vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Apartheid
Right - wing violence also added to the hostilities of this period . The assassination of Chris Hani on 10 April 1993 threatened to plunge the country into chaos . Hani , the popular general secretary of the South African Communist Party ( SACP ) , was assassinated in 1993 in Dawn Park in Johannesburg by Janusz Waluś , an anti-communist Polish refugee who had close links to the white nationalist Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging ( AWB ) . Hani enjoyed widespread support beyond his constituency in the SACP and ANC and had been recognised as a potential successor to Mandela ; his death brought forth protests throughout the country and across the international community , but ultimately proved a turning point , after which the main parties pushed for a settlement with increased determination . On 25 June 1993 , the AWB used an armoured vehicle to crash through the doors of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre where talks were still going ahead under the Negotiating Council , though this did not derail the process .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
Forman 's and SNCC 's anger came in part from the failure of the federal government , FBI , and Justice Department to protect SNCC civil rights workers in the South at this time . Indeed , the federal government at that time was instrumental in indicting SNCC workers and other civil rights activists .
Ida B. Wells
Wells emphasized the public spectacle of the lynching . More than 6,000 black people did leave Memphis ; others organized boycotts of white - owned businesses . After being threatened with violence , she bought a pistol . She later wrote , `` They had made me an exile and threatened my life for hinting at the truth . ''
Kent State shootings
Around 8 p.m. , another rally was held on the campus Commons . By 8 : 45 p.m. the Guardsmen used tear gas to disperse the crowd , and the students reassembled at the intersection of Lincoln and Main , holding a sit - in with the hopes of gaining a meeting with Mayor Satrom and University President Robert White . At 11 : 00 p.m. , the Guard announced that a curfew had gone into effect and began forcing the students back to their dorms . A few students were bayoneted by Guardsmen .
Kent State shootings
While on the practice field , the guardsmen generally faced the parking lot which was about 100 yards ( 91 m ) away . At one point , some of them knelt and aimed their weapons toward the parking lot , then stood up again . At one point the guardsmen formed a loose huddle and appeared to be talking to one another . They had cleared the protesters from the Commons area , and many students had left , but some stayed and were still angrily confronting the soldiers , some throwing rocks and tear gas canisters . About 10 minutes later , the guardsmen began to retrace their steps back up the hill toward the Commons area . Some of the students on the Taylor Hall veranda began to move slowly toward the soldiers as they passed over the top of the hill and headed back into the Commons . Map
All-India Muslim League
Politically there was a degree of unity between Muslim and Hindu leaders after World War I , as typified by the Khilafat Movement . Relationships cooled sharply after that campaign ended in 1922 . Communalism grew rapidly , forcing the two groups apart . Major riots broke out in numerous cities , including 91 in U.P. alone . At the leadership level , the proportion of Muslims among delegates to Congress fell sharply , from 11 % in 1921 to under 4 % in 1924 .
Apartheid
Apartheid sparked significant internal resistance . The government responded to a series of popular uprisings and protests with police brutality , which in turn increased local support for the armed resistance struggle . Internal resistance to the apartheid system in South Africa came from several sectors of society and saw the creation of organisations dedicated variously to peaceful protests , passive resistance and armed insurrection .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
That experience destroyed what little faith SNCC activists had in the federal government , even though Johnson had obtained a broad Civil Rights Act barring discrimination in public accommodations , employment and private education in 1964 and would go on to obtain an equally broad Voting Rights Act in 1965 . It also estranged SNCC leaders from many of the mainstream leaders of the civil rights movement .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
SNCC followed up on the Freedom Ballot with the Mississippi Summer Project , also known as Freedom Summer , which focused on voter registration and Freedom Schools . The Summer Project brought hundreds of white Northern students to the South , where they volunteered as teachers and organizers . Their presence brought national press attention to SNCC 's work in the south . SNCC organized black Mississippians to register to vote , almost always without success . White authorities either rejected their applications on any pretexts available or , failing that , simply refused to accept their applications. Tensions grew gradually and SNCC refused to recruit white people because they thought that they brought attention of the media only on white people .
Apartheid
In the wake of Sharpeville , the government declared a state of emergency . More than 18,000 people were arrested , including leaders of the ANC and PAC , and both organisations were banned . The resistance went underground , with some leaders in exile abroad and others engaged in campaigns of domestic sabotage and terrorism .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
SNCC also established Freedom Schools to teach children to read and to educate them to stand up for their rights . As in the struggle to desegregate public accommodations led by Martin Luther King Jr. and James Bevel in Birmingham , Alabama the year before , the bolder attitudes of the children helped shake their parents out of the fear that had paralyzed many of them .
List of massacres in Great Britain
6 -- 7 Committed by the military during a riot . 29 October 1797 Massacre of Tranent Tranent , East Lothian , Scotland 12 Townsfolk , including women and children , were killed by members of the Cinque Ports Dragoons , a fencible cavalry regiment , during a protest against the Act of Parliament to raise a Scots militia by a form of conscription . 16 August 1819 Peterloo Massacre Manchester , Lancashire , England 015 ! 15 0400 ! 400 -- 700 Committed by the military during a large outdoor protest . May - 7 June 1831 Merthyr Rising Merthyr Tydfil , Wales 0024 - 26 ! 24 - 26 070 + ! 70 + Described by historian John Davies as `` the most ferocious and bloody event in the history of industrialised Britain '' , the rebellion in Merthyr Tydfil and surrounding areas broke out following protests against falling wages , the price of bread , and forced redundancy . During the bloodiest incident , Highland troops sent to retake Merthyr fired on protesters during a fight against a large crowd . 4 November 1839 Newport Rising Newport , Wales 0022 ! 22 050 + ! 50 + Led by John Frost , between 1,000 and 5,000 Chartist sympathisers armed with home - made weapons marched on Newport , intent on liberating fellow Chartists who had been reportedly taken prisoner . About 22 demonstrators were killed when troops opened fire on them . The leaders of the rebellion were convicted of high treason , and sentenced to transportation for life . 12 / 13 August 1842 Preston Strike of 1842 Preston , Lancashire , England 0004 ! 4 0003 ! 3 + The Mayor Samuel Horrocks read the Riot Act . This gave local authorities the right to use force if necessary to disperse unlawful assemblies and stop riots . When violence escalated and the crowd did not disperse , the military then fired , shooting at least eight men . 30 January 1972 Bloody Sunday Derry , Northern Ireland 14 14 + During a peaceful protest march against internment , 28 unarmed civilians are shot by British soldiers . 22 February 1972 Aldershot Bombing Aldershot , England 7 18 A car bomb outside the headquarters of the British Army 's 16th Parachute Regiment by Official IRA member Noel Jenkinson .
Kent State shootings
Information developed by an FBI investigation of the ROTC building fire indicates that , of those who participated actively , a significant portion were n't Kent State students . There is also evidence to suggest that the burning was planned beforehand : railroad flares , a machete , and ice picks are not customarily carried to peaceful rallies .
Bobby Sands
By 1966 , sectarian violence in Rathcoole ( along with the rest of Belfast ) had considerably worsened , and the minority Catholic population there found itself under siege ; Sands and his sisters were forced to run a gauntlet of bottle - and rock - throwing Protestant youths on the way to school every morning , and the formerly integrated Rathcoole youth football club banned Catholic members and renamed itself `` The Kai '' , which stood for `` Kill All Irish '' . Despite always having had Protestant friends , Sands suddenly found that none of them would even speak to him , and he quickly learned to associate only with Catholics . He left school in 1969 at age 15 , and enrolled in Newtownabbey Technical College , beginning an apprenticeship as a coach builder at Alexander 's Coach Works in 1970 . He worked there for less than a year , enduring constant harassment from his Protestant co-workers , which according to several co-workers he ignored completely , as he wished to learn a meaningful trade . He was eventually confronted after leaving his shift in January 1971 by a number of his coworkers wearing the armbands of the local Ulster loyalist tartan gang . He was held at gunpoint and told that Alexander 's was off - limits to `` Fenian scum '' and to never come back if he valued his life . This event , by Sands 's admission , proved to be the point at which he decided that militancy was the only solution .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
Johnson used all of his resources , mobilizing Walter Reuther , one of his key supporters within the liberal wing of the Democratic Party , and his Vice-Presidential nominee Hubert Humphrey , to pressure King and other mainstream civil rights leaders to bring the MFDP around , while directing Hoover to put the delegation under surveillance . The MFDP rejected both the compromise and the pressure to accept it , and walked out .
Kent State shootings
Some of the Guardsmen on Blanket Hill , fearful and anxious from prior events , may have believed in their own minds that their lives were in danger . Hindsight suggests that another method would have resolved the confrontation . Better ways must be found to deal with such a confrontation .
History of the United States (1945–64)
Governor Orval Eugene Faubus ( Democrat ) of Arkansas used the Arkansas National Guard to prevent school integration at Little Rock Central High School in 1957 . President Eisenhower ( Republican ) nationalized state forces and sent in the US Army to enforce federal court orders . Governors Ross Barnett of Mississippi and George Wallace of Alabama physically blocked school doorways at their respective states ' universities . Birmingham 's public safety commissioner Eugene T. `` Bull '' Connor advocated violence against freedom riders and ordered fire hoses and police dogs turned on demonstrators during the 1963 Birmingham Children 's Crusade . Sheriff Jim Clark of Dallas County , Alabama , loosed his deputies during the `` Bloody Sunday '' event of the Selma to Montgomery march , injuring many of the marchers and personally menacing other protesters . Police all across the South arrested civil rights activists on trumped - up charges .
Kent State shootings
The ROTC building , now nothing more than a few inches of charcoal , was surrounded by National Guardsmen . They were all on one knee and pointing their rifles at ... us ! Then they fired .
Vietnam War
This invasion sparked nationwide U.S. protests as Nixon had promised to deescalate the American involvement . Four students were killed by National Guardsmen at Kent State University during a protest in Ohio , which provoked further public outrage in the United States . The reaction to the incident by the Nixon administration was seen as callous and indifferent , providing additional impetus for the anti-war movement . The U.S. Air Force continued to heavily bomb Cambodia in support of the Cambodian government as part of Operation Freedom Deal .
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
On January 15 , 1968 , over five thousand women rallied in D.C. in the Jeannette Rankin Brigade protest . This was the first all female antiwar protest intended to get Congress to withdrawal troops from Vietnam . On January 18 , 1968 , while in the White House for a conference about juvenile delinquency , black singer - entertainer Eartha Kitt yelled at Lady Bird Johnson about the generation of young men dying in the war . January 30 , 1968 -- Tet Offensive was launched and resulted in much higher casualties and changed perceptions . The optimistic assessments made prior to the offensive by the administration and the Pentagon came under heavy criticism and ridicule as the `` credibility gap '' that had opened in 1967 widened into a chasm . February -- Gallup poll showed 35 % approved of Johnson 's handling of the war ; 50 % disapproved ; the rest , no opinion . ( NYT , 2 / 14 / 68 ) In another poll that month , 23 % of Americans defined themselves as `` doves '' and 61 % `` hawks . '' March 12 -- anti-war candidate Eugene McCarthy received more votes than expected in the New Hampshire primary , leading to more expressions of opposition against the war . McCarthy urged his supporters to exchange the ' unkempt look ' rapidly becoming fashionable among war opponents for a more clean - cut style to in order not to scare voters . These were known as `` Clean Genes . '' March 16 -- Robert Kennedy joined the race for the US Presidency as an anti-war candidate . He was shot and killed on June 5 , the morning after he won a decisive victory over McCarthy in the Democratic primary in California . March 17 -- Major rally outside the U.S. Embassy in London 's Grosvenor Square turned to a riot with 86 people injured and over 200 arrested . Over 10,000 had rallied peacefully in Trafalgar Square but met a police barricade outside the embassy . A UK Foreign Office report claimed that the rioting had been organized by 100 members of the German SDS who were `` acknowledged experts in methods of riot against the police . '' In March , Gallup poll reported that 49 % of respondents felt involvement in the war was an error .
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
On March 4 Antonia Martínez , a 21 - year - old student at the University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras was shot and killed by a policeman while watching and commenting on the anti-Vietnam War and education reform student protests at the University of Puerto Rico . On March 14 , two merchant seamen , claiming allegiance to the SDS , hijacked the SS Columbia Eagle , a U.S. - flagged merchant vessel under contract with the U.S. government , carrying 10,000 tons of napalm bombs for use by the U.S. Air Force in the Vietnam War . The hijackers forced its master to divert to then - neutral Cambodia ( which promptly was taken over by anti-Communists , who eventually returned to the ship to the U.S. ) . Kent State / Cambodia Invasion Protest , Washington , D.C. : After the Kent State shootings , on May 4 , 100,000 anti-war demonstrators converged on Washington , D.C. to protest the shooting of the students in Ohio and the Nixon administration 's incursion into Cambodia . Even though the demonstration was quickly put together , protesters were still able to bring out thousands to march in the Capital . It was an almost spontaneous response to the events of the previous week . Police ringed the White House with buses to block the demonstrators from getting too close to the executive mansion . Early in the morning before the march , Nixon met with protesters briefly at the Lincoln Memorial but nothing was resolved and the protest went on as planned . National Student Strike : more than 450 university , college and high school campuses across the country were shut by student strikes and both violent and non-violent protests that involved more than 4 million students , in the only nationwide student strike in U.S. history . A Gallup poll in May shows that 56 % of the public believed that sending troops to Vietnam was a mistake , 61 % of those over 50 expressed that belief compared to 49 % of those between the ages of 21 -- 29 . On June 13 , President Nixon established the President 's Commission on Campus Unrest . The commission was directed to study the dissent , disorder , and violence breaking out on college and university campuses . In July 1970 . the award - winning documentary The World of Charlie Company was broadcast .
Bangladesh Liberation War
In 1948 , Governor - General Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared that `` Urdu , and only Urdu '' would be the federal language of Pakistan . However , Urdu was historically prevalent only in the north , central , and western region of the subcontinent ; whereas in East Bengal , the native language was Bengali , one of the two most easterly branches of the Indo - European languages . The Bengali - speaking people of Pakistan constituted over 30 % of the country 's population . The government stand was widely viewed as an attempt to suppress the culture of the eastern wing . The people of East Bengal demanded that their language be given federal status alongside Urdu and English . The Language Movement began in 1948 , as civil society protested the removal of the Bengali script from currency and stamps , which were in place since the British Raj . The movement reached its climax in 1952 , when on 21 February , the police fired on protesting students and civilians , causing several deaths . The day is revered in Bangladesh as the Language Movement Day . Later , in memory of the deaths in 1952 , UNESCO declared 21 February as International Mother Language Day in November 1999 .
Kent State shootings
Immediately after the shootings , many angry students were ready to launch an all - out attack on the National Guard . Many faculty members , led by geology professor and faculty marshal Glenn Frank , pleaded with the students to leave the Commons and to not give in to violent escalation :
Soweto uprising
The police set their dog on the protesters , who responded by killing it . The police then began to shoot directly at the children .
Vietnam War
Discontent with Diệm 's policies exploded following the Huế Phật Đản shootings of nine majority Buddhists who were protesting against the ban on the Buddhist flag on Vesak , the Buddha 's birthday . This resulted in mass protests against discriminatory policies that gave privileges to the Catholic Church and its adherents . Diệm 's elder brother Ngô Đình Thục was the Archbishop of Huế and aggressively blurred the separation between church and state . Thuc 's anniversary celebrations shortly before Vesak had been bankrolled by the government , and Vatican flags were displayed prominently . There had also been reports of Buddhist pagodas being demolished by Catholic paramilitaries throughout Diệm 's rule . Diệm refused to make concessions to the Buddhist majority or take responsibility for the deaths . On 21 August 1963 , the ARVN Special Forces of Colonel Lê Quang Tung , loyal to Diệm 's younger brother Ngô Đình Nhu , raided pagodas across Vietnam , causing widespread damage and destruction and leaving a death toll estimated to range into the hundreds . ARVN
I Have a Dream
Meanwhile , some of the more radical Black leaders who were present condemned the speech ( along with the rest of the march ) as too compromising . Malcolm X later wrote in his autobiography : `` Who ever heard of angry revolutionaries swinging their bare feet together with their oppressor in lily pad pools , with gospels and guitars and ' I have a dream ' speeches ? ''
Jim Crow laws
In 1955 , Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a city bus to a white man in Montgomery , Alabama . This act of civil disobedience was an important catalyst in the growth of the Civil Rights Movement ; activists built the Montgomery Bus Boycott around it , which lasted more than a year and resulted in desegregation of the privately run buses in the city . Civil rights protests and actions , together with legal challenges , resulted in a series of legislative and court decisions which contributed to undermining the Jim Crow system .
Kent State shootings
On April 1 , 1969 , SDS members attempted to enter the administration building with a list of demands where they clashed with police . In response , the university revoked the Kent State SDS chapter charter . On April 16 a disciplinary hearing involving two of the protesters resulted in a confrontation between supporters and opponents of SDS . The Ohio State Highway Patrol was called and 58 were arrested . Four SDS leaders spent six months in prison as a result of the incident .
Chartism
On the night of 3 -- 4 November 1839 Frost led several thousand marchers through South Wales to the Westgate Hotel , Newport , Monmouthshire , where there was a confrontation . It seems that Frost and other local leaders were expecting to seize the town and trigger a national uprising . The result of the Newport Rising was a disaster for Chartism . The hotel was occupied by armed soldiers . A brief , violent , and bloody battle ensued . Shots were fired by both sides , although most contemporaries agree that the soldiers holding the building had vastly superior firepower . The Chartists were forced to retreat in disarray : more than twenty were killed , at least another fifty wounded .
Kent State shootings
Suddenly , they turned around , got on their knees , as if they were ordered to , they did it all together , aimed . And personally , I was standing there saying , they 're not going to shoot , they ca n't do that . If they are going to shoot , it 's going to be blank .
Kent State shootings
Rhodes also claimed he would obtain a court order declaring a state of emergency that would ban further demonstrations and gave the impression that a situation akin to martial law had been declared ; however , he never attempted to obtain such an order .
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
When Stokely Carmichael was elected Chair of SNCC , he reoriented the path of the organization towards Black Power . He famously said in a speech , `` it is a call for black people to define their own goals , to lead their own organizations . '' Thus , white women lost their influence and power in SNCC ; Mary King and Casey Hayden left to become active in pursuing equality for women .
Soweto uprising
Most of the bloodshed had abated by the close of 1976 , but by that time the death toll stood at more than 600 .
Kent State shootings
On Monday , May 4 , a protest was scheduled to be held at noon , as had been planned three days earlier . University officials attempted to ban the gathering , handing out 12,000 leaflets stating that the event was canceled . Despite these efforts , an estimated 2,000 people gathered on the university 's Commons , near Taylor Hall . The protest began with the ringing of the campus 's iron Victory Bell ( which had historically been used to signal victories in football games ) to mark the beginning of the rally , and the first protester began to speak .
Kent State shootings
Students from Kent State and other universities often got a hostile reaction upon returning home . Some were told that more students should have been killed to teach student protesters a lesson ; some students were disowned by their families .