vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Olmec
In the latter half of the 19th century , Olmec artifacts such as the Kunz Axe ( right ) came to light and were subsequently recognized as belonging to a unique artistic tradition .
Roanoke Colony
A farther Confirmation of this we have from the Hatteras Indians , who either then lived on Ronoak - Island , or much frequented it . These tell us , that several of their Ancestors were white People , and could talk in a Book , as we do ; the Truth of which is confirm 'd by gray Eyes being found frequently amongst these Indians , and no others . They value themselves extremely for their Affinity to the English , and are ready to do them all friendly Offices . It is probable , that this Settlement miscarry 'd for want of timely Supplies from England ; or thro ' the Treachery of the Natives , for we may reasonably suppose that the English were forced to cohabit with them , for Relief and Conversation ; and that in process of Time , they conform 'd themselves to the Manners of their Indian Relations .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
The Palladion was the earliest and perhaps the most important stolen statue in western literature . The small carved wooden statue of an armed Athena served as Troy 's protective talisman , which is said to have been stolen by two Greeks who secretly smuggled the statue out of the Temple of Athena . It was widely believed in antiquity that the conquest of Troy was only possible because the city had lost its protective talisman . This myth illustrates the sacramental significance of statuary in Ancient Greece as divine manifestations of the gods that symbolized power and were often believed to possess supernatural abilities . The sacred nature of the statues is further illustrated in the supposed suffering of the victorious Greeks afterward , including Odysseus , who was the mastermind behind the robbery .
European exploration of Africa
The Dutch left a lasting impact in South Africa , a region ignored by Portugal that the Dutch eventually decided to use as station in their route to East Asia . Jan van Riebeeck founded Cape Town in 1652 , starting the European exploration and colonization of South Africa .
European colonization of the Americas
James Mahoney , a professor at Northwestern University , proposes that colonial policy choices made at critical junctures regarding land ownership in coffee - rich Central America fostered enduring path dependent institutions . Coffee economies in Guatemala and El Salvador , for example , were centralized around large plantations that operated under coercive labor systems . By the 19th century , their political structures were largely authoritarian and militarized . In Colombia and Costa Rica , conversely , liberal reforms were enacted at critical junctures to expand commercial agriculture , and they ultimately raised the bargaining power of the middle class . Both nations eventually developed more democratic and egalitarian institutions than their highly concentrated landowning counterparts .
Roanoke Colony
The so - called `` Zuniga Map '' ( named for Pedro de Zúñiga , the Spanish ambassador to England , who had secured a copy and passed it on to Philip III of Spain ) , drawn about 1607 by the Jamestown settler Francis Nelson , also gives credence to this claim . The map states `` four men clothed that came from roonock '' were living in an Iroquois site on the Neuse . William Strachey wrote that , at the Indian settlements of Peccarecanick and Ochanahoen , there were reportedly two - story houses with stone walls . The Indians supposedly had learned how to build them from the Roanoke settlers . In both cases , as stated above , it is equally possible that these were survivors of Chief Powhatan 's attack on the first Jamestown colonists .
Olmec
Frans Blom and Oliver La Farge made the first detailed descriptions of La Venta and San Martin Pajapan Monument 1 during their 1925 expedition . However , at this time most archaeologists assumed the Olmec were contemporaneous with the Maya -- even Blom and La Farge were , in their own words , `` inclined to ascribe them to the Maya culture '' .
European colonization of the Americas
When in May 1493 , the Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera bull granting the new lands to the Kingdom of Spain , he requested in exchange an evangelization of the people . Thus , during Columbus 's second voyage , Benedictine friars accompanied him , along with twelve other priests . As slavery was prohibited between Christians , and could only be imposed in non-Christian prisoners of war or on men already sold as slaves , the debate on Christianization was particularly acute during the 16th century . In 1537 , the papal bull Sublimis Deus definitively recognized that Native Americans possessed souls , thus prohibiting their enslavement , without putting an end to the debate . Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and then been captured could be enslaved nonetheless .
Cradle of civilization
The phrase `` cradle of civilization '' plays a certain role in national mysticism . It has been used in Eastern as well as Western cultures , for instance , in Hindu nationalism ( In Search of the Cradle of Civilization 1995 ) and Taiwanese nationalism ( Taiwan -- The Cradle of Civilization 2002 ) . The terms also appear in esoteric pseudohistory , such as the Urantia Book , claiming the title for `` the second Eden '' , or the pseudoarchaeology related to Megalithic Britain ( Civilization One 2004 , Ancient Britain : The Cradle of Civilization 1921 ) .
Easter Island
Four years later , in 1774 , British explorer James Cook visited Easter Island ; he reported that some statues had been toppled . Through the interpretation of Hitihiti , Cook learned the statues commemorated their former high chiefs , including their names and ranks .
Conquistador
In the 1690s , gold was discovered by explorers in the region that would later be called Minas Gerais ( General Mines ) in current Mato Grosso and Goiás .
European exploration of Africa
The British expressed their interest by the formation in 1788 of The Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa . The individuals who formed this club were inspired in part by the Scotsman James Bruce , who had ventured to Ethiopia in 1769 and reached the source of the Blue Nile .
Conquistador
Books such as The Travels of Marco Polo fuelled rumours of mythical places . Stories included the half - fabulous Christian Empire of `` Prester John '' , the kingdom of the White Queen on the `` Western Nile '' ( Sénégal River ) , the Fountain of Youth , cities of Gold in North and South America such as Quivira , Zuni - Cibola Complex , and El Dorado , and wonderful kingdoms of the Ten Lost Tribes and women named Amazons . In 1542 , Francisco de Orellana reached the Amazon River , naming it after a tribe of warlike women he claimed to have fought there . Others claimed that the similarity between `` Indio '' and `` Iudio '' , the word for Jew in Spanish language about 1500 , revealed the indigenous peoples ' origin . Portuguese traveller Antonio de Montezinos reported that some of the Lost Tribes were living among the Native Americans of the Andes in South America . Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés wrote that Ponce de León was looking for the waters of Bimini to cure his aging . A similar account appears in Francisco López de Gómara 's Historia General de las Indias of 1551 . Then in 1575 , Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda , a shipwreck survivor who had lived with the Native Americans of Florida for 17 years , published his memoir in which he locates the Fountain of Youth in Florida , and says that Ponce de León was supposed to have looked for them there . This land somehow also became confused with the Boinca or Boyuca mentioned by Juan de Solis , although Solis 's navigational data placed it in the Gulf of Honduras . Sir Walter Raleigh and some Italian , Spanish , Dutch , French and Portuguese expeditions were looking for the wonderful Guiana empire that gave its name to the present day countries of the Guianas .
Nubia
When the Egyptians pulled out of the Napata region , they left a lasting legacy that was merged with indigenous customs , forming the kingdom of Kush . Archaeologists have found several burials in the area that seem to belong to local leaders . The Kushites were buried there soon after the Egyptians decolonized the Nubian frontier . Kush adopted many Egyptian practices , such as their religion . The Kingdom of Kush survived longer than that of Egypt , invaded Egypt ( under the leadership of king Piye ) , and controlled Egypt during the 8th century BC as the Twenty - fifth Dynasty of Egypt . Pharaohs
Maya civilization
The famous astrologer John Dee used an Aztec obsidian mirror to see into the future . We may look down our noses at his ideas , but one may be sure that in outlook he was far closer to a Maya priest astronomer than is an astronomer of our century . --
European colonization of the Americas
The related online exhibition explores the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States and commemorates the 400th anniversary of three lasting settlements in Jamestown ( 1607 ) , Québec ( 1608 ) , and Santa Fe ( 1609 ) . The site is accessible in three languages .
Maya civilization
There are a great many museums across the world with Maya artefacts in their collections . The Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies lists over 250 museums in its Maya Museum database , and the European Association of Mayanists lists just under 50 museums in Europe alone .
Olmec
Early modern explorers and archaeologists , however , mistakenly applied the name `` Olmec '' to the rediscovered ruins and artifacts in the heartland decades before it was understood that these were not created by people the Aztecs knew as the `` Olmec '' , but rather a culture that was 2000 years older . Despite the mistaken identity , the name has stuck .
Gobi Desert
Archeologists and paleontologists have done excavations in the Nemegt Basin in the northwestern part of the Gobi Desert ( in Mongolia ) , which is noted for its fossil treasures , including early mammals , dinosaur eggs , and prehistoric stone implements , some 100,000 years old .
European exploration of Africa
In 1650 , Swedish merchants founded Swedish Gold Coast in modern Ghana following the foundation of the Swedish Africa Company ( 1649 ) . In 1652 the foundations were laid of the fort Carlsborg.In 1658 Fort Carlsborg was seized and made part of the Danish Gold Coast colony , then to the Dutch Gold Coast . Later on the local population started a successful uprising against their new masters and in December 1660 the King of the Akan people subgroup - Efutu again offered Sweden control over the area , but in 1663 were seized by the Danish after a long defense of Fort Christiansborg .
Sahara
Sometime between 633 BCE and 530 BCE , Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in Western Sahara , but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace .
Columbian Exchange
One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges . For example , in the article `` The Myth of Early Globalization : The Atlantic Economy , 1500 -- 1800 '' Pieter Remmer makes the point that `` from 1500 onward , a ' clash of cultures ' had begun in the Atlantic '' . This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures . For example , the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands , the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family , the role of women and children in the family system , and the `` superiority of free labor '' . An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America . When these early European colonizers first entered North America , they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved . For these Europeans , they were seeking economic opportunities , therefore , land and resources were important for the success of the mission . When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan . The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas . These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants . As the Europeans viewed fences as `` hallmarks of civilization '' they set about transforming `` the land into something more suitable for themselves '' . In implementing their practices , the Europeans enslaved , murdered , and exploited indigenous populations . Furthermore , in cases of enslaved peoples ( and in particular , enslaved Africans ) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property . Thus , the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people . In other subtle ways , which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions . An example of this can be found in the tobacco industry .
Korea under Japanese rule
Japan sent anthropologists to Korea who took photos of the traditional state of Korean villages , serving as evidence that Korea was `` backwards '' and needed to be modernized .
European colonization of the Americas
To reward their troops , the Conquistadores often allotted Indian towns to their troops and officers . Black African slaves were introduced to substitute for Native American labor in some locations -- including the West Indies , where the indigenous population was nearing extinction on many islands .
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado
In 1993 , Jimmy Owens found crossbow points in Blanco Canyon in Crosby County , Texas , near the town of Floydada in Floyd County . Archaeologists subsequently searched the site and found pottery sherds , more than forty crossbow points , and dozens of horseshoe nails of Spanish manufacture , plus a Mexican - style stone blade . This find strengthens the evidence that Vázquez de Coronado found the Teyas in Blanco Canyon . Quivira
Coal
At Kuh i Malik in Yagnob Valley , Tajikistan , coal deposits have been burning for thousands of years , creating vast underground labyrinths full of unique minerals , some of them very beautiful . Local people once used this method to mine ammoniac . This place has been well - known since the time of Herodotus , but European geographers misinterpreted the Ancient Greek descriptions as the evidence of active volcanism in Turkestan ( up to the 19th century , when the Russian army invaded the area ) .
Roanoke Colony
During the initial exploration of the mainland coast and the native settlements , the Europeans blamed the natives of the village of Aquascogoc for stealing a silver cup . As retaliation , the settlers sacked and burned the village . English writer and courtier Richard Hakluyt 's contemporaneous reports also describe this incident . ( Hakluyt 's reports of the first voyage to Roanoke were compiled from accounts by various financial backers , including Sir Walter Raleigh . Hakluyt himself never traveled to the New World . )
Apartheid
External western influence can be seen as one of the factors that arguably greatly influenced political ideology , particularly due to the influences of colonisation . South Africa in particular is argued to be an `` unreconstructed example of western civilisation twisted by racism '' .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
Hearing of the rebellion , more ambassadors from the Aztec Emperor returned to see Cortés , bearing gifts of `` gold and cloth '' , in thankfulness for Cortés freeing his tax collectors . Montezuma also told Cortés , he was certain the Spanish were of `` his own race '' , and had arrived as `` his ancestors had foretold '' . As Cortés told his men , the natives `` think of us as gods , or godlike beings . ''
Thirteen Colonies
The first British Empire centered on the Thirteen Colonies , which attracted large numbers of settlers from Britain . The `` Imperial School '' in the 1900 -- 1930s took a favorable view of the benefits of empire , emphasizing its successful economic integration . The Imperial School included such historians as Herbert L. Osgood , George Louis Beer , Charles M. Andrews , and Lawrence Gipson .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
Wellington also forbade pilfering among his troops as he believed that it led to the lack of discipline and distraction from military duty . He also held the view that winning support from local inhabitants was an important break from Napoleon 's practices .
Conquistador
The evolving structure of colonial government was not fully formed until the third quarter of the 16th century ; however , los Reyes Católicos designated Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca to study the problems related to the colonization process . Rodríguez de Fonseca effectively became minister for the Indies and laid the foundations for the creation of a colonial bureaucracy , combining legislative , executive and judicial functions . Rodríguez de Fonseca presided over the council , which contained a number of members of the Council of Castile ( Consejo de Castilla ) , and formed a Junta de Indias of about eight counsellors . Emperor Charles V was already using the term `` Council of the Indies '' in 1519 . Philip
Indo-Roman trade relations
The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions a marketplace named Poduke ( ch. 60 ) , which G.W.B. Huntingford identified as possibly being Arikamedu in Tamil Nadu , a centre of early Chola trade ( now part of Ariyankuppam ) , about 3 kilometres ( 1.9 mi ) from the modern Pondicherry . Huntingford further notes that Roman pottery was found at Arikamedu in 1937 , and archeological excavations between 1944 and 1949 showed that it was `` a trading station to which goods of Roman manufacture were imported during the first half of the 1st century AD '' .
Zimbabwe
In the 1880s , white colonists arrived with Cecil Rhodes 's British South Africa Company ( BSAC ) . In 1888 , Rhodes obtained a concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele peoples . He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a royal charter to the company over Matabeleland , and its subject states such as Mashonaland as well .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
The Laocoön had a particular meaning for the French because it was associated with a myth in connection to the founding of Rome . When the art was brought into Paris , the pieces arrived in the fashion of a triumphal procession modeled after the common practice of ancient Romans .
European exploration of Africa
In 1469 , Fernão Gomes rented the rights of African exploration for five years . Under his direction , in 1471 , the Portuguese reached modern Ghana and settled in A Mina ( the mine ) , later renamed Elmina . They had finally reached a country with an abundance of gold , hence the historical name of `` Gold Coast '' that Elmina would eventually receive .
Atlantic slave trade
Upon discovering new lands through their naval explorations , European colonisers soon began to migrate to and settle in lands outside their native continent . Off the coast of Africa , European migrants , under the directions of the Kingdom of Castile , invaded and colonised the Canary Islands during the 15th century , where they converted much of the land to the production of wine and sugar . Along with this , they also captured native Canary Islanders , the Guanches , to use as slaves both on the Islands and across the Christian Mediterranean .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
While in the Axayacatl palace , the conquistadors discovered the secret room where Moctezuma kept the treasure he had inherited from his father . The treasure consisted of a `` quantity of golden objects -- jewels and plates and ingots '' . Diaz noted , `` The sight of all that wealth dumbfounded me . ''
Culture of El Salvador
Native Americans appeared in the Pleistocene era and became the dominant people in the Lithic stage , developing in the Archaic period in North America to the Formative stage , occupying this position for thousands of years until their demise at the end of the 15th and 16th century , spanning the time of the original arrival in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization of the Americas during the early modern period .
Conquistador
Several expeditions went in search of these fabulous places , but returned empty - handed , or brought less gold than they had hoped . They found other precious metals such as silver , which was particularly abundant in Potosí , in modern - day Bolivia . They discovered new routes , ocean currents , trade winds , crops , spices and other products . In the sail era knowledge of winds and currents was essential , for example , the Agulhas current long prevented Portuguese sailors from reaching India . Various places in Africa and the Americas have been named after the imagined cities made of gold , rivers of gold and precious stones .
Hellenistic period
Ptolemaic Egypt was the center of Hellenistic influence in Africa and Greek colonies also thrived in the region of Cyrene , Libya . The kingdom of Meroë was in constant contact with Ptolemaic Egypt and Hellenistic influences can be seen in their art and archaeology . There was a temple to Serapis , the Greco - Egyptian god .
Philippines
Early Philippine sculpture is characterized by frontal nudity . One of the earliest forms are the bulols by the Ifugao people which serve as an assurance for bountiful harvests . The original function of these sculptures are related to the ceremonies and beliefs of the tribes who created them . Arab and Russian missionaries also brought beveled type of carvings in the form of Okkil . The beginnings of this sculpture type started with the Islamization of Sulu . The Spanish colonization of the country did not hinder Filipinos creating sculptures for objects of adoration . During this time , sculptures of deities and saints were used to teach Filipinos Christian doctrines . During the American colonialism , worshippers of faith were not discouraged to sculpt in order to adorn churches . Filipinos ' first exposure to painting happened when Spain conquered the Philippines and these were used as religious propaganda often displayed in churches . However , as education progressed and wealth increased , more and more artists started to shift from the traditional religious motifs to a more secular pattern of imagery .
Ancient Greece
The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times to the present day , particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture . In the West , the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models . In the East , Alexander the Great 's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek , Central Asian and Indian cultures , resulting in Greco - Buddhist art , with ramifications as far as Japan . Following the Renaissance in Europe , the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists . Well into the 19th century , the classical tradition derived from Greece dominated the art of the western world .
Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)
Exploratory parties were undertaken while awaiting the shallop , led by Myles Standish ( an English soldier whom the colonists had met while in Leiden ) and Christopher Jones . They encountered an old European - built house and iron kettle , left behind by some ship 's crew , and a few recently cultivated fields , showing corn stubble .
Çatalhöyük
The site was first excavated by James Mellaart in 1958 . He later led a team which further excavated there for four seasons between 1961 and 1965 . These excavations revealed this section of Anatolia as a centre of advanced culture in the Neolithic period . Excavation revealed 18 successive layers of buildings signifying various stages of the settlement and eras of history . The bottom layer of buildings can be dated as early as 7500 BC while the top layer is of 5600 BC .