the aristocracy . Whereas the royal supremacy had raised few eyebrows , the attack on abbeys and priories affected lay people . Mobs attacked those sent to break up monastic buildings . Suppression commissioners were attacked by local people in several places . In Northern England there were a series of uprisings by Roman Catholics against the dissolutions in late 1536 and early 1537 .
Toast (honor)
Mr. Donaldson concluded with some very severe animadversions upon the infamous conduct of Mr. Blackburn .
Western Front (World War I)
The success of this attack would not be repeated , as the Allies countered by introducing gas masks and other countermeasures . An example of the success of these measures came a year later , on 27 April in the Gas attacks at Hulluch 40 km ( 25 mi ) to the south of Ypres , where the 16th ( Irish ) Division withstood several German gas attacks . The British retaliated , developing their own chlorine gas and using it at the Battle of Loos in September 1915 . Fickle winds and inexperience led to more British casualties from the gas than German . French , British and German forces all escalated the use of gas attacks through the rest of the war , developing the more deadly phosgene gas in 1915 , then the infamous mustard gas in 1917 , which could linger for days and could kill slowly and painfully . Countermeasures also improved and the stalemate continued .
British Army during World War I
General Henry Rawlinson served on Kitchener 's staff during the advance on Omdurman , in 1898 , and served with distinction in the Second Boer War , where he earned a reputation as one of the most able British commanders . Rawlinson took command of the British IV Corps in 1914 and then command of the Fourth Army in 1916 , as the plans for the Allied offensive on the Somme were being developed . During the war , Rawlinson was noted for his willingness to use innovative tactics , which he employed during the battle of Amiens , where he combined attacks by tanks with artillery .
House of Lords
In 1958 , to counter criticism that some peers only appeared at major decisions in the House and thereby particular votes were swayed , the Standing Orders of the House of Lords were enhanced . Peers who did not wish to attend meetings regularly or were prevented by ill health , age or further reasons , were now able to request Leave of Absence . During the granted time a peer is expected not to visit the House 's meetings until either its expiration or termination , announced at least a month prior to their return .
Lords Proprietor
2 . A Declaration and Proposals of the Lord Proprietor of Carolina , August 25 - September 4 , 1663
Battles of Saratoga
Morgan placed marksmen at strategic positions , who then picked off virtually every officer in the advance company . Morgan and his men then charged , unaware that they were headed directly for Burgoyne 's main army . While they succeeded in driving back the advance company , Fraser 's leading edge arrived just in time to attack Morgan 's left , scattering his men back into the woods . James Wilkinson , who had ridden forward to observe the fire , returned to the American camp for reinforcements . As the British company fell back toward the main column , the leading edge of that column opened fire , killing a number of their own men . Modern
The Man in the High Castle
Philip Dick used the I Ching to make decisions crucial to the plot of The Man in the High Castle just as characters within the novel use the I Ching to guide decisions .