vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Avocado
Commercial avocado production is limited to a small fraction of the vast genetic diversity in the species . Conservation of this genetic diversity has relied largely on field collection , as avocado seeds often do not survive storage in seed banks . This is problematic , as field preservation of living cultivars is expensive , and habitat loss threatens wild cultivars . More recently , an alternate method of conservation has been developed based on cryopreservation of avocado somatic embryos with reliable methods for somatic embryogenesis and reconstitution into living trees .
Kidney
The kidney is a very complex organ and mathematical modelling has been used to better understand kidney function at several scales , including fluid uptake and secretion .
Nuss procedure
With the use of stabilizers and PDS sutures , bar displacement rarely occurs . If these methods of bar fixation are not used , bar displacement may occur . This can be quite painful and requires some sort of intervention : either bar removal , or repositioning of the bar with some sort of bar fixation . Patients should understand prior to the surgery that if bar displacement occurs soon after surgery , a second surgery will be immediately required which is even a more difficult recovery as the patient is already weakened and in pain . High impact trauma , such as car accidents can dislodge the bars , causing extreme pain . This is the reason for the restriction on driving , because a sudden defensive maneuver , such as a jerk of the steering wheel , could dislodge the bar up to six weeks directly after the surgery .
Nuss procedure
Although this procedure is categorized as `` minimally invasive '' , post-operative pain control can be quite challenging , thus requiring multi-modal pain management including epidural anesthetics . Nurses who attend these patients post operation generally concur that this operation is one of the more difficult recoveries of any operations for children .
Cremation
Jewellery , such as necklaces , wrist - watches and rings , are ordinarily removed before cremation , and returned to the family . Several implanted devices are required to be removed . Pacemakers and other medical devices can cause surprisingly large , dangerous explosions .
Genetic recombination
B cells of the immune system perform genetic recombination , called immunoglobulin class switching . It is a biological mechanism that changes an antibody from one class to another , for example , from an isotype called IgM to an isotype called IgG .
Self-pollination
Self - pollination in the Madagascan orchid Bulbophyllum bicoloratum occurs by virtue of a rostellum that may have regained its stigmatic function as part of the distal median stigmatic lobe .
Stem cell
In more recent years , with the ability of scientists to isolate and culture embryonic stem cells , and with scientists ' growing ability to create stem cells using somatic cell nuclear transfer and techniques to create induced pluripotent stem cells , controversy has crept in , both related to abortion politics and to human cloning .
Bacterial conjugation
The F - plasmid is an episome ( a plasmid that can integrate itself into the bacterial chromosome by homologous recombination ) with a length of about 100 kb . It carries its own origin of replication , the oriV , and an origin of transfer , or oriT . There can only be one copy of the F - plasmid in a given bacterium , either free or integrated , and bacteria that possess a copy are called F - positive or F - plus ( denoted F ) . Cells that lack F plasmids are called F - negative or F - minus ( F ) and as such can function as recipient cells .
History of evolutionary thought
One important development in the study of microbial evolution came with the discovery in Japan in 1959 of horizontal gene transfer . This transfer of genetic material between different species of bacteria came to the attention of scientists because it played a major role in the spread of antibiotic resistance . More recently , as knowledge of genomes has continued to expand , it has been suggested that lateral transfer of genetic material has played an important role in the evolution of all organisms . These high levels of horizontal gene transfer have led to suggestions that the family tree of today 's organisms , the so - called `` tree of life , '' is more similar to an interconnected web or net .
Bird ringing
Another method is imping in a brightly colored false feather instead of a natural feather .
Cristina Yang
Cristina accepts the offer and interviews candidates for her replacement position at the hospital , including Maggie Pierce for new chief of cardio . Cristina transfers her hospital shares to Alex Karev and recommends he take over her seat on the board .
Finger
The somatosensory cortex representation of the hand is a dynamic reflection of the fingers on the external hand : in syndactyly people have a clubhand of webbed , shortened fingers . However , not only are the fingers of their hands fused , but the cortical maps of their individual fingers also form a club hand . The fingers can be surgically divided to make a more useful hand . Surgeons did this at the Institute of Reconstructive Plastic Surgery in New York to a 32 - year - old man with the initials O.G. . They touched O.G. 's fingers before and after surgery while using MRI brain scans . Before the surgery , the fingers mapped onto his brain were fused close together ; afterward , the maps of his individual fingers did indeed separate and take the layout corresponding to a normal hand .
Vector (molecular biology)
The manipulation of DNA is normally conducted on E. coli vectors , which contain elements necessary for their maintenance in E. coli . However , vectors may also have elements that allow them to be maintained in another organism such as yeast , plant or mammalian cells , and these vectors are called shuttle vectors . Such vectors have bacterial or viral elements which may be transferred to the non-bacterial host organism , however other vectors termed intragenic vectors have also been developed to avoid the transfer of any genetic material from an alien species .
Neuron
It is often possible for peripheral axons to regrow if they are severed , but a neuron can not be functionally replaced by one of another type ( Llinás ' law ) .
Germination
Seed quality deteriorates with age , and this is associated with accumulation of genome damage . During germination , repair processes are activated to deal with accumulated DNA damage . In particular , single - and double - strand breaks in DNA can be repaired . The DNA damage checkpoint kinase ATM has a major role in integrating progression through germination with repair responses to the DNA damages accumulated by the aged seed .
Vector (molecular biology)
The vector itself is generally a DNA sequence that consists of an insert ( transgene ) and a larger sequence that serves as the `` backbone '' of the vector . The purpose of a vector which transfers genetic information to another cell is typically to isolate , multiply , or express the insert in the target cell . All vectors may be used for cloning and are therefore cloning vectors , but there are also vectors designed specially for cloning , while others may be designed specifically for other purposes , such as transcription and protein expression . Vectors designed specifically for the expression of the transgene in the target cell are called expression vectors , and generally have a promoter sequence that drives expression of the transgene . Simpler vectors called transcription vectors are only capable of being transcribed but not translated : they can be replicated in a target cell but not expressed , unlike expression vectors . Transcription vectors are used to amplify their insert .
Insulin
In a private communication , Professor Arne Tiselius , former head of the Nobel Institute , expressed his personal opinion that Paulescu was equally worthy of the award in 1923 .
Plant breeding
Mentor pollen , inactivated pollen that is compatible with the female plant is mixed with pollen that would normally be incompatible . The mentor pollen has the effect of guiding the foreign pollen to the ovules . S1 generation , the product of self - fertilization .
Blood plasma
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Kidney
Kidneys are usually grilled or sautéed , but in more complex dishes they are stewed with a sauce that will improve their flavor . In many preparations , kidneys are combined with pieces of meat or liver , as in mixed grill . Dishes include the British steak and kidney pie , the Swedish hökarpanna ( pork and kidney stew ) , the French rognons de veau sauce moutarde ( veal kidneys in mustard sauce ) and the Spanish riñones al Jerez ( kidneys stewed in sherry sauce ) .
Ear
Causes of conductive hearing loss include an ear canal blocked by ear wax , ossicles that are fixed together or absent , or holes in the eardrum . Conductive hearing loss may also result from middle ear inflammation causing fluid build - up in the normally air - filled space , such as by otitis media . Tympanoplasty is the general name of the operation to repair the middle ear 's eardrum and ossicles . Grafts from muscle fascia are ordinarily used to rebuild an intact eardrum . Sometimes artificial ear bones are placed to substitute for damaged ones , or a disrupted ossicular chain is rebuilt in order to conduct sound effectively .
Bacterial conjugation
A cell culture that contains in its population cells with non-integrated F - plasmids usually also contains a few cells that have accidentally integrated their plasmids . It is these cells that are responsible for the low - frequency chromosomal gene transfers that occur in such cultures . Some strains of bacteria with an integrated F - plasmid can be isolated and grown in pure culture . Because such strains transfer chromosomal genes very efficiently they are called Hfr ( high frequency of recombination ) . The E. coli genome was originally mapped by interrupted mating experiments in which various Hfr cells in the process of conjugation were sheared from recipients after less than 100 minutes ( initially using a Waring blender ) . The genes that were transferred were then investigated .
Nuss procedure
Postoperative evaluation indicates a significant improvement in pulmonary function studies and a high proportion of patients report improvements in well being and an increase in exercise tolerance .
Kidney
In ancient Egypt , the kidneys , like the heart , were left inside the mummified bodies , unlike other organs which were removed . Comparing this to the biblical statements , and to drawings of human body with the heart and two kidneys portraying a set of scales for weighing justice , it seems that the Egyptian beliefs had also connected the kidneys with judgement and perhaps with moral decisions .
X chromosome
The X-chromosome has played a crucial role in the development of sexually selected characteristics for over 300 million years . During that time it has accumulated a disproportionate number of genes concerned with mental functions . For reasons that are not yet understood , there is an excess proportion of genes on the X-chromosome that are associated with the development of intelligence , with no obvious links to other significant biological functions . . In other words , a significant proportion of genes associated with intelligence are passed on to the male offspring from the maternal side and to the female offspring from either / both maternal and paternal side. There has also been interest in the possibility that haploinsufficiency for one or more X-linked genes has a specific impact on development of the Amygdala and its connections with cortical centres involved in social -- cognition processing or the ' social brain ' .
BRCA1
These mutations can be changes in one or a small number of DNA base pairs ( the building - blocks of DNA ) , and can be identified with PCR and DNA sequencing .
X chromosome
The X chromosome in humans spans more than 153 million base pairs ( the building material of DNA ) . It represents about 800 protein - coding genes compared to the Y chromosome containing about 70 genes , out of 20,000 - 25,000 total genes in the human genome . Each person usually has one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell . Females have two X chromosomes , whereas males have one X and one Y chromosome . Both males and females retain one of their mother 's X chromosomes , and females retain their second X chromosome from their father . Since the father retains his X chromosome from his mother , a human female has one X chromosome from her paternal grandmother ( father 's side ) , and one X chromosome from her mother . This inheritance pattern follows the Fibonacci numbers at a given ancestral depth .
Gene
Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence , leading to different variants , known as alleles , in the population . These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein , which cause different phenotypical traits . Usage of the term `` having a gene '' ( e.g. , `` good genes , '' `` hair colour gene '' ) typically refers to containing a different allele of the same , shared gene . Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles .
Gene
Collectively , this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology , which states that proteins are translated from RNA , which is transcribed from DNA . This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions , such as reverse transcription in retroviruses . The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics .
Gene
The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered . For example , regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions , and coding regions can be split into several exons . Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs . Therefore , a broad , modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable , genomic sequence which affect an organism 's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression .
Natural selection
Some traits are governed by only a single gene , but most traits are influenced by the interactions of many genes . A variation in one of the many genes that contributes to a trait may have only a small effect on the phenotype ; together , these genes can produce a continuum of possible phenotypic values .
Insulin
A variety of mutant alleles with changes in the coding region have been identified . A read - through gene , INS - IGF2 , overlaps with this gene at the 5 ' region and with the IGF2 gene at the 3 ' region .
Natural selection
Genetic linkage occurs when the loci of two alleles are in close proximity on a chromosome . During the formation of gametes , recombination reshuffles the alleles . The chance that such a reshuffle occurs between two alleles is inversely related to the distance between them . Selective sweeps occur when an allele becomes more common in a population as a result of positive selection . As the prevalence of one allele increases , closely linked alleles can also become more common by `` genetic hitchhiking '' , whether they are neutral or even slightly deleterious . A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected haplotype ( the allele and its neighbours ) are in essence the only ones that exist in the population . Selective sweeps can be detected by measuring linkage disequilibrium , or whether a given haplotype is overrepresented in the population . Since a selective sweep also results in selection of neighbouring alleles , the presence of a block of strong linkage disequilibrium might indicate a ' recent ' selective sweep near the centre of the block .
Gene
The theories developed in the early 20th century to integrate Mendelian genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern synthesis , a term introduced by Julian Huxley .
Evidence of common descent
Kirsten Bomblies et al. from the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology discovered that two genes passed down by each parent of the thale cress plant , Arabidopsis thaliana . When the genes are passed down , it ignites a reaction in the hybrid plant that turns its own immune system against it . In the parents , the genes were not detrimental , but they evolved separately to react defectively when combined . To test this , Bomblies crossed 280 genetically different strains of Arabidopsis in 861 distinct ways and found that 2 percent of the resulting hybrids were necrotic . Along with allocating the same indicators , the 20 plants also shared a comparable collection of genetic activity in a group of 1,080 genes . In almost all of the cases , Bomblies discovered that only two genes were required to cause the autoimmune response . Bomblies looked at one hybrid in detail and found that one of the two genes belonged to the NB - LRR class , a common group of disease resistance genes involved in recognizing new infections . When Bomblies removed the problematic gene , the hybrids developed normally . Over successive generations , these incompatibilities could create divisions between different plant strains , reducing their chances of successful mating and turning distinct strains into separate species . Tragopogon
CCR5
In the absence of selection , a single mutation would take an estimated 127,500 years to rise to a population frequency of 10 % . Estimates based on genetic recombination and mutation rates place the age of the allele between 1000 and 2000 years . This discrepancy is a signature of positive selection .
Evidence of common descent
Pseudogenes , also known as noncoding DNA , are extra DNA in a genome that do not get transcribed into RNA to synthesize proteins . Some of this noncoding DNA has known functions , but much of it has no known function and is called `` Junk DNA '' . This is an example of a vestige since replicating these genes uses energy , making it a waste in many cases . A pseudogene can be produced when a coding gene accumulates mutations that prevent it from being transcribed , making it non-functional . But since it is not transcribed , it may disappear without affecting fitness , unless it has provided some beneficial function as non-coding DNA . Non-functional pseudogenes may be passed on to later species , thereby labeling the later species as descended from the earlier species . Other
Gene
The vast majority of organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ) . DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits , each composed of : a five - carbon sugar ( 2 - deoxyribose ) , a phosphate group , and one of the four bases adenine , cytosine , guanine , and thymine .
Gene
The nucleotide sequence of a gene 's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code . Sets of three nucleotides , known as codons , each correspond to a specific amino acid . The principle that three sequential bases of DNA code for each amino acid was demonstrated in 1961 using frameshift mutations in the rIIB gene of bacteriophage T4 ( see Crick , Brenner et al. experiment ) .
German Shepherd
Musculoskeletal disorders are debilitating conditions that are often associated with genetic makeup , malnutrition , and stress - related events . Some breeds like the German shepherd , are predisposed to a variety of different skeletal disorders , including but not limited to : canine hip dysplasia , Cauda equina syndrome , and osteoarthritis . These conditions can be a result of poor breeding or induced by intense exercise and poor diet .
Evidence of common descent
All known extant ( surviving ) organisms are based on the same biochemical processes : genetic information encoded as nucleic acid ( DNA , or RNA for many viruses ) , transcribed into RNA , then translated into proteins ( that is , polymers of amino acids ) by highly conserved ribosomes . Perhaps most tellingly , the Genetic Code ( the `` translation table '' between DNA and amino acids ) is the same for almost every organism , meaning that a piece of DNA in a bacterium codes for the same amino acid as in a human cell . ATP is used as energy currency by all extant life . A deeper understanding of developmental biology shows that common morphology is , in fact , the product of shared genetic elements . For example , although camera - like eyes are believed to have evolved independently on many separate occasions , they share a common set of light - sensing proteins ( opsins ) , suggesting a common point of origin for all sighted creatures . Another noteworthy example is the familiar vertebrate body plan , whose structure is controlled by the homeobox ( Hox ) family of genes . DNA
Punnett square
More complicated crosses can be made by looking at two or more genes . The Punnett square works , however , only if the genes are independent of each other , which means that having a particular allele of gene `` A '' does not alter the probability of possessing an allele of gene `` B '' . This is equivalent to stating that the genes are not linked , so that the two genes do not tend to sort together during meiosis .
Mitochondrion
However , mitochondrial DNA reflects only the history of the females in a population and so may not represent the history of the population as a whole . This can be partially overcome by the use of paternal genetic sequences , such as the non-recombining region of the Y - chromosome . In a broader sense , only studies that also include nuclear DNA can provide a comprehensive evolutionary history of a population .
X chromosome
This syndrome results from an extra copy of the X chromosome in each of a female 's cells . Females with trisomy X have three X chromosomes , for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell . The average IQ of females with this syndrome is 90 , while the average IQ of unaffected siblings is 100 . Their stature on average is taller than normal females . They are fertile and their children do not inherit the condition . Females with more than one extra copy of the X chromosome ( 48 , XXXX syndrome or 49 , XXXXX syndrome ) have been identified , but these conditions are rare .
Evolutionary developmental biology
This process explains the accurate conservation of toolkit gene sequences , which has resulted in deep homology and functional equivalence of toolkit proteins in dissimilar animals ( seen , for example , when a mouse protein controls fruit fly development ) . The interactions of transcription factors and cis - regulatory elements , or of signalling proteins and receptors , become locked in through multiple usages , making almost any mutation deleterious and hence eliminated by natural selection .
Caenorhabditis elegans
C. elegans has been instrumental to identify the functions of genes implicated in Alzheimer 's disease , such as presenilin . Moreover , extensive research on C. elegans has identified RNA - binding proteins as essential factors during germline and early embryonic development .
X chromosome
The X chromosome is notably larger and has a more active euchromatin region than its Y chromosome counterpart . Further comparison of the X and Y reveal regions of homology between the two . However , the corresponding region in the Y appears far shorter and lacks regions that are conserved in the X throughout primate species , implying a genetic degeneration for Y in that region . Because males have only one X chromosome , they are more likely to have an X chromosome - related disease .
Gene
The genome is the total genetic material of an organism and includes both the genes and non-coding sequences .
X chromosome
It is theorized by Ross et al. 2005 and Ohno 1967 that the X chromosome is at least partially derived from the autosomal ( non-sex - related ) genome of other mammals , evidenced from interspecies genomic sequence alignments .