vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Sundarbans
The history of the area can be traced back to 200 -- 300 AD . A ruin of a city built by Chand Sadagar has been found in the Baghmara Forest Block . During the Mughal period , the Mughal Kings leased the forests of the Sundarbans to nearby residents . Many criminals took refuge in the Sundarbans from the advancing armies of Emperor Akbar . Many have been known to be attacked by tigers . Many of the buildings which were built by them later fell to hands of Portuguese pirates , salt smugglers and dacoits in the 17th century . Evidence of the fact can be traced from the ruins at Netidhopani and other places scattered all over Sundarbans . The legal status of the forests underwent a series of changes , including the distinction of being the first mangrove forest in the world to be brought under scientific management . The area was mapped first in Persian , by the Surveyor General as early as 1764 following soon after proprietary rights were obtained from the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II by the British East India Company in 1757 . Systematic management of this forest tract started in the 1860s after the establishment of a Forest Department in the Province of Bengal , in British India . The management was entirely designed to extract whatever treasures were available , but labour and lower management mostly were staffed by locals , as the British had no expertise or adaptation experience in mangrove forests .
History of the United Kingdom
A study of a slum area in Leeds ( which was due for demolition ) found that 74 % of the households had a T.V. , 41 % a vacuum , and 38 % a washing machine . In another slum area , St Mary 's in Oldham ( where in 1970 few of the houses had fixed baths or a hot water supply and half shared outside toilets ) , 67 % of the houses were rated as comfortably furnished and a further 24 % furnished luxuriously , with smart modern furniture , deep pile carpeting , and decorations .
Urban renewal
The London County Council was created in 1889 as the municipal authority in the County of London and in 1890 the Old Nichol in the East End of London was declared a slum and the Council authorized its clearance and the rebuilding of an area of some 15 - acre ( 61,000 m ) , including the Nichol and Snow estates , and a small piece on the Shoreditch side of Boundary Street , formally Cock Lane . The slum clearance began in 1891 and included 730 houses inhabited by 5,719 people . The LCC architects designed 21 and Rowland Plumbe two of 23 blocks containing between 10 and 85 tenements each . A total of 1,069 tenements , mostly two or three - roomed , were planned to accommodate 5,524 persons . The project was hailed as setting `` new aesthetic standards for housing the working classes '' and included a new laundry , 188 shops , and 77 workshops . Churches and schools were preserved . Building for the project began in 1893 and it was opened by the Prince of Wales in 1900 . Other such schemes in the 1880s , where newly cleared sites were sold on to developers , included Whitechapel , Wild Street , Whitecross Street and Clerkenwell .
History of the United Kingdom
Two major programs that permanently expanded the welfare state passed in 1919 and 1920 with surprisingly little debate , even as the Conservatives dominated parliament . The Housing , Town Planning , &c . Act 1919 set up a system of government housing that followed the 1918 campaign promises of `` homes fit for heroes . '' This `` Addison Act '' , named after the first Minister of Health , Christopher Addison , required local authorities to survey their housing needs , and start building houses to replace slums . The treasury subsidized the low rents . In England and Wales , 214,000 houses were built , and the Ministry of Health became largely a ministry of housing .
Karachi
British Karachi was divided between the `` New Town '' and the `` Old Town , '' with British investments focused primarily in the New Town . The Old Town was a largely unplanned neighbourhood which housed most of the city 's indigenous residents , and had no access to sewerage systems , electricity , and water . The New Town was subdivided into residential , commercial , and military areas . Given the strategic value of the city , the British developed the Karachi Cantonment as a military garrison in the New Town in order to aid the British war effort in the First Anglo - Afghan War .
Germ theory of disease
In the 1870s , Joseph Lister was instrumental in developing practical applications of the germ theory of disease with respect to sanitation in medical settings and aseptic surgical techniques -- partly through the use of carbolic acid ( phenol ) as an antiseptic .
History of United States prison systems
Communities began to think about their town as something less than the sum of all its inhabitants during this period , and the notion of a distinct criminal class began to materialize . In the Philadelphia of the 1780s , for example , city authorities worried about the proliferation of taverns on the outskirts of the city , `` sites of an alternative , interracial , lower - class culture '' that was , in the words of one observer , `` the very root of vice . '' In Boston , a higher urban crime rate led to the creation of a specialized , urban court in 1800 .
River Mersey
The Mersey Railway completed its tunnel through the estuary 's underlying Triassic sandstone using manual labour in 1885 . Intended as a pneumatic railway , the company opted for steam trains from its opening until it was electrified in 1903 . The centre of the running tunnel is between 30 feet ( 9.1 m ) and 70 feet ( 21.3 m ) below the river bed . The railway is now part of the Merseyrail network . Two road tunnels pass under the estuary from Liverpool . The Queensway Tunnel opened in 1934 connecting the city to Birkenhead , and the Kingsway Tunnel , opened in 1971 , connects with Wallasey .
River Thames
The Victorian era was one of imaginative engineering . The coming of the railways added railway bridges to the earlier road bridges and also reduced commercial activity on the river . However , sporting and leisure use increased with the establishment of regattas such as Henley and the Boat Race . On 3 September 1878 , one of the worst river disasters in England took place , when the crowded pleasure boat Princess Alice collided with the Bywell Castle , killing over 640 people .
Industrial Revolution
A large exposé literature grew up condemning the unhealthy conditions . By far the most famous publication was by one of the founders of the Socialist movement , The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns , where people lived in crude shanties and shacks , some not completely enclosed , some with dirt floors . These shanty towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings . There were no sanitary facilities . Population density was extremely high . Not everyone lived in such poor conditions . The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of businessmen , clerks , foremen and engineers who lived in much better conditions .
Prague
In 1784 , under Joseph II , the four municipalities of Malá Strana , Nové Město , Staré Město , and Hradčany were merged into a single entity . The Jewish district , called Josefov , was included only in 1850 . The Industrial Revolution had a strong effect in Prague , as factories could take advantage of the coal mines and ironworks of the nearby region . A first suburb , Karlín , was created in 1817 , and twenty years later the population exceeded 100,000 .
Windsor Castle
Edward VII came to the throne in 1901 and immediately set about modernising Windsor Castle with `` enthusiasm and zest '' . Many of the rooms in the Upper Ward were de-cluttered and redecorated for the first time in many years , with Edward `` peering into cabinets ; ransacking drawers ; clearing rooms formerly used by the Prince Consort and not touched since his death ; dispatching case - loads of relics and ornaments to a special room in the Round Tower ... destroying statues and busts of John Brown ... throwing out hundreds of ' rubbishy old coloured photographs ' ... ( and ) rearranging pictures '' . Electric lighting was added to more rooms , along with central heating ; telephone lines were installed , along with garages for the newly invented automobiles . The marathon was run from Windsor Castle at the 1908 Olympics , and in 1911 the pioneering aviator Thomas Sopwith landed an aircraft at the castle for the first time .
History of the United Kingdom
As a leisure , literacy , wealth , ease of travel , and a broadened sense of community grew in Britain from the late 19th century onward , there was more time and interest in leisure activities of all sorts , on the part of all classes . The annual vacation became common . Tourists flocked to seaside resorts ; Blackpool hosted 7 million visitors a year in the 1930s . Organized leisure was primarily a male activity , with middle - class women allowed in at the margins . There were class differences with upper - class clubs , and working - class and middle - class pubs . Heavy drinking declined ; there were more competitions that attracted heavy betting . Participation in sports and all sorts of leisure activities increased for the average Englishman , and his interest in spectator sports increased dramatically . By the 1920s the cinema and radio attracted all classes , ages and genders in very large numbers , with young women taking the lead . Working - class men wearing flat caps and eating fish and chips were boisterous football spectators . They sang along at the music hall , fancied their pigeons , gambled on horse racing , and took the family to Blackpool in summer . The cartoon realization of this life style Andy Capp began in 1957 . Political activists complained that working - class leisure diverted men away from revolutionary agitation . Cinema
Gilded Age
Rapid outward expansion required longer journeys to work and shopping for the middle class office workers and housewives . The working - class generally did not own automobiles until after 1945 ; they typically walked to nearby factories and patronized small neighborhood stores . The middle class demanded a better transportation system . Slow horse - drawn streetcars and faster electric trolleys were the rage in the 1880s . In the horse - drawn era , streets were unpaved and covered with dirt or gravel . However , this produced uneven wear , opened new hazards for pedestrians , and made for dangerous potholes for bicycles and for motor vehicles . Manhattan alone had 130,000 horses in 1900 , pulling streetcars , delivery wagons , and private carriages , and leaving their waste behind . They were not fast , and pedestrians could dodge and scramble their way across the crowded streets . In small towns people mostly walked to their destination so they continued to rely on dirt and gravel into the 1920s . Larger cities had much more complex transportation needs . They wanted better streets , so they paved them with wood or granite blocks . In 1890 , a third of Chicago 's 2000 miles of streets were paved , chiefly with wooden blocks , which gave better traction than mud . Brick surfacing was a good compromise , but even better was asphalt paving . With London and Paris as models , Washington laid 400,000 square yards of asphalt paving by 1882 , and served as a model for Buffalo , Philadelphia , and elsewhere . By the end of the century , American cities boasted 30 million square yards of asphalt paving , followed by brick construction . Street - level electric trolleys moved at 12 miles per hour , and became the main transportation service for middle class shoppers and office workers . Big - city streets became paths for faster and larger and more dangerous vehicles , the pedestrians beware . In the largest cities , street railways were elevated , which increased their speed and lessened their dangers . Boston built the first subway in the 1890s followed by New York a decade later .
Coal
No evidence exists of the product being of great importance in Britain before the High Middle Ages , after about AD 1000 . Mineral coal came to be referred to as `` seacoal '' in the 13th century ; the wharf where the material arrived in London was known as Seacoal Lane , so identified in a charter of King Henry III granted in 1253 . Initially , the name was given because much coal was found on the shore , having fallen from the exposed coal seams on cliffs above or washed out of underwater coal outcrops , but by the time of Henry VIII , it was understood to derive from the way it was carried to London by sea . In 1257 -- 1259 , coal from Newcastle upon Tyne was shipped to London for the smiths and lime - burners building Westminster Abbey . Seacoal Lane and Newcastle Lane , where coal was unloaded at wharves along the River Fleet , are still in existence . ( See Industrial processes below for modern uses of the term . )
Technological and industrial history of the United States
The period between 1865 and 1920 was marked by the increasing concentration of people , political power , and economic activity in urban areas . In 1860 , there were nine cities with populations over 100,000 and by 1910 there were fifty . These new large cities were not coastal port cities ( like New York , Boston , and Philadelphia ) but laid inland along new transportation routes ( like Denver , Chicago , and Cleveland ) . The first twelve presidents of the United States had all been born into farming communities , but between 1865 and 1912 the Presidency was filled by men with backgrounds of representing businesses and cities .
London Bridge
The bridge was some 26 feet ( 8 m ) wide , and about 800 -- 900 feet ( 240 -- 270 m ) long , supported by 19 irregularly spaced arches , founded on starlings set into the river - bed . It had a drawbridge to allow for the passage of tall ships , and defensive gatehouses at both ends . By 1358 , it was already crowded , with 138 shops . At least one two - entranced , multi-seated public latrine overhung the bridge parapets and discharged into the river below ; so did an unknown number of private latrines reserved for Bridge householders or shopkeepers and bridge officials . In 1382 -- 83 a new latrine was made ( or an old one replaced ) at considerable cost , at the northern end of the bridge .
History of the United Kingdom
The provision of household amenities steadily improved during the second half of the twentieth century . From 1971 to 1983 , households having the sole use of a fixed bath or shower rose from 88 % to 97 % , and those with an internal WC from 87 % to 97 % . In addition , the number of households with central heating almost doubled during that same period , from 34 % to 64 % . By 1983 , 94 % of all households had a refrigerator , 81 % a colour television , 80 % a washing machine , 57 % a deep freezer , and 28 % a tumble - drier .
History of United States prison systems
The first modern Southern police forces emerged between 1845 and the Civil War in large part due to the class - based tensions that developed in Southern cities . Some Southern cities -- notably New Orleans and Charleston -- experimented with police forces even earlier in the eighteenth century as a means of controlling their large urban slave populations . But most Southern cities relied on volunteer night - watch forces prior to mid-century . The transition to uniformed police forces was not especially smooth : Major political opposition arose as a result of the perceived corruption , inefficiency , and threat to individual liberty posed by the new police .
History of United States prison systems
When control of the Virginia Company passed to Sir Edwin Sandys in 1618 , efforts to bring large numbers of settlers to the New World against their will gained traction alongside less coercive measures like indentured servitude . Vagrancy statutes began to provide for penal transportation to the American colonies as an alternative to capital punishment in this period , during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I . At the same time , the legal definition of `` vagrancy '' was greatly expanded . Under
History of United States prison systems
Soon , a royal commissions endorsed the notion that any felon -- except those convicted of murder , witchcraft , burglary , or rape -- could legally be transported to Virginia or the West Indies to work as a plantation servant . Sandys also proposed sending maids to Jamestown as `` breeders , '' whose costs of passage could be paid for by the planters who took them on as `` wives . '' Soon , over sixty such women had made the passage to Virginia , and more followed . King James I 's royal administration also sent `` vagrant '' children to the New World as servants . a letter in the Virginia Company 's records suggests that as many as 1,500 children were sent to Virginia between 1619 and 1617 . By 1619 , African prisoners were brought to Jamestown and sold as slaves as well , marking England 's entry into the Atlantic slave trade .
Gilded Age
The engineers became model citizens , bringing their can - do spirit and their systematic work effort to all phases of the economy as well as local and national government . By 1910 , major cities were building magnificent palatial railroad stations , such as the Pennsylvania Station in New York City , and the Union Station in Washington DC .
Industrial Revolution
Steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high pressure steam engines after the expiration of the Boulton and Watt patent in 1800 . High pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere , doing away with the condenser and cooling water . They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines . A few of these early locomotives were used in mines . Steam - hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 .
Germ theory of disease
In 1855 he published a second edition of his article , documenting his more elaborate investigation of the effect of the water supply in the Soho , London epidemic of 1854 .
Hyde Park, London
The park was established by Henry VIII in 1536 when he took the land from Westminster Abbey and used it as a hunting ground . It opened to the public in 1637 and quickly became popular , particularly for May Day parades . Major improvements occurred in the early 18th century under the direction of Queen Caroline . Several duels took place in Hyde Park during this time , often involving members of the nobility . The Great Exhibition of 1851 was held in the park , for which The Crystal Palace , designed by Joseph Paxton , was erected .
Hersheypark
The park has had several pools , the first located next to Spring Creek in Comet Hollow , the area themed as The Hollow as of 2018 . The first pool operated from 1908 until 1911 , which included a toboggan - slide ride called Shoot - the - Chutes . This pool was replaced by a cement pool which opened in 1912 and remained in use through the 1928 season .
History of United States prison systems
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries , several programs experimented with sentencing various petty criminals to the workhouse . Many petty criminals were sentenced to the workhouse by way of the vagrancy laws even before these efforts . A commission appointed by King James I in 1622 to reprieve felons condemned to death with banishment to the American colonies was also given authority to sentence offenders `` to toyle in some such heavie and painful manuall workes and labors here at home and be kept in chains in the house of correction or other places , '' until the King or his ministers decided otherwise . Within three years , a growing body of laws authorized incarceration in the workhouse for specifically enumerated petty crimes .
Water in California
1917 -- 21 1922 -- 26 1928 -- 37 1943 -- 51 1959 -- 62 1976 -- 77 1987 -- 92 2007 -- 09 2012 -- 15
History of Fort Worth, Texas
In 1902 the Swift and Armour meat packing companies set up facilities in Fort Worth . Their arrival meant employment for thousands of workers , greatly increasing the prosperity of the town . As a result , the town 's population tripled in size from 26,600 people to more than 73,000 , and it attracted migrants from rural areas , as well as immigrants . Texas had a segregated society , and often excluded blacks from the better jobs in new industries such as meat packing . The Fort Worth Gas Company was created in 1909 and began serving almost 4,000 customers via a 90 miles ( 140 km ) pipeline from Petrolia , Texas .
History of the United Kingdom
For leisure or work , for getting or spending , England was a better country in 1879 than in 1815 . The scales were less weighted against the weak , against women and children , and against the poor . There was greater movement , and less of the fatalism of an earlier age . The public conscience was more instructed , and the content of liberty was being widened to include something more than freedom from political constraint ... Yet England in 1871 was by no means an earthly paradise . The housing and conditions of life of the working class in town & country were still a disgrace to an age of plenty .
Chennai
The Corporation of Chennai provides civic services to the city . Garbage collection in some of the wards is contracted to Ramky Enviro Engineers Limited , a private company , while the Corporation looks after the removal and processing of solid waste in the others , with a superintendent engineer managing the channels . As of 2011 , 8 transfer stations exist within the city for treating the waste . Garbage is dumped in two dump - yards in the city -- One in Kodungaiyur and another in Perungudi , with a major portion of the latter covering the Pallikaranai marshland . In market areas , the conservancy work is done during the night . Electricity is distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board . Fire services are handled by the Tamil Nadu Fire and Rescue Services . The city , along with the suburbs , has 33 operating fire stations .
Nile
European involvement in Egypt goes back to the time of Napoleon . Laird Shipyard of Liverpool sent an iron steamer to the Nile in the 1830s . With the completion of the Suez Canal and the British takeover of Egypt in the 1870s , more British river steamers followed .
Law
While military organisations have existed as long as government itself , the idea of a standing police force is a relatively modern concept . For example , Medieval England 's system of traveling criminal courts , or assizes , used show trials and public executions to instill communities with fear to maintain control . The first modern police were probably those in 17th - century Paris , in the court of Louis XIV , although the Paris Prefecture of Police claim they were the world 's first uniformed policemen .
Manhattan Project
Work began on 221 - T and 221 - U in January 1944 , with the former completed in September and the latter in December . The 221 - B building followed in March 1945 . Because of the high levels of radioactivity involved , all work in the separation plants had to be conducted by remote control using closed - circuit television , something unheard of in 1943 . Maintenance was carried out with the aid of an overhead crane and specially designed tools . The 224 buildings were smaller because they had less material to process , and it was less radioactive . The 224 - T and 224 - U buildings were completed on 8 October 1944 , and 224 - B followed on 10 February 1945 . The purification methods that were eventually used in 231 - W were still unknown when construction commenced on 8 April 1944 , but the plant was complete and the methods were selected by the end of the year . On 5 February 1945 , Matthias hand - delivered the first shipment of 80 g of 95 % - pure plutonium nitrate to a Los Alamos courier in Los Angeles .