vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Culture
The sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in society . For sociologist Georg Simmel ( 1858 -- 1918 ) , culture referred to `` the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history . '' As such , culture in the sociological field can be defined as the ways of thinking , the ways of acting , and the material objects that together shape a people 's way of life . Culture can be any of two types , non-material culture or material culture . Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture , including values , belief systems , rules , norms , morals , language , organizations , and institutions , while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made . The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies , but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture , past or present .
Indo-Roman trade relations
The west coast of present - day India is mentioned frequently in literature , such as the Periplus Maris Erythraei . The area was noted for its strong tidal currents , turbulent waves and rocky sea - beds were dangerous for shipping experience . The anchors of ships would be caught by the waves and quickly detach to capsize the vessel or cause a shipwreck . Stone anchors have been observed near Bet Dwarka , an island situated in the Gulf of Kachchh , from ship lost at sea . Onshore and offshore explorations have been carried out around Bet Dwarka Island since 1983 . The finds discovered include lead and stone objects buried in sediment and considered to be anchors due to their axial holes . Though it is unlikely that the remains of the shipwreck 's hull survived , offshore explorations in 2000 and 2001 have yielded seven differently - sized amphoras , two lead anchors , forty - two stone anchors of different types , a supply of potsherds , and a circular lead ingot . The remains of the seven amphoras were of a thick , coarse fabric with a rough surface , which was used for exporting wine and olive oil from the Roman Empire . Archeologists have concluded that most of these were wine amphoras , since olive oil was in less demand in the subcontinent . A
Mesolithic
In the archaeology of India , the Mesolithic , dated roughly between 12,000 and 8,000 BP , remains a concept in use .
Cradle of civilization
The discovery of quipu , string - based recording devices , at Caral can be understood as a form of `` proto - writing '' at Norte Chico . However , the exact use of quipu in this and later Andean cultures has been widely debated . Additionally , the image of the Staff God has been found on a gourd dated to 2250 BC . The Staff God is a major deity of later Andean cultures . The presence of quipu and the commonality of religious symbols suggests a cultural link between Norte Chico and later Andean cultures .
Mycenaean Greece
In the 8th century BC , after the end of the so - called Greek Dark Ages , Greece emerged with a network of myths and legends , the greatest of all being that of the Trojan Epic Cycle . In general , the Greeks of classical antiquity idealized the Mycenaean period as a glorious period of heroes , closeness of the gods and material wealth . The legends of Homer 's Epics were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the 19th century that scholars began to question Homer 's historicity . At this time , German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann undertook the first modern archaeological excavations in Greece at the site of Mycenae in 1876 . Thus , Schliemann set out to prove the historical accuracy of the Iliad by identifying the places described by Homer .
Maya civilization
Warfare was prevalent in the Maya world . Military campaigns were launched for a variety of reasons , including the control of trade routes and tribute , raids to take captives , scaling up to the complete destruction of an enemy state . Little is known about Maya military organization , logistics , or training . Warfare is depicted in Maya art from the Classic period , and wars and victories are mentioned in hieroglyphic inscriptions . Unfortunately , the inscriptions do not provide information upon the causes of war , or the form it took . In the 8th -- 9th centuries , intensive warfare resulted in the collapse of the kingdoms of the Petexbatún region of western Petén . The rapid abandonment of Aguateca by its inhabitants has provided a rare opportunity to examine the remains of Maya weaponry in situ . Aguateca was stormed by unknown enemies around 810 AD , who overcame its formidable defences and burned the royal palace . The elite inhabitants of the city either fled or were captured , and never returned to collect their abandoned property . The inhabitants of the periphery abandoned the site soon after . This is an example of intensive warfare carried out by an enemy in order to completely eliminate a Maya state , rather than subjugate it . Research at Aguateca indicated that Classic period warriors were primarily members of the elite .
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Archaeological evidence of the rebellion incident exists . The remains of about 70 men , women , and adolescents were found in the path of a planned expressway near Lima in 2007 . Forensic evidence suggests that the natives were killed by European weapons , probably during the uprising in 1536 .
Jarmo
The excavations exposed a small village , covering an area of 12,000 to 16,000 m2 , and which has been dated ( by carbon - 14 ) to 7090 BC , for the oldest levels , to 4950 BC for the most recent . The entire site consists of twelve levels . Jarmo appears to be two older , permanent Neolithic settlements and , approximately , contemporary with Jericho or the Neolithic stage of Shanidar . The high point is likely to have been between 6,200 and 5,800 BC . This small village consisted of some twenty five houses , with adobe walls and sun - dried mud roofs , which rested on stone foundations , with a simple floor plan dug from the earth . These dwellings were frequently repaired or rebuilt . In all , about 150 people lived in the village , which was clearly a permanent settlement . In the earlier phases there is a preponderance of objects made from stone , silex - using older styles - and obsidian . The use of this latter material , obtained from the area of Lake Van , 200 miles away , suggests that some form of organized trade already existed , as does the presence of ornamental shells from the Persian Gulf . In the oldest level baskets have been found , waterproofed with pitch , which is readily available in the area .
Cahokia
During excavation of Mound 72 , a ridge - top burial mound south of main urban precinct , archaeologists found the remains of a man in his 40s who was probably an important Cahokian ruler . The man was buried on a bed of more than 20,000 marine - shell disc beads arranged in the shape of a falcon , with the bird 's head appearing beneath and beside the man 's head , and its wings and tail beneath his arms and legs .
Çatalhöyük
Professor Lynn Meskell explained that while the original excavations had found only 200 figures , the new excavations had uncovered 2,000 figurines of which most were animals , with less than 5 % of the figurines women .
Written Chinese
In 2003 , some 11 isolated symbols carved on tortoise shells were found at Jiahu , an archaeological site in the Henan province of China , some bearing a striking resemblance to certain modern characters , such as 目 mù `` eye '' . Since the Jiahu site dates from about 6600 BC , it predates the earliest confirmed Chinese writing by more than 5,000 years . Dr Garman Harbottle , of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York , US , who headed a team of archaeologists at the University of Science and Technology of China , in Anhui province , has suggested that these symbols were precursors of Chinese writing , but Professor David Keightley , of the University of California , Berkeley , US whose field of expertise is the origins of Chinese civilization in the Neolithic and early Bronze Ages , employing archaeological and inscriptional evidence , suggests that the time gap is too great for a connection . Left
Ashoka
Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources . In particular , the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ( ' Story of Ashoka ' ) , written in the 2nd century , and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka ( the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa ) provide most of the currently known information about Ashoka . Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Ashoka , whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts ( Priyadarshi -- ' He who regards everyone with affection ' ) as a title or additional name of Ashoka Maurya . Architectural remains of his period have been found at Kumhrar , Patna , which include an 80 - pillar hypostyle hall .
History of West Africa
Material relics were found in different Serer countries , most of which refer to the past origins of Serer families , villages and Serer Kingdoms , some of these Serer relics included gold , silver and metals .
Pottery of ancient Greece
Greek terracotta figurines were another important type of pottery , initially mostly religious , but increasingly representing purely decorative subjects . The so - called Tanagra figurines , in fact made elsewhere as well , are one of the most important types . Earlier figurines were usually votive offerings at temples .
Atlantic Ocean
This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean . 50 ka - old , deeply stratified shell middens found in Ysterfontein on the western coast of South Africa are associated with the Middle Stone Age ( MSA ) . The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than those of later generations . While their middens resemble 12 -- 11 ka - old Late Stone Age ( LSA ) middens found on every inhabited continent , the 50 -- 45 ka - old Enkapune Ya Muto in Kenya probably represents the oldest traces of the first modern humans to disperse out of Africa . Excavation
Çatalhöyük
Estonian folklorist Uku Masing has suggested as early as in 1976 , that Çatalhöyük was probably a hunting and gathering religion and the Mother Goddess figurine did not represent a female deity . He implied that perhaps a longer period of time was needed in order to develop symbols for agricultural rites . His theory was developed in the paper `` Some remarks on the mythology of the people of Catal Hüyük '' .
Mycenaean Greece
Contrary to popular belief , some Mycenaean representative buildings already featured roofs made of fired tiles , as in Gla and Midea .
Pottery of ancient Greece
Vases of the protogeometrical period ( c. 1050 -- 900 BC ) represent the return of craft production after the collapse of the Mycenaean Palace culture and the ensuing Greek dark ages . It is one of the few modes of artistic expression besides jewelry in this period since the sculpture , monumental architecture and mural painting of this era are unknown to us . By 1050 BC life in the Greek peninsula seems to have become sufficiently settled to allow a marked improvement in the production of earthenware . The style is confined to the rendering of circles , triangles , wavy lines and arcs , but placed with evident consideration and notable dexterity , probably aided by compass ' and multiple brushes . The site of Lefkandi is one of our most important sources of ceramics from this period where a cache of grave goods has been found giving evidence of a distinctive Euboian protogeometric style which lasted into the early 8th century . Geometric
Çatalhöyük
Selçuk University British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara Institute of Archaeology , University College London Cardiff University Stanford University World Monuments Fund Turkish Cultural Foundation Istanbul University University of California , Berkeley Polish Heritage Council Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań University at Buffalo Global Heritage Fund Yapi Kredi Boeing Shell Merko Thames Water National Geographic Society American Embassy in Ankara University of York University of Reading
Ancient Greek architecture
The art history of the Hellenic era is generally subdivided into four periods : the Protogeometric ( 1100 -- 900 BC ) , the Geometric ( 900 -- 700 BC ) , the Archaic ( 700 -- 500 BC ) and the Classical ( 500 -- 323 BC ) with sculpture being further divided into Severe Classical , High Classical and Late Classical . The first signs of the particular artistic character that defines ancient Greek architecture are to be seen in the pottery of the Dorian Greeks from the 10th century BC . Already at this period it is created with a sense of proportion , symmetry and balance not apparent in similar pottery from Crete and Mycenae . The decoration is precisely geometric , and ordered neatly into zones on defined areas of each vessel . These qualities were to manifest themselves not only through a millennium of Greek pottery making , but also in the architecture that was to emerge in the 6th century . The major development that occurred was in the growing use of the human figure as the major decorative motif , and the increasing surety with which humanity , its mythology , activities and passions were depicted .
Maya civilization
Maya chronology Period Division Dates Archaic 8000 -- 2000 BC Preclassic Early Preclassic 2000 -- 1000 BC Middle Preclassic Early Middle Preclassic 1000 -- 600 BC Late Middle Preclassic 600 -- 350 BC Late Preclassic Early Late Preclassic 350 -- 1 BC Late Late Preclassic 1 BC -- AD 159 Terminal Preclassic AD 159 -- 250 Classic Early Classic AD 250 -- 550 Late Classic AD 550 -- 830 Terminal Classic AD 830 -- 950 Postclassic Early Postclassic AD 950 -- 1200 Late Postclassic AD 1200 -- 1539 Contact period AD 1511 -- 1697
Carthage
Accordingly , the Greek author and compiler Diodorus Siculus ( fl . 1st century BCE ) , who enjoyed access to ancient writings later lost , and on which he based most of his writings , described agricultural land near the city of Carthage circa 310 BC :
Islamic architecture
The existence of a linear development within the Islamic architecture ; the existence of an inter - and intracultural hierarchy of styles ; questions of cultural authenticity and its delineation .
Southern United States
The first well - dated evidence of human occupation in the south United States occurs around 9500 BC with the appearance of the earliest documented Americans , who are now referred to as Paleo - Indians . Paleoindians were hunter - gathers that roamed in bands and frequently hunted megafauna . Several cultural stages , such as Archaic ( ca . 8000 -- 1000 BC ) and the Woodland ( ca . 1000 BC -- AD 1000 ) , preceded what the Europeans found at the end of the 15th century -- the Mississippian culture .
Pottery of ancient Greece
The first generation of red - figure painters worked in both red - and black - figure as well as other methods including Six 's technique and white - ground ; the latter was developed at the same time as red - figure . However , within twenty years , experimentation had given way to specialization as seen in the vases of the Pioneer Group , whose figural work was exclusively in red - figure , though they retained the use of black - figure for some early floral ornamentation . The shared values and goals of The Pioneers such as Euphronios and Euthymides signal that they were something approaching a self - conscious movement , though they left behind no testament other than their own work . John Boardman said of the research on their work that `` the reconstruction of their careers , common purpose , even rivalries , can be taken as an archaeological triumph '' This
History of India
The `` subaltern school '' , was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan Prakash . It focuses attention away from the elites and politicians to `` history from below '' , looking at the peasants using folklore , poetry , riddles , proverbs , songs , oral history and methods inspired by anthropology . It focuses on the colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasises caste and downplays class , to the annoyance of the Marxist school .
Indirect rule
While making more subtle distinctions , this model of direct versus indirect rule was dominant in academia from the 1930s until the 1970s .
Parent material
Parent material is the underlying geological material ( generally bedrock or a superficial or drift deposit ) in which soil horizons form . Soils typically inherit a great deal of structure and minerals from their parent material , and , as such , are often classified based upon their contents of consolidated or unconsolidated mineral material that has undergone some degree of physical or chemical weathering and the mode by which the materials were most recently transported .
Mesoamerican ballgame
The sizes or weights of the balls actually used in the ballgame are not known with any certainty . While several dozen ancient balls have been recovered , they were originally laid down as offerings in a sacrificial bog or spring , and there is no evidence that any of these were used in the ballgame . In fact , some of these extant votive balls were created specifically as offerings .
Pottery of ancient Greece
The orientalizing style was the product of cultural ferment in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean of the 8th and 7th centuries BC . Fostered by trade links with the city - states of Asia Minor , the artifacts of the East influenced a highly stylized yet recognizable representational art . Ivories , pottery and metalwork from the Neo-Hittite principalities of northern Syria and Phoenicia found their way to Greece , as did goods from Anatolian Urartu and Phrygia , yet there was little contact with the cultural centers of Egypt or Assyria . The new idiom developed initially in Corinth ( as Proto - Corinthian ) and later in Athens between 725 BC and 625 BC ( as Proto - Attic ) . Proto
Maldives
However , unlike the Sinhalese of Sri Lanka and most of the Arabs , Africans and Europeans whose influence can be seen in borrow - words , material culture , and the diversity of Maldivian phenotype , Maldivians do not have the highly embedded patriarchal codes of honour , purity , corporate marriage , and sedentary private property that are typical of places where agriculture is the key form of subsistence and social relations have been built , historically , around tribute taking .
Fingerprint
Fingerprints have been found on ancient Babylonian clay tablets , seals , and pottery . They have also been found on the walls of Egyptian tombs and on Minoan , Greek , and Chinese pottery , as well as on bricks and tiles from ancient Babylon and Rome . Some of these fingerprints were deposited unintentionally by the potters and masons as a natural consequence of their work , and others were made in the process of adding decoration . However , on some pottery , fingerprints have been impressed so deeply into the clay that they were possibly intended to serve as an identifying mark by the maker .
Neolithic Revolution
The Oasis Theory , originally proposed by Raphael Pumpelly in 1908 , popularized by V. Gordon Childe in 1928 and summarised in Childe 's book Man Makes Himself . This theory maintains that as the climate got drier due to the Atlantic depressions shifting northward , communities contracted to oases where they were forced into close association with animals , which were then domesticated together with planting of seeds . However , today this theory has little support amongst archaeologists because subsequent climate data suggests that the region was getting wetter rather than drier . The Hilly Flanks hypothesis , proposed by Robert Braidwood in 1948 , suggests that agriculture began in the hilly flanks of the Taurus and Zagros mountains , where the climate was not drier as Childe had believed , and fertile land supported a variety of plants and animals amenable to domestication . The Feasting model by Brian Hayden suggests that agriculture was driven by ostentatious displays of power , such as giving feasts , to exert dominance . This required assembling large quantities of food , which drove agricultural technology . The Demographic theories proposed by Carl Sauer and adapted by Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery posit an increasingly sedentary population that expanded up to the carrying capacity of the local environment and required more food than could be gathered . Various social and economic factors helped drive the need for food . The evolutionary / intentionality theory , developed by David Rindos and others , views agriculture as an evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans . Starting with domestication by protection of wild plants , it led to specialization of location and then full - fledged domestication . Peter Richerson , Robert Boyd , and Robert Bettinger make a case for the development of agriculture coinciding with an increasingly stable climate at the beginning of the Holocene . Ronald Wright 's book and Massey Lecture Series A Short History of Progress popularized this hypothesis . The postulated Younger Dryas impact event , claimed to be in part responsible for megafauna extinction and ending the last glacial period , could have provided circumstances that required the evolution of agricultural societies for humanity to survive . The agrarian revolution itself is a reflection of typical overpopulation by certain species following initial events during extinction eras ; this overpopulation itself ultimately propagates the extinction event .
Mycenaean Greece
The hypothesis of a Dorian invasion , known as such in Ancient Greek tradition , that led to the end of Mycenaean Greece , is supported by sporadic archaeological evidence such as new types of burials , in particular cist graves , and the use of a new dialect of Greek , the Doric one . It appears that the Dorians moved southward gradually over a number of years and devastated the territory , until they managed to establish themselves in the Mycenaean centers . A new type of ceramic also appeared , called `` Barbarian Ware '' because it was attributed to invaders from the north . On the other hand , the collapse of Mycenaean Greece coincides with the activity of the Sea Peoples in the Eastern Mediterranean . They caused widespread destruction in Anatolia and the Levant and were finally defeated by Pharaoh Ramesses III in c. 1175 BC . One of the ethnic groups that comprised these people were the Eqwesh , a name that appears to be linked with the Ahhiyawa of the Hittite inscriptions .
Ancient Greek cuisine
The ancient Greek custom of placing terra cotta miniatures of their furniture in children 's graves gives us a good idea of its style and design . The Greeks normally ate while seated on chairs ; benches were used for banquets . The tables , high for normal meals and low for banquets , were initially rectangular in shape . By the 4th century BC , the usual table was round , often with animal - shaped legs ( for example lion 's paws ) . Loaves of flat bread could be used as plates , but terra cotta bowls were more common .
Maya civilization
Although the archaeological record does not provide examples of brushes or pens , analysis of ink strokes on the Postclassic codices suggests that it was applied with a brush with a tip fashioned from pliable hair . A Classic period sculpture from Copán , Honduras , depicts a scribe with an inkpot fashioned from a conch shell . Excavations at Aguateca uncovered a number of scribal artefacts from the residences of elite status scribes , including palettes and mortars and pestles .
Pre-Columbian era
The Moche thrived on the north coast of Peru from about 100 to 800 CE . The heritage of the Moche is seen in their elaborate burials . Some were recently excavated by UCLA 's Christopher B. Donnan in association with the National Geographic Society .