vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Missouri
Historical population Census Pop . % ± 1810 19,783 -- 1820 66,586 236.6 % 1830 140,455 110.9 % 1840 383,702 173.2 % 1850 682,044 77.8 % 1860 1,182,012 73.3 % 1870 1,721,295 45.6 % 1880 2,168,380 26.0 % 1890 2,679,185 23.6 % 1900 3,106,665 16.0 % 1910 3,293,335 6.0 % 1920 3,404,055 3.4 % 1930 3,629,367 6.6 % 1940 3,784,664 4.3 % 1950 3,954,653 4.5 % 1960 4,319,813 9.2 % 1970 4,676,501 8.3 % 1980 4,916,686 5.1 % 1990 5,117,073 4.1 % 2000 5,595,211 9.3 % 5,988,927 7.0 % Est. 2017 6,113,532 2.1 % Source : 1910 -- 2010 2015 estimate
Great Migration (African American)
% 1.0 % 2.5 % 4.6 % 4.7 % + 3.7 % Denver , Colorado 2.9 % 2.5 % 2.4 % 2.5 % 2.4 % 3.6 % 6.1 % 9.1 % 12.0 % 12.8 % + 9.9 % Washington , District of Columbia 31.1 % 28.5 % 25.1 % 27.1 % 28.2 % 35.0 % 53.9 % 71.1 % 70.3 % 65.8 % + 34.7 % Chicago , Illinois 1.8 % 2.0 % 4.1 % 6.9 % 8.2 % 13.6 % 22.9 % 32.7 % 39.8 % 39.1 % + 37.3 % Indianapolis , Indiana 9.4 % 9.3 % 11.0 % 12.1 % 13.2 % 15.0 % 20.6 % 18.0 % 21.8 % 22.6 % + 13.2 % Baltimore , Maryland 15.6 % 15.2 % 14.8 % 17.7 % 19.3 % 23.7 % 34.7 % 46.4 % 54.8 % 59.2 % + 43.6 % Boston , Massachusetts 2.1 % 2.0 % 2.2 % 2.6 % 3.1 % 5.0 % 9.1 % 16.3 % 22.4 % 25.6 % + 23.5 % Detroit
Latin America
Historical populations Year Pop . ± % 1750 16,000,000 -- 1800 24,000,000 + 50.0 % 1850 38,000,000 + 58.3 % 1900 74,000,000 + 94.7 % 1950 167,000,000 + 125.7 % 1999 511,000,000 + 206.0 % 2013 603,191,486 + 18.0 % Source : `` UN report 2004 data '' ( PDF ) Main
Red River War
In 1870 , a new technique for tanning buffalo hides became commercially available . In response , commercial hunters began systematically targeting buffalo for the first time . Once numbering in the tens of millions , the buffalo population plummeted . By 1878 , they were all but extinct .
Great Lakes region
Advantages of accessible waterways , highly developed transportation infrastructure , finance , and a prosperous market base make the region the global leader in automobile production and a global business location . Henry Ford 's movable assembly line and integrated production set the model and standard for major car manufactures . The Detroit area emerged as the world 's automotive center , with facilities throughout the region . Akron , Ohio became the global leader in rubber production , driven by the demand for tires . Over 200 million tons of cargo are shipped annually through the Great Lakes .
Andrews County, Texas
Historical population Census Pop . % ± 1890 24 -- 1900 87 262.5 % 1910 975 1,020.7 % 1920 350 − 64.1 % 1930 736 110.3 % 1940 1,277 73.5 % 1950 5,002 291.7 % 1960 13,450 168.9 % 1970 10,372 − 22.9 % 1980 13,323 28.5 % 14,338 7.6 % 2000 13,004 − 9.3 % 14,786 13.7 % Est. 2016 17,760 20.1 % U.S. Decennial Census 1850 -- 2010 2010 -- 2014
Returns to scale
Twice the previous output if there are constant returns to scale ( CRS ) Less than twice the previous output if there are decreasing returns to scale ( DRS ) More than twice the previous output if there are increasing returns to scale ( IRS )
Bessemer process
One of the investors they attracted was Andrew Carnegie , who saw great promise in the new steel technology after a visit to Bessemer in 1872 , and saw it as a useful adjunct to his existing businesses , the Keystone Bridge Company and the Union Iron Works . Holley built the new steel mill for Carnegie , and continued to improve and refine the process . The new mill , known as the Edgar Thomson Steel Works , opened in 1875 , and started the growth of the United States as a major world steel producer . Using the Bessemer process , Carnegie Steel was able to reduce the costs of steel railroad rails from $100 per ton to $50 per ton between 1873 and 1875 . The price of steel continued to fall until Carnegie was selling rails for $18 per ton by the 1890s . Prior to the opening of Carnegie 's Thomson Works ) ) , steel output in the United States totaled around 157,000 tons per year . By 1910 , American companies were producing 26 million tons of steel annually .
Social development theory
Henry Ford 's assembly line techniques reduced the man - hours of labor required to deliver a car from 783 minutes to 93 minutes . These examples show that the greater input of higher non-material resources can raise the productivity of physical resources and thereby extend their limits .
Returns to scale
F ( a K , a L ) = A ( a K ) b ( a L ) c = A a b a c K b L c = a b + c A K b L c = a b + c F ( K , L ) , ( \ displaystyle \ F ( aK , aL ) = A ( aK ) ^ ( b ) ( aL ) ^ ( c ) = Aa ^ ( b ) a ^ ( c ) K ^ ( b ) L ^ ( c ) = a ^ ( b + c ) AK ^ ( b ) L ^ ( c ) = a ^ ( b + c ) F ( K , L ) , )
Southwestern United States
Historical population Census Pop . % ± 1850 212,592 -- 1860 604,215 184.2 % 1870 818,579 35.5 % 1880 1,591,749 94.5 % 1890 2,235,527 40.4 % 1900 3,048,710 36.4 % 1910 5,553,697 82.2 % 1920 7,051,861 27.0 % 1930 9,079,645 28.8 % 1940 9,782,337 7.7 % 1950 11,375,319 16.3 % 1960 14,162,145 24.5 % 1970 16,516,978 16.6 % 1980 21,267,998 28.8 % 25,312,392 19.0 % 2000 27,801,498 9.8 % 37,348,008 34.3 % Est. 2017 40,699,411 9.0 %
Amazon River
Four centuries after the European discovery of the Amazon river , the total cultivated area in its basin was probably less than 65 square kilometres ( 25 sq mi ) , excluding the limited and crudely cultivated areas among the mountains at its extreme headwaters . This situation changed dramatically during the 20th century .
Mental calculation
Multiply these numbers together to get 242,000 ( This can be done efficiently by dividing 484 by 2 = 242 and multiplying by 1000 ) . Finally , add the difference ( 8 ) squared ( 8 = 64 ) to the result :
Incandescent light bulb
By 1964 , improvements in efficiency and production of incandescent lamps had reduced the cost of providing a given quantity of light by a factor of thirty , compared with the cost at introduction of Edison 's lighting system .
Gilded Age
The United States became a world leader in applied technology . From 1860 to 1890 , 500,000 patents were issued for new inventions -- over ten times the number issued in the previous seventy years . George Westinghouse invented air brakes for trains ( making them both safer and faster ) . Theodore Vail established the American Telephone & Telegraph Company and built a great communications network . Thomas Edison , in addition to inventing hundreds of devices , established the first electrical lighting utility , basing it on direct current and an efficient incandescent lamp . Electric power delivery spread rapidly across Gilded Age cities . The streets were lighted at night , and electric streetcars allowed for faster commuting to work and easier shopping .
Great Depression
In rural and small - town areas , women expanded their operation of vegetable gardens to include as much food production as possible . In the United States , agricultural organizations sponsored programs to teach housewives how to optimize their gardens and to raise poultry for meat and eggs . In American cities , African American women quiltmakers enlarged their activities , promoted collaboration , and trained neophytes . Quilts were created for practical use from various inexpensive materials and increased social interaction for women and promoted camaraderie and personal fulfillment .
Great Migration (African American)
The growing black presence outside the South changed the dynamics and demographics of numerous cities in the North , Midwest and West . In 1900 , only 740,000 African Americans lived outside the South , just 8 percent of the nation 's total black population . By 1970 , more than 10.6 million African Americans lived outside the South , 47 percent of the nation 's total .
American Civil War
With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848 , slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well . Northern `` free soil '' interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory . The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free - soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s . But the states admitted following California were all free : Minnesota ( 1858 ) , Oregon ( 1859 ) and Kansas ( 1861 ) . In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive . Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion : `` The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself . '' Sen.
History of United States foreign policy
The North 's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government . Confederate independence , on the other hand , would have established An American model for reactionary politics and race - based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond . ''
American Civil War
The South argued that each state had the right to secede -- leave the Union -- at any time , that the Constitution was a `` compact '' or agreement among the states . Northerners ( including President Buchanan ) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union . Historian James McPherson writes concerning states ' rights and other non-slavery explanations :
Secession in the United States
Voices demanding separation from the south were beginning ( again ) . In The Liberator of May 1844 with his `` Address to the Friends of Freedom and Emancipation in the United States , '' William Lloyd Garrison called for disunion ( secession ) . Garrison wrote : the Constitution was created `` at the expense of the colored population of the country '' ; southerners were dominating the nation -- especially representation in Congress -- because of the Three - Fifths Compromise ; now it was time `` to set the captive free by the potency of truth '' and to `` secede from the government '' . Coincidentally , the New England Anti-Slavery Convention endorsed the principles of disunion by a vote of 250 -- 24 .
American Civil War
Perman and Taylor ( 2010 ) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight , suffer and die over four years :
Confederate States of America
Had it been ratified by the required number of states prior to 1865 , it would have made institutionalized slavery immune to the constitutional amendment procedures and to interference by Congress . Inauguration
Secession in the United States
... one word ( disunion ) contained , and stimulated , their ( Americans ) fears of extreme political factionalism , tyranny , regionalism , economic decline , foreign intervention , class conflict , gender disorder , racial strife , widespread violence and anarchy , and civil war , all of which could be interpreted as God 's retribution for America 's moral failings . Disunion connoted the dissolution of the republic -- the failure of the Founders ' efforts to establish a stable and lasting representative government . For many Americans in the North and the South , disunion was a nightmare , a tragic cataclysm that would reduce them to the kind of fear and misery that seemed to pervade the rest of the world . And yet , for many other Americans , disunion served as the main instrument by which they could achieve their political goals .
American Revolution
But England greatly feared the effects of any such move on its own West Indies , where Americans had already aroused alarm over a possible threat to incite slave insurrections . The British elites also understood that an all - out attack on one form of property could easily lead to an assault on all boundaries of privilege and social order , as envisioned by radical religious sects in Britain 's seventeenth - century civil wars .
Twenty Negro Law
The law would prove extremely unpopular with poorer white Confederate men , many of whom did not own any slaves at all , and would contribute to the often - repeated adage of the Confederate war effort being `` a rich man 's war , but a poor man 's fight . ''
Colonial history of the United States
Historian Edmund Morgan ( 1975 ) argues that Virginians in the 1650s and for the next two centuries turned to slavery and a racial divide as an alternative to class conflict . `` Racism made it possible for white Virginians to develop a devotion to the equality that English republicans had declared to be the soul of liberty . '' That is , white men became politically much more equal than was possible without a population of low - status slaves .
Secession in the United States
Texas annexation , the abolitionist Benjamin Lundy argued when the issue first arose in 1836 , was `` a long premeditated crusade -- set on foot by slaveholders , land speculators , etc. , with the view of reestablishing , extending , and perpetuating the system of slavery and the slave trade '' ( . ) John Quincy Adams had made a similar argument on the floor of the House of Representatives then . Other expressions of the same theme -- or accusation -- had been heard throughout the decade that followed , whenever Texas was mentioned .
Twenty Negro Law
A law was made by the Confederate States Congress about this time allowing every person who owned twenty negroes to go home . It gave us the blues ; we wanted twenty negroes . Negro property suddenly became very valuable , and there was raised the howl of `` rich man 's war , poor man 's fight . '' The glory of the war , the glory of the South , the glory and the pride of our volunteers had no charms for the conscript .
United States presidential election, 1860
Indeed , voting in the South was not as monolithic as the Electoral College map would make it seem . Economically , culturally , and politically , the South was made up of three regions . In the states of the `` Upper '' South , later known as the `` Border States '' ( Delaware , Maryland , Kentucky , and Missouri along with the Kansas territories ) , unionist popular votes were scattered among Lincoln , Douglas , and Bell , to form a majority in all four . In the `` Middle '' South states , there was a unionist majority divided between Douglas and Bell in Virginia and Tennessee ; in North Carolina and Arkansas , the unionist ( Bell and Douglas ) vote approached a majority . Texas was the only Middle South state that Breckinridge carried convincingly . In three of the six `` Deep '' South , unionists ( Bell and Douglas ) won divided majorities in Georgia and Louisiana or neared it in Alabama . Breckinridge convincingly carried only three of the six states of the Deep South ( South Carolina , Florida , and Mississippi ) . These three Deep South states were all among the four Southern states with the lowest white populations ; together , they held only nine - percent of Southern whites .
Confederate States of America
Initially , some secessionists may have hoped for a peaceful departure . Moderates in the Confederate Constitutional Convention included a provision against importation of slaves from Africa to appeal to the Upper South . Non-slave states might join , but the radicals secured a two - thirds hurdle for them .
History of United States prison systems
The Civil War brought overwhelming change to Southern society and its criminal justice system . As freed slaves joined the Southern population , they came under the primary control of local governments for the first time . At the same time , the market economy began to affect individuals and regions in the South that were previously untouched . Widespread poverty at the end of the nineteenth century unraveled the South 's prior race - based social fabric . In Reconstruction - era cities like Savannah , Georgia , intricate codes of racial etiquette began to unravel almost immediately after the war with the onset of emancipation . The local police forces that had been available in the antebellum South , depleted during the war , could not enforce the racial order as they had before . Nor was the white population , stricken by poverty and resentment , as united in its racial policing as it was during the antebellum period . By the end of Reconstruction , a new configuration of crime and punishment had emerged in the South : a hybrid , racialized form of incarceration at hard labor , with convicts leased to private businesses , that endured well into the twentieth century . Changing
Missouri Compromise
The sectional `` rupture '' over slavery among Jeffersonian Republicans , first exposed in the Missouri crisis , had its roots in the Revolutionary generation .
Secession in the United States
Whatever the intentions of the Founders , threats of secession and disunion were a constant in the political discourse of Americans preceding the Civil War . Historian Elizabeth R. Varon wrote :
Tennessee in the American Civil War
`` In this State , reconstruction has perfected itself and done its worst . It has organized a government which is as complete a closed corporation as may be found ; it has placed the black man over the white as the agent and prime - move of domination ; it has constructed a system of machinery by which all free guarantees , privileges and opportunities are removed from the people ... The impossibility of casting a free vote in Tennessee short of a revolutionary movement ... is an undoubted fact . ''
American Civil War
Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or `` popular '' sovereignty -- which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter . The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine . In Kansas Territory , years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted ; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860 , but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861 , after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave .
History of United States prison systems
Industrialization proceeded haphazardly across the South during the antebellum period , and large sections of the rural population participated in a subsistence economy like that of the colonial era . Patterns of crime in these regions reflected these economic realities ; violence , not thefts , took up most of the docket space in rural Southern courts .
Confederate States of America
According to historian Avery O. Craven in 1950 , the Confederate States of America was created by secessionists in Southern slave states who believed that the federal government was making them second - class citizens and refused to honor their belief that slavery was beneficial to the Negro . They judged the agent of change to be abolitionists and anti-slavery elements in the Republican Party , whom they believed used repeated insult and injury to subject them to intolerable `` humiliation and degradation '' . The `` Black Republicans '' ( as the Southerners called them ) and their allies soon dominated the U.S. House , Senate , and Presidency . On the U.S. Supreme Court , Chief Justice Roger B. Taney ( a presumed supporter of slavery ) was 83 years old , and ailing .
Missouri Compromise
During the decades following 1820 , Americans hailed the 1820 agreement as an essential compromise almost on the sacred level of the Constitution itself . Although the Civil War broke out in 1861 , historians often say the Compromise helped postpone the war . Animation
History of United States prison systems
The historical record suggests that , in contrast to Northerners , Southernern states experienced a unique political anxiety about whether to construct prisons during the antebellum period . Disagreements over republican principles -- i.e. , the role of the state in social governance -- became the focus of a persistent debate about the necessity of southern penitentiaries in the decades between independence and the Civil War .
Confederate States of America
The Confederate army experienced a persistent shortage of horses and mules , and requisitioned them with dubious promissory notes given to local farmers and breeders . Union forces paid in real money and found ready sellers in the South . Both armies needed horses for cavalry and for artillery . Mules pulled the wagons . The supply was undermined by an unprecedented epidemic of glanders , a fatal disease that baffled veterinarians . After 1863 the invading Union forces had a policy of shooting all the local horses and mules they did not need -- in order to keep them out of Confederate hands . The Confederate armies and farmers experienced a growing shortage of horses and mules , which hurt the Southern economy and the war effort . The South lost half of its 2.5 million horses and mules ; many farmers ended the war with none left . Army horses were used up by hard work , malnourishment , disease and battle wounds ; they had a life expectancy of about seven months .
Presidency of Abraham Lincoln
The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country . The term `` the United States '' has historically been used , sometimes in the plural ( `` these United States '' ) , and other times in the singular , without any particular grammatical consistency . The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century . Legal historian Paul Finkelman argues that Union victory in the Civil War and the Reconstruction Amendments , which were ratified after Lincoln 's death but were made possible by the Civil War , changed the nature of the Constitution . The Union victory and the subsequent Supreme Court case of Texas v. White ended debate regarding the constitutionality of secession and Nullification by the states . In addition to ending slavery , the Reconstruction Amendments enshrined Constitutional clauses promoting racial equality .
United States
The California Gold Rush of 1848 -- 49 spurred western migration and the creation of additional western states . After the American Civil War , new transcontinental railways made relocation easier for settlers , expanded internal trade and increased conflicts with Native Americans . Over a half - century , the loss of the American bison ( sometimes called `` buffalo '' ) was an existential blow to many Plains Indians cultures . In 1869 , a new Peace Policy nominally promised to protect Native - Americans from abuses , avoid further war , and secure their eventual U.S. citizenship . Nonetheless , conflicts and state - sanctioned murder , including the California Genocide , continued throughout the West into the 1900s .
Foreign trade of the United States
In the 19th century , statesmen such as Senator Henry Clay continued Hamilton 's themes within the Whig Party under the name `` American System . '' The fledgling Republican Party led by Abraham Lincoln , who called himself a `` Henry Clay tariff Whig '' , strongly opposed free trade , and implemented a 44 - percent tariff during the Civil War -- in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort , and to protect favored industries .
Secession in the United States
From 1846 , after introduction of the Wilmot Proviso into the public debate , talk in favor of secession shifted to southern voices . Southern leaders ' increasing perceptions of helplessness in confronting a powerful political group attacking their interests ( and survival ) were reminiscent of Federalist alarms at the beginning of the century .
Emancipation Proclamation
Emancipation took place without violence by masters or ex-slaves . The Proclamation represented a shift in the war objectives of the North -- reuniting the nation was no longer the only goal . It represented a major step toward the ultimate abolition of slavery in the United States and a `` new birth of freedom '' .
Confederate States of America
The great majority of young white men voluntarily joined Confederate national or state military units . Perman ( 2010 ) says historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight , suffer and die over four years :