vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Evidence of common descent
The proteomic evidence also supports the universal ancestry of life . Vital proteins , such as the ribosome , DNA polymerase , and RNA polymerase , are found in everything from the most primitive bacteria to the most complex mammals . The core part of the protein is conserved across all lineages of life , serving similar functions . Higher organisms have evolved additional protein subunits , largely affecting the regulation and protein - protein interaction of the core . Other overarching similarities between all lineages of extant organisms , such as DNA , RNA , amino acids , and the lipid bilayer , give support to the theory of common descent . Phylogenetic analyses of protein sequences from various organisms produce similar trees of relationship between all organisms . The chirality of DNA , RNA , and amino acids is conserved across all known life . As there is no functional advantage to right - or left - handed molecular chirality , the simplest hypothesis is that the choice was made randomly by early organisms and passed on to all extant life through common descent . Further evidence for reconstructing ancestral lineages comes from junk DNA such as pseudogenes , `` dead '' genes that steadily accumulate mutations . Pseudogenes
Nephron
Distribution of blood vessels in cortex of kidney . ( Although the figure labels the efferent vessel as a vein , it is actually an arteriole . ) Glomerulus is red ; Bowman 's capsule is white . Kidney tissue Glomerulus This image shows the types of cells present in the glomerulus part of a kidney nephron . Podocytes , Endothelial cells , and Glomerular mesangial cell are present .
Physics of magnetic resonance imaging
While it is possible to scan using the integrated coil for RF transmission and MR signal reception , if a small region is being imaged , then better image quality ( i.e. , higher signal - to - noise ratio ) is obtained by using a close - fitting smaller coil . A variety of coils are available which fit closely around parts of the body such as the head , knee , wrist , breast , or internally , e.g. , the rectum .
Autophagy
Work at the Institute for Cell Biology , University of Bonn , showed that a certain type of autophagy , i.e. , chaperone - assisted selective autophagy ( CASA ) , is induced in contracting muscles and is required for maintaining the muscle sarcomere under mechanical tension . The CASA chaperone complex recognizes mechanically damaged cytoskeleton components and directs these components through a ubiquitin - dependent autophagic sorting pathway to lysosomes for disposal . This is necessary for maintaining muscle activity .
Mitochondrion
The MAM is enriched in enzymes involved in lipid biosynthesis , such as phosphatidylserine synthase on the ER face and phosphatidylserine decarboxylase on the mitochondrial face . Because mitochondria are dynamic organelles constantly undergoing fission and fusion events , they require a constant and well - regulated supply of phospholipids for membrane integrity . But mitochondria are not only a destination for the phospholipids they finish synthesis of ; rather , this organelle also plays a role in inter-organelle trafficking of the intermediates and products of phospholipid biosynthetic pathways , ceramide and cholesterol metabolism , and glycosphingolipid anabolism .
Collagen
Collagen is used in laboratory studies for cell culture , studying cell behavior and cellular interactions with the extracellular environment .
Cnidaria
This structure ensures that the musculature is excited rapidly and simultaneously , and can be directly stimulated from any point on the body , and it also is better able to recover after injury .
Moss
In boreal forests , some species of moss play an important role in providing nitrogen for the ecosystem due to their relationship with nitrogen - fixing cyanobacteria . Cyanobacteria colonizes moss and receives shelter in return for providing fixed nitrogen . Moss releases the fixed nitrogen , along with other nutrients , into the soil `` upon disturbances like drying - rewetting and fire events , '' making it available throughout the ecosystem .
Smooth muscle tissue
For instance , blood vessels in skin , gastrointestinal system , kidney and brain respond to norepinephrine and epinephrine ( from sympathetic stimulation or the adrenal medulla ) by producing vasoconstriction ( this response is mediated through alpha - 1 adrenergic receptors ) . However , blood vessels within skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle respond to these catecholamines producing vasodilation because the smooth muscle possess beta - adrenergic receptors . So there is a difference in the distribution of the various adrenergic receptors that explains the difference in why blood vessels from different areas respond to the same agent norepinephrine / epinephrine differently as well as differences due to varying amounts of these catecholamines that are released and sensitivities of various receptors to concentrations .
Mitochondrion
The matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane . It contains about 2 / 3 of the total protein in a mitochondrion . The matrix is important in the production of ATP with the aid of the ATP synthase contained in the inner membrane . The matrix contains a highly concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes , special mitochondrial ribosomes , tRNA , and several copies of the mitochondrial DNA genome . Of the enzymes , the major functions include oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids , and the citric acid cycle .
Collagen
The collagenous cardiac skeleton which includes the four heart valve rings , is histologically , elastically and uniquely bound to cardiac muscle . The cardiac skeleton also includes the separating septa of the heart chambers -- the interventricular septum and the atrioventricular septum . Collagen contribution to the measure of cardiac performance summarily represents a continuous torsional force opposed to the fluid mechanics of blood pressure emitted from the heart . The collagenous structure that divides the upper chambers of the heart from the lower chambers is an impermeable membrane that excludes both blood and electrical impulses through typical physiological means . With support from collagen , atrial fibrillation should never deteriorate to ventricular fibrillation . Collagen is layered in variable densities with cardiac muscle mass . The mass , distribution , age and density of collagen all contribute to the compliance required to move blood back and forth . Individual cardiac valvular leaflets are folded into shape by specialized collagen under variable pressure . Gradual calcium deposition within collagen occurs as a natural function of aging . Calcified points within collagen matrices show contrast in a moving display of blood and muscle , enabling methods of cardiac imaging technology to arrive at ratios essentially stating blood in ( cardiac input ) and blood out ( cardiac output ) . Pathology of the collagen underpinning of the heart is understood within the category of connective tissue disease .
Hippocampus
The EC , is located in the parahippocampal gyrus , a cortical region adjacent to the hippocampus . This gyrus conceals the hippocampus . The parahippocampal gyrus also includes the perirhinal cortex which plays an important role in the visual recognition of complex objects . There is also substantial evidence that it makes a contribution to memory , which can be distinguished from the contribution of the hippocampus . It is apparent that complete amnesia occurs only when both the hippocampus and the parahippocampus are damaged .
Lumbar vertebrae
The fifth lumbar vertebra is characterized by its body being much deeper in front than behind , which accords with the prominence of the sacrovertebral articulation ; by the smaller size of its spinous process ; by the wide interval between the inferior articular processes , and by the thickness of its transverse processes , which spring from the body as well as from the pedicles . The fifth lumbar vertebra is by far the most common site of spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis .
Human brain
Differences in brain structure can be measured in some disorders , notably schizophrenia and dementia . Different biological approaches using imaging have given more insight for example into the disorders of depression and obsessive - compulsive disorder . A key source of information about the function of brain regions is the effects of damage to them .
Nephron
The Bowman 's capsule , also called the glomerular capsule , surrounds the glomerulus . It is composed of a visceral inner layer formed by specialized cells called podocytes , and a parietal outer layer composed of simple squamous epithelium . Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are filtered through the visceral layer of podocytes , resulting in the glomerular filtrate .
Working memory
Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods ( PET and fMRI ) . This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions . During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral ( i.e. , lower areas ) and the dorsolateral ( higher ) areas of the PFC . A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory . One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory . Another view proposed a functional distinction , arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information , whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material . The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction .
Ground tissue
Their main function is to repair . In leaves , they form the mesophyll and are responsible for photosynthesis and the exchange of gases , parenchyma cells in the mesophyll of leaves are specialised parenchyma cells called chlorenchyma cells ( parenchyma cells with chloroplasts ) . Storage of starch , protein , fats , oils and water in roots , tubers ( e.g. potatoes ) , seed endosperm ( e.g. cereals ) and cotyledons ( e.g. pulses and peanuts ) Secretion ( e.g. the parenchyma cells lining the inside of resin ducts ) Wound repair and the potential for renewed meristematic activity Other specialised functions such as aeration ( aerenchyma ) provides buoyancy and helps aquatic plants in floating . Chlorenchyma cells carry out photosynthesis and manufacture food .
Tooth decay
Saliva also contains iodine and EGF . EGF results effective in cellular proliferation , differentiation and survival . Salivary EGF , which seems also regulated by dietary inorganic iodine , plays an important physiological role in the maintenance of oral ( and gastro - oesophageal ) tissue integrity , and , on the other hand , iodine is effective in prevention of dental caries and oral health .
Mitochondrion
The mitochondria - associated ER membrane ( MAM ) is another structural element that is increasingly recognized for its critical role in cellular physiology and homeostasis . Once considered a technical snag in cell fractionation techniques , the alleged ER vesicle contaminants that invariably appeared in the mitochondrial fraction have been re-identified as membranous structures derived from the MAM -- the interface between mitochondria and the ER . Physical coupling between these two organelles had previously been observed in electron micrographs and has more recently been probed with fluorescence microscopy . Such studies estimate that at the MAM , which may comprise up to 20 % of the mitochondrial outer membrane , the ER and mitochondria are separated by a mere 10 -- 25 nm and held together by protein tethering complexes .
Tooth decay
However oral hygiene is probably more effective at preventing gum disease ( periodontal disease ) than tooth decay . Food is forced inside pits and fissures under chewing pressure , leading to carbohydrate - fueled acid demineralisation where the brush , fluoride toothpaste , and saliva have no access to remove trapped food , neutralise acid , or remineralise demineralised tooth like on other more accessible tooth surfaces . ( Occlusal caries accounts for between 80 and 90 % of caries in children ( Weintraub , 2001 ) . ) Chewing fibre like celery after eating forces saliva inside trapped food to dilute any carbohydrate like sugar , neutralise acid and remineralise demineralised tooth . The teeth at highest risk for carious lesions are the permanent first and second molars due to length of time in oral cavity and presence of complex surface anatomy .
Nephron
The nephron ( from Greek νεφρός -- nephros , meaning `` kidney '' ) is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney . It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule . The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and an encompassing Bowman 's capsule . The renal tubule extends from the capsule . The capsule and tubule are connected and are composed of epithelial cells with a lumen . A healthy adult has 0.8 to 1.5 million nephrons in each kidney . Blood is filtered as it passes through three layers : the endothelial cells of the capillary wall , its basement membrane , and between the foot processes of the podocytes of the lining of the capsule . The tubule has adjacent peritubular capillaries that run between the descending and ascending portions of the tubule . As the fluid from the capsule flows down into the tubule , it is processed by the epithelial cells lining the tubule : water is reabsorbed and substances are exchanged ( some are added , others are removed ) ; first with the interstitial fluid outside the tubules , and then into the plasma in the adjacent peritubular capillaries through the endothelial cells lining that capillary . This process regulates the volume of body fluid as well as levels of many body substances . At the end of the tubule , the remaining fluid -- urine -- exits : it is composed of water , metabolic waste , and toxins .
Finding Dory
One year later , Dory is living with Marlin and Nemo on their reef . One day , Dory has a flashback and remembers that she has parents . She decides to look for them , but her memory problem is an obstacle . She eventually remembers that they lived at the Jewel of Morro Bay across the ocean in California , thanks to Nemo mentioning its name .
Human brain
The cerebrum , consisting of the cerebral hemispheres , forms the largest part of the brain and is situated above the other brain structures . The outer region of the hemispheres , the cerebral cortex , is grey matter , consisting of cortical layers . Each hemisphere is divided into four main lobes .
Tooth decay
Restorative materials include dental amalgam , composite resin , porcelain , and gold . Composite resin and porcelain can be made to match the color of a patient 's natural teeth and are thus used more frequently when aesthetics are a concern . Composite restorations are not as strong as dental amalgam and gold ; some dentists consider the latter as the only advisable restoration for posterior areas where chewing forces are great . When the decay is too extensive , there may not be enough tooth structure remaining to allow a restorative material to be placed within the tooth . Thus , a crown may be needed . This restoration appears similar to a cap and is fitted over the remainder of the natural crown of the tooth . Crowns are often made of gold , porcelain , or porcelain fused to metal .
Medicare (United States)
Part B also helps with durable medical equipment ( DME ) , including canes , walkers , lift chairs , wheelchairs , and mobility scooters for those with mobility impairments . Prosthetic devices such as artificial limbs and breast prosthesis following mastectomy , as well as one pair of eyeglasses following cataract surgery , and oxygen for home use is also covered .
Carbon
Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen .
Ground tissue
Polyhedral Stellate ( found in stem of plants and have well developed air spaces between them ) Elongated ( found in pallisade tissue of leaf ) Lobed ( found in spongy and pallisade mesophyyll tissue of some plants )
Carbon
Carbon is also found in methane hydrates in polar regions and under the seas . Various estimates put this carbon between 500 , 2500 Gt , or 3,000 Gt .
Bohr effect
The Bohr effect hinges around allosteric interactions between the hemes of the haemoglobin tetramer , a mechanism first proposed by Max Perutz in 1970 . Haemoglobin exists in two conformations : a high - affinity R state and a low - affinity T state . When oxygen concentration levels are high , as in the lungs , the R state is favored , enabling the maximum amount of oxygen to be bound to the hemes . In the capillaries , where oxygen concentration levels are lower , the T state is favored , in order to facilitate the delivery of oxygen to the tissues . The Bohr effect is dependent on this allostery , as increases in CO and H help stabilize the T state and ensure greater oxygen delivery to muscles during periods of elevated cellular respiration . This is evidenced by the fact that myoglobin , a monomer with no allostery , does not exhibit the Bohr effect . Haemoglobin mutants with weaker allostery may exhibit a reduced Bohr effect . For example , in Hiroshima variant haemoglobinopathy , allostery in haemoglobin is reduced , and the Bohr effect is diminished . As a result , during periods of exercise , the mutant haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen and tissue may suffer minor oxygen starvation .
Hippocampus
The term hippocampal formation is used to refer to the hippocampus proper and its related parts . However , there is no consensus as to what parts are included . Sometimes the hippocampus is said to include the dentate gyrus and the subiculum . Some references include the dentate gyrus and the subiculum in the hippocampal formation , and others also include the presubiculum , parasubiculum , and entorhinal cortex . The neural layout and pathways within the hippocampal formation are very similar in all mammals .
Mitochondrion
The MAM may also be part of the secretory pathway , in addition to its role in intracellular lipid trafficking . In particular , the MAM appears to be an intermediate destination between the rough ER and the Golgi in the pathway that leads to very - low - density lipoprotein , or VLDL , assembly and secretion . The MAM thus serves as a critical metabolic and trafficking hub in lipid metabolism . Calcium
Phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus occurs most abundantly in nature as part of the orthophosphate ion ( PO ) , consisting of a P atom and 4 oxygen atoms . On land most phosphorus is found in rocks and minerals . Phosphorus rich deposits have generally formed in the ocean or from guano , and over time , geologic processes bring ocean sediments to land . Weathering of rocks and minerals release phosphorus in a soluble form where it is taken up by plants , and it is transformed into organic compounds . The plants may then be consumed by herbivores and the phosphorus is either incorporated into their tissues or excreted . After death , the animal or plant decays , and phosphorus is returned to the soil where a large part of the phosphorus is transformed into insoluble compounds . Runoff may carry a small part of the phosphorus back to the ocean . Generally with time ( thousands of years ) soils become deficient in phosphorus leading to ecosystem retrogression .
Tooth decay
Teeth are bathed in saliva and have a coating of bacteria on them ( biofilm ) that continually forms . The minerals in the hard tissues of the teeth ( enamel , dentin and cementum ) are constantly undergoing processes of demineralization and remineralisation . Dental caries results when the demineralization rate is faster than the remineralisation and there is net mineral loss . This happens when there is an ecologic shift within the dental biofilm , from a balanced population of micro-organisms to a population that produce acids and can survive in an acid environment .
Nervous system
Even mammals , including humans , show the segmented bilaterian body plan at the level of the nervous system . The spinal cord contains a series of segmental ganglia , each giving rise to motor and sensory nerves that innervate a portion of the body surface and underlying musculature . On the limbs , the layout of the innervation pattern is complex , but on the trunk it gives rise to a series of narrow bands . The top three segments belong to the brain , giving rise to the forebrain , midbrain , and hindbrain .
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is an end product of cellular respiration in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sugars , fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their metabolism . This includes all plants , algae and animals and aerobic fungi and bacteria . In vertebrates , the carbon dioxide travels in the blood from the body 's tissues to the skin ( e.g. , amphibians ) or the gills ( e.g. , fish ) , from where it dissolves in the water , or to the lungs from where it is exhaled . During active photosynthesis , plants can absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they release in respiration .
Human brain
Gross movement -- such as locomotion and the movement of arms and legs -- is generated in the motor cortex , divided into three parts : the primary motor cortex , found in the prefrontal gyrus and has sections dedicated to the movement of different body parts . These movements are supported and regulated by two other areas , lying anterior to the primary motor cortex : the premotor area and the supplementary motor area . The hands and mouth have a much larger area dedicated to them than other body parts , allowing finer movement ; this has been visualised in a motor cortical homunculus . Impulses generated from the motor cortex travel along the corticospinal tract along the front of the medulla and cross over ( decussate ) at the medullary pyramids . These then travel down the spinal cord , with most connecting to interneurons , in turn connecting to lower motor neurons within the grey matter that then transmit the impulse to move to muscles themselves . The cerebellum and basal ganglia , play a role in fine , complex and coordinated muscle movements . Connections between the cortex and the basal ganglia control muscle tone , posture and movement initiation , and are referred to as the extrapyramidal system .
BRCA1
BRCA1 directly binds to DNA , with higher affinity for branched DNA structures . This ability to bind to DNA contributes to its ability to inhibit the nuclease activity of the MRN complex as well as the nuclease activity of Mre11 alone . This may explain a role for BRCA1 to promote lower fidelity DNA repair by non-homologous end joining ( NHEJ ) . BRCA1 also colocalizes with γ - H2AX ( histone H2AX phosphorylated on serine - 139 ) in DNA double - strand break repair foci , indicating it may play a role in recruiting repair factors .
Muscles of respiration
The diaphragm is also involved in non-respiratory functions , helping to expel vomit , faeces , and urine from the body by increasing intra-abdominal pressure , and preventing acid reflux by exerting pressure on the esophagus as it passes through the esophageal hiatus .