vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
DNA replication
DNA replication can also be performed in vitro ( artificially , outside a cell ) . DNA polymerases isolated from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to initiate DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule . The polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) , a common laboratory technique , cyclically applies such artificial synthesis to amplify a specific target DNA fragment from a pool of DNA .
History of chemistry
They used a centrifugation technique that sorted molecules according to differences in weight . Because nitrogen atoms are a component of DNA , they were labelled and therefore tracked in replication in bacteria .
DNA replication
The first is the best known of these mechanisms and is used by the cellular organisms . In this mechanism , once the two strands are separated , primase adds RNA primers to the template strands . The leading strand receives one RNA primer while the lagging strand receives several . The leading strand is continuously extended from the primer by a DNA polymerase with high processivity , while the lagging strand is extended discontinuously from each primer forming Okazaki fragments . RNase removes the primer RNA fragments , and a low processivity DNA polymerase distinct from the replicative polymerase enters to fill the gaps . When this is complete , a single nick on the leading strand and several nicks on the lagging strand can be found . Ligase works to fill these nicks in , thus completing the newly replicated DNA molecule .
Fermentation
Hydrogen gas is produced in many types of fermentation ( mixed acid fermentation , butyric acid fermentation , caproate fermentation , butanol fermentation , glyoxylate fermentation ) , as a way to regenerate NAD from NADH . Electrons are transferred to ferredoxin , which in turn is oxidized by hydrogenase , producing H. Hydrogen gas is a substrate for methanogens and sulfate reducers , which keep the concentration of hydrogen low and favor the production of such an energy - rich compound , but hydrogen gas at a fairly high concentration can nevertheless be formed , as in flatus .
Methanogen
Methanogens are known to produce methane from substrates such as H / CO , acetate , formate , methanol and methylamines in a process called methanogenesis . Different methanogenic reactions are catalyzed by unique sets of enzymes and coenzymes . While reaction mechanism and energetics vary between one reaction and another , all of these reactions contribute to net positive energy production by creating ion concentration gradients that are used to drive ATP synthesis . The overall reaction for H / CO methanogenesis is :
Solar cell
Polycrystalline silicon wafers are made by wire - sawing block - cast silicon ingots into 180 to 350 micrometer wafers . The wafers are usually lightly p - type - doped . A surface diffusion of n - type dopants is performed on the front side of the wafer . This forms ap -- n junction a few hundred nanometers below the surface .
DNA replication
DNA replication , like all biological polymerization processes , proceeds in three enzymatically catalyzed and coordinated steps : initiation , elongation and termination .
Recursion (computer science)
Recursion is used in this algorithm because with each pass a new array is created by cutting the old one in half . The binary search procedure is then called recursively , this time on the new ( and smaller ) array . Typically the array 's size is adjusted by manipulating a beginning and ending index . The algorithm exhibits a logarithmic order of growth because it essentially divides the problem domain in half with each pass .
Eukaryotic DNA replication
After the deposition of histones H3 - H4 , nucleosomes form by the association of histone H2A - H2B . This process is thought to occur through the FACT complex , since it already associated with the replisome and is able to bind free H2A - H2B , or there is the possibility of another H2A - H2B chaperone , Nap1 . Electron microscopy studies show that this occurs very quickly , as nucleosomes can be observed forming just a few hundred base pairs after the replication fork . Therefore , the entire process of forming new nucleosomes takes place just after replication due to the coupling of histone chaperones to the replisome .
United States presidential election, 1800
The Constitution , in Article II , Section 1 , provided that the state legislatures should decide the manner in which their electors were chosen . Different state legislatures chose different methods :
Scientific method
The overall process involves making conjectures ( hypotheses ) , deriving predictions from them as logical consequences , and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to determine whether the original conjecture was correct . There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method , however . Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps , these actions are better considered as general principles . Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry ( nor to the same degree ) , and they are not always done in the same order . As noted by scientist and philosopher William Whewell ( 1794 -- 1866 ) , `` invention , sagacity , ( and ) genius '' are required at every step . Formulation
Alkaloid
In the biosynthesis of alkaloids , such reactions may take place within a molecule , such as in the synthesis of piperidine :
Glycolysis
One method of doing this is to simply have the pyruvate do the oxidation ; in this process , pyruvate is converted to lactate ( the conjugate base of lactic acid ) in a process called lactic acid fermentation :
Buttermilk pie
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Statin
The statins are divided into two groups : fermentation - derived and synthetic . They include , along with brand names , which may vary between countries :
Iron(II,III) oxide
Magnetite can be prepared in the laboratory as a ferrofluid in the Massart method by mixing iron ( II ) chloride and iron ( III ) chloride in the presence of sodium hydroxide . Magnetite can also be prepared by the chemical co-precipitation in presence of ammonia , which consist in a mixture of a solution 0.1 M of FeCl 6H O and FeCl 4H O with mechanic agitation of about 2000 rpm . The molar ratio of FeCl : FeCl can be 2 : 1 ; heating this solution at 70 ° C , and immediately the speed is elevated to 7500 rpm and adding quickly a solution of NH OH ( 10 volume % ) , immediately a dark precipitate will be formed , which consists of nanoparticles of magnetite . In both cases , the precipitation reaction rely on a quick transformation of acidic hydrolyzed iron ions into the spinel iron oxide structure , by hydrolysis at elevated pH values ( above ca . 10 ) .
DNA replication
Since replication machineries do not move relatively to template DNAs such as factories , they are called a replication factory . In an alternative figure , DNA factories are similar to projectors and DNAs are like as cinematic films passing constantly into the projectors . In the replication factory model , after both DNA helicases for leading strands and lagging strands are loaded on the template DNAs , the helicases run along the DNAs into each other . The helicases remain associated for the remainder of replication process . Peter Meister et al. observed directly replication sites in budding yeast by monitoring green fluorescent protein ( GFP ) - tagged DNA polymerases α . They detected DNA replication of pairs of the tagged loci spaced apart symmetrically from a replication origin and found that the distance between the pairs decreased markedly by time . This finding suggests that the mechanism of DNA replication goes with DNA factories . That is , couples of replication factories are loaded on replication origins and the factories associated with each other . Also , template DNAs move into the factories , which bring extrusion of the template ssDNAs and nascent DNAs . Meister 's finding is the first direct evidence of replication factory model . Subsequent research has shown that DNA helicases form dimers in many eukaryotic cells and bacterial replication machineries stay in single intranuclear location during DNA synthesis .
Phosphene
A noninvasive technique that uses electrodes on the scalp , transcranial magnetic stimulation , has also been shown to produce phosphenes .
Plant development
Plants use floral form , flower , and scent to attract different insects for pollination . Certain compounds within the emitted scent appeal to particular pollinators . In Petunia hybrida , volatile benzenoids are produced to give off the floral smell . While components of the benzenoid biosynthetic pathway are known , the enzymes within the pathway , and subsequent regulation of those enzymes , are yet to be discovered .
Glycogen
Glycogen synthesis is , unlike its breakdown , endergonic -- it requires the input of energy . Energy for glycogen synthesis comes from uridine triphosphate ( UTP ) , which reacts with glucose - 1 - phosphate , forming UDP - glucose , in a reaction catalysed by UTP -- glucose - 1 - phosphate uridylyltransferase . Glycogen is synthesized from monomers of UDP - glucose initially by the protein glycogenin , which has two tyrosine anchors for the reducing end of glycogen , since glycogenin is a homodimer . After about eight glucose molecules have been added to a tyrosine residue , the enzyme glycogen synthase progressively lengthens the glycogen chain using UDP - glucose , adding α ( 1 → 4 ) - bonded glucose to the reducing end of the glycogen chain .
Nickel
The four halides form nickel compounds , which are solids with molecules that feature octahedral Ni centres . Nickel ( II ) chloride is most common , and its behavior is illustrative of the other halides . Nickel ( II ) chloride is produced by dissolving nickel or its oxide in hydrochloric acid . It is usually encountered as the green hexahydrate , the formula of which is usually written NiCl 6H O. When dissolved in water , this salt forms the metal aquo complex ( Ni ( H O ) . Dehydration of NiCl 6H O gives the yellow anhydrous NiCl .
Birthday cake
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Cigarette
The burn rate of cigarette paper is regulated through the application of different forms of microcrystalline cellulose to the paper . Cigarette paper has been specially engineered by creating bands of different porosity to create `` fire - safe '' cigarettes . These cigarettes have a reduced idle burning speed which allows them to self - extinguish . This fire - safe paper is manufactured by mechanically altering the setting of the paper slurry .
Insulin
The endogenous production of insulin is regulated in several steps along the synthesis pathway :
Eukaryotic DNA replication
DNA replication is a tightly orchestrated process that is controlled within the context of the cell cycle . Progress through the cell cycle and in turn DNA replication is tightly regulated by the formation and activation of pre-replicative complexs ( pre-RCs ) which is achieved through the activation and inactivation of cyclin - dependent kinases ( Cdks , CDKs ) . Specifically it is the interactions of cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases that are responsible for the transition from G into S - phase .
Eukaryotic DNA replication
The replication fork is the junction between the newly separated template strands , known as the leading and lagging strands , and the double stranded DNA . Since duplex DNA is antiparallel , DNA replication occurs in opposite directions between the two new strands at the replication fork , but all DNA polymerases synthesize DNA in the 5 ' to 3 ' direction with respect to the newly synthesized strand . Further coordination is required during DNA replication . Two replicative polymerases synthesize DNA in opposite orientations . Polymerase ε synthesizes DNA on the `` leading '' DNA strand continuously as it is pointing in the same direction as DNA unwinding by the replisome . In contrast , polymerase δ synthesizes DNA on the `` lagging '' strand , which is the opposite DNA template strand , in a fragmented or discontinuous manner .
DNA replication
As DNA synthesis continues , the original DNA strands continue to unwind on each side of the bubble , forming a replication fork with two prongs . In bacteria , which have a single origin of replication on their circular chromosome , this process creates a `` theta structure '' ( resembling the Greek letter theta : θ ) . In contrast , eukaryotes have longer linear chromosomes and initiate replication at multiple origins within these .
Vinegar
Wine vinegar is made from red or white wine , and is the most commonly used vinegar in Southern and Central Europe , Cyprus and Israel . As with wine , there is a considerable range in quality . Better - quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years , and exhibit a complex , mellow flavor . Wine vinegar tends to have a lower acidity than white or cider vinegars . More expensive wine vinegars are made from individual varieties of wine , such as champagne , sherry , or pinot gris .
Cigarette filter
Cellulose acetate is made by esterifying bleached cotton or wood pulp with acetic acid . Of the three cellulose hydroxy groups available for esterification , between two and three are esterified by controlling the amount of acid ( degree of substitution ( DS ) 2.35 - 2.55 ) . The ester is spun into fibers and formed into bundles called filter tow . Flavors ( menthol ) , sweeteners , softeners ( triacetin ) , flame retardants ( sodium tungstate ) , breakable capsules releasing flavors on demand , and additives colouring the tobacco smoke may be added to cigarette filters . The five largest manufactures of filter tow are Hoechst - Celanese and Eastman Chemicals in the United States , Rhodia Acetow in Germany , Daicel and Mitsubishi Rayon in Japan .
Guy's Grocery Games
ABC Game : All ingredients must begin with the same randomly chosen letter of the alphabet .
Helium
Van der Waals compounds of helium can also be formed with cryogenic helium gas and atoms of some other substance , such as LiHe and He .
DNA replication
Replication machineries consist of factors involved in DNA replication and appearing on template ssDNAs . Replication machineries include primosotors are replication enzymes ; DNA polymerase , DNA helicases , DNA clamps and DNA topoisomerases , and replication proteins ; e.g. single - stranded DNA binding proteins ( SSB ) . In the replication machineries these components coordinate . In most of the bacteria , all of the factors involved in DNA replication are located on replication forks and the complexes stay on the forks during DNA replication . These replication machineries are called replisomes or DNA replicase systems . These terms are generic terms for proteins located on replication forks . In eukaryotic and some bacterial cells the replisomes are not formed .
Fire triangle
Since these reactions are well understood , it has been possible to create specific water - additives which will allow :
Citric acid cycle
Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane , and into the matrix . Here they can be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO , acetyl - CoA , and NADH , as in the normal cycle .
Scientific method
In their first paper , Watson and Crick also noted that the double helix structure they proposed provided a simple mechanism for DNA replication , writing , `` It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material '' . ... 4 . DNA - experiments Another
Movable type
Individual letters are assembled into words and lines of text with the aid of a composing stick , and the whole assembly is tightly bound together to make up a page image called a forme , where all letter faces are exactly the same height to form a flat surface of type . The forme is mounted on a printing press , a thin coating of viscous ink is applied and impressions made on paper under great pressure in the press . `` Sorts '' is the term given to special characters not freely available in the typical type case , such as the `` @ '' mark .
Origin of replication
In other eukaryotes , including humans , the base pair sequences at the replication origins vary . Despite this sequence variation , all the origins form a base for assembly of a group of proteins known collectively as the pre-replication complex ( pre-RC ) :
Articles of Confederation
Preamble through Article V , ¶ 1 Article V , ¶ 2 through Article VI Article VII through Article IX , ¶ 2 Article IX , ¶ 2 through ¶ 5 Article IX , ¶ 5 through Article XIII , ¶ 2 Article XIII , ¶ 2 through signatures
Fermentation
ethanol fermentation , aka alcoholic fermentation , is the production of ethanol and carbon dioxide lactic acid fermentation refers to two means of producing lactic acid :
Wöhler synthesis
Alternatively the reaction can be carried out with lead cyanate and ammonia . The actual reaction taking place is a double displacement reaction to form ammonium cyanate :
Ribosome
The mitochondrial ribosomes of eukaryotic cells , are produced from mitochondrial genes , and functionally resemble many features of those in bacteria , reflecting the likely evolutionary origin of mitochondria .
Eukaryotic DNA replication
This mechanism is conserved from prokaryotes to eukaryotes and is known as semiconservative DNA replication . The process of semiconservative replication for the site of DNA replication is a fork - like DNA structure , the replication fork , where the DNA helix is open , or unwound , exposing unpaired DNA nucleotides for recognition and base pairing for the incorporation of free nucleotides into double - stranded DNA .
Drink can
Canned drinks were factory - sealed and required a special opener tool in order to consume the contents . Cans were typically formed as cylinders , having a flat top and bottom . They required a can piercer , colloquially known as a `` church key '' , that latched onto the top rim for leverage ; lifting the handle would force the sharp tip through the top of the can , cutting a triangular hole . A smaller second hole was usually punched at the opposite side of the top to admit air while pouring , allowing the liquid to flow freely .
Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)
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Glycogen
Glycogen is cleaved from the nonreducing ends of the chain by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase to produce monomers of glucose - 1 - phosphate :
Helium
Helium must be extracted from natural gas because it is present in air at only a fraction of that of neon , yet the demand for it is far higher . It is estimated that if all neon production were retooled to save helium , that 0.1 % of the world 's helium demands would be satisfied . Similarly , only 1 % of the world 's helium demands could be satisfied by re-tooling all air distillation plants . Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of lithium or boron with high - velocity protons , or by bombardment of lithium with deuterons , but these processes are a completely uneconomical method of production .
Fermentation
C H O + 4 H O → 2 CH COO + 2 HCO + 4 H + 4 H
Pizza cheese
An example of a processed pizza cheese is Provel , which uses Cheddar , Swiss , and Provolone cheeses as flavorants . Some analogue types are made with casein , a by - product of milk , and vegetable oil , rather than milk fat . Casein - based Mozzarella - like imitation processed cheeses prepared using rennet are also used as a Mozzarella substitute on frozen pizzas .
Carbon dioxide
In the chemical industry , carbon dioxide is mainly consumed as an ingredient in the production of urea , with a smaller fraction being used to produce methanol and a range of other products , such as metal carbonates and bicarbonates . Some carboxylic acid derivatives such as sodium salicylate are prepared using CO by the Kolbe - Schmitt reaction .
Enzyme
Enzymes can be compartmentalized , with different metabolic pathways occurring in different cellular compartments . For example , fatty acids are synthesized by one set of enzymes in the cytosol , endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi and used by a different set of enzymes as a source of energy in the mitochondrion , through β - oxidation . In addition , trafficking of the enzyme to different compartments may change the degree of protonation ( cytoplasm neutral and lysosome acidic ) or oxidative state ( e.g. , oxidized ( periplasm ) or reduced ( cytoplasm ) ) which in turn affects enzyme activity . Organ
ABC dry chemical
The powder breaks the chain reaction of liquid and gas fires by coating the surface to which it is applied . These fires ( Class B in the American system ; Classes B and C in the European and Australian systems ) include the burning of gasoline , oil , propane , and natural gas .
Vinegar
Kombucha vinegar is made from kombucha , a symbiotic culture of yeast and bacteria . The bacteria produce a complex array of nutrients and populate the vinegar with bacteria that some claim promote a healthy digestive tract , although no scientific studies have confirmed this . Kombucha vinegar primarily is used to make a vinaigrette , and is flavored by adding strawberries , blackberries , mint , or blueberries at the beginning of fermentation .
Ultraviolet
The vacuum ultraviolet ( VUV ) band ( 100 -- 200 nm ) can be generated by non-linear 4 wave mixing in gases by sum or difference frequency mixing of 2 or more longer wavelength lasers . The generation is generally done in gasses ( e.g. krypton , hydrogen which are two - photon resonant near 193 nm ) or metal vapors ( e.g. magnesium ) . By making one of the lasers tunable , the VUV can be tuned . If one of the lasers is resonant with a transition in the gas or vapor then the VUV production is intensified . However , resonances also generate wavelength dispersion , and thus the phase matching can limit the tunable range of the 4 wave mixing . Difference frequency mixing ( lambda1 + lambda2 − lambda3 ) has an advantage over sum frequency mixing because the phase matching can provide greater tuning . In particular , difference frequency mixing two photons of an ArF ( 193 nm ) excimer laser with a tunable visible or near IR laser in hydrogen or krypton provides resonantly enhanced tunable VUV covering from 100 nm to 200 nm . Practically , the lack of suitable gas / vapor cell window materials above the lithium fluoride cut - off wavelength limit the tuning range to longer than about 110 nm . Tunable VUV wavelengths down to 75 nm was achieved using window - free configurations .
Fingerprint
Developing agents depend on the presence of organic materials or inorganic salts for their effectiveness , although the water deposited may also take a key role . Fingerprints are typically formed from the aqueous - based secretions of the eccrine glands of the fingers and palms with additional material from sebaceous glands primarily from the forehead . This latter contamination results from the common human behaviors of touching the face and hair . The resulting latent fingerprints consist usually of a substantial proportion of water with small traces of amino acids and chlorides mixed with a fatty , sebaceous component which contains a number of fatty acids and triglycerides . Detection of a small proportion of reactive organic substances such as urea and amino acids is far from easy .
Radioactive decay
The above equations can also be written using quantities related to the number of nuclide particles N in a sample ;