vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Romance languages
To some scholars , this suggests the form of Vulgar Latin that evolved into the Romance languages was around during the time of the Roman Empire ( from the end of the first century BC ) , and was spoken alongside the written Classical Latin which was reserved for official and formal occasions . Other scholars argue that the distinctions are more rightly viewed as indicative of sociolinguistic and register differences normally found within any language . Both were mutually intelligible as one and the same language , which was true until very approximately the second half of the 7th century . However , within two hundred years Latin became a dead language since `` the Romanized people of Europe could no longer understand texts that were read aloud or recited to them , '' i.e. Latin had ceased to be a first language and became a foreign language that had to be learned , if the label Latin is constrained to refer to a state of the language frozen in past time and restricted to linguistic features for the most part typical of higher registers .
Geography of Asia
Ptolemy 's Asia extends to the Far East , approximately identical to today 's Asia , except that the European border runs through the future location of Moscow , then a wilderness of forest skirted by Sarmatian tribesmen . In a striking foreshadowing of European and Asian Russia , European Sarmatia lies between the Vistula River and the Don River , while Asian Sarmatia runs east of the Don to Scythia .
Italian language
Italian is an official language of Italy and San Marino and is spoken fluently by the majority of the countries ' populations . Italian is official , together with French , German and Romansch in Switzerland , with most of the 0.5 million speakers concentrated in the south of the country , in the cantons of Ticino and southern Graubünden ( predominately in Italian Grigioni ) . Italian is the third most spoken language in Switzerland ( after German and French ) , and its use has modestly declined since the 1970s . Italian is also used in administration and official documents in Vatican City .
Romance languages
Remnants of the neuter , interpretable now as `` a sub-class of the non-feminine gender '' ( Haase 2000 : 233 ) , are vigorous in Italy in an area running roughly from Ancona to Matera and just north of Rome to Naples . Oppositions with masculine typically have been recategorized , so that neuter signifies the referent in general , while masculine indicates a more specific instance , with the distinction marked by the definite article . In Southeast Umbrian , for example , neuter lo pane is ' the bread ' , while masculine lu pane refers to an individual piece or loaf of bread . Similarly , neuter lo vinu is wine in general , while masculine lu vinu is a specific sort of wine , with the consequence that mass lo vinu has no plural counterpart , but lu vinu can take a sortal plural form li vini , referring to different types of wine . Phonological forms of articles vary by locale . Case
History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
The era that began when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC , and ended when Octavian returned to Rome after the Battle of Actium in 29 BC , can be divided into two distinct units . The dividing line between these two units is the assassination of Caesar in March 44 BC , although from a constitutional standpoint , there was no clear dividing line between these two periods . The forces which had supported Pompey during the early part of the first period were allied against Mark Antony and Octavian in 43 BC and 42 BC , and the constitutional means through which Caesar had held power before his assassination were used by Antony and Octavian to hold power after Caesar 's assassination . From a constitutional standpoint , it makes no difference whether an autocrat holds the title of Roman Dictator , as Caesar had done , or of Triumvir , as Antony and Octavian had done . From a constitutional perspective , these twenty years formed a single unit , through which the constitutional evolution of the prior century accelerated at a rapid pace . By 27 BC , Rome had completed its transition from being a city - state with a network of dependencies , to being the capital of a world empire .
Italian language
The conservativeness of Italian phonology is partly explained by its origin . Italian stems from a literary language that is derived from the 13th - century speech of the city of Florence in the region of Tuscany , and has changed little in the last 700 years or so . Furthermore , the Tuscan dialect is the most conservative of all Italian dialects , radically different from the Gallo - Italian languages less than 100 miles to the north ( across the La Spezia -- Rimini Line ) .
Italian language
The differences in the evolution of Latin in the different regions of Italy can be attributed to the presence of three other types of languages : substratums , superstratums , and adstratums . The most prevalent were substratums ( the language of the original inhabitants ) , as the Italian dialects were most likely simply Latin as spoken by native cultural groups . Superstratums and adstratums were both less important . Foreign conquerors of Italy that dominated different regions at different times left behind little to no influence on the dialects . Foregin cultures with which Italy engaged in peaceful relations with , such as trade , had no significant influence either .
Christmas dinner
Italian regional traditions are varied . They are polarised in two areas : Northern Italy and Southern Italy ( from Rome southwards ) . Moreover , often the Christmas Eve Supper is more important than the Christmas Dinner , because the Holy Mass is celebrated at midnight .
Italian language
Italian is also spoken by a minority in Monaco and France ( especially in the southeast region of the country ) .
Macedonia (terminology)
In addition to the above named sub-regions , there are also two smaller regions , in Albania and Serbia respectively . These regions are also considered geographically part of Macedonia . They are referred to by ethnic Macedonians as follows , but typically are not so referred to by non-partisan scholars .
Romance languages
Several other consonants were `` softened '' in intervocalic position in Western Romance ( Spanish , Portuguese , French , Northern Italian ) , but normally not phonemically in the rest of Italy ( except some cases of `` elegant '' or Ecclesiastical words ) , nor apparently at all in Romanian . The dividing line between the two sets of dialects is called the La Spezia -- Rimini Line and is one of the most important isoglosses of the Romance dialects . The changes ( instances of diachronic lenition ) are as follows :
Romance languages
The Occitano - Romance languages of southern France namely , Occitan and Gascon . The Catalan language of eastern Iberia is also sometimes included in Gallo - romance . This is however disputed by some linguists who prefer to group it with Iberian Romance , since although Old Catalan is close to Old Occitan , it later adjusted its lexicon to some degree to align with Spanish . In general however , modern Catalan , especially grammatically , remains closer to modern Occitan than to either Spanish or Portuguese . The Gallo - Italian languages of northern Italy , including Piedmontese , Ligurian , Western Lombard , Eastern Lombard , Emilian and Romagnol . Ligurian and Eastern Lombard retain the final - o , being the exception in Gallo - Romance . The Rhaeto - Romance languages , including Romansh , and Friulian , and Ladin dialects .
Romance languages
Many of the `` southeast '' features also apply to the Eastern Romance languages ( particularly , Romanian ) , despite the geographic discontinuity . Examples are lack of lenition , maintenance of intertonic vowels , use of vowel - changing plurals , and palatalization of / k / to / tʃ / . ( Gemination is missing , which may be an independent development , and / kt / develops into / pt / rather than either of the normal Italo - Western developments . ) This has led some researchers to postulate a basic two - way East - West division , with the `` Eastern '' languages including Romanian and central and southern Italian .
Italian language
In contrast to the Gallo - Italic languages of northern Italy , the Italo - Dalmatian Neapolitan language and its dialects were largely unaffected by the Franco - Occitan influences introduced to Italy mainly by bards from France during the Middle Ages , but after the Norman conquest of southern Italy , Sicily became the first Italian land to adopt Occitan lyric moods ( and words ) in poetry . Even in the case of Northern Italian languages , however , scholars are careful not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages .
Italian language
Italian is widely spoken in Malta , where nearly two - thirds of the population can speak it fluently . Italian served as Malta 's official language until 1934 , while it is also recognized as an official language in Istria County , Croatia , and Slovenian Istria , where there are significant and historic Italian populations .
Italian language
Italian is a Romance language , and is therefore a descendant of Vulgar Latin ( the spoken form of non-classical Latin ) . Standard Italian is based on Tuscan , especially its Florentine dialect , and is therefore an Italo - Dalmatian language , to which Sicilian and the extinct Dalmatian also belong , among a few others .
Italian language
One study analyzing the degree of differentiation of Romance languages in comparison to Latin ( comparing phonology , inflection , discourse , syntax , vocabulary , and intonation ) estimated that among the languages analyzed the distance between Italian and Latin is only higher than that between Sardinian and Latin .
Macedonia (terminology)
Aegean Macedonia ( or Greek Macedonia ) is a term that refers to an area in the south of the Macedonia region . The borders of the area are , overall , those of ancient Macedonia in Greece . It covers an area of 34,200 square kilometres ( 13,200 sq mi ) ( for discussion of the reported irredentist origin of this term , see Aegean Macedonia ) .
Military history of Italy during World War II
As in Egypt , Italian forces ( roughly 70,000 Italian soldiers and 180,000 native troops ) outnumbered their British opponents . Italian East Africa , however , was isolated and far from the Italian mainland , leaving the forces there cut off from supply and thus severely limited in the operations they could undertake .
Italian Empire
During the height of the Battle of Britain , the Italians launched an attack on Egypt in the hope of capturing the Suez Canal . By 16 September 1940 , the Italians advanced 60 miles across the border . However , in December , the British launched Operation Compass and , by February 1941 , the British had cut off and captured the Italian 10th Army and had driven deep into Libya . A German intervention prevented the fall of Libya and the combined Axis attacks drove the British back into Egypt until summer 1942 , before being stopped at El Alamein . Allied intervention against Vichy French - held Morocco and Algeria created a two - front campaign . German and Italian forces entered Tunisia in late 1942 in response , however forces in Egypt were soon forced to make a major retreat into Libya . By May 1943 , Axis forces in Tunisia were forced to surrender .
Romance languages
By the 8th century , the situation was very different . During the late 8th century , Charlemagne , holding that `` Latin of his age was by classical standards intolerably corrupt '' , successfully imposed Classical Latin as an artificial written vernacular for Western Europe . Unfortunately , this meant that parishioners could no longer understand the sermons of their priests , forcing the Council of Tours in 813 to issue an edict that priests needed to translate their speeches into the rustica romana lingua , an explicit acknowledgement of the reality of the Romance languages as separate languages from Latin . By this time , and possibly as early as the 6th century according to Price ( 1984 ) , the Romance lects had split apart enough to be able to speak of separate Gallo - Romance , Ibero - Romance , Italo - Romance and Eastern Romance languages . Some researchers have postulated that the major divergences in the spoken dialects began or accelerated considerably in the 5th century , as the formerly widespread and efficient communication networks of the Western Roman Empire rapidly broke down , leading to the total disappearance of the Western Roman Empire by the end of the century . The critical period between the 5th -- 10th centuries AD is poorly documented because little or no writing from the chaotic `` Dark Ages '' of the 5th -- 8th centuries has survived , and writing after that time was in consciously classicized Medieval Latin , with vernacular writing only beginning in earnest in the 11th or 12th centuries . An exception such as the Oaths of Strasbourg is evidence that by the ninth century effective communication with a non-learnèd audience was carried out in evolved Romance .
Military history of Italy during World War II
In October 1938 , in the aftermath of the Munich Agreement , Italy demanded concessions from France . These included a free port at Djibouti , control of the Addis Ababa - Djibouti railroad , Italian participation in the management of Suez Canal Company , some form of French - Italian condominium over French Tunisia , and the preservation of Italian culture on Corsica with no French assimilation of the people . The French refused the demands , believing the true Italian intention was the territorial acquisition of Nice , Corsica , Tunisia , and Djibouti . On 30 November 1938 , Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano addressed the Chamber of Deputies on the `` natural aspirations of the Italian people '' and was met with shouts of `` Nice ! Corsica ! Savoy ! Tunisia ! Djibouti ! Malta ! '' Later that day , Mussolini addressed the Fascist Grand Council `` on the subject of what he called the immediate goals of ' Fascist dynamism ' . '' These were Albania ; Tunisia ; Corsica , an integral part of France ; the Ticino , a canton of Switzerland ; and all `` French territory east of the River Var '' , including Nice , but not Savoy .
Romance languages
During the Empire 's decline , and after its fragmentation and collapse in the fifth century , varieties of Latin began to diverge within each local area at an accelerated rate and eventually evolved into a continuum of recognizably different typologies . The colonial empires established by Portugal , Spain , and France from the fifteenth century onward spread their languages to the other continents to such an extent that about two - thirds of all Romance language speakers today live outside Europe .
Italian language
Like in English , common nouns are capitalized when occurring at the beginning of a sentence . Unlike English , nouns referring to languages ( e.g. Italian ) , speakers of languages , or inhabitants of an area ( e.g. Italians ) .
Economic history of Italy
By the 1990s , the Italian government was fighting to lower the internal and external debt , liberalise the economy , reduce governmental spending , selling business and enterprises owned by the state , and trying to stop tax evasion ; the liberalisation of the economy meant that Italy was able to enter the EMU ( European Monetary Union ) and it later , in 1999 , qualified to enter the eurozone . However , the main problem which plagued the 1990s , and still plagues the economy today , was tax evasion and underground `` black market '' business , whose value is an estimated 25 % of the country 's gross domestic product . Despite social and political attempts to reduce the difference in wealth between the North and South , and Southern Italy 's modernisation , the economic gap remained still pretty wide .
Macedonia (terminology)
Macedo - Romanians can be used as an alternative name for Aromanians , people living throughout the southern Balkans , especially in northern Greece , Albania , the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria , and as an emigrant community in Northern Dobruja , Romania . According to Ethnologue , their total population in all countries is 306,237 . This not very frequent appellation is the only one with the disambiguating portmanteau , both within the members of the same ethnic group and the other ethnic groups in the area . To make matters more confusing , Aromanians are often called `` Machedoni '' by Romanians , as opposed to the citizens of Macedonia , who are called `` Macedoneni '' .
Balkans
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica , the Balkans are usually said to comprise Albania , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Bulgaria , Croatia , Kosovo , the Republic of Macedonia , Montenegro , Romania , Serbia , Slovenia , while Greece and Turkey are often excluded ( depending on the definition ) , and its total area is usually given as 666,700 square km ( 257,400 square miles ) and the population as 59,297,000 ( est. 2002 ) .
Macedonia (terminology)
Macedonia ( as a current geographical term ) refers to a region of the Balkan peninsula in south - eastern Europe , covering some 60,000 or 70,000 square kilometers . Although the region 's borders are not officially defined by any international organization or state , in some contexts , the territory appears to correspond to the basins of ( from west to east ) the Haliacmon ( Aliákmonas ) , Vardar / Axios and Struma / Strymónas rivers , and the plains around Thessaloniki and Serres . The
Balkans
The Balkan Peninsula is surrounded by the Adriatic Sea to the west , the Mediterranean Sea ( including the Ionian and Aegean seas ) and the Marmara Sea to the south and the Black Sea to the east . Its northern boundary is often given as the Danube , Sava and Kupa Rivers . The Balkan Peninsula has a combined area of about 470,000 km ( 181,000 sq mi ) ( slightly smaller than Spain ) . It is more or less identical to the region known as Southeastern Europe .
History of the Catholic Church
Catholic attempts to improve ecumenical relations with the Eastern Orthodox Church have been complicated by disputes over both doctrine and the recent history of the Orthodox Eastern Catholic Churches , involving the return of expropriated properties of the Eastern Catholic Churches , which the Orthodox Church took over after World War II at the request of Joseph Stalin .
History of the Catholic Church
The Patriarch 's partial participation in the Eucharistic liturgy at which the Pope presided followed the program of the past visits of Patriarch Dimitrios ( 1987 ) and Patriarch Bartholomew I himself : full participation in the Liturgy of the Word , joint proclamation by the Pope and by the Patriarch of the profession of faith according to the Nicene - Constantinopolitan Creed in Greek and as the conclusion , the final Blessing imparted by both the Pope and the Patriarch at the Altar of the Confessio . The Patriarch did not fully participate in the Liturgy of the Eucharist involving the consecration and distribution of the Eucharist itself .
Middle Ages
Missionary efforts to Scandinavia during the 9th and 10th centuries helped strengthen the growth of kingdoms such as Sweden , Denmark , and Norway , which gained power and territory . Some kings converted to Christianity , although not all by 1000 . Scandinavians also expanded and colonised throughout Europe . Besides the settlements in Ireland , England , and Normandy , further settlement took place in what became Russia and in Iceland . Swedish traders and raiders ranged down the rivers of the Russian steppe , and even attempted to seize Constantinople in 860 and 907 . Christian Spain , initially driven into a small section of the peninsula in the north , expanded slowly south during the 9th and 10th centuries , establishing the kingdoms of Asturias and León . 10th
Modern history
Later religious trends of the period saw the end of the expansion of Muslims and the Muslim world . Christians and Christendom saw the end of the Crusades and end of religious unity under the Roman Catholic Church . It was during this time that the Inquisitions and Protestant reformations took place . Colonial
History of the Catholic Church
In accordance with the Catholic Church 's practice of including the clause when reciting the Creed in Latin , but not when reciting the Creed in Greek , Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI have recited the Nicene Creed jointly with Patriarchs Demetrius I and Bartholomew I in Greek without the Filioque clause . The action of these Patriarchs in reciting the Creed together with the Popes has been strongly criticized by some elements of Eastern Orthodoxy , such as the Metropolitan of Kalavryta , Greece , in November 2008
History of the Catholic Church
The Cluniac reform of monasteries that began in 910 placed abbots under the direct control of the pope rather than the secular control of feudal lords , thus eliminating a major source of corruption . This sparked a great monastic renewal . Monasteries , convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries , and often functioned as credit establishments promoting economic growth . After 1100 , some older cathedral schools split into lower grammar schools and higher schools for advanced learning . First in Bologna , then at Paris and Oxford , many of these higher schools developed into universities and became the direct ancestors of modern Western institutions of learning . It was here where notable theologians worked to explain the connection between human experience and faith . The most notable of these theologians , Thomas Aquinas , produced Summa Theologica , a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of Aristotelian thought and the Gospel . Monastic contributions to western society included the teaching of metallurgy , the introduction of new crops , the invention of musical notation and the creation and preservation of literature .
History of the Catholic Church
To bolster his own dictatorial Fascist regime , Benito Mussolini was also eager for an agreement . Agreement was reached in 1929 with the Lateran Treaties , which helped both sides . According to the terms of the first treaty , Vatican City was given sovereignty as an independent nation in return for the Vatican relinquishing its claim to the former territories of the Papal States . Pius XI thus became a head of a tiny state with its own territory , army . radio station , and diplomatic representation . The Concordat of 1929 made Catholicism the sole religion of Italy ( although other religions were tolerated ) , paid salaries to priests and bishops , recognized church marriages ( previously couples had to have a civil ceremony ) , and brought religious instruction into the public schools . In turn the bishops swore allegiance to the Italian state , which had a veto power over their selection . The Church was not officially obligated to support the Fascist regime ; the strong differences remained but the seething hostility ended . The Church especially endorsed foreign policies such as support for the anti-Communist side in the Spanish Civil War , and support for the conquest of Ethiopia . Friction continued over the Catholic Action youth network , which Mussolini wanted to merge into his Fascist youth group . A compromise was reached with only the Fascists allowed to sponsor sports teams .