vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Virus
Viral genomes are circular , as in the polyomaviruses , or linear , as in the adenoviruses . The type of nucleic acid is irrelevant to the shape of the genome . Among RNA viruses and certain DNA viruses , the genome is often divided up into separate parts , in which case it is called segmented . For RNA viruses , each segment often codes for only one protein and they are usually found together in one capsid . All segments are not required to be in the same virion for the virus to be infectious , as demonstrated by brome mosaic virus and several other plant viruses .
Plant virus
Viruses are extremely small and can only be observed under an electron microscope . The structure of a virus is given by its coat of proteins , which surround the viral genome . Assembly of viral particles takes place spontaneously .
Virus
Opinions differ on whether viruses are a form of life , or organic structures that interact with living organisms . They have been described as `` organisms at the edge of life '' , since they resemble organisms in that they possess genes , evolve by natural selection , and reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self - assembly . Although they have genes , they do not have a cellular structure , which is often seen as the basic unit of life . Viruses do not have their own metabolism , and require a host cell to make new products . They therefore can not naturally reproduce outside a host cell -- although bacterial species such as rickettsia and chlamydia are considered living organisms despite the same limitation . Accepted forms of life use cell division to reproduce , whereas viruses spontaneously assemble within cells . They differ from autonomous growth of crystals as they inherit genetic mutations while being subject to natural selection . Virus self - assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of life , as it lends further credence to the hypothesis that life could have started as self - assembling organic molecules .
Plant virus
This strategy is adopted by viral genera such as the Potyviridae and Tymoviridae . The ribosome translates a single protein from the viral genome . Within the polyprotein is an enzyme ( or enzymes ) with proteinase function that is able to cleave the polyprotein into the various single proteins or just cleave away the protease , which can then cleave other polypeptides producing the mature proteins .
Plant virus
For translation to occur , eukaryotic mRNAs require a 5 ' Cap structure . This means that viruses must also have one . This normally consists of 7MeGpppN where N is normally adenine or guanine . The viruses encode a protein , normally a replicase , with a methyltransferase activity to allow this .
Plant virus
A very small number of plant viruses have , in addition to their coat proteins , a lipid envelope . This is derived from the plant cell membrane as the virus particle buds off from the cell .
Vector (molecular biology)
Some vectors are designed for transcription only , for example for in vitro mRNA production . These vectors are called transcription vectors . They may lack the sequences necessary for polyadenylation and termination , therefore may not be used for protein production .
Plant virus
More recently virus research has been focused on understanding the genetics and molecular biology of plant virus genomes , with a particular interest in determining how the virus can replicate , move and infect plants . Understanding the virus genetics and protein functions has been used to explore the potential for commercial use by biotechnology companies . In particular , viral - derived sequences have been used to provide an understanding of novel forms of resistance . The recent boom in technology allowing humans to manipulate plant viruses may provide new strategies for production of value - added proteins in plants .
Plant virus
The second most common structure amongst plant viruses are isometric particles . They are 25 -- 50 nm in diameter . In cases when there is only a single coat protein , the basic structure consists of 60 T subunits , where T is an integer . Some viruses may have 2 coat proteins that associate to form an icosahedral shaped particle .
Virus
The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six basic stages in the life cycle of viruses :
Plant virus
Over 50 % of known plant viruses are rod - shaped ( flexuous or rigid ) . The length of the particle is normally dependent on the genome but it is usually between 300 -- 500 nm with a diameter of 15 -- 20 nm . Protein subunits can be placed around the circumference of a circle to form a disc . In the presence of the viral genome , the discs are stacked , then a tube is created with room for the nucleic acid genome in the middle .
Cell nucleus
RNA splicing , carried out by a complex called the spliceosome , is the process by which introns , or regions of DNA that do not code for protein , are removed from the pre-mRNA and the remaining exons connected to re-form a single continuous molecule . This process normally occurs after 5 ' capping and 3 ' polyadenylation but can begin before synthesis is complete in transcripts with many exons . Many pre-mRNAs , including those encoding antibodies , can be spliced in multiple ways to produce different mature mRNAs that encode different protein sequences . This process is known as alternative splicing , and allows production of a large variety of proteins from a limited amount of DNA .
Virus
Bacteriophages are a common and diverse group of viruses and are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments -- there are up to ten times more of these viruses in the oceans than there are bacteria , reaching levels of 250,000,000 bacteriophages per millilitre of seawater . These viruses infect specific bacteria by binding to surface receptor molecules and then entering the cell . Within a short amount of time , in some cases just minutes , bacterial polymerase starts translating viral mRNA into protein . These proteins go on to become either new virions within the cell , helper proteins , which help assembly of new virions , or proteins involved in cell lysis . Viral enzymes aid in the breakdown of the cell membrane , and , in the case of the T4 phage , in just over twenty minutes after injection over three hundred phages could be released .
Plant virus
75 % of plant viruses have genomes that consist of single stranded RNA ( ssRNA ) . 65 % of plant viruses have + ssRNA , meaning that they are in the same sense orientation as messenger RNA but 10 % have - ssRNA , meaning they must be converted to + ssRNA before they can be translated . 5 % are double stranded RNA and so can be immediately translated as + ssRNA viruses. 3 % require a reverse transcriptase enzyme to convert between RNA and DNA . 17 % of plant viruses are ssDNA and very few are dsDNA , in contrast a quarter of animal viruses are dsDNA and three quarters of bacteriophage are dsDNA . Viruses use the plant ribosomes to produce the 4 - 10 proteins encoded by their genome . However , since many of the proteins are encoded on a single strand ( that is , they are polycistronic ) this will mean that the ribosome will either only produce one protein , as it will terminate translation at the first stop codon , or that a polyprotein will be produced . Plant viruses have had to evolve special techniques to allow the production of viral proteins by plant cells .
Diphtheria
Diphtheria toxin is a single , 60 - kDa - molecular weight protein composed of two peptide chains , fragment A and fragment B , held together by a disulfide bond . Fragment B is a recognition subunit that gains the toxin entry into the host cell by binding to the EGF - like domain of heparin - binding EGF - like growth factor on the cell surface . This signals the cell to internalize the toxin within an endosome via receptor - mediated endocytosis . Inside the endosome , the toxin is split by a trypsin - like protease into its individual A and B fragments . The acidity of the endosome causes fragment B to create pores in the endosome membrane , thereby catalysing the release of fragment A into the cell 's cytoplasm .
Vector (molecular biology)
Plasmids with specially - constructed features are commonly used in laboratory for cloning purposes . These plasmid are generally non-conjugative but may have many more features , notably a `` multiple cloning site '' where multiple restriction enzyme cleavage sites allow for the insertion of a transgene insert . The bacteria containing the plasmids can generate millions of copies of the vector within the bacteria in hours , and the amplified vectors can be extracted from the bacteria for further manipulation . Plasmids may be used specifically as transcription vectors and such plasmids may lack crucial sequences for protein expression . Plasmids used for protein expression , called expression vectors , would include elements for translation of protein , such as a ribosome binding site , start and stop codons .
Plant virus
Some viral families , such as the Bromoviridae instead opt to have multipartite genomes , genomes split between multiple viral particles . For infection to occur , the plant must be infected with all particles across the genome . For instance Brome mosaic virus has a genome split between 3 viral particles , and all 3 particles with the different RNAs are required for infection to take place .
Diphtheria
Fragment A inhibits the synthesis of new proteins in the affected cell by catalyzing ADP - ribosylation of elongation factor EF - 2 -- a protein that is essential to the translation step of protein synthesis . This ADP - ribosylation involves the transfer of an ADP - ribose from NAD+ to a diphthamide ( a modified histidine ) residue within the EF - 2 protein . Since EF - 2 is needed for the moving of tRNA from the A-site to the P - site of the ribosome during protein translation , ADP - ribosylation of EF - 2 prevents protein synthesis .
Plant virus
Some viruses are cap - snatchers . During this process , a G - capped host mRNA is recruited by the viral transcriptase complex and subsequently cleaved by a virally encoded endonuclease . The resulting capped leader RNA is used to prime transcription on the viral genome .
Germ theory of disease
Koch 's postulates have also influenced scientists who examine microbial pathogenesis from a molecular point of view . In the 1980s , a molecular version of Koch 's postulates was developed to guide the identification of microbial genes encoding virulence factors .
Virus
A virus has either a DNA or an RNA genome and is called a DNA virus or an RNA virus , respectively . The vast majority of viruses have RNA genomes . Plant viruses tend to have single - stranded RNA genomes and bacteriophages tend to have double - stranded DNA genomes .
Antigen-presenting cell
Antigen - presenting cells are vital for effective adaptive immune response , as the functioning of both cytotoxic and helper T cells is dependent on APCs . Antigen presentation allows for specificity of adaptive immunity and can contribute to immune responses against both intracellular and extracellular pathogens . It is also involved in defense against tumors . Some cancer therapies involve the creation of artificial APCs to prime the adaptive immune system to target malignant cells .
Ribosome
The sequence of DNA , which encodes the sequence of the amino acids in a protein , is copied into a messenger RNA chain . It may be copied many times into RNA chains . Ribosomes can bind to a messenger RNA chain and use its sequence for determining the correct sequence of amino acids . Amino acids are selected , collected , and carried to the ribosome by transfer RNA ( tRNA ) molecules , which enter one part of the ribosome and bind to the messenger RNA chain . It is during this binding that the correct translation of nucleic acid sequence to amino acid sequence occurs . For each coding triplet in the messenger RNA there is a distinct transfer RNA that matches and which carries the correct amino acid for that coding triplet . The attached amino acids are then linked together by another part of the ribosome . Once the protein is produced , it can then fold to produce a specific functional three - dimensional structure although during synthesis some proteins start folding into their correct form .
Ribosome
Würzburg University and Max Planck Institute researches , the results of which were published in Cell Reports and The EMBO magazines in September 2016 , have shown that ribosomes have the role of being `` a quality control point '' . Professor Utz Fischer from the University of Würzburg has been researching the assembly of proteins called `` macromolecular machines '' in the cell for years . He describes this assembly process as LEGO blocks : `` Think of it as LEGO bricks at the molecular level : One brick is attached to the next until the product is finished . If only one defective or wrong brick is used , the entire building may be compromised as a result . ''
Virus
In general , RNA viruses have smaller genome sizes than DNA viruses because of a higher error - rate when replicating , and have a maximum upper size limit . Beyond this limit , errors in the genome when replicating render the virus useless or uncompetitive . To compensate for this , RNA viruses often have segmented genomes -- the genome is split into smaller molecules -- thus reducing the chance that an error in a single - component genome will incapacitate the entire genome . In contrast , DNA viruses generally have larger genomes because of the high fidelity of their replication enzymes . Single - strand DNA viruses are an exception to this rule , as mutation rates for these genomes can approach the extreme of the ssRNA virus case .
Endomembrane system
There are various types of vesicles each with a different protein configuration . Most are formed from specific regions of membranes . When a vesicle buds off from a membrane it contains specific proteins on its cytosolic surface . Each membrane a vesicle travels to contains a marker on its cytosolic surface . This marker corresponds with the proteins on the vesicle traveling to the membrane . Once the vesicle finds the membrane , they fuse .
Fragment crystallizable region
In a new development in the field of antibody - based therapeutics , the Fc region of immunoglobulins has been engineered to contain an antigen - binding site . This type of antigen - binding fragment is called Fcab . Fcab fragments can be inserted into a full immunoglobulin by swapping the Fc region , thus obtaining a bispecific antibody ( with both Fab and Fcab regions containing distinct binding sites ) . These bispecific monoclonal antibodies are sometimes referred to as mAb .
Medical device
Package testing documents and ensures that packages meet regulations and end - use requirements . Manufacturing processes must be controlled and validated to ensure consistent performance .
Iron(II,III) oxide
Production of nano - particles can be performed chemically by taking for example mixtures of Fe and Fe salts and mixing them with alkali to precipitate colloidal Fe O . The reaction conditions are critical to the process and determine the particle size .
Virus
Genome size varies greatly between species . The smallest viral genomes -- the ssDNA circoviruses , family Circoviridae -- code for only two proteins and have a genome size of only two kilobases ; the largest -- the pandoraviruses -- have genome sizes of around two megabases which code for about 2500 proteins . Virus genes rarely have introns and often are arranged in the genome so that they overlap .
Virus
Some viruses that infect Archaea have complex structures that are unrelated to any other form of virus , with a wide variety of unusual shapes , ranging from spindle - shaped structures , to viruses that resemble hooked rods , teardrops or even bottles . Other archaeal viruses resemble the tailed bacteriophages , and can have multiple tail structures .
Vector (molecular biology)
Polyadenylation tail : Creates a polyadenylation tail at the end of the transcribed pre-mRNA that protects the mRNA from exonucleases and ensures transcriptional and translational termination : stabilizes mRNA production . Minimal UTR length : UTRs contain specific characteristics that may impede transcription or translation , and thus the shortest UTRs or none at all are encoded for in optimal expression vectors . Kozak sequence : Vectors should encode for a Kozak sequence in the mRNA , which assembles the ribosome for translation of the mRNA .
Genetic recombination
V ( D ) J recombination in organisms with an adaptive immune system is a type of site - specific genetic recombination that helps immune cells rapidly diversify to recognize and adapt to new pathogens .
Fragment crystallizable region
The other part of an antibody , called the Fab region , contains variable sections that define the specific target that the antibody can bind . By contrast , the Fc region of all antibodies in a class are the same for each species ; they are constant rather than variable . The Fc region is , therefore , sometimes incorrectly termed the `` fragment constant region '' .
Cigarette filter
Starch glues or emulsion - based adhesives are used for gluing cigarette seams . Hot - melt and emulsion - based adhesives are used for filter seams . Emulsion - based adhesives are used for bonding the filters to the cigarettes . The tip paper may be coated with polyvinyl alcohol .
Collagen
Most collagen forms in a similar manner , but the following process is typical for type I :
Plant virus
However some plant viruses do not use cap , yet translate efficiently due to cap - independent translation enhancers present in 5 ' and 3 ' untranslated regions of viral mRNA .
Antigen-presenting cell
The APC activator IMP321 is being tested in clincal trials to push the gas of the immune reaction to eliminate metastatic breast cancer or melanoma .
Ribosome
The differences between the bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes are exploited by pharmaceutical chemists to create antibiotics that can destroy a bacterial infection without harming the cells of the infected person . Due to the differences in their structures , the bacterial 70S ribosomes are vulnerable to these antibiotics while the eukaryotic 80S ribosomes are not . Even though mitochondria possess ribosomes similar to the bacterial ones , mitochondria are not affected by these antibiotics because they are surrounded by a double membrane that does not easily admit these antibiotics into the organelle .
Vector (molecular biology)
Cells expressing β - galactosidase ( therefore does n't contain an insert ) appear as blue colonies . White colonies would be selected as those that may contain an insert . Other commonly used reporters include green fluorescent protein and luciferase . Targeting sequence : Expression vectors may include encoding for a targeting sequence in the finished protein that directs the expressed protein to a specific organelle in the cell or specific location such as the periplasmic space of bacteria . Protein purification tags : Some expression vectors include proteins or peptide sequences that allows for easier purification of the expressed protein . Examples include polyhistidine - tag , glutathione - S - transferase , and maltose binding protein . Some of these tags may also allow for increased solubility of the target protein . The target protein is fused to the protein tag , but a protease cleavage site positioned in the polypeptide linker region between the protein and the tag allows the tag to be removed later .
Plant breeding
Chemical mutagens like EMS and DMS , radiation and transposons are used to generate mutants with desirable traits to be bred with other cultivars - a process known as Mutation Breeding . Classical plant breeders also generate genetic diversity within a species by exploiting a process called somaclonal variation , which occurs in plants produced from tissue culture , particularly plants derived from callus . Induced polyploidy , and the addition or removal of chromosomes using a technique called chromosome engineering may also be used .
Virus
The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses ( ICTV ) developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put a greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity . A unified taxonomy ( a universal system for classifying viruses ) has been established . Only a small part of the total diversity of viruses has been studied .
Plant virus
Tobacco mosaic virus ( TMV ) and Cauliflower mosaic virus ( CaMV ) are frequently used in plant molecular biology . Of special interest is the CaMV 35S promoter , which is a very strong promoter most frequently used in plant transformations .
Operon
Operons are also found in viruses such as bacteriophages . For example , T7 phages have two operons . The first operon codes for various products , including a special T7 RNA polymerase which can bind to and transcribe the second operon . The second operon includes a lysis gene meant to cause the host cell to burst .
Enzyme
Enzymes are used in the chemical industry and other industrial applications when extremely specific catalysts are required . Enzymes in general are limited in the number of reactions they have evolved to catalyze and also by their lack of stability in organic solvents and at high temperatures . As a consequence , protein engineering is an active area of research and involves attempts to create new enzymes with novel properties , either through rational design or in vitro evolution . These efforts have begun to be successful , and a few enzymes have now been designed `` from scratch '' to catalyze reactions that do not occur in nature .
MetLife Stadium
Date Home Result Guest Tournament Attendance May 7 , 2010 Mexico 0 - 0 Ecuador International Friendly 77,507 August 10 , 2010 United States 0 - 2 Brazil International Friendly 77,223 March 26 , 2011 United States 1 - 1 Argentina International Friendly 78,926 June 18 , 2011 Mexico 2 - 1 Guatemala 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup 78,807 May 27 , 2012 Mexico 2 - 0 Wales International Friendly 35,518 November 14 , 2012 Brazil 1 - 1 Colombia International Friendly 38,624 August 4 , 2013 Valencia 4 - 0 Inter Milan 2013 International Champions Cup 39,764 August 4 , 2013 Chelsea 2 - 0 AC Milan 2013 International Champions Cup 39,764 August 14 , 2013 Mexico 4 - 1 Ivory Coast International Friendly 35,671 November 15 , 2013 Argentina 0 - 0 Ecuador International Friendly 49,165 June 10 , 2014 Portugal 5 - 1 Republic of Ireland International Friendly 46,063 September 9 , 2014 Brazil 1 - 0 Ecuador International Friendly 35,975 March 31 , 2015 Ecuador 1 - 2 Argentina International Friendly 48,000 July 19 , 2015 Mexico 1 - 0 Costa Rica 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup 74,187 June 12 , 2016 Ecuador 4 - 0 Haiti Copa América Centenario 50,976 June 17 , 2016 Peru 0 - 0 Colombia Copa América Centenario 79,194 June 26 , 2016 Argentina 0 - 0 ( 2 -- 4 pen . ) Chile Copa América Centenario Final 82,026 August 3 , 2016 Bayern Munich 0 - 1 Real Madrid 2016 International Champions Cup 82,012 June 1 , 2017 Mexico 4 - 1 Republic of Ireland International Friendly 42,017 July 22 , 2017 Juventus 1 - 2 Barcelona 2017 International Champions Cup 82,104 July 25 , 2018 Manchester City 1 - 2 Liverpool 2018 International Champions Cup 52,635 August 7 , 2018 Real Madrid 2 - 1 Roma 2018 International Champions Cup 51,528 September 7 , 2018 United States 0 - 2 Brazil International Friendly 32,489 September 11 , 2018 Colombia 0 - 0 Argentina International Friendly 35,624
Monday Night Football
In 2008 , Martin and Allegre only travelled to the Cowboys - Eagles game , during the NFL 's celebrations of the Hispanic Heritage Month .
Congressional Baseball Game
For a brief description of each of the 1993 -- 2011 inductees , see footnote .