vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of the Catholic Church
In Europe , the Renaissance marked a period of renewed interest in ancient and classical learning . It also brought a re-examination of accepted beliefs . Cathedrals and churches had long served as picture books and art galleries for millions of the uneducated . The stained glass windows , frescoes , statues , paintings and panels retold the stories of the saints and of biblical characters . The Church sponsored great Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci , who created some of the world 's most famous artworks . The acceptance of humanism had its effects on the Church , which embraced it as well . In 1509 , a well known scholar of the age , Erasmus , wrote The Praise of Folly , a work which captured a widely held unease about corruption in the Church . The Papacy itself was questioned by conciliarism expressed in the councils of Constance and the Basel . Real reforms during these ecumenical councils and the Fifth Lateran Council were attempted several times but thwarted . They were seen as necessary but did not succeed in large measure because of internal feuds within the Church , ongoing conflicts with the Ottoman Empire and Saracenes and the simony and nepotism practiced in the Renaissance Church of the 15th and early 16th centuries . As a result , rich , powerful and worldly men like Roderigo Borgia ( Pope Alexander VI ) were able to win election to the papacy .
History of the Catholic Church
Through the late 15th and early 16th centuries , European missionaries and explorers spread Catholicism to the Americas , Asia , Africa and Oceania . Pope Alexander VI , in the papal bull Inter caetera , awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal . Under the patronato system , state authorities controlled clerical appointments and no direct contact was allowed with the Vatican . On December 1511 , the Dominican friar Antonio de Montesinos openly rebuked the Spanish authorities governing Hispaniola for their mistreatment of the American natives , telling them `` ... you are in mortal sin ... for the cruelty and tyranny you use in dealing with these innocent people '' . King Ferdinand enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response . Enforcement was lax , and while some blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians , others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples . The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th - century Spain . An outpouring of self - criticism and philosophical reflection among Catholic theologians , most notably Francisco de Vitoria , led to debate on the nature of human rights and the birth of modern international law .
History of the Catholic Church
The declaration of Ravenna in 2007 re-asserted these beliefs , and re-stated the notion that the bishop of Rome is indeed the protos , although future discussions are to be held on the concrete ecclesiological exercise of papal primacy .
History of the Church of England
In 616 Æthelberht of Kent died . The kingdom of Kent and those Anglo - Saxon kingdoms over which Kent had influence relapsed into heathenism for several decades . During the next 50 years Celtic missionaries evangelised the kingdom of Northumbria with an episcopal see at Lindisfarne and missionaries then proceeded to some of the other kingdoms to evangelise those also . Mercia and Sussex were among the last kingdoms to undergo Christianization .
History of the Catholic Church
The English Reformation was ostensibly based on Henry VIII 's desire for annulment of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon , and was initially more of a political , and later a theological dispute . The Acts of Supremacy made the English monarch head of the English church thereby establishing the Church of England . Then , beginning in 1536 , some 825 monasteries throughout England , Wales and Ireland were dissolved and Catholic churches were confiscated . When he died in 1547 all monasteries , friaries , convents of nuns and shrines were destroyed or dissolved . Mary I of England reunited the Church of England with Rome and , against the advice of the Spanish ambassador , persecuted Protestants during the Marian Persecutions . After some provocation , the following monarch , Elizabeth I enforced the Act of Supremacy . This prevented Catholics from becoming members of professions , holding public office , voting or educating their children . Executions of Catholics under Elizabeth I , who reigned much longer , then surpassed the Marian persecutions and persisted under subsequent English monarchs . Penal laws were also enacted in Ireland but were less effective than in England . In part because the Irish people associated Catholicism with nationhood and national identity , they resisted persistent English efforts to eliminate the Catholic Church . Melk
History of the Catholic Church
The Council of Trent generated a revival of religious life and Marian devotions in the Catholic Church . During the Reformation , the Church had defended its Marian beliefs against Protestant views . At the same time , the Catholic world was engaged in ongoing Ottoman Wars in Europe against Turkey which were fought and won under the auspices of the Virgin Mary . The victory at the Battle of Lepanto ( 1571 ) was accredited to her `` and signified the beginning of a strong resurgence of Marian devotions , focusing especially on Mary , the Queen of Heaven and Earth and her powerful role as mediatrix of many graces '' . The Colloquium Marianum , an elite group , and the Sodality of Our Lady based their activities on a virtuous life , free of cardinal sins .
Pope
During the 1st century of the Church ( c. 30 -- 130 ) , the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance . Clement I , at the end of the 1st century , wrote an epistle to the Church in Corinth intervening in a major dispute , and apologizing for not having taken action earlier . However , there are only a few other references of that time to recognition of the authoritative primacy of the Roman See outside of Rome . In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007 , theologians chosen by the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated : `` 41 . Both sides agree ... that Rome , as the Church that ' presides in love ' according to the phrase of St Ignatius of Antioch , occupied the first place in the taxis , and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs . They disagree , however , on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the Bishop of Rome as protos , a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium . ''
Russian Orthodox Church
Under Patriarch Aleksey , there were difficulties in the relationship between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Vatican , especially since 2002 , when Pope John Paul II created a Catholic diocesan structure for Russian territory . The leaders of the Russian Church saw this action as a throwback to prior attempts by the Vatican to proselytize the Russian Orthodox faithful to become Roman Catholic . This point of view was based upon the stance of the Russian Orthodox Church ( and the Eastern Orthodox Church ) that the Church of Rome is in schism , after breaking off from the Orthodox Church . The Roman Catholic Church , on the other hand , while acknowledging the primacy of the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia , believed that the small Roman Catholic minority in Russia , in continuous existence since at least the 18th century , should be served by a fully developed church hierarchy with a presence and status in Russia , just as the Russian Orthodox Church is present in other countries ( including constructing a cathedral in Rome , near the Vatican ) .
History of the Catholic Church
Doctrine was further refined by a series of influential theologians and teachers , known collectively as the Church Fathers . From the year 100 onward , proto - orthodox teachers like Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus defined Catholic teaching in stark opposition to other things , such as Gnosticism . In the first few centuries of its existence , the Church formed its teachings and traditions into a systematic whole under the influence of theological apologists such as Pope Clement I , Justin Martyr and Augustine of Hippo .
Western Roman Empire
Latin also influenced Germanic languages such as English and German . All surviving Celtic languages , Albanian , and such Slavic languages as Polish and Czech and even the non-Indo - European Hungarian . It survives in a `` purer '' form as the language of the Catholic Church ( the Mass was spoken exclusively in Latin until 1969 ) , and was used as a lingua franca between many nations . It remained the language of medicine , law , diplomacy ( most treaties were written in Latin ) , of intellectuals and scholarship , though it would see somewhat lesser usage with the growth of other lingua francas , such as English and French . The Latin alphabet was expanded due to the splits of I into I and J and of V into U , V , and in places ( especially Germanic languages and Polish ) W ; it is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today . Roman numerals continue to be used in some fields and situations , though they have been mostly replaced by Arabic numerals .
Pope
Popes instituted a Catholic Reformation ( 1560 -- 1648 ) , which addressed the challenges of the Protestant Reformation and instituted internal reforms . Pope Paul III initiated the Council of Trent ( 1545 -- 1563 ) , whose definitions of doctrine and whose reforms sealed the triumph of the papacy over elements in the church that sought conciliation with Protestants and opposed papal claims .
Kingdom of England
During the 1530s , Henry VIII overthrew the power of the Roman Catholic Church within the kingdom , replacing the pope as head of the English Church and seizing the Church 's lands , thereby facilitating the creation of a variation of Catholicism that became more Protestant over time . This had the effect of aligning England with Scotland , which also gradually adopted a Protestant religion , whereas the most important continental powers , France and Spain , remained Roman Catholic .
Middle Ages
The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is around 500 , with the date of 476 first used by Bruni . Later starting dates are sometimes used in the outer parts of Europe . For Europe as a whole , 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages , but there is no universally agreed upon end date . Depending on the context , events such as the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 , Christopher Columbus 's first voyage to the Americas in 1492 , or the Protestant Reformation in 1517 are sometimes used . English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period . For Spain , dates commonly used are the death of King Ferdinand II in 1516 , the death of Queen Isabella I of Castile in 1504 , or the conquest of Granada in 1492 . Historians from Romance - speaking countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts : an earlier `` High '' and later `` Low '' period . English - speaking historians , following their German counterparts , generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals : `` Early '' , `` High '' , and `` Late '' . In the 19th century , the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the `` Dark Ages '' , but with the adoption of these subdivisions , use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages , at least among historians .
Israel
The West Bank was occupied and annexed by Jordan in 1950 , following the Arab rejection of the UN decision to create two states in Palestine . Only Britain recognized this annexation and Jordan has since ceded its claim to the territory to the PLO . The population are mainly Palestinians , including refugees of the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War . From their occupation in 1967 until 1993 , the Palestinians living in these territories were under Israeli military administration . Since the Israel -- PLO letters of recognition , most of the Palestinian population and cities have been under the internal jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority , and only partial Israeli military control , although Israel has on several occasions redeployed its troops and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest . In response to increasing attacks during the Second Intifada , the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier . When completed , approximately 13 % of the barrier will be constructed on the Green Line or in Israel with 87 % inside the West Bank .
Israel
The area is also known as the Holy Land , being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism , Christianity , Islam and the Bahá'í Faith . From 1920 , the whole region was known as Palestine ( under British Mandate ) until the Israeli Declaration of Independence of 1948 . Through the centuries , the territory was known by a variety of other names , including Canaan , Djahy , Samaria , Judea , Yehud , Iudaea , Coele - Syria , Syria Palaestina and Southern Syria .
Israel
In 1470 , Isaac b . Meir Latif arrived from Italy and counted 150 Jewish families in Jerusalem . Thanks to Joseph Saragossi who had arrived in the closing years of the 15th century , Safed and its environs had developed into the largest concentration of Jews in Palestine . With the help of the Sephardic immigration from Spain , the Jewish population had increased to 10,000 by the early 16th century .
Crusades
As Nur al - Din 's territories became fragmented after his death , Saladin legitimised his ascent by positioning himself as a defender of Sunni Islam subservient to both the Caliph of Baghdad and Nur al - Din 's son and successor , As - Salih Ismail al - Malik . In the early years of his ascendency , he seized Damascus and much of Syria , but not Aleppo . After building a defensive force to resist a planned attack by the Kingdom of Jerusalem that never materialised , his first contest with the Latin Christians was not a success . His overconfidence and tactical errors led to defeat at the Battle of Montgisard . Despite this setback , Saladin established a domain stretching from the Nile to the Euphrates through a decade of politics , coercion , and low - level military action . After a life - threatening illness early in 1186 , he determined to make good on his propaganda as the champion of Islam , embarking on heightened campaigning against the Latin Christians . King Guy responded by raising the largest army that Jerusalem had ever put in the field . However , Saladin lured the force into inhospitable terrain without water supplies , surrounded the Latins with a superior force , and routed them at the Battle of Hattin . Saladin offered the Christians the option of remaining in peace under Islamic rule or taking advantage of 40 days ' grace to leave . As a result , much of Palestine quickly fell to Saladin including , after a short five - day siege , Jerusalem . According to Benedict of Peterborough , Pope Urban III died of deep sadness on 19 October 1187 on hearing of the defeat . His successor as Pope , Gregory VIII issued a papal bull titled Audita tremendi that proposed a further Crusade later named the Third Crusade to recapture Jerusalem . On 28 August 1189 King Guy of Jerusalem besieged the strategic city of Acre , only to be in turn besieged by Saladin . Both armies could be supplied by sea so a long stalemate commenced . Such were the deprivations of the Crusaders that at times they are thought to have resorted to cannibalism .
Military history of Australia during World War I
After the failure of widespread and determined Turkish counterattacks fought from 27 November to 1 December by the 7th Turkish Army they evacuated Jerusalem . Troops from the Australian Mounted Division were the first mounted troops to enter Jerusalem in December 1917 . Towards the end of December the British Empire forces at the Battle of Jaffa and the Defence of Jerusalem succeeded in pushing the Turkish armies north . A strong British defensive line was established which remained in place until mid September 1918 . The line stretched across from well north of the Nahr el Auja on the Mediterranean coast in the west to north and east of Jerusalem . It was extended during the middle of February 1918 when Jericho in the Jordan Valley was captured and the eastern end of the line was secured on the Dead Sea .
Indo-Roman trade relations
The Arabs , led by ' Amr ibn al - ' As , crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640 CE . This advance marked the beginning of the Islamic conquest of Egypt . The capture of Alexandria and the rest of the country , brought an end to 670 years of Roman trade with the subcontinent .
Old City (Jerusalem)
The Jewish quarter remained under Jordanian control until its recapture by Israeli paratroopers in the Six - Day War of 1967 . A few days later , Israeli authorities ordered the demolition of the adjacent Moroccan Quarter , forcibly relocating all of its inhabitants , in order to facilitate public access to the Western Wall .
World War I
In March and April 1917 , at the First and Second Battles of Gaza , German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force , which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani . At the end of October , the Sinai and Palestine Campaign resumed , when General Edmund Allenby 's XXth Corps , XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the Battle of Beersheba . Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge and , early in December , Jerusalem was captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem ( 1917 ) . About this time , Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army 's commander , replaced by Djevad Pasha , and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine , Erich von Falkenhayn , was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders .
Old City (Jerusalem)
Jerusalem יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ‎ القُدس ‎ History Timeline City of David Second Temple Period Middle Ages Kingdom of Jerusalem Mutasarrifate British Mandate Jordanian annexation Sieges 1000 BCE 925 BCE 721 BCE 597 BCE 587 BCE 70 614 637 1099 1187 1244 1917 1948 Places Synagogues Churches Mosques Old City East Jerusalem Zion Temple Temple Mount Western Wall Dome of the Rock Al - Aqsa Mosque Church of the Holy Sepulchre Hebrew University Jerusalem Biblical Zoo People Mayors Chief rabbis Grand Muftis Patriarchs Greek Orthodox Armenian Latin Melkite Anglican Bishop Kings Queens Demographic history Positions Names Religious significance Judaism Christianity Islam Temple Denial Jerusalem Law Jerusalem Day Quds Day Judaization Islamization Other topics Flag Emblem Municipality Jerusalem Development Authority Transport Archaeological excavations Jerusalem syndrome Songs `` And did those feet in ancient time '' Zion
Crusades
Following Innocent III 's Fourth Council of the Lateran , crusading resumed in 1217 against Saladin 's Ayyubid successors in Egypt and Syria for what is classified as the Fifth Crusade . Led by Andrew II of Hungary and Leopold VI , Duke of Austria , forces drawn mainly from Hungary , Germany , Flanders , and Frisia achieved little . Leopold and John of Brienne besieged and captured Damietta but an army advancing into Egypt was compelled to surrender . Damietta was returned and an eight - year truce agreed . Frederick II , Holy Roman Emperor , was excommunicated for breaking a treaty obligation with the Pope that required him to lead a crusade . However , since his marriage to Isabella II of Jerusalem gave him a claim to the kingdom of Jerusalem , he finally arrived at Acre in 1228 . Frederick was culturally the Christian monarch most empathetic to the Muslim world , having grown up in Sicily , with a Muslim bodyguard and even a harem . His great diplomatic skills meant that the Sixth Crusade was largely negotiation supported by force . A peace treaty was agreed upon , giving Latin Christians most of Jerusalem and a strip of territory that linked the city to Acre , while the Muslims controlled their sacred areas . In return , an alliance was made with Al - Kamil , Sultan of Egypt , against all of his enemies of whatever religion . The treaty and suspicions about Frederick 's ambitions in the region made him unpopular , and he was forced to return to his domains when they were attacked by Pope Gregory IX . While the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy were in conflict , it often fell to secular leaders to campaign . What is sometimes known as the Barons ' Crusade was led by Theobald I of Navarre and Richard of Cornwall ; it combined forceful diplomacy and the playing of rival Ayyubid factions off against each other . This brief renaissance for Frankish Jerusalem was illusory , being dependent on Ayyubid weakness and division following the death of Al - Kamil .
Israel
On 15 May 1947 , the General Assembly of the newly formed United Nations resolved that the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine be created `` to prepare for consideration at the next regular session of the Assembly a report on the question of Palestine . '' In the Report of the Committee dated 3 September 1947 to the General Assembly , the majority of the Committee in Chapter VI proposed a plan to replace the British Mandate with `` an independent Arab State , an independent Jewish State , and the City of Jerusalem ... the last to be under an International Trusteeship System . '' On 29 November 1947 , the General Assembly adopted Resolution 181 ( II ) recommending the adoption and implementation of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union . The plan attached to the resolution was essentially that proposed by the majority of the Committee in the report of 3 September . The Jewish Agency , which was the recognized representative of the Jewish community , accepted the plan . The Arab League and Arab Higher Committee of Palestine rejected it , and indicated that they would reject any other plan of partition . On the following day , 1 December 1947 , the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three - day strike , and Arab gangs began attacking Jewish targets . The Jews were initially on the defensive as civil war broke out , but in early April 1948 moved onto the offensive . The Arab Palestinian economy collapsed and 250,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled . David
Israel
Israel comprises a major part of the Holy Land , a region of significant importance to all Abrahamic religions -- Judaism , Christianity , Islam , Druze and Bahá'í Faith .
Ancient Egypt
Piye made various unsuccessful attempts to extend Egyptian influence in the Near East , then controlled by Assyria . In 720 BC , he sent an army in support of a rebellion against Assyria , which was taking place in Philistia and Gaza . However , Piye was defeated by Sargon II and the rebellion failed . In 711 BC , Piye again supported a revolt against Assyria by the Israelites of Ashdod and was once again defeated by the Assyrian king Sargon II . Subsequently , Piye was forced from the Near East .