vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Tropical cyclone
Part of a series on Tropical cyclones Formation and naming ( show ) Development Structure Effects ( show ) Warnings and watches Storm surge Notable storms Climatology and tracking ( show ) Basins RSMCs Scales Observation Forecasting Rainfall forecasting Rainfall climatology Tropical cyclone naming ( show ) Tropical cyclone naming History of tropical cyclone naming List of historic tropical cyclone names List of retired Atlantic hurricane names List of retired Pacific hurricane names List of retired Pacific typhoon names List of retired Philippine typhoon names List of retired Australian cyclone names List of retired South Pacific cyclone names Outline of tropical cyclones Tropical cyclones portal
High-voltage direct current
AC transmission lines can interconnect only synchronized AC networks with the same frequency with limits on the allowable phase difference between the two ends of the line . Many areas that wish to share power have unsynchronized networks . The power grids of the UK , Northern Europe and continental Europe are not united into a single synchronized network . Japan has 50 Hz and 60 Hz networks . Continental North America , while operating at 60 Hz throughout , is divided into regions which are unsynchronized : East , West , Texas , Quebec , and Alaska . Brazil and Paraguay , which share the enormous Itaipu Dam hydroelectric plant , operate on 60 Hz and 50 Hz respectively . However , HVDC systems make it possible to interconnect unsynchronized AC networks , and also add the possibility of controlling AC voltage and reactive power flow .
Sea breeze
At night , the land cools off faster than the ocean due to differences in their heat capacity , which forces the dying of the daytime sea breeze as the temperature of the land approaches that of the ocean . If the land becomes cooler than the adjacent sea surface temperature , the air pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land , setting up a land breeze blowing from the land to the sea , as long as the environmental surface wind pattern is not strong enough to oppose it . If there is sufficient moisture and instability available , the land breeze can cause showers , or even thunderstorms , over the water . Overnight thunderstorm development offshore due to the land breeze can be a good predictor for the activity on land the following day , as long as there are no expected changes to the weather pattern over the following 12 -- 24 hours . This is mainly because the strength of the land breeze is weaker than the sea breeze . The land breeze will die once the land warms up again the next morning .
Justice of the peace
Similar matters in some places outside New York are handled by a justice of the peace .
Plate tectonics
The outer layers of the Earth are divided into the lithosphere and asthenosphere . The division is based on differences in mechanical properties and in the method for the transfer of heat . The lithosphere is cooler and more rigid , while the asthenosphere is hotter and flows more easily . In terms of heat transfer , the lithosphere loses heat by conduction , whereas the asthenosphere also transfers heat by convection and has a nearly adiabatic temperature gradient . This division should not be confused with the chemical subdivision of these same layers into the mantle ( comprising both the asthenosphere and the mantle portion of the lithosphere ) and the crust : a given piece of mantle may be part of the lithosphere or the asthenosphere at different times depending on its temperature and pressure .
Jungle
Because European explorers initially travelled through tropical rainforests largely by river , the dense tangled vegetation lining the stream banks gave a misleading impression that such jungle conditions existed throughout the entire forest . As a result , it was wrongly assumed that the entire forest was impenetrable jungle . This in turn appears to have given rise to the second popular usage of jungle as virtually any humid tropical forest . Jungle in this context is particularly associated with tropical rainforest , but may extend to cloud forest , temperate rainforest and mangroves with no reference to the vegetation structure or the ease of travel .
Seafloor spreading
Sea floor spreading can stop during the process , but if it continues to the point that the continent is completely severed , then a new ocean basin is created . The Red Sea has not yet completely split Arabia from Africa , but a similar feature can be found on the other side of Africa that has broken completely free . South America once fit into the area of the Niger Delta . The Niger River has formed in the failed rift arm of the triple junction .
Seafloor spreading
In the general case , sea floor spreading starts as a rift in a continental land mass , similar to the Red Sea - East Africa Rift System today . The process starts by heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense . Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects , the area being heated becomes a broad dome ( see isostasy ) . As the crust bows upward , fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts . The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at approximately 120 degree angles . These areas are named triple junctions and can be found in several places across the world today . The separated margins of the continents evolve to form passive margins . Hess ' theory was that new seafloor is formed when magma is forced upward toward the surface at a mid-ocean ridge .
Radioactive decay
The decay process , like all hindered energy transformations , may be analogized by a snowfield on a mountain . While friction between the ice crystals may be supporting the snow 's weight , the system is inherently unstable with regard to a state of lower potential energy . A disturbance would thus facilitate the path to a state of greater entropy ; the system will move towards the ground state , producing heat , and the total energy will be distributable over a larger number of quantum states thus resulting in an avalanche . The total energy does not change in this process , but , because of the second law of thermodynamics , avalanches have only been observed in one direction and that is toward the `` ground state '' -- the state with the largest number of ways in which the available energy could be distributed .
Desert
As the mountains are eroded , more and more sand is created . At high wind speeds , sand grains are picked up off the surface and blown along , a process known as saltation . The whirling airborne grains act as a sand blasting mechanism which grinds away solid objects in its path as the kinetic energy of the wind is transferred to the ground . The sand eventually ends up deposited in level areas known as sand - fields or sand - seas , or piled up in dunes .
Frost weathering
Similar processes can act on asphalt pavements , contributing to various forms of cracking and other distresses , which , when combined with traffic and the intrusion of water , accelerate rutting , the formation of potholes , and other forms of pavement roughness .
Earth
The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30 ° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30 ° and 60 ° . Ocean currents are also important factors in determining climate , particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions .
Earth
The commonly used Köppen climate classification system has five broad groups ( humid tropics , arid , humid middle latitudes , continental and cold polar ) , which are further divided into more specific subtypes . The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation .
Heat
Functionally , such engines are used in two ways , distinguishing a target reservoir and a resource or surrounding reservoir . A heat pump transfers heat , to the hot reservoir as the target , from the resource or surrounding reservoir . A refrigerator transfers heat , from the cold reservoir as the target , to the resource or surrounding reservoir . The target reservoir may be regarded as leaking : when the target leaks hotness to the surroundings , heat pumping is used ; when the target leaks coldness to the surroundings , refrigeration is used . The engines harness work to overcome the leaks .
Divergent boundary
Divergent boundaries are typified in the oceanic lithosphere by the rifts of the oceanic ridge system , including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise , and in the continental lithosphere by rift valleys such as the famous East African Great Rift Valley . Divergent boundaries can create massive fault zones in the oceanic ridge system . Spreading is generally not uniform , so where spreading rates of adjacent ridge blocks are different , massive transform faults occur . These are the fracture zones , many bearing names , that are a major source of submarine earthquakes . A sea floor map will show a rather strange pattern of blocky structures that are separated by linear features perpendicular to the ridge axis . If one views the sea floor between the fracture zones as conveyor belts carrying the ridge on each side of the rift away from the spreading center the action becomes clear . Crest depths of the old ridges , parallel to the current spreading center , will be older and deeper ... ( from thermal contraction and subsidence ) .
Circumnavigation
The map on the right shows , in red , a typical , non-competitive , route for a sailing circumnavigation of the world by the trade winds and the Suez and Panama canals ; overlaid in yellow are the points antipodal to all points on the route . It can be seen that the route roughly approximates a great circle , and passes through two pairs of antipodal points . This is a route followed by many cruising sailors , going in the western direction ; the use of the trade winds makes it a relatively easy sail , although it passes through a number of zones of calms or light winds . The
Tropical cyclone
The cloudy outer edge of the eye is called the `` eyewall '' . The eyewall typically expands outward with height , resembling an arena football stadium ; this phenomenon is sometimes referred to as the stadium effect . The eyewall is where the greatest wind speeds are found , air rises most rapidly , clouds reach to their highest altitude , and precipitation is the heaviest . The heaviest wind damage occurs where a tropical cyclone 's eyewall passes over land .
Mid-ocean ridge
There are two processes , ridge - push and slab pull , thought to be responsible for the spreading seen at mid-ocean ridges , and there is some uncertainty as to which is dominant . Ridge - push occurs when the growing bulk of the ridge pushes the rest of the tectonic plate away from the ridge , often towards a subduction zone . At the subduction zone , `` slab - pull '' comes into effect . This is simply the weight of the tectonic plate being subducted ( pulled ) below the overlying plate dragging the rest of the plate along behind it . The slab pull mechanism is considered to be contributing more than the ridge push .
Valparaiso Moraine
The drift across the Valparaiso moraine and outwash plains is the result of repetitive ice advances and intervening recessions . This drift and the drift from the previous ice sheets of the Illinoian and Iowan glacial periods are present across northeastern Illinois and northwestern Indiana . The early Wisconsin drift are similar to that of the Valparaiso drift that identification of each period is not currently possible .
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure varies widely on Earth , and these changes are important in studying weather and climate . See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather .
Alternative energy
Wave power is the transport of energy by wind waves , and the capture of that energy to do useful work -- for example , electricity generation or pumping water into reservoirs . A machine able to exploit significant waves in open coastal areas is generally known as a wave energy converter . Tidal power turbines are placed in coastal and estuarine areas and daily flows are quite predictable . In - stream turbines in fast - moving rivers Ocean current turbines in areas of strong marine currents Ocean thermal energy converters in deep tropical waters .
Seafloor spreading
Earlier theories ( e.g. by Alfred Wegener and Alexander du Toit ) of continental drift postulated that continents `` ploughed '' through the sea . The idea that the seafloor itself moves ( and also carries the continents with it ) as it expands from a central axis was proposed by Harry Hess from Princeton University in the 1960s . The theory is well accepted now , and the phenomenon is known to be caused by convection currents in the asthenosphere , which is ductile , or plastic , and the brittle lithosphere ( crust and upper mantle ) .
Precedent
Courts try to formulate the common law as a `` seamless web '' so that principles in one area of the law apply to other areas . However , this principle does not apply uniformly . Thus , a word may have different definitions in different areas of the law , or different rules may apply so that a question has different answers in different legal contexts . Judges try to minimize these conflicts , but they arise from time to time , and under principles of ' stare decisis ' , may persist for some time . Conflicts
Soil respiration
Different methods exist for the measurement of soil respiration rate and the determination of sources . The most common methods include : The use of long - term stand alone soil flux systems for measurement at one location at different times ; survey soil respiration systems for measurement of different locations and at different times ; and the use of stable isotope ratios .
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
For generation II reactors located in flood or tsunami prone areas , a 3 + day supply of back - up batteries has become an informal industry standard . Another change is to harden the location of back - up diesel generator rooms with water - tight , blast - resistant doors and heat sinks , similar to those used by nuclear submarines . The oldest operating nuclear power station in the world , Beznau , which has been operating since 1969 , has a ' Notstand ' hardened building designed to support all of its systems independently for 72 hours in the event of an earthquake or severe flooding . This system was built prior to Fukushima Daiichi .
Thunderstorm
All thunderstorms , regardless of type , go through three stages : the developing stage , the mature stage , and the dissipation stage . The average thunderstorm has a 24 km ( 15 mi ) diameter . Depending on the conditions present in the atmosphere , each of these three stages take an average of 30 minutes .
Hydrothermal vent
Hydrothermal vents tend to be distributed along the Earth 's plate boundaries , although they may also be found at intra-plate locations such as hotspot volcanoes . As of 2009 there were approximately 500 known active submarine hydrothermal vent fields , with about half visually observed at the seafloor and the other half suspected from water column indicators and / or seafloor deposits . The InterRidge program office hosts a global database for the locations of known active submarine hydrothermal vent fields . Distribution
Alternative energy
Traditional offshore wind turbines are attached to the seabed in shallower waters within the nearshore marine environment . As offshore wind technologies become more advanced , floating structures have begun to be used in deeper waters where more wind resources exist .
Tropical cyclone
( hide ) Tropical cyclone classifications Beaufort scale 1 - minute sustained winds 10 - minute sustained winds NE Pacific & N Atlantic NHC / CPHC NW Pacific JTWC NW Pacific JMA N Indian Ocean IMD SW Indian Ocean MF Australia & S Pacific BOM / FMS 0 -- 7 < 32 knots ( 37 mph ; 59 km / h ) < 28 knots ( 32 mph ; 52 km / h ) Tropical Depression Tropical Depression Tropical Depression Depression Zone of Disturbed Weather Tropical Disturbance Tropical Depression Tropical Low 7 33 knots ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) 28 -- 29 knots ( 32 -- 33 mph ; 52 -- 54 km / h ) Deep Depression Tropical Disturbance 8 34 -- 37 knots ( 39 -- 43 mph ; 63 -- 69 km / h ) 30 -- 33 knots ( 35 -- 38 mph ; 56 -- 61 km / h ) Tropical Storm Tropical Storm Tropical Depression 9 -- 10 38 -- 54 knots ( 44 -- 62 mph ; 70 -- 100 km / h ) 34 -- 47 knots ( 39 -- 54 mph ; 63 -- 87 km / h ) Tropical Storm Cyclonic Storm Moderate Tropical Storm Category 1 tropical cyclone 11 55 -- 63 knots ( 63 -- 72 mph ; 102 -- 117 km / h ) 48 -- 55 knots ( 55 -- 63 mph ; 89 -- 102 km / h ) Severe Tropical Storm Severe Cyclonic Storm Severe Tropical Storm Category 2 tropical cyclone 12 + 64 -- 71 knots ( 74 -- 82 mph ; 119 -- 131 km / h ) 56 -- 63 knots ( 64 -- 72 mph ; 104 -- 117 km / h ) Category 1 hurricane Typhoon 72 -- 82 knots ( 83 --
Hearing range
The auditory system of a land mammal typically works via the transfer of sound waves through the ear canals . Ear canals in seals , sea lions , and walruses are similar to those of land mammals and may function the same way . In whales and dolphins , it is not entirely clear how sound is propagated to the ear , but some studies strongly suggest that sound is channeled to the ear by tissues in the area of the lower jaw . One group of whales , the Odontocetes ( toothed whales ) , use echolocation to determine the position of objects such as prey . The toothed whales are also unusual in that the ears are separated from the skull and placed well apart , which assists them with localizing sounds , an important element for echolocation . Dolphins
Differential (mechanical device)
An epicyclic differential can use epicyclic gearing to split and apportion torque asymmetrically between the front and rear axles . An epicyclic differential is at the heart of the Toyota Prius automotive drive train , where it interconnects the engine , motor - generators , and the drive wheels ( which have a second differential for splitting torque as usual ) . It has the advantage of being relatively compact along the length of its axis ( that is , the sun gear shaft ) .
PageRank
So any page 's PageRank is derived in large part from the PageRanks of other pages . The damping factor adjusts the derived value downward . The original paper , however , gave the following formula , which has led to some confusion :
Desert
Deserts are also classified , according to their geographical location and dominant weather pattern , as trade wind , mid-latitude , rain shadow , coastal , monsoon , or polar deserts . Trade wind deserts occur either side of the horse latitudes at 30 ° to 35 ° North and South . These belts are associated with the subtropical anticyclone and the large - scale descent of dry air moving from high - altitudes toward the poles . The Sahara Desert is of this type . Mid-latitude deserts occur between 30 ° and 50 ° North and South . They are mostly in areas remote from the sea where most of the moisture has already precipitated from the prevailing winds . They include the Tengger and Sonoran Deserts . Monsoon deserts are similar . They occur in regions where large temperature differences occur between sea and land . Moist warm air rises over the land , deposits its water content and circulates back to sea . Further inland , areas receive very little precipitation . The Thar Desert near the India / Pakistan border is of this type .
Phase (waves)
A real - world example of a sonic phase difference occurs in the warble of a Native American flute . The amplitude of different harmonic components of same long - held note on the flute come into dominance at different points in the phase cycle . The phase difference between the different harmonics can be observed on a spectrogram of the sound of a warbling flute .
Acronym
In languages where nouns are declined , various methods are used . An example is Finnish , where a colon is used to separate inflection from the letters :
Water splitting
Although other metals can perform the same reaction , aluminium is among the most promising materials for future development because it is safer , cheaper and easier to transport than some other hydrogen storage materials like sodium borohydride .
Heat
The work done by the system includes boundary work ( when the system increases its volume against an external force , such as that exerted by a piston ) and other work ( e.g. shaft work performed by a compressor fan ) , which is called isochoric work :
Lagrangian mechanics
In Lagrangian mechanics , the trajectory of a system of particles is derived by solving the Lagrange equations in one of two forms , either the Lagrange equations of the first kind , which treat constraints explicitly as extra equations , often using Lagrange multipliers ; or the Lagrange equations of the second kind , which incorporate the constraints directly by judicious choice of generalized coordinates . In each case , a mathematical function called the Lagrangian is a function of the generalized coordinates , their time derivatives , and time , and contains the information about the dynamics of the system .
Seafloor spreading
Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics . When oceanic plates diverge , tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere . The motivating force for seafloor spreading ridges is tectonic plate pull rather than magma pressure , although there is typically significant magma activity at spreading ridges . At a spreading center basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new seabed . Hydrothermal vents are common at spreading centers . Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone . Additionally spreading rates determine if the ridge is a fast , intermediate , or slow . As a general rule , fast ridges have spreading ( opening ) rates of more than 9 cm / year . Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 5 -- 9 cm / year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 5 cm / year .
Third World
Many times there is a clear distinction between First and Third Worlds . When talking about the Global North and the Global South , the majority of the time the two go hand in hand . People refer to the two as `` Third World / South '' and `` First World / North '' because the Global North is more affluent and developed , whereas the Global South is less developed and often poorer .
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal ( twice - daily ) cycle caused by global atmospheric tides . This effect is strongest in tropical zones , with an amplitude of a few millibars , and almost zero in polar areas . These variations have two superimposed cycles , a circadian ( 24 h ) cycle and semi-circadian ( 12 h ) cycle .
Soil respiration
Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be affected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .
Air mass
Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to east , while warm fronts move poleward . Because of the greater density of air in their wake , cold fronts and cold occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm occlusions . Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow the movement of fronts . When a front becomes stationary , and the density contrast across the frontal boundary vanishes , the front can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind velocity , known as a shearline . This is most common over the open ocean .