vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Euphrates
In the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE , the Euphrates basin was divided between Kassite Babylon in the south and Mitanni , Assyria and the Hittite Empire in the north , with the Middle Assyrian Empire ( 1365 -- 1020 BC ) eventually eclipsing the Hittites , Mitanni and Kassite Babylonians . Following the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire in the late 11th century BCE , struggles broke out between Babylonia and Assyria over the control of the Iraqi Euphrates basin . The Neo-Assyrian Empire ( 935 -- 605 BC ) eventually emerged victorious out of this conflict and also succeeded in gaining control of the northern Euphrates basin in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE .
History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
According to legend , the Roman Kingdom was founded in 753 BC , and was ruled by a succession of seven kings . The last king , Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , ruled in a tyrannical manner and , in 510 BC , his son Sextus Tarquinius raped a noblewoman named Lucretia . Lucretia , the wife of a senator named Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus , committed suicide because of the rape , and this led to a conspiracy which drove Tarquin from the city . With Tarquin 's expulsion , the Roman Republic was founded , and the chief conspirators , Collatinus and the senator Lucius Junius Brutus , were elected as the first Roman Consul ( chief - executive ) . While this story may be nothing more than a legend which later Romans created in order to explain their past , it is likely that Rome had been ruled by a series of kings , who probably were , as the legends suggest , overthrown quickly .
Renaissance
The Renaissance began in Florence , Italy , in the 14th century . Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics , focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time : its political structure ; the patronage of its dominant family , the Medici ; and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks . Other major centres were northern Italian city - states such as Venice , Genoa , Milan , Bologna , and finally Rome during the Renaissance Papacy .
Early world maps
A Babylonian world map , known as the Imago Mundi , is commonly dated to the 6th century BCE . The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates , surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria , Urartu ( Armenia ) and several cities , in turn surrounded by a `` bitter river '' ( Oceanus ) , with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven - pointed star . The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean . The descriptions of five of them have survived :
Hellenistic period
The city of Emporion ( modern Empúries ) , originally founded by Archaic - period settlers from Phocaea and Massalia in the 6th century BC near the village of Sant Martí d'Empúries ( located on an offshore island that forms part of L'Escala , Catalonia , Spain ) , was reestablished in the 5th century BC with a new city ( neapolis ) on the Iberian mainland . Emporion contained a mixed population of Greek colonists and Iberian natives , and although Livy and Strabo assert that they lived in different quarters , these two groups were eventually integrated . The city became a dominant trading hub and center of Hellenistic civilization in Iberia , eventually siding with the Roman Republic against the Carthaginian Empire during the Second Punic War ( 218 - 201 BC ) . However , Emporion lost its political independence around 195 BC with the establishment of the Roman province of Hispania Citerior and by the 1st century BC had become fully Romanized in culture .
New Year
During the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire years began on the date on which each consul first entered office . This was probably 1 May before 222 BC , 15 March from 222 BC to 154 BC , and 1 January from 153 BC . In 45 BC , when Julius Caesar 's new Julian calendar took effect , the Senate fixed 1 January as the first day of the year . At that time , this was the date on which those who were to hold civil office assumed their official position , and it was also the traditional annual date for the convening of the Roman Senate . This civil new year remained in effect throughout the Roman Empire , east and west , during its lifetime and well after , wherever the Julian calendar continued in use .
British Empire
In 1603 , James VI , King of Scots , ascended ( as James I ) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London , ending hostilities with Spain . Now at peace with its main rival , English attention shifted from preying on other nations ' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies . The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century , with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean , and the establishment of joint - stock companies , most notably the East India Company , to administer colonies and overseas trade . This period , until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century , has subsequently been referred to by some historians as the `` First British Empire '' .
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Macedonia Μακεδονία 808 -- 168 BC 150 -- 148 BC Vergina Sun The Kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BC ( orange ) Capital Aigai ( Vergina ) ( 808 -- 399 BC ) Pella ( 399 -- 167 BC ) Languages Ancient Macedonian , Attic Greek , Koine Greek Religion Greek Polytheism , Hellenistic religion Government Monarchy King 808 -- 778 BC Caranus ( first ) 179 -- 168 BC Perseus ( last ) Legislature Synedrion Historical era Classical Antiquity Founded by Caranus 808 BC Vassal of Persia 512 / 511 -- 493 BC Incorporated into the Persian Empire 492 -- 479 BC Rise of Macedon 359 -- 336 BC Conquest of Persia 335 -- 323 BC Partition of Babylon 323 BC Wars of the Diadochi 322 -- 275 BC Battle of Pydna 168 BC Currency Tetradrachm Preceded by Succeeded by Greek Dark Ages Kingdom of Pergamon Seleucid Empire Ptolemaic Kingdom Macedonia ( Roman province )
Julian calendar
Only rarely did the Romans number the year from the founding of the city ( of Rome ) , ab urbe condita ( AUC ) . This method was used by Roman historians to determine the number of years from one event to another , not to date a year . Different historians had several different dates for the founding . The Fasti Capitolini , an inscription containing an official list of the consuls which was published by Augustus , used an epoch of 752 BC . The epoch used by Varro , 753 BC , has been adopted by modern historians . Indeed , Renaissance editors often added it to the manuscripts that they published , giving the false impression that the Romans numbered their years . Most modern historians tacitly assume that it began on the day the consuls took office , and ancient documents such as the Fasti Capitolini which use other AUC systems do so in the same way . However , Censorinus , writing in the 3rd century AD , states that , in his time , the AUC year began with the Parilia , celebrated on 21 April , which was regarded as the actual anniversary of the foundation of Rome .
Bangladesh Liberation War
Part of a series on the History of Bangladesh Etymology Timeline Traditional Urheimat Ancient ( show ) Neolithic , c. 7600 -- c. 3300 BCE Bronze Age , c. 3300 -- c. 1200 BCE Iron Age , c. 1200 -- c. 200 BCE Janapada , c. 1200 -- c. 600 BCE Northern Black Polished Ware , c. 700 -- c. 200 BCE Pundra Kingdom , c. 700 -- c. 200 BCE Bengal in Mahabharata , c. 400 -- c. 325 BCE Gangaridai Kingdom , c. 350 -- c. 325 BCE Mauryan Empire , c. 325 -- c. 185 BCE Samatata Kingdom , c. 232 BCE -- c. 800 AD Shunga - Kushan Period , c. 185 BCE -- c. 75 AD Southwestern Silk Road , c. 114 BCE -- c. 1450 AD Indo - Roman trade relations , c. 30 BCE -- c. 600 AD Classical ( show ) Gupta Empire , c. 240 -- c. 550 AD Sylhet - Assam Varmans , c. 350 -- c. 650 Gauda Kingdom , c. 590 -- c. 626 Khadga dynasty , c. 650 -- c. 750 Pala Empire , c. 750 -- c. 1100 Arrival of Islam , c. 800 -- c. 1050 Harikela Kingdom , c. 900 -- c. 1050 Candra dynasty , c. 900 -- c. 1050 Sena dynasty , c. 1070 -- c. 1320 Deva dynasty , c. 1100 -- c. 1250 Medieval ( show ) Delhi Sultanate , c. 1204 -- c. 1338 Mamluk Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tugluq Dynasty Sonargaon Sultanate , c. 1338 -- c. 1352 Bengal Sultanate , c. 1352 -- c.
Mesopotamia
Pre - and protohistory Pre-Pottery Neolithic A ( 10,000 -- 8700 BC ) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B ( 8700 -- 6800 ) Hassuna ( ~ 6000 bc -- ? BC ) , Samarra ( ~ 5700 BC -- 4900 BC ) and Halaf cultures ( ~ 6000 BC -- 5300 BC ) cultures Ubaid period ( ~ 5900 -- 4400 BC ) Uruk period ( ~ 4400 -- 3100 BC ) Jemdet Nasr period ( ~ 3100 -- 2900 BC ) Early Bronze Age Early Dynastic period ( ~ 2900 -- 2350 BC ) Akkadian Empire ( ~ 2350 -- 2100 BC ) Third Dynasty of Ur ( 2112 -- 2004 BC ) Early Assyrian kingdom ( 24th to 18th century BC ) Middle Bronze Age Early Babylonia ( 19th to 18th century BC ) First Babylonian Dynasty ( 18th to 17th century BC ) Minoan eruption ( c. 1620 BC ) Late Bronze Age Old Assyrian period ( 16th to 11th century BC ) Middle Assyrian period ( c. 1365 BC -- 1076 BC ) Kassites in Babylon , ( c. 1595 BC -- 1155 BC ) Late Bronze Age collapse ( 12th to 11th century BC ) Iron Age Syro - Hittite states ( 11th to 7th century BC ) Neo-Assyrian Empire ( 10th to 7th century BC ) Neo-Babylonian Empire ( 7th to 6th century BC ) Classical antiquity Persian Babylonia , Achaemenid Assyria ( 6th to 4th century BC ) Seleucid Mesopotamia ( 4th to 3rd century BC ) Parthian Babylonia ( 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD ) Osroene ( 2nd century BC to 3rd century AD ) Adiabene ( 1st to 2nd century AD ) Hatra ( 1st to 2nd century AD ) Roman Mesopotamia ( 2nd to 7th centuries AD ) , Roman Assyria ( 2nd century AD ) Late Antiquity Asōristān ( 3rd to 7th century AD ) Muslim conquest ( mid-7th century AD )
Cradle of civilization
Eannatum , the Sumerian king of Lagash , established one of the first verifiable empires in history in 2500 BC . The neighboring Elam , in modern Iran , was also part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period . Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East . The emergence of Elamite written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history , where slightly earlier records have been found . During the 3rd millennium BC , there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians . Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BC . The Semitic - speaking Akkadian empire emerged around 2350 BC under Sargon the Great . The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC . Under Sargon and his successors , the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium . After the fall of the Akkadian Empire , the Akkadian people of Mesopotamia eventually coalesced into two major Akkadian - speaking nations : Assyria in the north , and , a few centuries later , Babylonia in the south .
Afghanistan
History of Afghanistan Timeline Ancient ( show ) Indus Valley Civilisation 2200 -- 1800 BC Oxus civilization 2100 -- 1800 BC Aryans 1700 -- 700 BC Median Empire 728 -- 550 BC Achaemenid Empire 550 -- 330 BC Seleucid Empire 330 -- 150 BC Maurya Empire 305 -- 180 BC Greco - Bactrian Kingdom 256 -- 125 BC Parthian Empire 247 BC -- 224 AD Indo - Greek Kingdom 180 -- 130 BC Indo - Scythian Kingdom 155 -- 80 ? BC Kushan Empire 135 BC -- 248 AD Indo - Parthian Kingdom 20 BC -- 50 ? AD Sasanian Empire 230 -- 651 Kidarite Kingdom 320 -- 465 Alchon Huns 380 -- 560 Hephthalite Empire 410 -- 557 Nezak Huns 484 -- 711 Medieval ( show ) Kabul Shahi 565 -- 879 Principality of Chaghaniyan 7th -- 8th centuries Rashidun Caliphate 652 -- 661 Umayyads 661 -- 750 Abbasids 750 -- 821 Tahirids 821 -- 873 Saffarids 863 -- 900 Samanids 875 -- 999 Ghaznavids 963 -- 1187 Ghurids before 879 -- 1215 Seljuks 1037 -- 1194 Khwarezmids 1215 -- 1231 Qarlughids 1224 -- 1266 Ilkhanate 1258 -- 1353 Chagatai Khanate 1225 -- 1370 Khaljis 1290 -- 1320 Karts 1245 -- 1381 Timurids 1370 -- 1507 Arghuns 1479 -- 1522 Mughals 1501 -- 1738 Safavids 1510 -- 1709 Afsharids 1738 - 1747 Modern ( show ) Hotak dynasty 1709 -- 1738 Durrani Empire 1747 -- 1826 Emirate of Afghanistan 1826 -- 1919 Kingdom of Afghanistan 1919 -- 1973 Republic of Afghanistan 1973 -- 1978 Democratic Republic of Afghanistan 1978 -- 1992 Islamic State of Afghanistan 1992 -- 2001 Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan 1996 -- 2004 Interim / Transitional Administration 2001 -- 2004 Islamic Republic of Afghanistan since 2004 Book Category Portal
Pantheon, Rome
or in full , `` M ( arcus ) Agrippa L ( ucii ) f ( ilius ) co ( n ) s ( ul ) tertium fecit , '' meaning `` Marcus Agrippa , son of Lucius , made ( this building ) when consul for the third time . '' However , archaeological excavations have shown that the Pantheon of Agrippa had been completely destroyed except for the façade . Lise Hetland argues that the present construction began in 114 , under Trajan , four years after it was destroyed by fire for the second time ( Oros . 7.12 ) . She reexamined Herbert Bloch 's 1959 paper , which is responsible for the commonly maintained Hadrianic date , and maintains that he should not have excluded all of the Trajanic - era bricks from his brick - stamp study . Her argument is particularly interesting in light of Heilmeyer 's argument that , based on stylistic evidence , Apollodorus of Damascus , Trajan 's architect , was the obvious architect . View
Hellenistic period
Following division of Alexander 's empire , Seleucus I Nicator received Babylonia . From there , he created a new empire which expanded to include much of Alexander 's near eastern territories . At the height of its power , it included central Anatolia , the Levant , Mesopotamia , Persia , today 's Turkmenistan , Pamir , and parts of Pakistan . It included a diverse population estimated at fifty to sixty million people . Under Antiochus I ( c. 324 / 3 -- 261 BC ) , however , the unwieldy empire was already beginning to shed territories . Pergamum broke away under Eumenes I who defeated a Seleucid army sent against him . The kingdoms of Cappadocia , Bithynia and Pontus were all practically independent by this time as well . Like the Ptolemies , Antiochus I established a dynastic religious cult , deifying his father Seleucus I. Seleucus , officially said to be descended from Apollo , had his own priests and monthly sacrifices . The erosion of the empire continued under Seleucus II , who was forced to fight a civil war ( 239 - 236 ) against his brother Antiochus Hierax and was unable to keep Bactria , Sogdiana and Parthia from breaking away . Hierax carved off most of Seleucid Anatolia for himself , but was defeated , along with his Galatian allies , by Attalus I of Pergamon who now also claimed kingship . The
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Bayezid took with him an army composed primarily of Balkan vassal troops , including Serbs led by Lazarevic . He soon faced an invasion of Anatolia by the Central Asian ruler Timur Lenk . Around 1400 , Timur entered the Middle East . Timur Lenk pillaged a few villages in eastern Anatolia and commenced the conflict with the Ottoman Empire . In August , 1400 , Timur and his horde burned the town of Sivas to the ground and advanced into the mainland . Their armies met outside of Ankara , at the Battle of Ankara , in 1402 . The Ottomans were routed and Bayezid was taken prisoner , later dying in captivity . A civil war , lasting from 1402 to 1413 , broke out among Bayezid 's surviving sons . Known in Ottoman history as the Interregnum , that struggle temporarily halted active Ottoman expansion in the Balkans .
History of the Islamic Republic of Iran
1155 Neo-Assyrian Empire 911 -- 609 Urartu 860 -- 590 Mannaeans 850 -- 616 Imperial period ( show ) Median Empire 678 -- 550 BC ( Scythian Kingdom ) 652 -- 625 BC Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 BC -- 539 BC Achaemenid Empire 550 -- 330 BC Kingdom of Armenia 331 BC -- 428 AD Atropatene 320s BC -- 3rd century AD Kingdom of Cappadocia 320s BC -- 17 AD Seleucid Empire 312 -- 63 BC Kingdom of Pontus 281 -- 62 BC Frataraka dynasty 3rd - century BC -- c. 222 AD Parthian Empire 247 BC -- 224 AD Suren Kingdom 119 BC -- 240 AD Sasanian Empire 224 -- 651 Zarmihrids 6th century -- 785 Qarinvandids 550s -- 11th century Medieval period ( show ) Rashidun Caliphate 632 - 661 Umayyad Caliphate 661 -- 750 Abbasid Caliphate 750 -- 1258 Dabuyids 642 -- 760 Bavandids 651 -- 1349 Masmughans of Damavand 651 -- 760 Paduspanids 665 -- 1598 Justanids 791 -- 11th century Alid dynasties 864 -- 14th century Tahirid dynasty 821 -- 873 Samanid Empire 819 -- 999 Saffarid dynasty 861 -- 1003 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 -- 1141 Sajid dynasty 889 -- 929 Sallarid dynasty 919 -- 1062 Ziyarid dynasty 930 -- 1090 Ilyasids 932 -- 968 Buyid dynasty 934 -- 1062 Ghaznavid dynasty 977 -- 1186 Kakuyids 1008 -- 1141 Nasrid dynasty 1029 -- 1236 Shabankara 1030 -- 1355 Seljuk Empire 1037 -- 1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077 -- 1231 Eldiguzids 1135 --
British Empire
No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , during the last decades of the 16th century . In the meantime , the 1533 Statute in Restraint of Appeals had declared `` that this realm of England is an Empire '' . The subsequent Protestant Reformation turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies . In 1562 , the English Crown encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave - raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of breaking into the Atlantic slave trade . This effort was rebuffed and later , as the Anglo - Spanish Wars intensified , Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic , laden with treasure from the New World . At the same time , influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee ( who was the first to use the term `` British Empire '' ) were beginning to press for the establishment of England 's own empire . By this time , Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean , Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China , and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area , later to become New France .
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
Macedonia ( / ˌmæsɪˈdoʊniə / ( listen ) ) or Macedon ( / ˈmæsɪˌdɒn / ; Greek : Μακεδονία , Makedonía ) was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece , and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece . The kingdom was founded and initially ruled by the royal Argead dynasty , which was followed by the Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties . Home to the ancient Macedonians , the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula , and bordered by Epirus to the west , Paeonia to the north , Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south .
Romance languages
In Italian , the situation is somewhere in between Spanish and Romanian . There are no case endings and relatively few classes , as in Spanish , but noun endings are generally formed with vowels instead of / s / , as in Romanian : amico -- amici `` friend ( s ) ( masc . ) '' , amica -- amiche `` friend ( s ) ( fem . ) '' ; cane -- cani `` dog ( s ) '' . The masculine plural amici is thought to reflect the Latin nominative plural - ī rather than accusative plural - ōs ( Spanish - os ) ; however , the other plurals are thought to stem from special developments of Latin - ās and - ēs .
Republic (Plato)
Res publica is not an exact translation of Plato 's Greek title politeia . Rather , politeia is a general term for the actual and potential forms of government for a Polis or city - state , and Plato attempts to survey all possible forms of the state . Cicero 's discussion is more parochial , focusing on the improvement of the participants ' own state , the Roman Republic in its final stages . Tacitus
Romance languages
Latin , at least originally , had a three - way distinction among demonstrative pronouns distinguished by distal value : hic ' this ' , iste ' that ( near you ) ' , ille ' that ( over there ) ' , similar to the distinction that used to exist in English as `` this '' vs. `` that '' vs. `` yon ( der ) '' . In urban Latin of Rome , iste came to have a specifically derogatory meaning , but this innovation apparently did not reach the provinces and is not reflected in the modern Romance languages . A number of these languages still have such a three - way distinction , although hic has been lost and the other pronouns have shifted somewhat in meaning . For example , Spanish has este `` this '' vs. ese `` that ( near you ) '' vs. aquel ( fem . aquella ) `` that ( over yonder ) '' . The Spanish pronouns derive , respectively , from Latin iste ipse accu - ille , where accu - is an emphatic prefix derived from eccum `` behold ( it ! ) '' ( still vigorous in Italy as Ecco ! ' Behold ! ' ) , possibly with influence from atque `` and '' .
Republic
The term republic was first coined c. 500 BC in Rome , but over time the term has undergone several changes in meaning . Initially the Latin term res publica signified the earlier `` partial form of democracy '' as found in Rome from c. 500 BC until c. 27 BC . In this early Roman partial - democracy , the power of the aristocratic or patrician class who held all of the seats in the Roman Senate , was checked by the institution of the consulship , whose two consul / vice-rulers were elected annually by the free citizens or plebes of Rome . The ancient Roman definition of the word differs from the modern use of the term , where no leadership positions are held to be restricted to only the `` ruling class '' .
Roman calendar
This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2011 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) A