vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of education in the United States
Summarizing the research of Burke and Hall , Katz concludes that in the 19th century :
Active and passive citizens
Jump up ^ Mcphee , Peter ( 2002 ) . The French Revolution ; ; 1789 - 1799 . Oxford : Oxford University Press .
Carthage
three short treaties with Rome ( Latin translations ) ; several pages of Hanno the Navigator 's log - book concerning his fifth century maritime exploration of the Atlantic coast of west Africa ( Greek translation ) ; fragments quoted from Mago 's fourth / third century 28 - volume treatise on agriculture ( Latin translations ) ; the Roman playwright Plautus ( c. 250 -- 184 ) in his Poenulus incorporates a few fictional speeches delivered in Punic , whose written lines are transcribed into Latin letters phonetically ; the thousands of inscriptions made in Punic script , thousands , but many extremely short , e.g. , a dedication to a deity with the personal name ( s ) of the devotee ( s ) .
Citizenship
The person was defined and represented through his actions upon things ; in the course of time , the term property came to mean , first , the defining characteristic of a human or other being ; second , the relation which a person had with a thing ; and third , the thing defined as the possession of some person . --
History of Mexico
The fact that there was an existing prehispanic tradition of writing meant that when the Spanish friars taught Mexican Indians to write their own languages , particularly Nahuatl , an alphabetic tradition took hold . It was used in official documents for legal cases and other legal instruments . The formal use of native language documentation lasted until Mexican independence in 1821 . Beginning in the late twentieth century , scholars have mined these native language documents for information about colonial - era economics , culture , and language . The New Philology is the current name for this particular branch of colonial - era Mesoamerican ethnohistory .
Law
The Old Testament dates back to 1280 BC and takes the form of moral imperatives as recommendations for a good society . The small Greek city - state , ancient Athens , from about the 8th century BC was the first society to be based on broad inclusion of its citizenry , excluding women and the slave class . However , Athens had no legal science or single word for `` law '' , relying instead on the three - way distinction between divine law ( thémis ) , human decree ( nomos ) and custom ( díkē ) . Yet Ancient Greek law contained major constitutional innovations in the development of democracy .
Burning of Washington
It has often been stated in print , that when Mrs. Madison escaped from the White House , she cut out from the frame the large portrait of Washington ( now in one of the parlors there ) , and carried it off . She had no time for doing it . It would have required a ladder to get it down . All she carried off was the silver in her reticule , as the British were thought to be but a few squares off , and were expected any moment .
Trading post
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Repatriation (cultural heritage)
`` The Allies then , having the contents of the museum justly in their power , could not do otherwise than restore them to the countries form which , contrary to the practice of civilized warfare , they had been torn during the disastrous period of the French revolution and the tyranny of Bonaparte ... Not only , then , would it , in my opinion , be unjust in the Sovereigns to gratify the people of France on this subject , at the expense of their own people , but the sacrifice they would make would be impolitic , as it would deprive them of the opportunity of giving the people of France a great moral lesson . '' -- Excerpt from letter of Wellington to Viscount Castlereagh , K.G. , Paris , September 23 , 1815
Roman calendar
Given the paucity of records regarding the state of the calendar and its intercalation , historians have reconstructed the correspondence of Roman dates to their Julian and Gregorian equivalents from disparate sources . There are detailed accounts of the decades leading up to the Julian reform , particularly the speeches and letters of Cicero , which permit an established chronology back to about 58 BC . The nundinal cycle and a few known synchronisms -- e.g. , a Roman date in terms of the Attic calendar and Olympiad -- are used to generate contested chronologies back to the start of the First Punic War in 264 BC . Beyond that , dates are roughly known based on clues such as the dates of harvests and seasonal religious festivals .
Nile
Sir Richard Burton 's presentation of his expedition with John Speke . Ultimately , Burton 's view of the sources of the Nile failed and Speke 's prevailed .
History of chemistry
The earliest recorded metal employed by humans seems to be gold which can be found free or `` native '' . Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period , c. 40,000 BC .
Whiskey Rebellion
The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History papers of Alexander Hamilton regarding the rebellion . National Archives Founders Online a large collection containing correspondence to and from George Washington , Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson regarding the rebellion . Pennsylvania Commonwealth Archives Pennsylvania Archives , Second Series , Vol. IV. , Reprinted under direction of Charles Warren Stone , Pennsylvania Archives , Second Series , Vol. IV . Reprinted under direction of Charles Warren Stone , Pennsylvania Archives , Second Series , Vol. IV. Reprinted under direction of Charles Warren Stone , Secretary of the Commonwealth . Edited by John B. Linn and Wm. H. Egle , M.D. Harrisburg : E.K. Meyers , State Printer , 1890 . Secretary of the Commonwealth . Edited by John B. Linn and Wm. H. Egle , M.D. Harrisburg : E.K. Meyers , State Printer , 1890 . Secretary of the Commonwealth Hundreds of documents that include correspondence to and from William Rawle , William Bingham , and George Turner . University of Pittsburgh , Alexander Addison A federal judge in western Pennsylvania during the Whiskey Rebellion with moderate views . University of Pittsburgh . Jonathan Forman Papers A federal militia soldier 's diary .
Modern history
Representative Western scholars include George Akita , William Beasley , James B. Crowley , John W. Dower , Peter Duus , Carol Gluck , Norman Herbert , John W. Hall , Mikiso Hane , Akira Iriye , Marius Jansen , Edwin O. Reischauer , George B. Sansom , Bernard Silberman , Richard Storry , Karel van Wolfram , and Ezra Vogel .
Gunfight at the O.K. Corral
Much of what is known of the event is based on a month - long preliminary hearing held afterward , generally known as the Spicer hearings . Reporters from both newspapers covered the hearings and recorded the testimony there and at the coroner 's inquest , but only the reporter from The Daily Nugget knew shorthand . The testimony recorded by the court recorder and the two newspapers varied greatly .
Colony of Virginia
The Syms - Eaton Academy , started in 1634 , became the first free public school in America . Private tutors were often favored among those families who could afford them .
History of democracy
A famous incident took place circa 1018 , when King Olof Skötkonung wanted to pursue the war against Norway against the will of the people . Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker reminded the king in a long speech that the power resided with the Swedish people and not with the king . When the king heard the din of swords beating the shields in support of Þorgnýr 's speech , he gave in . Adam of Bremen wrote that the people used to obey the king only when they thought his suggestions seemed better , although in war his power was absolute . The Swiss Landsgemeinde . The election of Uthman in the Rashidun Caliphate ( 7th century ) . The election of Gopala in the Pala Empire ( 8th century ) . The túatha system in early medieval Ireland . Landowners and the masters of a profession or craft were members of a local assembly , known as a túath . Each túath met in annual assembly which approved all common policies , declared war or peace on other tuatha , and accepted the election of a new `` king '' ; normally during the old king 's lifetime , as a tanist . The new king had to be descended within four generations from a previous king , so this usually became , in practice , a hereditary kingship ; although some kingships alternated between lines of cousins . About 80 to 100 túatha coexisted at any time throughout Ireland . Each túath controlled a more or less compact area of land which it could pretty much defend from cattle - raids , and this was divided among its members . The Ibadites of Oman , a minority sect distinct from both Sunni and Shia Muslims , have traditionally chosen their leaders via community - wide elections of qualified candidates starting in the 8th century . They were distinguished early on in the region by their belief that the ruler needed the consent of the ruled . The leader exercised both religious and secular rule . The Papal election , 1061 , The guilds , of economic , social and religious natures , in the later Middle Ages elected officers for yearly terms . The city - states ( republics ) of medieval Italy , as Venice and Florence , and similar city - states in Switzerland , Flanders and the Hanseatic league had not a modern democratic system but a guild democratic system .
Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)
They also found two of the Indian 's houses covered with mats , and some of their implements in them ; but the people had run away and could not be seen . Without permission they took more corn , and beans of various colours . These they brought away , intending to give them full satisfaction ( payment ) when they should meet with any of them , -- as about six months afterwards they did .
Battles of Lexington and Concord
We Nathaniel Mulliken , Philip Russell , ( and 32 other men ... ) do testify and declare , that on the nineteenth in the morning , being informed that ... a body of regulars were marching from Boston towards Concord ... About five o'clock in the morning , hearing our drum beat , we proceeded towards the parade , and soon found that a large body of troops were marching towards us , some of our company were coming to the parade , and others had reached it , at which time , the company began to disperse , whilst our backs were turned on the troops , we were fired on by them , and a number of our men were instantly killed and wounded , not a gun was fired by any person in our company on the regulars to our knowledge before they fired on us , and continued firing until we had all made our escape .
Modern history
Renaissance humanism took a close study of the Latin and Greek classical texts , and was antagonistic to the values of scholasticism with its emphasis on the accumulated commentaries ; and humanists were involved in the sciences , philosophies , arts and poetry of classical antiquity . They self - consciously imitated classical Latin and deprecated the use of medieval Latin . By analogy with the perceived decline of Latin , they applied the principle of ad fontes , or back to the sources , across broad areas of learning .
Emancipation Proclamation
Booker T. Washington , as a boy of 9 in Virginia , remembered the day in early 1865 :
Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)
And it is to be noted as a special providence of God , and a great mercy to this poor people , that they thus got seed to plant corn the next year , or they might have starved ; for they had none , nor any likelihood of getting any , till too late for the planting season .
Daughters of the American Revolution
Temporary exhibits in the galleries have featured women 's arts and crafts , including items from the DAR 's valuable quilt and embroidery collections . Exhibit curators provide a social and historical context for girls ' and women 's arts in such exhibits , for instance , explaining practices of mourning reflected in certain kinds of embroidery samplers , as well as ideals expressed about the new republic . Permanent exhibits include American furniture , silver and furnishings .
United States Bill of Rights
Bills of rights are in their origin , stipulations between kings and their subjects , abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege , reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince . Such was the Magna Charta , obtained by the Barons , swords in hand , from King John .
History of education in the United States
Spain had small settlements in Florida , the Southwest , and also controlled Louisiana . There is little evidence that they schooled any girls . Parish schools were administered by Jesuits or Franciscans and were limited to male students . Excerpt
Colonies in antiquity
After the conquests of the Macedonian Kingdom and Alexander the Great , a further number of Hellenistic colonies were founded also in Asia , Europe and Africa .
Maya civilization
The agents of the Catholic Church wrote detailed accounts of the Maya , in support of their efforts at evangelization , and absorption of the Maya into the Spanish Empire . This was followed by various Spanish priests and colonial officials who left descriptions of ruins they visited in Yucatán and Central America . In 1839 , American traveller and writer John Lloyd Stephens set out to visit a number of Maya sites with English architect and draftsman Frederick Catherwood . Their illustrated accounts of the ruins sparked strong popular interest , and brought the Maya to the attention of the world . The later 19th century saw the recording and recovery of ethnohistoric accounts of the Maya , and the first steps in deciphering Maya hieroglyphs . 1892
Thirteen Colonies
Historians before the 1880s emphasized American nationalism . However , scholarship after that time was heavily influenced by the `` Imperial school '' led by Herbert L. Osgood , George Louis Beer , Charles McLean Andrews , and Lawrence H. Gipson . This viewpoint dominated colonial historiography into the 1940s , and they emphasized and often praised the attention that London gave to all the colonies . In this view , there was never a threat ( before the 1770s ) that any colony would revolt or seek independence .
Conquistador
Less known nationals from Spain and Portugal continued to conduct exploration work , support conquest and colonization .
Culture
Matthew Arnold contrasted `` culture '' with anarchy ; other Europeans , following philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Jean - Jacques Rousseau , contrasted `` culture '' with `` the state of nature . '' According to Hobbes and Rousseau , the Native Americans who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature ; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between `` civilized '' and `` uncivilized . '' According to this way of thinking , one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others . This contrast led to Herbert Spencer 's theory of Social Darwinism and Lewis Henry Morgan 's theory of cultural evolution . Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is really an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites , other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is really an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects .
Ancient Egypt
During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance , Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam , but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul - Nun al - Misri and al - Maqrizi . In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries , European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys , leading to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe . This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt , who took , purchased , or were given many important antiquities .
History of Native Americans in the United States
European nations sent Native Americans ( sometimes against their will ) to the Old World as objects of curiosity . They often entertained royalty and were sometimes prey to commercial purposes . Christianization of Native Americans was a charted purpose for some European colonies .
Conquistador
An early motive for exploration was the search for Cipango , the place where gold was born . Cathay and Cibao were later goals . The Seven Cities of Gold , or `` Cibola '' , was rumoured to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest . As early as 1611 , Sebastián Vizcaíno surveyed the east coast of Japan and searched for two mythical islands called Rico de Oro ( Rich in Gold ) and Rico de Plata ( Rich in Silver ) .
European colonization of the Americas
The process of Christianization was at first violent : when the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1524 , they burned the places dedicated to pagan cult , alienating much of the local population . In the 1530s , they began to adapt Christian practices to local customs , including the building of new churches on the sites of ancient places of worship , leading to a mix of Old World Christianity with local religions . The Spanish Roman Catholic Church , needing the natives ' labor and cooperation , evangelized in Quechua , Nahuatl , Guaraní and other Native American languages , contributing to the expansion of these indigenous languages and equipping some of them with writing systems . One of the first primitive schools for Native Americans was founded by Fray Pedro de Gante in 1523 .
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Since the 1990s , the colonial influences on the ' construction ' and ' representation ' of Hinduism have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism Western Indologists are trying to come to more neutral and better - informed representations of India and its culture , while Indian scholars are trying to establish forms of knowledge and understanding which are grounded in and informed by Indian traditions , instead of being dominated by western forms of knowledge and understanding . Plagiarism
Olmec
The flat - faced , thick - lipped heads have caused some debate due to their resemblance to some African facial characteristics . Based on this comparison , some writers have said that the Olmecs were Africans who had emigrated to the New World . But , the vast majority of archaeologists and other Mesoamerican scholars reject claims of pre-Columbian contacts with Africa . Explanations for the facial features of the colossal heads include the possibility that the heads were carved in this manner due to the shallow space allowed on the basalt boulders . Others note that in addition to the broad noses and thick lips , the eyes of the heads often show the epicanthic fold , and that all these characteristics can still be found in modern Mesoamerican Indians . For instance , in the 1940s the artist / art historian Miguel Covarrubias published a series of photos of Olmec artworks and of the faces of modern Mexican Indians with very similar facial characteristics . The African origin hypothesis assumes that Olmec carving was intended to be a representation of the inhabitants , an assumption that is hard to justify given the full corpus of representation in Olmec carving . Ivan van Sertima claimed that the seven braids on the Tres Zapotes head was an Ethiopian hair style but he offered no evidence that this was an Ethiopian hair style at the appropriate time . The Egyptologist Frank Yurco has said that the Olmec braids do not resemble contemporary Egyptian or Nubian braids .
Roanoke Colony
Meanwhile , the Spanish had different reasons for wanting to find the colony . Knowing of Raleigh 's plans to use Roanoke as a base for privateering , they were hoping to destroy it . Moreover , they had been getting mostly inaccurate reports of activities there , and they imagined the colony to be far more successful than it actually was .
Roanoke Colony
The Queen and Raleigh intended that the venture should provide riches from the New World . The queen 's charter said that Raleigh was supposed to `` discover , search , find out , and view such remote heathen and barbarous Lands , Countries , and territories ... to have , hold , occupy , and enjoy '' .
Parthenon
The 18th century was a period of Ottoman stagnation ; as a result , many more Europeans found access to Athens , and the picturesque ruins of the Parthenon were much drawn and painted , spurring a rise in philhellenism and helping to arouse sympathy in Britain and France for Greek independence . Amongst those early travellers and archaeologists were James Stuart and Nicholas Revett , who were commissioned by the Society of Dilettanti to survey the ruins of classical Athens . What they produced was the first measured drawings of the Parthenon published in 1787 in the second volume of Antiquities of Athens Measured and Delineated . In 1801 , the British Ambassador at Constantinople , the Earl of Elgin , obtained a questionable firman ( edict ) from the Sultan , whose existence or legitimacy has not been proved until today , to make casts and drawings of the antiquities on the Acropolis , to demolish recent buildings if this was necessary to view the antiquities , and to remove sculptures from them .
Modern history
The major European powers laid claim to the areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area . These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate . The European power that demonstrated its control over a territory accepted the mandate to rule that region as a national colony . The European nation that held the claim developed and benefited from their colony 's commercial interests without having to fear rival European competition . With the colonial claim came the underlying assumption that the European power that exerted control would use its mandate to offer protection and provide welfare for its colonial peoples , however , this principle remained more theory than practice . There were many documented instances of material and moral conditions deteriorating for native Africans in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries under European colonial rule , to the point where the colonial experience for them has been described as `` hell on earth . ''
First Nations
The Portuguese Crown claimed it had territorial rights in the area visited by Cabot . In 1493 Pope Alexander VI -- assuming international jurisdiction -- had divided lands discovered in America between Spain and Portugal . The next year , in the Treaty of Tordesillas , these two kingdoms decided to draw the dividing line running north -- south , 370 leagues ( from 1,500 to 2,200 km ( 930 to 1,370 mi ) approximately depending on the league used ) west of the Cape Verde Islands . Land to the west would be Spanish , to the east Portuguese . Given the uncertain geography of the day , this seemed to give the `` new founde isle '' to Portugal . On the 1502 Cantino map , Newfoundland appears on the Portuguese side of the line ( as does Brazil ) . An expedition captured about 60 Aboriginal people as slaves who were said to `` resemble gypsies in colour , features , stature and aspect ; are clothed in the skins of various animals ... They are very shy and gentle , but well formed in arms and legs and shoulders beyond description ... '' Some captives , sent by Gaspar Corte - Real , reached Portugal . The others drowned , with Gaspar , on the return voyage . Gaspar 's brother , Miguel Corte - Real , went to look for him in 1502 , but also failed to return . Scholars believe that Miguel Corte - Real carved inscriptions on the controversial Dighton Rock . Non-Native
Costa Maya
The Río Bec and Chennes sites are some of the most recent found in Mexico . Most of the sites were found by rubber farmers scouting the forest in search of rubber trees . The discovered sites are as follows :