vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Manhattan Project
Early plans called for the construction of two separation plants in each of the areas known as 200 - West and 200 - East . This was subsequently reduced to two , the T and U plants , in 200 - West and one , the B plant , at 200 - East . Each separation plant consisted of four buildings : a process cell building or `` canyon '' ( known as 221 ) , a concentration building ( 224 ) , a purification building ( 231 ) and a magazine store ( 213 ) . The canyons were each 800 feet ( 240 m ) long and 65 feet ( 20 m ) wide . Each consisted of forty 17.7 - by - 13 - by - 20 - foot ( 5.4 by 4.0 by 6.1 m ) cells .
Urban renewal
The history of Singapore 's urban renewal goes back to the time period surrounding the Second World War . Before the war , Singapore 's housing environment had already been a problem . The tension of both infrastructure and housing conditions were worsened by the rapidly increasing number of the Singapore population in the 1930s . As a consequence of the war and the lack of economic development , between the 1940s to the 1950s , the previous evil of housing conditions continued to happen . As much as 240,000 squatters were placed in the Singapore during the 1950s . It was caused by the movement of migrants , especially from peninsular Malaysia and the baby boom . In mid 1959 , overcrowded slums were inhabited by a big number of squatter populations , whereas these areas lacked the existence of service facilities such as sanitation .
Retractor (medical)
In 4th century CE , Indian physician Susruta used surgical tools such as retractors . In a description of the procedure of tonsillectomy from the 7th century CE , Paul of Aegina documents the use of a tongue spatula to keep the tongue out of the way while a form of tonsil hook is used to bring the tonsil forward for excision . In 1000 CE Abu al - Qasim al - Zahrawi , also known as Albucasis or Abulcasis , described a variety of surgical instruments including retractors in his famous text Al - Tasrif . Vesalius described a variety of hooks and retractors in the 16th century . Jan Mikulicz - Radecki 's invention of a hinged rib spreading retractor in 1904 prompted a flurry of development of retractors in the early 20th century , culminating in 1936 in our modern device based on the design of Enrique Finochietto .
Carthage
Artisan workshops were located in the city at sites north and west of the harbours . The location of three metal workshops ( implied from iron slag and other vestiges of such activity ) were found adjacent to the naval and commercial harbours , and another two were further up the hill toward the Byrsa citadel . Sites of pottery kilns have been identified , between the agora and the harbours , and further north . Earthenware often used Greek models . A fuller 's shop for preparing woolen cloth ( shrink and thicken ) was evidently situated further to the west and south , then by the edge of the city . Carthage also produced objects of rare refinement . During the 4th and 3rd centuries , the sculptures of the sarcophagi became works of art . `` Bronze engraving and stone - carving reached their zenith . ''
Pre-Columbian era
Until the accurate dating of Watson Brake and similar sites , the oldest mound complex was thought to be Poverty Point , also located in the Lower Mississippi Valley . Built about 1500 BCE , it is the centerpiece of a culture extending over 100 sites on both sides of the Mississippi . The Poverty Point site has earthworks in the form of six concentric half - circles , divided by radial aisles , together with some mounds . The entire complex is nearly a mile across .
Cremation
During World War II ( 1939 -- 45 ) Nazi Germany used specially built furnaces in at least six extermination camps throughout occupied Poland including at Auschwitz - Birkenau , Chełmno , Belzec , Majdanek , Sobibor and Treblinka , where the bodies of those murdered by gassing were disposed of using incineration . The efficiency of industrialised killing of Operation Reinhard during the most deadly phase of the Holocaust produced too many corpses , therefore the crematoria manufactured to SS specifications were put into use in all of them to handle the disposals around the clock , day and night . The Vrba -- Wetzler report offers the following description .
Southwestern United States
Human history in the Southwest begins with the arrival of the Clovis culture , a Paleo - Indian hunter - gatherer culture which arrived sometime around 9000 BC . This culture remained in the area for several millennia . At some point they were replaced by three great Pre-Columbian Indian cultures : the Ancestral Pueblo people , the Hohokam , and the Mogollon , all of which existed among other surrounding cultures including the Fremont and Patayan . Maize began to be cultivated in the region sometime during the early first millennium BC , but it took several hundred years for the native cultures to be dependent on it as a food source . As their dependence on maize grew , Pre-Columbian Indians began developing irrigation systems around 1500 . Map
Barn owl
In Israel , a first use for pest control was in 1983 at the Kibbutz Sde Eliyahu , where pesticides were becoming a health hazard to local residents . A local farmer sought after an alternative which he found in installing nest boxes .
Dead Sea
In the early part of the 20th century , the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced the sea was a natural deposit of potash ( potassium chloride ) and bromine . The Palestine Potash Company was chartered in 1929 , after its founder , Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer of Lake Baikal exploitation , Moses Novomeysky , worked for the charter for over ten years . The first plant was on the north shore of the Dead Sea at Kalya and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine . Employing Arabs and Jews , it was an island of peace in turbulent times . The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle East , and in 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore , in the Mount Sodom area , south of the ' Lashon ' region of the Dead Sea . Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain 's potash during World War II . Both plants were destroyed by the Jordanians in the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War .
Dead Sea
The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years . It was one of the world 's first health resorts ( for Herod the Great ) , and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products , from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilisers . People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics and herbal sachets .
Wellington
Wellington and the Hutt Valley were two of the original nine towns and cities in New Zealand to be supplied with natural gas when the Kapuni gas field entered production in 1970 , and a 260 - kilometre - long ( 160 mi ) high - pressure pipeline from the field in Taranaki to the city was completed . The high - pressure transmission pipelines supplying Wellington are now owned and operated by First Gas , with Powerco owning and operating the medium - and low - pressure distribution pipelines within the urban area .
Ancient Roman architecture
Baths of Trajan -- these were a massive thermae , a bathing and leisure complex , built in ancient Rome starting from 104 AD and dedicated during the Kalends of July in 109 . Baths of Diocletian -- in ancient Rome , these were the grandest of the public baths ( thermae ) , built by successive emperors Baths of Caracalla Colosseum Trajan 's Column , in Rome Circus Maximus , in Rome Curia Hostilia ( Senate House ) , in Rome Domus Aurea ( former building ) Pantheon Tower of Hercules Tropaeum Traiani Hadrian 's Villa Verona Arena , in Verona
First Fleet
Naval escorts ( depart England 13 May 1787 ) Ship Type Master Crew Dep . England Arr . Botany Bay Duration ( days ) HMS Supply Yard craft Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball 13 May 1787 from Spithead 18 January 1788 250 HMS Sirius 10 - gun ship Captain John Hunter 13 May 1787 from Portsmouth 20 January 1788 252 Convict
History of United States prison systems
Despite the ultimate failure of the Penitentiary Act , however , the legislation marked the culmination of a series of legislative efforts that `` disclose ( ) the ... antiquity , continuity , and durability '' of rehabilitative incarceration ideology in Anglo - American criminal law , according to historian Adam J. Hirsch . The first United States penitentiaries involved elements of the early English workhouses -- hard labor by day and strict supervision of inmates .
First Fleet
Ropes , crockery , agricultural equipment and a miscellany of other stores were needed . Items transported included tools , agricultural implements , seeds , spirits , medical supplies , bandages , surgical instruments , handcuffs , leg irons and a prefabricated wooden frame for the colony 's first Government House . The party had to rely on its own provisions to survive until it could make use of local materials , assuming suitable supplies existed , and grow its own food and raise livestock .
Jim Crow laws
In Texas , several towns adopted residential segregation laws between 1910 and the 1920s . Legal strictures called for segregated water fountains and restrooms . Jim Crow laws were a product of what had become the solidly Democratic South due to disfranchisement of blacks .
Early skyscrapers
A new wave of skyscraper construction emerged in the first decade of the 20th century . The demand for new office space to hold America 's expanding workforce of white - collar staff continued to grow . Engineering developments made it easier to build and live in yet taller buildings . Chicago built new skyscrapers in its existing style , while New York experimented further with tower design . Iconic buildings such as the Flatiron were followed by the 612 - foot ( 187 m ) tall Singer Tower , the 700 - foot ( 210 m ) Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower and the 792 - foot ( 241 m ) Woolworth Building . Though these skyscrapers were commercial successes , criticism mounted as they broke up the ordered city skyline and plunged neighboring streets and buildings into perpetual shadow . Combined with an economic downturn , this led to the introduction of zoning restraints in New York in 1916 .
Restoration (England)
Periods in English history ( hide ) Prehistoric Britain until c. 43 Roman Britain c. 43 -- 410 Anglo - Saxon c. 500 -- 1066 Norman 1066 -- 1154 Plantagenet 1154 -- 1485 Tudor 1485 -- 1603 Elizabethan 1558 -- 1603 Stuart 1603 -- 1714 Jacobean 1603 -- 1625 Caroline 1625 -- 1649 ( Interregnum ) 1649 -- 1660 Restoration 1660 -- 1714 Georgian 1714 -- 1837 Regency 1811 -- 1837 Victorian 1837 -- 1901 Edwardian 1901 -- 1914 First World War 1914 -- 1918 Interwar Britain 1918 -- 1939 Second World War 1939 -- 1945 See also Political history ( 1945 -- present ) Social history ( 1945 -- present ) Timeline
History of United States prison systems
Starting in the 1820s , a new institution , the `` penitentiary '' , gradually became the focal point of criminal justice in the United States . At the same time , other novel institutions -- the asylum and the almshouse -- redefined care for the mentally ill and the poor . For its proponents , the penitentiary was an ambitious program whose external appearance , internal arrangements , and daily routine would counteract the disorder and immorality thought to be breeding crime in American society . Although its adoption was haphazard at first , and marked by political strife -- especially in the South -- the penitentiary became an established institution in the United States by the end of the 1830s . New
History of education in the United States
Residents of the Upper South , centered on the Chesapeake Bay , created some basic schools early in the colonial period . In late 17th century Maryland , the Catholic Jesuits operated some schools for Catholic students . Generally the planter class hired tutors for the education of their children or sent them to private schools . During the colonial years , some sent their sons to England or Scotland for schooling .
Ancient Greek architecture
Ancient Greek architecture is best known from its temples , many of which are found throughout the region , mostly as ruins but many substantially intact . The second important type of building that survives all over the Hellenic world is the open - air theatre , with the earliest dating from around 525 - 480 BC . Other architectural forms that are still in evidence are the processional gateway ( propylon ) , the public square ( agora ) surrounded by storied colonnade ( stoa ) , the town council building ( bouleuterion ) , the public monument , the monumental tomb ( mausoleum ) and the stadium .
Construction of the World Trade Center
Building the World Trade Center involved excavating 1,200,000 cubic yards ( 920,000 m ) of material . Rather than transporting this material at great costs out to sea or to landfills in New Jersey , the fill material was used to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street . Work to demolish the piers began on January 5 , 1967 , including Pier 7 to Pier 11 which were all constructed around 1910 . The demolition work moved forward , despite conflicts between David Rockefeller , Governor Nelson Rockefeller , and Mayor John Lindsay regarding plans for Battery Park City . Landfill material from the World Trade Center was used to add land , and a cellular cofferdam was constructed to retain the material . The result was a 700 - foot ( 210 m ) extension into the Hudson River , running six blocks or 1,484 feet ( 452 m ) . This land was a `` gift '' to New York City , allowing more tax - generating developments in Battery Park City .
Barn swallow
The Oxford English Dictionary dates the English common name `` barn swallow '' to 1851 , though an earlier instance of the collocation in an English - language context is in Gilbert White 's popular book The Natural History of Selborne , originally published in 1789 :
Dutch East India Company
1697 : In his undercover visit to the Dutch Republic as part of the Grand Embassy mission ( 1697 -- 98 ) , Tsar Peter I of Russia ( Peter the Great ) worked as a ship 's carpenter in the VOC 's shipyards in Amsterdam and Zaandam / Saardam . 1722 : In the service of the Dutch West India Company ( WIC / GWIC ) , Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen and his crew were arrested for violating the monopoly of the VOC and sent back to the Dutch Republic almost as prisoners on ships of the VOC , the rivals of the Dutch West India Company . 1740 : Batavia massacre . 1746 : Establishment of Swellendam , the third oldest urban area ( town ) in South Africa . 1780 -- 1784 : Fourth Anglo - Dutch War .
Early skyscrapers
Skyscrapers provided a wide range of in - house services for their tenants , including shops , restaurants , barbers , tobacconists , newsagents , tailors , professional specialists and libraries . Skyscrapers also employed a substantial number of service staff to maintain and support them ; a building such as the Chicago Board of Trade spent 20 percent of its rental revenue on service staff , employing 41 people , including janitors , elevator operators , engineers , and an electrician . With this collection of services and facilities , skyscrapers of the period were often referred to as small cities in their own right .
History of New Mexico
The Pueblo people built a flourishing sedentary culture in the 13th century A.D. , constructing small towns in the valley of the Rio Grande and pueblos nearby . By about 700 to 900 AD , the Pueblo began to abandon ancient pit houses dug in cliffs and to construct rectangular rooms arranged in apartment - like structures . By 1050 AD , they had developed planned villages composed of large terraced buildings , each with many rooms . These apartment - house villages were often constructed on defensive sites - on ledges of massive rock , on flat summits , or on steep - sided mesas , locations that would afford the Anasazi protection from their Northern enemies . The largest of these villages , Pueblo Bonito , in the Chaco Canyon of New Mexico , contained around 700 rooms in five stories and may have housed as many as 1000 persons . No larger apartment - house type construction would be seen on the continent until 19th century Chicago and New York . Then , around 1150 , Chaco Anasazi society began to unravel . Long before the Spanish arrival , descendants of the Anasazi were using irrigation canals , check dams and hillside terracing as techniques for bringing water to what had for centuries been an arid , agriculturally marginal area . At the same time , the ceramic industry became more elaborate , cotton replaced yucca fiber as the main clothing material and basket weaving became more artistic .
History of West Africa
The iron industry , in both smelting and forging for tools and weapons , appeared in Sub-Saharan Africa by 1200 BCE , most likely in Egypt . Iron smelting facilities in Niger and Nigeria have been radiocarbon dated to 500 to 1000 BC . The increased use of iron and the spread of ironworking technology led to improved weaponry and enabled farmers to expand agricultural productivity and produce surplus crops , which together supported the growth of urban city - states into empires .
Hindu temple
In arid western parts of India , such as Rajasthan and Gujarat , Hindu communities built large walk in wells that served as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social meeting places and carried religious significance . These monuments went down into earth towards subterranean water , up to seven storey , and were part of a temple complex . These vav ( literally , stepwells ) had intricate art reliefs on the walls , with numerous idols and images of Hindu deities , water spirits and erotic symbolism . The step wells were named after Hindu deities ; for example , Mata Bhavani 's Stepwell , Ankol Mata Vav , Sikotari Vav and others . The temple ranged from being small single pada ( cell ) structure to large nearby complexes . These stepwells and their temple compounds have been variously dated from late 1st millennium BC through 11th century AD . Of these , Rani ki vav , with hundreds of art reliefs including many of Vishnu deity avatars , has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage site .
History of United States prison systems
Presaging Reconstruction - era developments , however , Virginia , Georgia , and Tennessee began considering the idea of leasing their convicts to private businesspersons by the 1850s . Prisoners in Missouri , Alabama , Texas , Kentucky , and Louisiana all leased their convicts during the antebellum period under a variety of arrangements -- some inside the prison itself ( as Northern prisons were also doing ) , and others outside of the state 's own facilities . Urban
Cave painting
The Bhimbetka rock shelters exhibit the earliest traces of human life in India ; a number of analyses suggest that some of these shelters were inhabited by humans for more than 100,000 years . The earliest paintings on the cave walls are believed to be of the Mesolithic period , dating to 30,000 years ago . The most recent painting , consisting of geometric figures , date to the medieval period . Executed mainly in red and white with the occasional use of green and yellow , the paintings depict the lives and times of the people who lived in the caves , including scenes of childbirth , communal dancing and drinking , religious rites and burials , as well as indigenous animals .
Waste minimisation
Health - care establishments are massive producers of waste . The major sources of health - care waste are : hospitals , laboratories and research centres , mortuary and autopsy centres , animal research and testing laboratories , blood banks and collection services , and nursing homes for the elderly .
Thirteen Colonies
The first successful English colony was Jamestown , established May 14 , 1607 near Chesapeake Bay . The business venture was financed and coordinated by the London Virginia Company , a joint stock company looking for gold . Its first years were extremely difficult , with very high death rates from disease and starvation , wars with local Indians , and little gold . The colony survived and flourished by turning to tobacco as a cash crop .
Ship
The first known vessels date back about 10,000 years ago , but could not be described as ships . The first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails . Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat , these sails gave early ships range . This allowed men to explore widely , allowing for the settlement of Oceania for example ( about 3,000 years ago ) .
Early skyscrapers
The resulting skyscrapers reflected these debates : the Railway Exchange , the Peoples Gas and the Illinois Continental and Commercial Bank Buildings were each substantial , quarter - block wide palazzo cubes of common height , their facades divided into a classical tripartite design , and sporting classical columns and other features . Despite the apparent uniformity of design , individual buildings varied considerably in the detail of their designs in effort to express their particular identities , the Peoples Gas Building using texture and the Railway Exchange Building white terracotta , for example .
Hundred Years' War
Hundred Years ' War Lancastrian phase ( 1415 -- 53 ) Harfleur Agincourt Valmont Rouen 2nd La Rochelle Baugé Meaux Cravant La Brossinière Verneuil St. James Orléans Herrings Loire Jargeau Meung - sur - Loire Beaugency Patay Reims Paris La Charité Compiègne Gerberoy Calais Tartas Formigny Castillon Main
Savannah, Georgia
The oldest standing house of worship is First Baptist Church , Savannah ( 1833 ) , located on Chippewa Square . Other historic houses of worship in Savannah include : Cathedral of St. John the Baptist ( Roman Catholic ) , Temple Mickve Israel ( the third oldest synagogue in the U.S. ) , and St. John 's Church ( Episcopal ) .
Hundred Years' War
Hundred Years ' War Lancastrian phase ( 1415 -- 53 ) Harfleur Agincourt Valmont Rouen 2nd La Rochelle Baugé Meaux Cravant La Brossinière Verneuil St. James Orléans Herrings Loire Jargeau Meung - sur - Loire Beaugency Patay Reims Paris La Charité Compiègne Gerberoy Calais Tartas Formigny Castillon
History of coal mining
Although some deep mining took place as early as the 1500s ( in North East England , and along the Firth of Forth coast ) deep shaft mining in the UK began to develop extensively in the late 18th century , with rapid expansion throughout the 19th century and early 20th century when the industry peaked . The location of the coalfields helped to make the prosperity of Lancashire , of Yorkshire , and of South Wales . The Yorkshire pits which supplied Sheffield were only about 300 feet deep . Northumberland and Durham were the leading coal producers and they were the sites of the first deep pits . In much of Britain coal was worked from drift mines , or scraped off when it outcropped on the surface . Small groups of part - time miners used shovels and primitive equipment .
Lithuania
Lithuania received its first railway connection in the middle of the 19th century , when the Warsaw -- Saint Petersburg Railway was constructed . It included a stretch from Daugavpils via Vilnius and Kaunas to Virbalis . The first and only still operating tunnel was completed in 1860 .