vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Punnett square
Since dominant traits mask recessive traits ( assuming no epistasis ) , there are nine combinations that have the phenotype round yellow , three that are round green , three that are wrinkled yellow , and one that is wrinkled green . The ratio 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 is the expected outcome when crossing two double - heterozygous parents with unlinked genes . Any other ratio indicates that something else has occurred ( such as lethal alleles , epistasis , linked genes ... etc. ;) .
Evolutionary developmental biology
A small fraction of the genes in an organism 's genome control the organism 's development . These genes are called the developmental - genetic toolkit . They are highly conserved among phyla , meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals . Differences in deployment of toolkit genes affect the body plan and the number , identity , and pattern of body parts . Most toolkit genes are parts of signalling pathways : they encode transcription factors , cell adhesion proteins , cell surface receptor proteins and signalling ligands that bind to them , and secreted morphogens that diffuse through the embryo . All of these help to define the fate of undifferentiated cells in the embryo . Together , they generate the patterns in time and space which shape the embryo , and ultimately form the body plan of the organism . Among the most important toolkit genes are the Hox genes . These transcription factors contain the homeobox protein - binding DNA motif , also found in other toolkit genes , and create the basic pattern of the body along its front - to - back axis . Hox genes determine where repeating parts , such as the many vertebrae of snakes , will grow in a developing embryo or larva . Pax - 6 , already mentioned , is a classic toolkit gene . Homeobox genes are also found in plants , implying they are common to all eukaryotes .
Entamoeba histolytica
In sexually reproducing eukaryotes , homologous recombination ( HR ) ordinarily occurs during meiosis . The meiosis - specific recombinase , Dmc1 , is required for efficient meiotic HR , and Dmc1 is expressed in E. histolytica . The purified Dmc1 from E. histolytica forms presynaptic filaments and catalyzes ATP - dependent homologous DNA pairing and DNA strand exchange over at least several thousand base pairs . The DNA pairing and strand exchange reactions are enhanced by the eukaryotic meiosis - specific recombination accessory factor ( heterodimer ) Hop2 - Mnd1 . These processes are central to meiotic recombination , suggesting that E. histolytica undergoes meiosis .
Gene
Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate - sugar backbone spiralling around the outside , and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine . The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align to form two hydrogen bonds , whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds . The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary , with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand , and so on .
BRCA1
Some results suggest that hypermethylation of the BRCA1 promoter , which has been reported in some cancers , could be considered as an inactivating mechanism for BRCA1 expression .
Entamoeba histolytica
Several other genes involved in both mitotic and meiotic HR are also present in E. histolytica . HR is enhanced under stressful growth conditions ( serum starvation ) concomitant with the up - regulation of HR - related genes . Also , UV irradiation induces DNA damage in E. histolytica trophozoites and activates the recombinational DNA repair pathway . In particular , expression of the Rad51 protein ( a recombinase ) is increased about 15-fold by UV treatment .
Gene
Defining exactly what section of a DNA sequence comprises a gene is difficult . Regulatory regions of a gene such as enhancers do not necessarily have to be close to the coding sequence on the linear molecule because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity . Similarly , a gene 's introns can be much larger than its exons . Regulatory regions can even be on entirely different chromosomes and operate in trans to allow regulatory regions on one chromosome to come in contact with target genes on another chromosome .
Punnett square
Zygosity refers to the grade of similarity between the alleles that determine one specific trait in an organism . In its simplest form , a pair of alleles can be either homozygous or heterozygous . Homozygosity , with homo relating to same while zygous pertains to a zygote , is seen when a combination of either two dominant or two recessive alleles code for the same trait . For example , using ' A ' as the representative character for each allele , a homozygous dominant pair 's genotype would be depicted as ' AA ' , while homozygous recessive is shown as ' aa ' . Heterozygosity , with hetero associated with different , can only be ' Aa ' because ' aA ' is not biologically correct . The phenotype of a homozygous dominant pair is ' A ' , or dominant , while the opposite is true for homozygous recessive . Heterozygous pairs always have a dominant phenotype . To a lesser degree , hemizygosity and nullizygosity can also be seen in gene pairs .
Entamoeba histolytica
The E. histolytica genome was sequenced , assembled , and automatically annotated in 2005 . The genome was reassembled and reannotated in 2010 . The 20 million basepair genome assembly contains 8,160 predicted genes ; known and novel transposable elements have been mapped and characterized , functional assignments have been revised and updated , and additional information has been incorporated , including metabolic pathways , Gene Ontology assignments , curation of transporters , and generation of gene families . The major group of transposable elements in E. histolytica are non-LTR retrotransposons . These have been divided in three families called EhLINEs and EhSINEs ( EhLINE1 , 2 , 3 and EhSINE1 , 2 , 3 ) . EhLINE1 encode an endonuclease ( EN ) protein ( in addition to reverse transcriptase and nucleotide - binding ORF1 ) , which have similarity with bacterial restriction endonuclease . This similarity with bacterial protein indicates that transposable elements have been acquired from prokaryotes by horizontal gene transfer in this protozoan parasite .
Gene
The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part . These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA .
Genetic recombination
Because recombination can occur with small probability at any location along chromosome , the frequency of recombination between two locations depends on the distance separating them . Therefore , for genes sufficiently distant on the same chromosome the amount of crossover is high enough to destroy the correlation between alleles .
Virus
A viral genome , irrespective of nucleic acid type , is almost always either single - stranded or double - stranded . Single - stranded genomes consist of an unpaired nucleic acid , analogous to one - half of a ladder split down the middle . Double - stranded genomes consist of two complementary paired nucleic acids , analogous to a ladder . The virus particles of some virus families , such as those belonging to the Hepadnaviridae , contain a genome that is partially double - stranded and partially single - stranded .
Gene
Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene - dense , those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function . Simple single - celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA , whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms , including humans , contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function . This DNA has often been referred to as `` junk DNA '' . However , more recent analyses suggest that , although protein - coding DNA makes up barely 2 % of the human genome , about 80 % of the bases in the genome may be expressed , so the term `` junk DNA '' may be a misnomer .
DNA replication
In molecular biology , DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule . This process occurs in all living organisms and is the basis for biological inheritance . The cell possesses the distinctive property of division , which makes replication of DNA essential .
Punnett square
This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( April 2010 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) A
Human skin color
Both the amount and type of melanin produced is controlled by a number of genes that operate under incomplete dominance . One copy of each of the various genes is inherited from each parent . Each gene can come in several alleles , resulting in the great variety of human skin tones . Melanin controls the amount of ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation from the sun that penetrates the skin by absorption . While UV radiation can assist in the production of vitamin D , excessive exposure to UV can damage health .
Evolutionary developmental biology
The Bicoid , Hunchback and Caudal proteins in turn regulate the transcription of gap genes such as giant , knirps , Krüppel , and tailless in a striped pattern , creating the first level of structures that will become segments . The proteins from these in turn control the pair - rule genes , which in the next stage set up 7 bands across the embryo 's long axis . Finally , the segment polarity genes such as engrailed split each of the 7 bands into two , creating 14 future segments .
Evidence of common descent
`` Computer simulations of the evolution of linear sequences have demonstrated the importance of recombination of blocks of sequence rather than point mutagenesis alone . Repeated cycles of point mutagenesis , recombination , and selection should allow in vitro molecular evolution of complex sequences , such as proteins . '' Evolutionary molecular engineering , also called directed evolution or in vitro molecular evolution involves the iterated cycle of mutation , multiplication with recombination , and selection of the fittest of individual molecules ( proteins , DNA , and RNA ) . Natural evolution can be relived showing us possible paths from catalytic cycles based on proteins to based on RNA to based on DNA .
Evolutionary developmental biology
In the so - called modern synthesis of the early 20th century , Ronald Fisher brought together Darwin 's theory of evolution , with its insistence on natural selection , heredity , and variation , and Gregor Mendel 's laws of genetics into a coherent structure for evolutionary biology . Biologists assumed that an organism was a straightforward reflection of its component genes : the genes coded for proteins , which built the organism 's body . Biochemical pathways ( and , they supposed , new species ) evolved through mutations in these genes . It was a simple , clear and nearly comprehensive picture : but it did not explain embryology .
Virus
Segmented genomes confer evolutionary advantages ; different strains of a virus with a segmented genome can shuffle and combine genes and produce progeny viruses or ( offspring ) that have unique characteristics . This is called reassortment or viral sex .
Punnett square
The Punnett square is a diagram that is used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment . It is named after Reginald C. Punnett , who devised the approach . The diagram is used by biologists to determine the probability of an offspring having a particular genotype . The Punnett square is a tabular summary of possible combinations of maternal alleles with paternal alleles . These tables can be used to examine the genotypic outcome probabilities of the offspring of a single trait ( allele ) , or when crossing multiple traits from the parents . The Punnett Square is a visual representation of Mendelian inheritance . It is important to understand the terms `` heterozygous '' , `` homozygous '' , `` double heterozygote '' ( or homozygote ) , `` dominant allele '' and `` recessive allele '' when using the Punnett square method . For multiple traits , using the `` forked - line method '' is typically much easier than the Punnett square . Phenotypes may be predicted with at least better - than - chance accuracy using a Punnett square , but the phenotype that may appear in the presence of a given genotype can in some instances be influenced by many other factors , as when polygenic inheritance and / or epigenetics are at work . It is a square with 2 lines that look like a window with letters .
Natural selection
Natural selection acts on an organism 's phenotype , or physical characteristics . Phenotype is determined by an organism 's genetic make - up ( genotype ) and the environment in which the organism lives . When different organisms in a population possess different versions of a gene for a certain trait , each of these versions is known as an allele . It is this genetic variation that underlies differences in phenotype . An example is the ABO blood type antigens in humans , where three alleles govern the phenotype .
Natural selection
Variation exists within all populations of organisms . This occurs partly because random mutations arise in the genome of an individual organism , and offspring can inherit such mutations . Throughout the lives of the individuals , their genomes interact with their environments to cause variations in traits . The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell , other cells , other individuals , populations , species , as well as the abiotic environment . Because individuals with certain variants of the trait tend to survive and reproduce more than individuals with other , less successful variants , the population evolves . Other factors affecting reproductive success include sexual selection ( now often included in natural selection ) and fecundity selection .
Insulin
Insulin and its related proteins have been shown to be produced inside the brain , and reduced levels of these proteins are linked to Alzheimer 's disease .
Statin
Research continues into other areas where specific statins also appear to have a favorable effect , including dementia , lung cancer , nuclear cataracts , hypertension , and prostate cancer .
Autophagy
The second strategy is based on the idea that autophagy is a protein degradation system used to maintain homeostasis and the findings that inhibition of autophagy often leads to apoptosis . Inhibition of autophagy is riskier as it may lead to cell survival instead of the desired cell death .
Autophagy
The first strategy has been tested by looking at dose - response anti-tumor effects during autophagy - induced therapies . These therapies have shown that autophagy increases in a dose - dependent manner . This is directly related to the growth of cancer cells in a dose - dependent manner as well . This data supports the development of therapies that will encourage autophagy . Secondly , inhibiting the protein pathways directly known to induce autophagy may also serve as an anticancer therapy .
Substantia nigra
This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( January 2018 )
Autophagy
The field of autophagy research experienced accelerated growth at the turn of the century . Knowledge of ATG genes provided scientists more convenient tools to dissect functions of autophagy in human health and disease . In 1999 , a landmark discovery connecting autophagy with cancer was published by Beth Levine 's group . To this date , relationship between cancer and autophagy continues to be a main theme of autophagy research . The roles of autophagy in neurodegeneration and immune defense also received considerable attention . In 2003 , the first Gordon conference on autophagy was held at Waterville . In 2005 , Daniel J Klionsky launched `` Autophagy '' , a scientific journal dedicated to this field . The first Keystone Symposia on autophagy was held in 2007 at Monterey .
Positron emission tomography
This section needs to be updated . Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information . ( February 2018 )
Neurotransmitter
Generally , there are no scientifically established `` norms '' for appropriate levels or `` balances '' of different neurotransmitters . It is in most cases pragmatically impossible to even measure levels of neurotransmitters in a brain or body at any distinct moments in time . Neurotransmitters regulate each other 's release , and weak consistent imbalances in this mutual regulation were linked to temperament in healthy people . Strong imbalances or disruptions to neurotransmitter systems have been associated with many diseases and mental disorders . These include Parkinson 's , depression , insomnia , Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( ADHD ) , anxiety , memory loss , dramatic changes in weight and addictions . Chronic physical or emotional stress can be a contributor to neurotransmitter system changes . Genetics also plays a role in neurotransmitter activities . Apart from recreational use , medications that directly and indirectly interact one or more transmitter or its receptor are commonly prescribed for psychiatric and psychological issues . Notably , drugs interacting with serotonin and norepinephrine are prescribed to patients with problems such as depression and anxiety -- though the notion that there is much solid medical evidence to support such interventions has been widely criticized .
Scientific method
If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience , the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense . A new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible . Thus , much scientifically based speculation might convince one ( or many ) that the hypothesis that other intelligent species exist is true . But since there no experiment now known which can test this hypothesis , science itself can have little to say about the possibility . In future , some new technique might lead to an experimental test and the speculation would then become part of accepted science . DNA
Theory of mind
Current research suggests that impairment in theory of mind negatively affects clinical insight , the patient 's awareness of their mental illness . Insight requires theory of mind -- a patient must be able to adopt a third - person perspective and see the self as others do . A patient with good insight would be able to accurately self - represent , by comparing oneself with others and by viewing oneself from the perspective of others . Insight allows a patient to recognize and react appropriately to his symptoms ; however , a patient who lacks insight would not realize that he has a mental illness , because of his inability to accurately self - represent . Therapies that teach patients perspective - taking and self - reflection skills can improve abilities in reading social cues and taking the perspective of another person .
Insulin
Unlike many medicines , insulin currently can not be taken orally because , like nearly all other proteins introduced into the gastrointestinal tract , it is reduced to fragments , whereupon all activity is lost . There has been some research into ways to protect insulin from the digestive tract , so that it can be administered orally or sublingually .
Protein folding
The 100 - petaFLOP distributed computing project Folding@home created by Vijay Pande 's group at Stanford University simulates protein folding using the idle processing time of CPUs and GPUs of personal computers from volunteers . The project aims to understand protein misfolding and accelerate drug design for disease research .
Human brain
When brain death is suspected , reversible differential diagnoses such as hypothermia - induced coma , electrolyte , neurological and drug - related cognitive suppression need to be excluded . Testing for reflexes can be of help in the decision , as can the absence of response and breathing . Clinical observations , including a total lack of responsiveness , a known diagnosis , and neural imaging evidence , may all play a role in the decision to pronounce brain death .
Myelin
Unmyelinated fibers and myelinated axons of the mammalian central nervous system do not regenerate .
Medical diagnosis
If unexpected findings are made during this process , the initial hypothesis may be ruled out and the provider must then consider other hypotheses .
X chromosome
APOO : encoding protein Apolipoprotein O ARMCX6 : encoding protein Armadillo repeat containing X-linked 6 BEX1 : encoding protein Brain - expressed X-linked protein 1 BEX2 : encoding protein Brain - expressed X-linked protein 2 BEX4 : encoding protein Brain expressed , X-linked 4 CCDC120 : encoding protein Coiled coil domain containing protein 120 CCDC22 : encoding protein Coiled - coil domain containing 22 CD99L2 : CD99 antigen - like protein 2 CHRDL1 : encoding protein Chordin - like 1 CMTX2 encoding protein Charcot - Marie - Tooth neuropathy , X-linked 2 ( recessive ) CMTX3 encoding protein Charcot - Marie - Tooth neuropathy , X-linked 3 ( dominant ) CT45A5 : encoding protein Cancer / testis antigen family 45 , member A5 CXorf36 : encoding protein hypothetical protein LOC79742 CXorf40A : Chromosome X open reading frame 40 CXorf49 : chromosome X open reading frame 49 .
Neuron
It has been demonstrated that neurogenesis can sometimes occur in the adult vertebrate brain , a finding that led to controversy in 1999 . Later studies of the age of human neurons suggest that this process occurs only for a minority of cells , and a vast majority of neurons composing the neocortex were formed before birth and persist without replacement .
Eating disorder
Cognitive behavioral therapy ( CBT ) , which postulates that an individual 's feelings and behaviors are caused by their own thoughts instead of external stimuli such as other people , situations or events ; the idea is to change how a person thinks and reacts to a situation even if the situation itself does not change . See Cognitive behavioral treatment of eating disorders . Acceptance and commitment therapy : a type of CBT Cognitive Remediation Therapy ( CRT ) , a set of cognitive drills or compensatory interventions designed to enhance cognitive functioning . Dialectical behavior therapy Family therapy including `` conjoint family therapy '' ( CFT ) , `` separated family therapy '' ( SFT ) and Maudsley Family Therapy . Behavioral therapy : focuses on gaining control and changing unwanted behaviors . Interpersonal psychotherapy ( IPT ) Cognitive Emotional Behaviour Therapy ( CEBT ) Music Therapy Recreation Therapy Art therapy Nutrition counseling and Medical nutrition therapy Medication : Orlistat is used in obesity treatment . Olanzapine seems to promote weight gain as well as the ability to ameliorate obsessional behaviors concerning weight gain . zinc supplements have been shown to be helpful , and cortisol is also being investigated . Self - help and guided self - help have been shown to be helpful in AN , BN and BED ; this includes support groups and self - help groups such as Eating Disorders Anonymous and Overeaters Anonymous . Psychoanalysis Inpatient care
Consciousness
In 2013 , an experimental procedure was developed to measure degrees of consciousness , the procedure involving stimulating the brain with a magnetic pulse , measuring resulting waves of electrical activity , and developing a consciousness score based on the complexity of the brain activity .