vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of Vietnam
Then , during the Sixth Hùng dynasty , Văn Lang was invaded by the mysterious people called the Xích Tỵ , as the king battled Văn Lang back to greatness .
Forbidden City
In 1860 , during the Second Opium War , Anglo - French forces took control of the Forbidden City and occupied it until the end of the war . In 1900 Empress Dowager Cixi fled from the Forbidden City during the Boxer Rebellion , leaving it to be occupied by forces of the treaty powers until the following year . The
Qing dynasty
After a century of peace the Manchu Banner troops lost their fighting edge . Before the conquest , the Manchu banner had been a `` citizen '' army whose members were farmers and herders obligated to provide military service in times of war . The decision to turn the banner troops into a professional force whose every need was met by the state brought wealth , corruption , and decline as a fighting force . The Green Standard Army declined in a similar way . Rebellion
Modern history
Russia and Qing Dynasty China failed to keep pace with the other world powers which led to massive social unrest in both empires . The Qing Dynasty 's military power weakened during the 19th century , and faced with international pressure , massive rebellions and defeats in wars , the dynasty declined after the mid-19th century .
Qing dynasty
The Western powers , largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanjing , gave grudging support to the Qing government during the Taiping and Nian Rebellions . China 's income fell sharply during the wars as vast areas of farmland were destroyed , millions of lives were lost , and countless armies were raised and equipped to fight the rebels . In 1854 , Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing , inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing .
Qing dynasty
By the late 19th century , the most conservative elements within the Qing court could no longer ignore China 's military weakness . In 1860 , during the Second Opium War , the capital Beijing was captured and the Summer Palace sacked by a relatively small Anglo - French coalition force numbering 25,000 . The advent of modern weaponry resulting from the European Industrial Revolution had rendered China 's traditionally trained and equipped army and navy obsolete . The government attempts to modernize during the Self - Strengthening Movement were initially successful , but yielded few lasting results because of the central government 's lack of funds , lack of political will , and unwillingness to depart from tradition .
Migration in China
During the eighteenth century , growing numbers of Han Chinese settlers had illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe . By 1791 there had been so many Han Chinese settlers in the Front Gorlos Banner that the jasak had petitioned the Qing government to legalize the status of the peasants who had already settled there . Xinjiang
Silk Road
The Silk Road gave rise to the clusters of military states of nomadic origins in North China , ushered the Nestorian , Manichaean , Buddhist , and later Islamic religions into Central Asia and China .
Horses in warfare
In technological innovation , the early toe loop stirrup is credited to the cultures of India , and may have been in use as early as 500 BC . Not long after , the cultures of Mesopotamia and Ancient Greece clashed with those of central Asia and India . Herodotus ( 484 -- 425 BC ) wrote that Gandarian mercenaries of the Achaemenid Empire were recruited into the army of emperor Xerxes I of Persia ( 486 -- 465 BC ) , which he led against the Greeks . A century later , the `` Men of the Mountain Land , '' from north of Kabul River , served in the army of Darius III of Persia when he fought against Alexander the Great at Arbela in 331 BC . In battle against Alexander at Massaga in 326 BC , the Assakenoi forces included 20,000 cavalry . The Mudra - Rakshasa recounted how cavalry of the Shakas , Yavanas , Kambojas , Kiratas , Parasikas , and Bahlikas helped Chandragupta Maurya ( c. 320 -- 298 BC ) defeat the ruler of Magadha and take the throne , thus laying the foundations of Mauryan Dynasty in Northern India .
Axis powers
Asia , what a disquieting reservoir of men ! The safety of Europe will not be assured until we have driven Asia back behind the Urals . No organized Russian state must be allowed to exist west of that line . --
Horses in warfare
The Chinese used chariots for horse - based warfare until light cavalry forces became common during the Warring States era ( 402 -- 221 BC ) . A major proponent of the change to riding horses from chariots was Wu Ling , c. 320 BC . However , conservative forces in China often opposed change , and cavalry never became as dominant as in Europe . Cavalry in China also did not benefit from the additional cachet attached to being the military branch dominated by the nobility .
Migration in China
In 1668 during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor , the Qing government decreed a prohibition of non-Eight Banner people getting into Northeast China Manchuria of their origin . Han Chinese were banned from settling in this region but the rule was openly violated and Han Chinese became a majority in urban areas by the early 19th century .
Vietnam War
2,000 years of Chinese - Vietnamese enmity and hundreds of years of Chinese and Russian mutual suspicions were suspended when they united against us in Vietnam . --
Silk Road
The travelling party of Maës Titianus penetrated farthest east along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world , probably with the aim of regularising contacts and reducing the role of middlemen , during one of the lulls in Rome 's intermittent wars with Parthia , which repeatedly obstructed movement along the Silk Road . Intercontinental trade and communication became regular , organised , and protected by the ' Great Powers . ' Intense trade with the Roman Empire soon followed , confirmed by the Roman craze for Chinese silk ( supplied through the Parthians ) , even though the Romans thought silk was obtained from trees . This belief was affirmed by Seneca the Younger in his Phaedra and by Virgil in his Georgics . Notably , Pliny the Elder knew better . Speaking of the bombyx or silk moth , he wrote in his Natural Histories `` They weave webs , like spiders , that become a luxurious clothing material for women , called silk . '' The Romans traded spices , glassware , perfumes , and silk . A
Migration in China
Ürümqi was settled with troops while Green Standard troops and Altishari Turkic peoples settled in Ili after being ordered to by Qianlong in 1757 . Ürümqi was used as a place for exiles .
Silk Road
During the early 13th century Khwarezmia was invaded by the early Mongol Empire . The Mongol ruler Genghis Khan had the once vibrant cities of Bukhara and Samarkand burned to the ground after besieging them . However , in 1370 Samarkand saw a revival as the capital of the new Timurid Empire . The Turko - Mongol ruler Timur forcefully moved artisans and intellectuals from across Asia to Samarkand , making it one of the most important trade centers and cultural entrepôts of the Islamic world .
Qing dynasty
After conquering `` China proper '' , the Manchus identified their state as `` China '' ( 中國 , Zhōngguó ; `` Middle Kingdom '' ) , and referred to it as Dulimbai Gurun in Manchu ( Dulimbai means `` central '' or `` middle , '' gurun means `` nation '' or `` state '' ) . The emperors equated the lands of the Qing state ( including present - day Northeast China , Xinjiang , Mongolia , Tibet and other areas ) as `` China '' in both the Chinese and Manchu languages , defining China as a multi-ethnic state , and rejecting the idea that `` China '' only meant Han areas . The Qing emperors proclaimed that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of `` China '' . They used both `` China '' and `` Qing '' to refer to their state in official documents , international treaties ( as the Qing was known internationally as `` China '' or the `` Chinese Empire '' ) and foreign affairs , and `` Chinese language '' ( Manchu : ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ‍ᡳ ᠪᡝᡳᡨᡥᡝ Dulimbai gurun i bithe ) included Chinese , Manchu , and Mongol languages , and `` Chinese people '' ( 中國 之 人 Zhōngguó zhī rén ; Manchu : Dulimbai gurun i niyalma ) referred to all subjects of the empire . In the Chinese - language versions of its treaties and its maps of the world , the Qing government used `` Qing '' and `` China '' interchangeably .
Qing dynasty
Han defectors played a massive role in the Qing conquest of China . Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu were often given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were often given non-royal Manchu women as wives . Jurchen ( Manchu ) women married Han Chinese defectors in Liaodong . Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses were also married to Han Chinese official 's sons .
Silk Road
The Mongol rulers wanted to establish their capital on the Central Asian steppe , so to accomplish this goal , after every conquest they enlisted local people ( traders , scholars , artisans ) to help them construct and manage their empire .
The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism
The lack of city development is partially due to strengths of kinship ties , which stems from religious beliefs ( in ancestral spirits ) and maintaining strong ties to the villages in which one 's ancestors lived . The guilds likewise competed against each other for the favour of the Emperor , never uniting in order to fight for more rights .
Gobi Desert
The Gobi had a long history of human habitation , mostly by nomadic peoples . By the early 20th century , the region was under the nominal control of Manchu - China , and inhabited mostly by Mongols , Uyghurs , and Kazakhs . The Gobi Desert as a whole was known only very imperfectly to outsiders , and information was confined to observations by individual travellers from their respective itineraries across the desert . Among the European explorers who contributed to early - 20th - century understanding of the Gobi , the most important were the following :
Siberia
The growing power of Russia in the West began to undermine the Siberian Khanate in the 16th century . First , groups of traders and Cossacks began to enter the area . The Russian Army was directed to establish forts farther and farther east to protect new settlers from European Russia . Towns such as Mangazeya , Tara , Yeniseysk and Tobolsk were developed , the last being declared the capital of Siberia . At this time , Sibir was the name of a fortress at Qashlik , near Tobolsk . Gerardus Mercator , in a map published in 1595 , marks Sibier both as the name of a settlement and of the surrounding territory along a left tributary of the Ob . Other sources contend that the Xibe , an indigenous Tungusic people , offered fierce resistance to Russian expansion beyond the Urals . Some suggest that the term `` Siberia '' is a Russification of their ethnonym .
History of Vietnam
People from Song dynasty China like Zhao Zhong and Xu Zongdao fled to Tran dynasty ruled Vietnam after the Mongol invasion of the Song . The Tran dynasty originated from the Fujian region of China as did the Daoist cleric Xu Zongdao who recorded the Mongol invasion and referred to them as `` Northern bandits '' .
Siege
Planning and maintaining a siege is just as difficult as fending one off . A besieging army must be prepared to repel both sorties from the besieged area and also any attack that may try to relieve the defenders . It was thus usual to construct lines of trenches and defenses facing in both directions . The outermost lines , known as the lines of contravallation , would surround the entire besieging army and protect it from attackers .
Horn of Africa
Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders , the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran - Portuguese wars . Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were also strengthened or re-established , and the state left behind an extensive architectural legacy . Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers , including a lot of the pillar tomb fields , necropolises and ruined cities built during that era . The royal family , the House of Gareen , also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare , trade linkages and alliances .
Qing dynasty
Although Hong Taiji was an experienced leader and the commander of two Banners at the time of his succession , his reign did not start well on the military front . The Jurchens suffered yet another defeat in 1627 at the hands of Yuan Chonghuan . As before , this defeat was , in part , due to the Ming 's newly acquired Portuguese cannons . The
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Chinese were not entirely devoting all their resources to the Japanese , because they were fighting several other wars at the same time .
History of India
The two armies having met on the confines of Lumghan , Subooktugeen ascended a hill to view the forces of Jeipal , which appeared in extent like the boundless ocean , and in number like the ants or the locusts of the wilderness . But Subooktugeen considered himself as a wolf about to attack a flock of sheep : calling , therefore , his chiefs together , he encouraged them to glory , and issued to each his commands . His soldiers , though few in number , were divided into squadrons of five hundred men each , which were directed to attack successively , one particular point of the Hindoo line , so that it might continually have to encounter fresh troops .
Chinese Tributary System
Since neighboring Asian states were required to pay tribute to establish economic relations with the Chinese court , there was little reason for the Chinese to doubt their predominance in the world order . Even the Europeans , who first entered the Chinese waters as early as the 16th century , had submitted to trade within the highly restrictive Chinese system . By conforming to the conditions imposed on them and by accepting their nominally `` inferior '' position , the Westerners strengthened the Chinese belief in the preeminence of the Middle eas Kingdom and in the tributary system of foreign relations .
Zimbabwe
As a direct response to increased European presence in the interior , and especially due to the increasing amount of Carnegie family farmers , a new Shona state emerged , known as the Rozwi Empire . Relying on centuries of military , political and religious development , the Rozwi ( meaning `` destroyers '' ) expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean plateau by force of arms . They continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding muskets to their arsenal and recruiting a professional army to defend recent conquests .
Qing dynasty
Although the Qing lineages could be said to be mainly based on biological descent , they were in fact purposefully `` crafted '' . The first act usually was to carefully identify an older `` founding ancestor '' and once such a person had been agreed upon , specific generational characters would be given to succeeding male generations . A written genealogy was made to record the lineage 's history , biographies of respected ancestors , a chart of all the family members of each generation , rules for the members to abide , and often copies of title contracts for collective property as well . Lastly , an ancestral hall was built to serve as the lineage 's headquarters and a place for annual ancestral sacrifice . Members strongly believed that such worship would ensure that their ancestors remain content and benevolent spirits , known as `` shen '' who would thus keep watch over the family tradition and protect it in the process . Although such actions could be seen as mere superstition , perhaps it was the family 's guilt or grief for the unexpected or abnormal that resulted in them . Thus , the ancestral cult focuses on the family and lineage and its cohesion , rather than on more public matters such as community and nation , causing the family to be more bound together and result in the most powerful and prevalent element in Chinese society .
Ashoka
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Qing dynasty
Also , according to one study , the homicide rate in Qing Chin `` ranged between 0.35 and 1.47 per 100,000 inhabitants during the 1661 -- 1898 period , a low level unmatched by Western Europe until the late 19th century . China 's homicide rate rose steadily from 1661 to 1821 but declined gradually thereafter until the turn of the century . '' Qing
Qing dynasty
Nurhaci declared himself the `` Bright Khan '' of the Later Jin ( lit . `` gold '' ) state in honor both of the 12 -- 13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan ( Aisin being Manchu for the Chinese 金 ( jīn , `` gold '' ) ) . His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636 . There are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng ( lit . `` clear '' or `` pure '' ) . The name may have been selected in reaction to the name of the Ming dynasty ( 明 ) , which consists of the Chinese characters for `` sun '' ( 日 ) and `` moon '' ( 月 ) , both associated with the fire element of the Chinese zodiacal system . The character Qīng ( 清 ) is composed of `` water '' ( 氵 ) and `` azure '' ( 青 ) , both associated with the water element . This association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water . The water imagery of the new name may also have had Buddhist overtones of perspicacity and enlightenment and connections with the Bodhisattva Manjusri . The Manchu name daicing , which sounds like a phonetic rendering of Dà Qīng or Dai Ching , may in fact have been derived from a Mongolian word `` ᠳᠠᠢᠢᠴᠢᠨ , дайчин '' that means `` warrior '' . Daicing gurun may therefore have meant `` warrior state '' , a pun that was only intelligible to Manchu and Mongol people . In the later part of the dynasty , however , even the Manchus themselves had forgotten this possible meaning . The
Qing dynasty
This article contains Manchu text . Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks , boxes , or other symbols instead of Manchu alphabets .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Chinese Nationalist Party Chiang Kai - shek ( 蔣 中正 , 蒋 中正 ) Bai Chongxi ( 白崇禧 ) Chen Cheng ( 陳誠 , 陈诚 ) Cheng Qian ( 程 潛 , 程 潜 ) Du Yuming ( 杜聿明 ) Fang Xianjue ( 方 先覺 , 方 先觉 ) Feng Yuxiang ( 馮玉祥 , 冯玉祥 ) Fu Zuoyi ( 傅作義 , 傅作义 ) Gu Zhutong ( 顧 祝 同 , 顾 祝 同 ) He Yingqin ( 何應欽 , 何应钦 ) H.H. Kung ( 孔祥熙 ) Hu Kexian ( 胡克先 ) Hu Zongnan ( 胡宗南 ) Li Zongren ( 李宗仁 ) Long Yun ( 龍雲 , 龙 云 ) Ma Bufang ( 馬步芳 ) Ma Buqing ( 馬步青 ) Ma Hongbin ( 馬鴻賓 ) Ma Hongkui ( 馬鴻逵 ) Ma Zhanshan ( 馬占山 , 马占山 ) Song Zheyuan ( 宋哲元 ) Soong Mei - ling ( 宋美齡 , 宋美龄 ) T.V. Soong ( 宋子文 ) Sun Lianzhong ( 孫連仲 , 孙连仲 ) Sun Liren ( 孫立人 , 孙立人 ) Tang Enbai ( 湯恩伯 , 汤恩伯 ) Tang Shengzhi ( 唐生智 ) Wei Lihuang ( 衛 立 煌 , 卫 立 煌 ) Xue Yue ( 薛岳 ) Yan Xishan ( 閻 錫山 , 阎 锡山 ) Xie Jinyuan ( 謝晉 元 , 谢晋
Chinese Buddhism
The first Chinese master to teach Westerners in North America was Hsuan Hua , who taught Chán and other traditions of Chinese Buddhism in San Francisco during the early 1960s . He went on to found the City Of Ten Thousand Buddhas , a monastery and retreat center located on a 237 - acre ( 959,000 m2 ) property near Ukiah , California . Chuang Yen Monastery and Hsi Lai Temple are also large centers .
Qing dynasty
Yet the most impressive aesthetic works were done among the scholars and urban elite . Calligraphy and painting remained a central interest to both court painters and scholar - gentry who considered the Four Arts part of their cultural identity and social standing . The painting of the early years of the dynasty included such painters as the orthodox Four Wangs and the individualists Bada Shanren ( 1626 -- 1705 ) and Shitao ( 1641 -- 1707 ) . The nineteenth century saw such innovations as the Shanghai School and the Lingnan School which used the technical skills of tradition to set the stage for modern painting .
The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism
When the Han disintegrated , Confucianism fell with it and lay dormant for almost 400 years ( A.D. 220 - 618 ) as Chinese Buddhism and Taoism offered new visions . China was again unified , by the Tang Dynasty ( 618 -- 906 ) . During the Song ( Sung ) dynasty ( 960 -- 1279 ) , Neo-Confucianism flourished -- interpreting classical Confucian doctrine in a way that addressed Buddhist and Daoist issues . In the Ming dynasty ( 1368 -- 1644 ) , Wang Yangming claimed that the mind projects li ( principle ) onto things rather than just noticing external li . 20th - century Chinese intellectuals blamed Confucianism for the scientific and political backwardness of China after the disastrous conflicts with Western military technology at the dawn of the modern era .
End of the Han dynasty
Cao Cao died in March 220 and his son Cao Pi inherited the title of `` King of Wei '' without waiting for formal authorization from Emperor Xian . In the winter of 220 , Emperor Xian sent the Imperial Seal to Cao Pi and issued an edict announcing that he was abdicating in favour of Cao Pi . Cao Pi formally declined to accept the throne thrice but obliged eventually . The Han dynasty officially ended at that point and Cao Pi established the state of Cao Wei in its place , moving the capital from Xu back to Luoyang . The dethroned Emperor Xian was granted a title of `` Duke of Shanyang '' .
Akbar
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History of Vietnam
Both Chinese and Vietnamese sovereigns were honored at a temple constructed by the Nguyen dynasty .
Qing dynasty
According to statute , Qing society was divided into relatively closed estates , of which in most general terms there were five . Apart from the estates of the officials , the comparatively minuscule aristocracy , and the degree - holding literati , there also existed a major division among ordinary Chinese between commoners and people with inferior status . They were divided into two categories : one of them , the good `` commoner '' people , the other `` mean '' people who were seen as debased and servile . The majority of the population belonged to the first category and were described as liangmin , a legal term meaning good people , as opposed to jianmin meaning the mean ( or ignoble ) people . Qing law explicitly stated that the traditional four occupational groups of scholars , farmers , artisans and merchants were `` good '' , or having a status of commoners . On the other hand , slaves or bondservants , entertainers ( including prostitutes and actors ) , tattooed criminals , and those low - level employees of government officials were the `` mean people '' . Mean people were considered legally inferior to commoners and suffered unequal treatments , forbidden to take the imperial examination . Furthermore , such people were usually not allowed to marry with free commoners and were even often required to acknowledge their abasement in society through actions such as bowing . However , throughout the Qing dynasty , the emperor and his court , as well as the bureaucracy , worked towards reducing the distinctions between the debased and free but did not completely succeed even at the end of its era in merging the two classifications together . The
Qing dynasty
The dynasty was sometimes referred to as the `` Manchu dynasty '' in foreign language sources .