vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Clay
Clay as the defining ingredient of loam is one of the oldest building materials on Earth , among other ancient , naturally - occurring geologic materials such as stone and organic materials like wood . Between one - half and two - thirds of the world 's population , in both traditional societies as well as developed countries , still live or work in buildings made with clay , often baked into brick , as an essential part of its load - bearing structure . Also a primary ingredient in many natural building techniques , clay is used to create adobe , cob , cordwood , and rammed earth structures and building elements such as wattle and daub , clay plaster , clay render case , clay floors and clay paints and ceramic building material . Clay was used as a mortar in brick chimneys and stone walls where protected from water .
Forbidden City
The Forbidden City is surrounded on three sides by imperial gardens . To the north is Jingshan Park , also known as Prospect Hill , an artificial hill created from the soil excavated to build the moat and from nearby lakes .
Qing dynasty
The Board of Works handled all governmental building projects , including palaces , temples and the repairs of waterways and flood canals . It was also in charge of minting coinage . 2000
Written Chinese
Over the history of written Chinese , a variety of media have been used for writing . They include :
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone to carve statues and fine reliefs , but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute . Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores ( red and yellow ochres ) , copper ores ( blue and green ) , soot or charcoal ( black ) , and limestone ( white ) . Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes , which could be moistened with water when needed .
Philippines
However , certain areas of the country like Batanes have slight differences as both Spanish and Filipino ways of architecture assimilated differently due to the climate . Limestones and coral were used as building materials . Idjangs or Ivatan castles were the primary shelter of the people prior to the Spanish conquest of the whole Philippines .
Migration in China
At multiple places such as Lhasa , Batang , Dartsendo , Lhari , Chamdo , and Litang , Green Standard troops were garrisoned throughout the Dzungar war . Green Standard Army troops and Manchu Bannermen were both part of the Qing force who fought in Tibet in the war against the Dzungars . It was said that the Sichuan commander Yue Zhongqi entered Lhasa first when the 2,000 Green Standard soldiers and 1,000 Manchu soldiers of the `` Sichuan route '' seized Lhasa . According to Mark C. Elliott , after 1728 the Qing used Green Standard Army troops to man the garrison in Lhasa rather than Bannermen . According to Evelyn S. Rawski both Green Standard Army and Bannermen made up the Qing garrison in Tibet . According to Sabine Dabringhaus , Green Standard Chinese soldiers numbering more than 1,300 were stationed by the Qing in Tibet to support the 3,000 strong Tibetan army .
Migration in China
The Qing stationed both Manchu Bannermen and Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers in Tibet . A community descended from Han Chinese soldiers and officials grew in Lhasa .
Siege
On the first night while laying siege to a city , the leader of the Mongol forces would lead from a white tent : if the city surrendered , all would be spared . On the second day , he would use a red tent : if the city surrendered , the men would all be killed , but the rest would be spared . On the third day , he would use a black tent : no quarter would be given . Chinese
Movable type
For each character there were several types , and for certain common characters there were twenty or more types each , in order to be prepared for the repetition of characters on the same page . When the characters were not in use he had them arranged with paper labels , one label for each rhyme - group , and kept them in wooden cases .
Standard of living in China
The fundamental influence on rural prosperity was geography . Soil type and quality , rainfall , temperature range , drainage , and availability of water determined the kinds and quantities of crops that could be grown . Equally important geographic factors were access to transportation routes and proximity to urban areas .
Movable type
At first , one cuts letters in beech wood . One fills a trough level with fine sandy ( clay ) of the reed - growing seashore . Wood - cut letters are pressed into the sand , then the impressions become negative and form letters ( moulds ) . At this step , placing one trough together with another , one pours the molten bronze down into an opening . The fluid flows in , filling these negative moulds , one by one becoming type . Lastly , one scrapes and files off the irregularities , and piles them up to be arranged .
Clay
Clays exhibit plasticity when mixed with water in certain proportions . However , when dry , clay becomes firm and when fired in a kiln , permanent physical and chemical changes occur . These changes convert the clay into a ceramic material . Because of these properties , clay is used for making pottery , both utilitarian and decorative , and construction products , such as bricks , wall and floor tiles . Different types of clay , when used with different minerals and firing conditions , are used to produce earthenware , stoneware , and porcelain . Prehistoric humans discovered the useful properties of clay . Some of the earliest pottery shards recovered are from central Honshu , Japan . They are associated with the Jōmon culture and deposits they were recovered from have been dated to around 14,000 BC .
Migration in China
Han Chinese were officially forbidden to settle in Inner and Outer Mongolia . Mongols were forbidden from crossing into the Han Chinese 18 provinces ( neidi ) without permission and were given punishments if they did . Mongols were forbidden from crossing into another Mongol leagues . Han Chinese settlers violated the rule and crossed into and settled in Inner Mongolia .
Forbidden City
A. Meridian Gate B. Gate of Divine Might C. West Glorious Gate D. East Glorious Gate E. Corner towers F. Gate of Supreme Harmony G. Hall of Supreme Harmony H. Hall of Military Eminence J. Hall of Literary Glory K. Southern Three Places L. Palace of Heavenly Purity M. Imperial garden N. Hall of Mental Cultivation O. Palace of Tranquil Longevity
Forbidden City
When Hongwu Emperor 's son Zhu Di became the Yongle Emperor , he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing , and construction began in 1406 on what would become the Forbidden City .
Polycrystalline silicon
The Chinese government accused United States and South Korean manufacturers of predatory pricing or `` dumping '' . As a consequence , it imposed import tariffs of as much as 57 percent on polysilicon shipped from these two countries in order to stop the product from being sold below cost . Waste
Cell wall
cellulose , 35 - 50 % xylan , 20 - 35 % , a type of hemicellulose lignin , 10 - 25 % , a complex phenolic polymer that penetrates the spaces in the cell wall between cellulose , hemicellulose and pectin components , driving out water and strengthening the wall .
Written Chinese
Chinese characters are written to fit into a square , even when composed of two simpler forms written side - by - side or top - to - bottom . In such cases , each form is compressed to fit the entire character into a square .
Coal
Among the materials that are dug because they are useful , those known as anthrakes ( coals ) are made of earth , and , once set on fire , they burn like charcoal . They are found in Liguria ... and in Elis as one approaches Olympia by the mountain road ; and they are used by those who work in metals . --
Beam bridge
The simplest beam bridge could be a log ( see log bridge ) , a wood plank , or a stone slab ( see clapper bridge ) laid across a stream . Bridges designed for modern infrastructure will usually be constructed of steel or reinforced concrete , or a combination of both . The concrete elements may be reinforced , prestressed or post-tensioned . Such modern bridges include girder , plate girder , and box girder bridges , all types of beam bridges .
Tea culture
Tea served before the Ming Dynasty was typically made from tea bricks . Upon harvesting , the tea leaves were either partially dried or were thoroughly dried and ground before being pressed into bricks . The pressing of Pu - erh is likely a vestige of this process . Tea bricks were also sometimes used as currency . Serving the tea from tea bricks required multiple steps :
Silk Road
The production of art consisted of many different items that were traded along the Silk Roads from the East to the West . One common product , the lapis lazuli , was a blue stone with golden specks , which was used as paint after it was ground into powder .
Gobi Desert
The altitudes are higher , those of the lowlands ranging from 1,000 to 1,700 m ( 3,300 to 5,600 ft ) , and those of the ranges from 200 to 500 m ( 660 to 1,640 ft ) higher , though in a few cases they reach altitudes of 2,400 m ( 7,900 ft ) . The elevations do not form continuous chains , but make up a congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base and intersected by a labyrinth of ravines , gullies , glens and basins . But the tablelands , built up of the horizontal red deposits of the Han - gai ( Obruchev 's Gobi formation ) which are characteristic of the southern parts of eastern Mongolia , are absent here or occur only in one locality , near the Shara - muren river . They are greatly intersected by gullies or dry watercourses . Water is scarce , with no streams , no lakes , no wells , and precipitation falls seldom . The prevailing winds blow from the west and northwest , and the pall of dust overhangs the country as in the Takla Makan and the desert of Lop . Characteristic of the flora are wild garlic , Kalidium gracile , wormwood , saxaul , Nitraria schoberi , Caragana , Ephedra , saltwort and the grass Lasiagrostis splendens . The taana wild onion Allium polyrrhizum is the main browse eaten by many herd animals , and Mongolians claim that this is essential to produce the correct , slightly hazelnut - like flavour of camel airag ( fermented milk ) .
Forbidden City
From 1420 to 1644 , the Forbidden City was the seat of the Ming dynasty . In April 1644 , it was captured by rebel forces led by Li Zicheng , who proclaimed himself emperor of the Shun dynasty . He soon fled before the combined armies of former Ming general Wu Sangui and Manchu forces , setting fire to parts of the Forbidden City in the process .
Standard of living in China
In past times , the Chinese economy was characterized by widespread poverty , extreme income inequalities , and endemic insecurity of livelihood . Since then , the most concrete evidence of improved living standards has been that average national life expectancy has more than doubled , rising from around thirty - two years in 1949 to sixty - nine years in 1985 . In addition , the percentage of the Chinese population estimated to be living in absolute poverty fell from between 200 - 270 million in 1978 to 100 million in 2017 .
Golden Gate Bridge
The weight of the roadway is hung from 250 pairs of vertical suspender ropes , which are attached to two main cables . The main cables pass over the two main towers and are fixed in concrete at each end . Each cable is made of 27,572 strands of wire . The total length of galvanized steel wire used to fabricate both main cables is estimated to be 80,000 miles ( 130,000 km ) .
Forbidden City
On November 8 , 2017 , President of the United States Donald Trump was the first US President to be granted a state dinner in the Forbidden City since the founding of the People 's Republic of China .
Migration in China
Ordinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues . Mongols were forbidden by the Qing from crossing the borders of their banners , even into other Mongol Banners and from crossing into neidi ( the Han Chinese 18 provinces ) and were given serious punishments if they did in order to keep the Mongols divided against each other to benefit the Qing .
Masters Tournament
2010 : 7,435 yards ( 6,799 m ) 2000 : 6,985 yards ( 6,387 m ) 1990 : 6,905 yards ( 6,314 m ) 1980 : 7,040 yards ( 6,437 m ) 1970 : 6,980 yards ( 6,383 m ) 1960 : 6,980 yards ( 6,383 m ) 1950 : 6,900 yards ( 6,309 m ) 1940 : 6,800 yards ( 6,218 m )
Nation state
China covers a large geographic area and uses the concept of `` Zhonghua minzu '' or Chinese nationality , in the sense of ethnic groups , but it also officially recognizes the majority Han ethnic group which accounts for over 90 % of the population , and no fewer than 55 ethnic national minorities .
Mount Everest
The north ridge route begins from the north side of Everest , in Tibet . Expeditions trek to the Rongbuk Glacier , setting up base camp at 5,180 m ( 16,990 ft ) on a gravel plain just below the glacier . To reach Camp II , climbers ascend the medial moraine of the east Rongbuk Glacier up to the base of Changtse , at around 6,100 m ( 20,000 ft ) . Camp III ( ABC -- Advanced Base Camp ) is situated below the North Col at 6,500 m ( 21,300 ft ) . To reach Camp IV on the North Col , climbers ascend the glacier to the foot of the col where fixed ropes are used to reach the North Col at 7,010 m ( 23,000 ft ) . From the North Col , climbers ascend the rocky north ridge to set up Camp V at around 7,775 m ( 25,500 ft ) . The route crosses the North Face in a diagonal climb to the base of the Yellow Band , reaching the site of Camp VI at 8,230 m ( 27,000 ft ) . From Camp VI , climbers make their final summit push .
Forbidden City
Between these two palaces is the Hall of Union , which is square in shape with a pyramidal roof . Stored here are the 25 Imperial Seals of the Qing dynasty , as well as other ceremonial items . The
Grand Trunk Road
Grand Trunk Road GT Road Route information Length 2,700 km ( 1,700 mi ) Status Currently functional Existed before 322 BCE -- present History Maurya Empire Time period c. 322 and 187 BCE Cultural significance South Asian history Known for Maurya Empire , Kos Minar , Dhaba , Sher Shah Suri Major junctions East end Chittagong , Bangladesh West end Kabul , Afghanistan Location Major cities Chittagong , Dhaka , Rajshahi , Purnea , Patna , Varanasi , Allahabad , Kanpur , Agra , Mathura , Delhi , Sonipat , Panipat , Kurukshetra , Ambala , Ludhiana , Amritsar , Lahore , Gujranwala , Rawalpindi , Peshawar , Jalalabad , Kabul In
Silk Road
Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur , and looked with reverence to the Roman people , the great conqueror of nations . Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome . Nay , the Seres came likewise , and the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun , bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants , but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken , and which they said had occupied four years . In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours . --
Great Lakes
Only four bridges are on the Great Lakes other than Lake Ontario because of the cost of building structures high enough for ships to pass under . The Blue Water Bridge is , for example , more than 150 feet high and more than a mile long .
Forbidden City
The design of the Forbidden City , from its overall layout to the smallest detail , was meticulously planned to reflect philosophical and religious principles , and above all to symbolise the majesty of Imperial power . Some noted examples of symbolic designs include :
Mount Everest
Nearly all attempts at the summit are done using one of the two main routes . The traffic seen by each route varies from year to year . In 2005 -- 07 , more than half of all climbers elected to use the more challenging , but cheaper northeast route . In 2008 , the northeast route was closed by the Chinese government for the entire climbing season , and the only people able to reach the summit from the north that year were athletes responsible for carrying the Olympic torch for the 2008 Summer Olympics . The route was closed to foreigners once again in 2009 in the run - up to the 50th anniversary of the Dalai Lama 's exile . These closures led to declining interest in the north route , and , in 2010 , two - thirds of the climbers reached the summit from the south .
Mount Everest
In 1715 , the Qing Empire surveyed the mountain while mapping its territory and depicted it as Mount Qomolangma no later than 1719 . Mount
Mount Everest
In 1856 , Andrew Waugh announced Everest ( then known as Peak XV ) as 8,840 m ( 29,002 ft ) high , after several years of calculations based on observations made by the Great Trigonometric Survey .
Forbidden City
The collections of the Palace Museum are based on the Qing imperial collection . According to the results of a 1925 audit , some 1.17 million pieces of art were stored in the Forbidden City . In addition , the imperial libraries housed a large collection of rare books and historical documents , including government documents of the Ming and Qing dynasties .
Silk Road
By the time of Herodotus ( c. 475 BCE ) , the Royal Road of the Persian Empire ran some 2,857 km ( 1,775 mi ) from the city of Susa on the Karun ( 250 km ( 155 mi ) east of the Tigris ) to the port of Smyrna ( modern İzmir in Turkey ) on the Aegean Sea . It was maintained and protected by the Achaemenid Empire ( c. 500 -- 330 BCE ) and had postal stations and relays at regular intervals . By having fresh horses and riders ready at each relay , royal couriers could carry messages and traverse the length of the road in nine days , while normal travellers took about three months . Hellenistic
Yosemite National Park
Over 800 miles ( 1,300 km ) of trails are available to hikers -- anything from the easy stroll , to the grueling hikes up several park mountains , to multiple - day backpack trips .
Silk Road
On 15 February 2016 , with a change in routing , the first train dispatched under the OBOR scheme arrived from eastern Zhejiang Province to Tehran . Though this section does not complete the Silk Road -- style overland connection between China and Europe , plans are underway to extend the route past Tehran , through Istanbul , into Europe . The actual route went through Almaty , Bishkek , Samarkand , and Dushanbe .
Korean War
a net total of 3,900 km ( 1,500 sq mi ) to South Korea Belligerents South Korea United Nations : United States United Kingdom Canada Turkey Australia Philippines New Zealand Thailand Ethiopia Greece France Colombia Belgium South Africa Netherlands Luxembourg Medical support ( show ) Denmark Italy West Germany India Israel Norway Sweden Other support ( show ) Taiwan Japan Cuba El Salvador Spain North Korea China Soviet Union Medical support ( show ) Bulgaria Czechoslovakia East Germany Hungary Poland Romania Other support ( show ) India Mongolia Commanders and leaders Syngman Rhee Chung Il - kwon Paik Sun - yup Shin Sung - mo Harry S. Truman Douglas MacArthur Matthew Ridgway Mark Wayne Clark Clement Attlee Winston Churchill Kim Il - sung Pak Hon - yong Choi Yong - kun Kim Chaek † Mao Zedong Peng Dehuai Chen Geng Deng Hua Joseph Stalin † Georgy Malenkov Lavrentiy Beria Vyacheslav Molotov Strength 602,902 326,863 14,198 8,123 5,453 2,282 1,496 1,385 1,290 1,271 1,263 1,185 1,068 900 826 819 170 120 105 100 72 70 44 Total : 972,334 Note : The figures vary by source ; peak unit strength varied during war . 1,350,000 266,600 26,000 Total : 1,642,600 Note : The figures vary by source ; peak unit strength varied during war .
Standardized test
Later , sections on military strategies , civil law , revenue and taxation , agriculture and geography were added to the testing . In this form , the examinations were institutionalized for more than a millennium . Today , standardized testing remains widely used , most famously in the Gaokao system .
Horses in warfare
Relations between steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were often marked by conflict . The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare , and steppe cavalry became some of the most militarily potent forces in the world , only limited by nomads ' frequent lack of internal unity . Periodically , strong leaders would organise several tribes into one force , creating an almost unstoppable power . These unified groups included the Huns , who invaded Europe , and under Attila , conducted campaigns in both eastern France and northern Italy , over 500 miles apart , within two successive campaign seasons . Other unified nomadic forces included the Wu Hu attacks on China , and the Mongol conquest of much of Eurasia .
Chinese Tributary System
Kingdoms along China 's North - Western Frontier often struggled with the Imperial tributary system , and Beijing 's rejection of tribute missions , and the lavish gifts and benefits gained , exacerbated , and then helped soothe the drawn - out and complex conflicts now known as the Ming - Turpan Border Wars .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Even under these extremely unfavorable circumstances , Chiang realized that to win support from the United States and other foreign nations , China had to prove it was capable of fighting . Knowing a hasty retreat would discourage foreign aid , Chiang resolved to make a stand at Shanghai , using the best of his German - trained divisions to defend China 's largest and most industrialized city from the Japanese . The battle lasted over three months , saw heavy casualties on both sides , and ended with a Chinese retreat towards Nanking , but proved that China would not be easily defeated and showed its determination to the world . The battle became an enormous morale booster for the Chinese people , as it decisively refuted the Japanese boast that Japan could conquer Shanghai in three days and China in three months .
Migration in China
The genocide victim Dzungars were the natives of northern Xinjiang . Han , Manchu , and Southern Xinjiang 's Turkic Taranchi Muslims were all colonizers in Northern Xinjiang ( Dzungaria ) . Han soldiers of the Green STandard army were settled in the 1770s in Ili and Ürümqi by the Qing .
Qing dynasty
To extend and consolidate the dynasty 's control in Central Asia , the Kangxi Emperor personally led a series of military campaigns against the Dzungars in Outer Mongolia . The Kangxi Emperor was able to successfully expel Galdan 's invading forces from these regions , which were then incorporated into the empire . Galdan was eventually killed in the Dzungar -- Qing War . In 1683 , Qing forces received the surrender of Formosa ( Taiwan ) from Zheng Keshuang , grandson of Koxinga , who had conquered Taiwan from the Dutch colonists as a base against the Qing . Zheng Keshuang was awarded the title `` Duke Haicheng '' ( 海 澄 公 ) and was inducted into the Han Chinese Plain Red Banner of the Eight Banners when he moved to Beijing . Several Ming princes had accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan in 1661 -- 1662 , including the Prince of Ningjing Zhu Shugui and Prince Zhu Honghuan ( 朱弘桓 ) , son of Zhu Yihai , where they lived in the Kingdom of Tungning . The Qing sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan in 1683 back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives in exile since their lives were spared from execution . Winning Taiwan freed Kangxi 's forces for series of battles over Albazin , the far eastern outpost of the Tsardom of Russia . Zheng 's former soldiers on Taiwan like the rattan shield troops were also inducted into the Eight Banners and used by the Qing against Russian Cossacks at Albazin . The 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk was China 's first formal treaty with a European power and kept the border peaceful for the better part of two centuries . After Galdan 's death , his followers , as adherents to Tibetan Buddhism , attempted to control the choice of the next Dalai Lama . Kangxi dispatched two armies to Lhasa , the capital of Tibet , and installed a Dalai Lama sympathetic to the Qing .