vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of United States prison systems
The convict lease , as practiced in the South , was not just a bald attempt by state governments to resurrect slavery , according to historians Edward L. Ayers and Marie Gottschalk . It reflected continuities in race relations , both argue , but it also reflected fundamental changes in the post-war Southern economy . For first time , millions of freed slaves came under the centralized control of state penal apparatuses ; at the same time , nascent industrial capitalism in the South faced a shortage of both capital and labor . Former slaves were the easiest Southern demographic to impress into service and adapt southern industries to these changes .
The impact of geography on colonial America
Population growth was very slow at first , and depended on an increasing amount of settlers coming into Jamestown . Besides recruiting foreign artisans , the Virginia company tried many schemes to increase settlement of the colony , including transporting `` Vagrant Children '' from England to Virginia and shipping young women to be married to colonists . The Virginia Company also began to use the practice of indentured servitude , promising land at the end of the term to increase immigration to the colonies. 1619 marked the first time African slaves were brought to the colony , when 20 arrived on the White Lion , a Dutch trade ship that had captured them from a Portuguese slave ship . During the English Civil War and the Commonwealth Period of England , Virginia was a haven for cavaliers or royalists still loyal to the crown to live , known as Virginia Cavaliers .
War of 1812
This war enabled thousands of slaves to escape to British lines or ships for freedom , despite the difficulties . The planters ' complacency about slave contentment was shocked by their seeing slaves , who risked so much to be free .
History of Arkansas
White farmers in Arkansas were devastated following the war , and a combination of forces aligned to further depress the agriculture sector . Many Arkansas farmers faced new competition from outside their region for the first time , further depressing the prices they could ask for their crop . Containing 2,373 miles ( 3,819 km ) of track by 1895 , the new railroads charged farmers higher rates to serve rural areas . These circumstances forced desperate farmers into crop liens , when they put up their land to pay for seeds in spring . Looking for a return on investment , the creditors usually insisted that farmers plant largely cotton , which remained the most valuable cash crop . The other form of farming that became popular in Arkansas and throughout the South was tenant farming , where tenants work an owner 's land in exchange for a fixed percentage of the crop yield . Nine such frustrated farmers in Prairie County formed an organization called the Grand Agricultural Wheel ( usually shortened to Wheel ) in 1882 to address issues relevant to the small farmer . Although open to all races , separate black and white Wheels were often formed . Major platform issues for the Wheel included high rates of farm foreclosure , anaconda mortgages , corrupt politicians who failed to assist farming issues , and high railroad rates . Although a strong populous movement , the Wheel struggled to provide a political voice for its supporters . A partnership with the Union Labor Party for the 1888 elections did not provide results as many Wheelers were hesitant to `` betray '' the Democrats who had traditionally earned their vote .
History of United States prison systems
Freed blacks became the primary workers in the South 's emerging penal labor system . Those accused of property crime -- white or black -- stood the greatest chance of conviction in post-war Southern courts . But black property offenders were convicted more often than white ones -- at a rate of eight convictions for every ten black defendants , compared to six of every ten white defendants . Overall , conviction rates for whites dropped substantially from antebellum levels during the Reconstruction Era and continued to decline throughout the last half of the nineteenth century .
Atlantic slave trade
The Atlantic trade brought new crops to Africa and also more efficient currencies which were adopted by the West African merchants . This can be interpreted as an institutional reform which reduced the cost of doing business . But the developmental benefits were limited as long as the business including slaving .
Great Migration (African American)
Educated African Americans were better able to obtain jobs after the Great Migration , eventually gaining a measure of class mobility , but the migrants encountered significant forms of discrimination . Because so many people migrated in a short period of time , the African - American migrants were often resented by the urban white working class ( often recent immigrants themselves ) ; fearing their ability to negotiate rates of pay or secure employment , the ethnic whites felt threatened by the influx of new labor competition . Sometimes those who were most fearful or resentful were the last immigrants of the 19th and new immigrants of the 20th century .
Colony of Virginia
As many indentured workers were illiterate , especially Africans , there were opportunities for abuse by planters and other indenture holders . Some ignored the expiration of servants ' indentured contracts and tried to keep them as lifelong workers . One example is with Anthony Johnson , who argued with Robert Parker , another planter , over the status of John Casor , formerly an indentured servant of his . Johnson argued that his indenture was for life and Parker had interfered with his rights . The court ruled in favor of Johnson and ordered that Casor be returned to him , where he served the rest of his life as a slave . Such documented cases marked the transformation of Negroes from indentured servants into slaves .
Freedmen's Bureau
Suffering much less damage in the war than some other Deep South states , Texas became a destination for some 200,000 refugee blacks from other parts of the South , in addition to 200,000 already in Texas . Slavery had been prevalent only in East Texas , and some freedmen hoped for the chance of new types of opportunity in the lightly populated but booming state . The Bureau 's political role was central , as was close attention to the need for schools .
London Company
The Company began to turn a profit after 1612 , when planting a couple of new varieties of tobacco yielded a product that appealed more to English tastes than the native tobacco . Tobacco became the commodity crop of the colony , and settlers were urged to cultivate more . The colony struggled with labor shortages as mortality was high .
Industrial Revolution
The development of machine tools , such as the engine lathe , planing , milling and shaping machines powered by these engines , enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines .
Colonial history of the United States
By 1700 , the Virginia population reached 70,000 and continued to grow rapidly from a high birth rate , low death rate , importation of slaves from the Caribbean , and immigration from Britain , Germany , and Pennsylvania . The climate was mild ; the farm lands were cheap and fertile . Carolinas
Atlantic slave trade
As Joseph E. Inikori argues , the history of the region shows that the effects were still quite deleterious . He argues that the African economic model of the period was very different from the European model , and could not sustain such population losses . Population reductions in certain areas also led to widespread problems . Inikori also notes that after the suppression of the slave trade Africa 's population almost immediately began to rapidly increase , even prior to the introduction of modern medicines .
Industrial Revolution
Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution . After many of the workers had completed the railways , they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities , providing additional workers for the factories .
Mass production
Electric motors were several times more efficient than small steam engines because central station generation were more efficient than small steam engines and because line shafts and belts had high friction losses . Electric motors allowed also more flexibility in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts . Many factories saw a 30 % increase in output just from changing over to electric motors .
Mass production
Mass production improved productivity , which was a contributing factor to economic growth and the decline in work week hours , alongside other factors such as transportation infrastructures ( canals , railroads and highways ) and agricultural mechanization . These factors caused the typical work week to decline from 70 hours in the early 19th century to 60 hours late in the century , then to 50 hours in the early 20th century and finally to 40 hours in the mid-1930s .
Mass production
The provision of a whole new system of electric generation emancipated industry from the leather belt and line shaft , for it eventually became possible to provide each tool with its own electric motor . This may seem only a detail of minor importance . In fact , modern industry could not be carried out with the belt and line shaft for a number of reasons . The motor enabled machinery to be arranged in the order of the work , and that alone has probably doubled the efficiency of industry , for it has cut out a tremendous amount of useless handling and hauling . The belt and line shaft were also tremendously wasteful -- so wasteful indeed that no factory could be really large , for even the longest line shaft was small according to modern requirements . Also high speed tools were impossible under the old conditions -- neither the pulleys nor the belts could stand modern speeds . Without high speed tools and the finer steels which they brought about , there could be nothing of what we call modern industry . The
Bessemer process
Steel greatly improved the productivity of railroads . Steel rails lasted ten times longer than iron rails . Steel rails , which became heavier as prices fell , could carry heavier locomotives , which could pull longer trains . Steel rail cars were longer and were able to increase the freight to car weight from 1 : 1 to 2 : 1 .
History of Arkansas
Population of Arkansas Year Pop . ± % 1810 1,062 -- 1820 14,273 + 1244.0 % 1830 30,388 + 112.9 % 1840 97,574 + 221.1 % 1850 209,897 + 115.1 % 1860 435,450 + 107.5 % 1870 484,471 + 11.3 % 1880 802,525 + 65.6 % 1890 1,128,211 + 40.6 % The
Manhattan Project
The production plant commenced operation in February 1945 , and as cascade after cascade came online , the quality of the product increased . By April 1945 , K - 25 had attained a 1.1 % enrichment and the output of the S - 50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed . Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7 % enrichment . In August , the last of the 2,892 stages commenced operation . K - 25 and K - 27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period , when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants . Thermal
Mechanised agriculture
According to a 1977 report by the California Agrarian Action Project , during the summer of 1976 in California , many harvest machines had been equipped with a photo - electric scanner that sorted out green tomatoes among the ripe red ones using infrared lights and colour sensors . It worked in lieu of 5,000 hand harvesters causing displacement of innumerable farm labourers as well as wage cuts and shorter work periods . Migrant workers were hit the hardest . To withstand the rigour of the machines , new crop varieties were bred to match the automated pickers . UC Davis Professor G.C. Hanna propagated a thick - skinned tomato called VF - 145 . But even still , millions were damaged with impact cracks and university breeders produced a more tougher and juiceless `` square round '' tomato . Small farms were of insufficient size to obtain financing to purchase the equipment and within 10 years , 85 % of the state 's 4,000 cannery tomato farmers were out of the business . This led to a concentrated tomato industry in California that `` now packed 85 % of the nation 's tomato products '' . The monoculture fields fostered rapid pest growth , requiring the use of `` more than four million pounds of pesticides each year '' which greatly affected the health of the soil , the farm workers , and possibly the consumers .
Great Migration (African American)
Between 1940 and 1960 , the number of blacks in managerial and administrative occupations doubled , along with the number of blacks in white - collar occupations , while the number of black agricultural workers in 1960 fell to one - fourth of what it was in 1940 . Also , between 1936 and 1959 , black income relative to white income more than doubled in various skilled trades . Despite employment discrimination , blacks had higher labor force participation rates than whites in every U.S. Census from 1890 to 1950 . As a result of these advancements , the percentage of black families living below the poverty line declined from 87 percent in 1940 to 47 percent by 1960 and to 30 percent by 1970 .
Industrial Revolution
During the Industrial Revolution , the life expectancy of children increased dramatically . The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5 % in 1730 -- 1749 to 31.8 % in 1810 -- 1829 .
Austin, Texas
Historical population Census Pop . % ± 1850 629 -- 1860 3,494 455.5 % 1870 4,428 26.7 % 1880 11,013 148.7 % 1890 14,575 32.3 % 1900 22,258 52.7 % 1910 29,860 34.2 % 1920 34,876 16.8 % 1930 53,120 52.3 % 1940 87,930 65.5 % 1950 132,459 50.6 % 1960 186,545 40.8 % 1970 253,539 35.9 % 1980 345,890 36.4 % 1990 465,622 34.6 % 2000 656,562 41.0 % 790,390 20.4 % Est. 2016 947,890 19.9 % U.S. Decennial Census
Bessemer process
Using the Bessemer process , it took between 10 and 20 minutes to convert three to five tons of iron into steel -- it used to take at least a full day of heating , stirring and reheating to achieve this .
Great Depression
The first three decades of the 20th century saw economic output surge with electrification , mass production and motorized farm machinery , and because of the rapid growth in productivity there was a lot of excess production capacity and the work week was being reduced .
Coffee
Meanwhile , coffee had been introduced to Brazil in 1727 , although its cultivation did not gather momentum until independence in 1822 . After this time massive tracts of rainforest were cleared for coffee plantations , first in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro and later São Paulo . Brazil went from having essentially no coffee exports in 1800 , to being a significant regional producer in 1830 , to being the largest producer in the world by 1852 . In 1910 -- 20 , Brazil exported around 70 % of the world 's coffee , Colombia , Guatemala , and Venezuela , exported half of the remaining 30 % , and Old World production accounted for less than 5 % of world exports .
Great Migration (African American)
, Michigan 1.4 % 1.2 % 4.1 % 7.7 % 9.2 % 16.2 % 28.9 % 43.7 % 63.1 % 75.7 % + 74.3 % Minneapolis , Minnesota 0.8 % 0.9 % 1.0 % 0.9 % 0.9 % 1.3 % 2.4 % 4.4 % 7.7 % 13.0 % + 12.2 % Kansas City , Missouri 10.7 % 9.5 % 9.5 % 9.6 % 10.4 % 12.2 % 17.5 % 22.1 % 27.4 % 29.6 % + 18.9 % St. Louis , Missouri 6.2 % 6.4 % 9.0 % 11.4 % 13.3 % 17.9 % 28.6 % 40.9 % 45.6 % 47.5 % + 41.3 % Buffalo , New York 0.5 % 0.4 % 0.9 % 2.4 % 3.1 % 6.3 % 13.3 % 20.4 % 26.6 % 30.7 % + 30.2 % New York City , New York 1.8 % 1.9 % 2.7 % 4.7 % 6.1 % 9.5 % 14.0 % 21.1 % 25.2 % 28.7 % + 26.9 % Cincinnati , Ohio 4.4 % 5.4 % 7.5 % 10.6 %
Oklahoma
Historical population Census Pop . % ± 1890 258,657 -- 1900 790,391 205.6 % 1910 1,657,155 109.7 % 1920 2,028,283 22.4 % 1930 2,396,040 18.1 % 1940 2,336,434 − 2.5 % 1950 2,233,351 − 4.4 % 1960 2,328,284 4.3 % 1970 2,559,229 9.9 % 1980 3,025,290 18.2 % 1990 3,145,585 4.0 % 2000 3,450,654 9.7 % 3,751,351 8.7 % Est. 2017 3,930,864 4.8 % U.S. Decennial Census 2015 Estimate
Colony of Virginia
Including the creation of the `` hundreds '' , the various incentives to investors in the Virginia Colony finally paid off by 1617 . By this time , the colonists were exporting 50,000 pounds of tobacco to England a year and were beginning to generate enough profit to ensure the economic survival of the colony .
Causes of the Great Depression
The years 1929 to 1941 had the highest total factor productivity growth in the history of the U.S. , largely due to the productivity increases in public utilities , transportation and trade .
Confederate States of America
The eleven Confederate States in the 1860 United States Census had 297 towns and cities with 835,000 people ; of these 162 with 681,000 people were at one point occupied by Union forces . Eleven were destroyed or severely damaged by war action , including Atlanta ( with an 1860 population of 9,600 ) , Charleston , Columbia , and Richmond ( with prewar populations of 40,500 , 8,100 , and 37,900 , respectively ) ; the eleven contained 115,900 people in the 1860 census , or 14 % of the urban South . Historians have not estimated what their actual population was when Union forces arrived . The number of people ( as of 1860 ) who lived in the destroyed towns represented just over 1 % of the Confederacy 's 1860 population . In addition , 45 court houses were burned ( out of 830 ) . The South 's agriculture was not highly mechanized . The value of farm implements and machinery in the 1860 Census was $81 million ; by 1870 , there was 40 % less , worth just $48 million . Many old tools had broken through heavy use ; new tools were rarely available ; even repairs were difficult .
Mass production
Mass production was popularized in the late 1910s and 1920s by Henry Ford 's Ford Motor Company , when introduced electric motors to the then - well - known technique of chain or sequential production . Ford also bought or designed and built special purpose machine tools and fixtures such as multiple spindle drill presses that could drill every hole on one side of an engine block in one operation and a multiple head milling machine that could simultaneously machine 15 engine blocks held on a single fixture . All of these machine tools were arranged systematically in the production flow and some had special carriages for rolling heavy items into machining position . Production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine tools .
Causes of the Great Depression
Joseph Stiglitz and Bruce Greenwald suggested that it was a productivity - shock in agriculture , through fertilizers , mechanization and improved seed , that caused the drop in agricultural product prices . Farmers were forced off the land , further adding to the excess labor supply .
French Revolution
A 2017 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that the emigration of more than 100,000 individuals ( predominantly supporters of the Old Regime ) during the Revolution had a significant negative impact on income per capita in the 19th century ( due to the fragmentation of agricultural holdings ) but became positive in the second half of the 20th century onward ( because it facilitated the rise in human capital investments ) . Another 2017 paper found that the redistribution of land had a positive impact on agricultural productivity , but that these gains gradually declined over the course of the 19th century . Constitutionalism
Coffee
Rapid growth in coffee production in South America during the second half of the 19th century was matched by growth in consumption in developed countries , though nowhere has this growth been as pronounced as in the United States , where high rate of population growth was compounded by doubling of per capita consumption between 1860 and 1920 . Though the United States was not the heaviest coffee - drinking nation at the time ( Nordic countries , Belgium , and Netherlands all had comparable or higher levels of per capita consumption ) , due to its sheer size , it was already the largest consumer of coffee in the world by 1860 , and , by 1920 , around half of all coffee produced worldwide was consumed in the US .
Thar Desert
The scientists of Central Arid Zone Research Institute ( CAZRI ) , have successfully developed and improved dozens of traditional and non-traditional crops / fruits , such as Ber trees ( like plums ) that produce much larger fruits than before ( lemon - size ) and can thrive with minimal rainfall . These trees have become a profitable option for farmers . One example from a case study of horticulture showed that in situation of budding in 35 plants of Ber and Guar ( Gola , Seb & Mundia variety developed in CAZRI ) , using only one hectare of land , yielded 10,000 kg. of Ber and 250 kg. of Guar , which translates into double or even triple profit .
Tariff
Alfred Eckes Jr notes that from 1871 to 1913 , the average U.S. tariff on dutiable imports never fell below 38 percent and gross national product ( GNP ) grew 4.3 percent annually , twice the pace in free trade Britain and well above the U.S. average in the 20th century ( Opening America 's Market : U.S. Foreign Trade Policy Since 1776 , Alfred Eckes Jr ) . According to Ian Fletcher , the protectionist periode `` was the golden age of American industry , when America 's economic performance surpassed the rest of the world by the greatest margin '' .
Cocoa production in Ghana
In 1979 , the government initiated reform of the cocoa sector , focusing on the government 's role in controlling the industry through the Cocoa Marketing Board . The board was dissolved and reconstituted as the Ghana Cocoa Board ( Cocobod ) . In 1984 it underwent further institutional reform aimed at subjecting the cocoa sector to market forces . Cocobod 's role was reduced , and 40 percent of its staff , or at least 35,000 employees , were dismissed . Furthermore , the government shifted responsibility for crop transport to the private sector . Subsidies for production inputs ( fertilizers , insecticides , fungicides , and equipment ) were removed , and there was a measure of privatization of the processing sector through at least one joint venture . In addition , a new payment system known as the Akuafo Check System was introduced in 1982 at the point of purchase of dried beans . Formerly , produce buying clerks had often held back cash payments , abused funds , and paid farmers with false checks . Under the Akuafo system , a farmer was given a check signed by the produce clerk and the treasurer that he could cash at a bank of his choice .
Modern history
Over the course of the 20th century , the world 's per - capita gross domestic product grew by a factor of five , much more than all earlier centuries combined ( including the 19th with its Industrial Revolution ) . Many economists make the case that this understates the magnitude of growth , as many of the goods and services consumed at the end of the 20th century , such as improved medicine ( causing world life expectancy to increase by more than two decades ) and communications technologies , were not available at any price at its beginning . However , the gulf between the world 's rich and poor grew wider , and the majority of the global population remained in the poor side of the divide .
Mass production
Electrification of factories began very gradually in the 1890s after the introduction of a practical DC motor by Frank J. Sprague and accelerated after the AC motor was developed by Galileo Ferraris , Nikola Tesla and Westinghouse , Mikhail Dolivo - Dobrovolsky and others . Electrification of factories was fastest between 1900 and 1930 , aided by the establishment of electric utilities with central stations and the lowering of electricity prices from 1914 to 1917 .
Industrial Revolution
The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation .