vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Although some Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner , most fought until they were killed or committed suicide . Nearly 99 % of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed . Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April -- June 1945 , 94 % were killed . American military leaders used these figures to estimate high casualties among American soldiers in the planned invasion of Japan .
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
The role of the bombings in Japan 's surrender and the U.S. 's ethical justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular debate for decades . J. Samuel Walker wrote in an April 2005 overview of recent historiography on the issue , `` the controversy over the use of the bomb seems certain to continue . '' He wrote that `` The fundamental issue that has divided scholars over a period of nearly four decades is whether the use of the bomb was necessary to achieve victory in the war in the Pacific on terms satisfactory to the United States . ''
Manhattan Project
The necessity of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became a subject of controversy among historians . Some questioned whether an `` atomic diplomacy '' would not have attained the same goals and disputed whether the bombings or the Soviet declaration of war on Japan was decisive . The Franck Report was the most notable effort pushing for a demonstration but was turned down by the Interim Committee 's scientific panel . The Szilárd petition , drafted in July 1945 and signed by dozens of scientists working on the Manhattan Project , was a late attempt at warning President Harry S. Truman about his responsibility in using such weapons .
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on August 19 , with three more in September and a further three in October . On August 10 , he sent a memorandum to Marshall in which he wrote that `` the next bomb ... should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after 17 or 18 August . '' On the same day , Marshall endorsed the memo with the comment , `` It is not to be released over Japan without express authority from the President . '' Truman had secretly requested this on August 10 . This modified the previous order that the target cities were to be attacked with atomic bombs `` as made ready '' .
Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor
There was also confusion about the Army 's readiness status as General Short had changed local alert level designations without clearly informing Washington . Most of the Army 's mobile anti-aircraft guns were secured , with ammunition locked down in armories . To avoid upsetting property owners , and in keeping with Washington 's admonition not to alarm civil populations ( e.g. , in the late November war warning messages from the Navy and War Departments ) , guns were not dispersed around Pearl Harbor ( i.e. , on private property ) . Additionally , aircraft were parked on airfields to lessen the risk of sabotage , not in anticipation of air attack , in keeping with Short 's interpretation of the war warnings .
Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor
Watanabe 's superior , Captain Kameto Kuroshima , who believed the invasion plan unrealistic , after the war called his rejection of it the `` biggest mistake '' of his life .
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Under the 1943 Quebec Agreement with the United Kingdom , nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent . Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission . A meeting of the Combined Policy Committee was held at the Pentagon on July 4 , 1945 . Stimson and Vannevar Bush represented the United States ; Britain was represented by the head of the British Joint Staff Mission , Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson ; and Canada by Clarence D. Howe . In addition , Harvey Bundy , Sir James Chadwick , Groves , Lord Halifax , George L. Harrison , and Roger Makins were all present at the meeting by invitation .
Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt
Executive Order 9066 , which sent 120,000 Japanese expatriates and American citizens of Japanese ancestry to be confined at internment camps , was racist . The Supreme Court upheld its constitutionality .
Role of the United States in the Vietnam War
The nature of the American military 's strategic and tactical decisions made during this period would color the conduct and nature of the conflict for the duration of the American commitment . Classical military logic demanded that the U.S. attack the locus of PAVN / NLF in the North . If that country could not be invaded , then the enemy 's logistical system in Laos and Cambodia should be cut by ground forces , isolating the southern battlefield . However , political considerations limited U.S. military actions , mainly because of the memory of communist reactions during the Korean War . Ever present in the minds of diplomats , military officers , and politicians was the possibility of a spiraling escalation of the conflict into a superpower confrontation and the possibility of a nuclear exchange . Therefore , there would be no invasion of North Vietnam , the `` neutrality '' of Laos and Cambodia would be respected , and Rolling Thunder would not resemble the bombing of Germany and Japan during the Second World War . President
Manhattan Project
Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August , with three more in September and a further three in October . Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied , and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on 11 and 14 August . At Los Alamos , technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core . Although cast , it still needed to be pressed and coated , which would take until 16 August . It could therefore have been ready for use on 19 August . On 10 August , Truman secretly requested that additional atomic bombs not be dropped on Japan without his express authority . Groves suspended the third core 's shipment on his own authority on 13 August .
Grand jury
From 1945 to 1972 Okinawa was under American administration . Grand Jury proceedings were held in the territory from 1963 - 1972 . By an ordinance of the civil administration of the Ryukyu Islands promulgated in 1963 , grand jury indictment and petit jury trial were assured for criminal defendants in the civil administration courts . This ordinance reflected the concern of the U.S. Supreme Court that U.S. civilians tried for crimes abroad under tribunals of U.S. provenance should not be shorn of the protections of the U.S. Bill of Rights . Indeed , the District Court in Washington twice held that the absence of the jury system in the civil administration courts in Okinawa invalidated criminal convictions
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest seaports in southern Japan , and was of great wartime importance because of its wide - ranging industrial activity , including the production of ordnance , ships , military equipment , and other war materials . The four largest companies in the city were Mitsubishi Shipyards , Electrical Shipyards , Arms Plant , and Steel and Arms Works , which employed about 90 % of the city 's labor force , and accounted for 90 % of the city 's industry . Although an important industrial city , Nagasaki had been spared from firebombing because its geography made it difficult to locate at night with AN / APQ - 13 radar .
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program , but it lacked the human , mineral and financial resources of the Manhattan Project , and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb .
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Unlike the other target cities , Nagasaki had not been placed off limits to bombers by the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's July 3 directive , and was bombed on a small scale five times . During one of these raids on August 1 , a number of conventional high - explosive bombs were dropped on the city . A few hit the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city , and several hit the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works . By early August , the city was defended by the 134th Anti-Aircraft Regiment of the 4th Anti-Aircraft Division with four batteries of 7 cm ( 2.8 in ) anti-aircraft guns and two searchlight batteries .
Manhattan Project
Most of the components for Little Boy left San Francisco on the cruiser USS Indianapolis on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July . Four days later the ship was sunk by a Japanese submarine . The remaining components , which included six uranium - 235 rings , were delivered by three C - 54 Skymasters of the 509th Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron . Two Fat Man assemblies travelled to Tinian in specially modified 509th Composite Group B - 29s . The first plutonium core went in a special C - 54 . A joint targeting committee of the Manhattan District and USAAF was established to determine which cities in Japan should be targets , and recommended Kokura , Hiroshima , Niigata , and Kyoto . At this point , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson intervened , announcing that he would be making the targeting decision , and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance . Groves therefore asked Arnold to remove Kyoto not just from the list of nuclear targets , but from targets for conventional bombing as well . One of Kyoto 's substitutes was Nagasaki .
Manhattan Project
By December 1942 there were concerns that even Oak Ridge was too close to a major population center ( Knoxville ) in the unlikely event of a major nuclear accident . Groves recruited DuPont in November 1942 to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex . DuPont was offered a standard cost plus fixed - fee contract , but the President of the company , Walter S. Carpenter , Jr. , wanted no profit of any kind , and asked for the proposed contract to be amended to explicitly exclude the company from acquiring any patent rights . This was accepted , but for legal reasons a nominal fee of one dollar was agreed upon . After the war , DuPont asked to be released from the contract early , and had to return 33 cents . Hanford
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on June 11 and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on June 16 , saying that `` we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war ; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use . '' Franck then took the report to Washington , D.C. , where the Interim Committee met on June 21 to re-examine its earlier conclusions ; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target .
Isoroku Yamamoto's sleeping giant quote
Although the quotation may well have encapsulated many of his real feelings about the attack , there is no printed evidence to prove Yamamoto made this statement or wrote it down .
Joseph McCarthy
As McCarthy became increasingly combative towards the Eisenhower Administration , Eisenhower faced repeated calls that he confront McCarthy directly . Eisenhower refused , saying privately `` nothing would please him ( McCarthy ) more than to get the publicity that would be generated by a public repudiation by the President . '' On several occasions Eisenhower is reported to have said of McCarthy that he did not want to `` get down in the gutter with that guy . ''
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
The population of Hiroshima had reached a peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing , the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government . At the time of the attack , the population was approximately 340,000 -- 350,000 . Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing . Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters , others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima . More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long , straight firebreaks , beginning in 1944 . Firebreaks continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of August 6 , 1945 .
Korean War
Both the Pentagon and the State Department were cautious about using nuclear weapons because of the risk of general war with China and the diplomatic ramifications . Truman and his senior advisors agreed , and never seriously considered using them in early December 1950 despite the poor military situation in Korea .
Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
At the time of its bombing , Hiroshima was a city of both industrial and military significance . A number of military units were located nearby , the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata 's Second General Army , which commanded the defense of all of southern Japan , and was located in Hiroshima Castle . Hata 's command consisted of some 400,000 men , most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated . Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army , the 5th Division and the 224th Division , a recently formed mobile unit . The city was defended by five batteries of 7 - cm and 8 - cm ( 2.8 and 3.1 inch ) anti-aircraft guns of the 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division , including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions . In total , an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city .
Isoroku Yamamoto's sleeping giant quote
The director of Tora ! Tora ! Tora ! , Richard Fleischer , stated that while Yamamoto may never have said those words , the film 's producer , Elmo Williams , had found the line written in Yamamoto 's diary . Williams , in turn , has stated that Larry Forrester , the screenwriter , found a 1943 letter from Yamamoto to the Admiralty in Tokyo containing the quotation . However , Forrester can not produce the letter , nor can anyone else , American or Japanese , recall it or find it . Randall Wallace , the screenwriter of the 2001 film Pearl Harbor , readily admitted that he copied the line from Tora ! Tora ! Tora !
Jury trial
The positive belief about jury trials in the U.K. and the U.S. contrasts with popular belief in many other nations , in which it is considered bizarre and risky for a person 's fate to be put into the hands of untrained laymen . Consider Japan , for instance , which used to have optional jury trials for capital or other serious crimes between 1928 and 1943 . The defendant could freely choose whether to have a jury or trial by judges , and the decisions of the jury were non-binding . During the Tōjō - regime this was suspended , arguably stemming from the popular belief that any defendant who risks his fate on the opinions of untrained laymen is almost certainly guilty . Similarly , jury trials were abolished by the government of India in 1960 ( this was followed by Pakistan soon afterwards ) on the grounds that they would be susceptible to media and public influence . One Pakistani judge called a trial by jury `` amateur justice '' .
Axis powers
This policy changed during the last months of the war . The Japanese wanted to gain local support , so they dissolved French colonial rule and pressured Cambodia to declare its independence within the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere . Four days later , King Sihanouk declared Kampuchea ( the original Khmer pronunciation of Cambodia ) independent . Co-editor of the Nagaravatta , Son Ngoc Thanh , returned from Tokyo in May and was appointed foreign minister .
Second Sino-Japanese War
Issues regarding the current historical outlook on the war exist . For example , the Japanese government has been accused of historical revisionism by allowing the approval of a few school textbooks omitting or glossing over Japan 's militant past , although the most recent controversial book , the New History Textbook was used by only 0.039 % of junior high schools in Japan and despite the efforts of the Japanese nationalist textbook reformers , by the late 1990s the most common Japanese schoolbooks contained references to , for instance , the Nanking Massacre , Unit 731 , and the comfort women of World War II , all historical issues which have faced challenges from ultranationalists in the past . In response to criticism of Japanese textbook revisionism , the PRC government has been accused of using the war to stir up already growing anti-Japanese sentiments in order to spur nationalistic feelings . Aftermath
Samurai
These two were able to use Nobunaga 's previous achievements on which build a unified Japan and there was a saying : `` The reunification is a rice cake ; Oda made it . Hashiba shaped it . In the end , only Ieyasu tastes it . '' ( Hashiba is the family name that Toyotomi Hideyoshi used while he was a follower of Nobunaga . )
British Hong Kong
The Japanese soldiers committed atrocities , including rape , on many locals . The population fell in half , from 1.6 million in 1941 to 750,000 at war 's end because of fleeing refugees ; they returned in 1945 .
Axis powers
Prince Phetxarāt opposed this position . He thought that Lao independence could be gained by siding with the Japanese , who made him Prime Minister of Luang Phrabāng , though not of Laos as a whole . The country was in chaos , and Phetxarāt 's government had no real authority . Another Lao group , the Lao Sēri ( Free Lao ) , received unofficial support from the Free Thai movement in the Isan region . Manchuria
Jay Treaty
Historians Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick note that , in conventional diplomatic terms and as a `` piece of adversary bargaining '' , Jay `` got much the worst of the ' bargain ' . Such a view has to a great degree persisted ever since . '' They conclude that Jay did not succeed in asserting neutral rights , but he did obtain `` his other sine qua nons '' ; he got none of things that were `` desirable , but not indispensable . '' They add that Jay 's record on the symbolic side was open to many objections . However , on the `` hard '' ( or realistic ) side , `` it was a substantial success , which included the prevention of war with Great Britain . ''
Appeasement
The policies have been the subject of intense debate for more than seventy years among academics , politicians , and diplomats . The historians ' assessments have ranged from condemnation for allowing Adolf Hitler 's Germany to grow too strong , to the judgment that British leaders had no alternative and acted in their country 's best interests .
Appeasement
His view has been shared by other historians , for example Paul Kennedy , who says of the choices facing politicians at the time , `` Each course brought its share of disadvantages : there was only a choice of evils . The crisis in the British global position by this time was such that it was , in the last resort , insoluble , in the sense that there was no good or proper solution . '' Martin Gilbert has expressed a similar view : `` At bottom , the old appeasement was a mood of hope , Victorian in its optimism , Burkean in its belief that societies evolved from bad to good and that progress could only be for the better . The new appeasement was a mood of fear , Hobbesian in its insistence upon swallowing the bad in order to preserve some remnant of the good , pessimistic in its belief that Nazism was there to stay and , however horrible it might be , should be accepted as a way of life with which Britain ought to deal . ''
Samurai
The victor , Taira no Kiyomori , became an imperial advisor and was the first warrior to attain such a position . He eventually seized control of the central government , establishing the first samurai - dominated government and relegating the Emperor to figurehead status . However , the Taira clan was still very conservative when compared to its eventual successor , the Minamoto , and instead of expanding or strengthening its military might , the clan had its women marry Emperors and exercise control through the Emperor .
Marshall Plan
While the western portion of the Soviet Union had been as badly affected as any part of the world by the war , the eastern portion of the country was largely untouched and had seen a rapid industrialization during the war . The Soviets also imposed large reparations payments on the Axis allies that were in its sphere of influence . Austria , Finland , Hungary , Romania , and especially East Germany were forced to pay vast sums and ship large amounts of supplies to the USSR . These reparation payments meant the Soviet Union itself received about the same as 16 European countries received in total from Marshall Plan aid .
Cold War
In the American view , Stalin seemed a potential ally in accomplishing their goals , whereas in the British approach Stalin appeared as the greatest threat to the fulfillment of their agenda . With the Soviets already occupying most of Central and Eastern Europe , Stalin was at an advantage and the two western leaders vied for his favors . The differences between Roosevelt and Churchill led to several separate deals with the Soviets . In October 1944 , Churchill traveled to Moscow and agreed to divide the Balkans into respective spheres of influence , and at Yalta Roosevelt signed a separate deal with Stalin in regard of Asia and refused to support Churchill on the issues of Poland and the Reparations .
Marshall Plan
Speaking at the Paris Peace Conference on October 10 , 1946 Molotov had already stated Soviet fears : `` If American capital was given a free hand in the small states ruined and enfeebled by the war ( it ) would buy up the local industries , appropriate the more attractive Rumanian , Yugoslav ( ... ) enterprises and would become the master in these small states . '' While the Soviet ambassador in Washington suspected that the Marshall Plan could lead to the creation of an anti-Soviet bloc , Stalin was open to the offer . He directed that -- in negotiations to be held in Paris regarding the aid -- countries in the Eastern Bloc should not reject economic conditions being placed upon them . Stalin only changed his outlook when he learned that ( a ) credit would only be extended under conditions of economic cooperation and , ( b ) aid would also be extended to Germany in total , an eventuality which Stalin thought would hamper the Soviets ' ability to exercise influence in western Germany .
Korea under Japanese rule
During World War II , about 450,000 Korean male laborers were involuntarily sent to Japan . Comfort women , who served in Japanese military brothels as a form of sexual slavery , came from all over the Japanese empire . They numbered somewhere from 10,000 to 200,000 , and they included an unknown number of Koreans . However , 200,000 is considered to be a conservative number by modern historians , and up to 500,000 comfort women are estimated to be taken . These women faced an average of 29 men and up to 40 men per day , according to one surviving comfort woman . However , of the 500,000 , less than 50 are alive today . Comfort women were often recruited from rural locales with the promise of factory employment ; business records , often from Korean subcontractees of Japanese companies , showed them falsely classified as nurses or secretaries . There is evidence that the Japanese government intentionally destroyed official records regarding comfort women .
Korean War
On 8 September 1945 , U.S. Lieutenant General John R. Hodge arrived in Incheon to accept the Japanese surrender south of the 38th parallel . Appointed as military governor , Hodge directly controlled South Korea as head of the United States Army Military Government in Korea ( USAMGIK 1945 -- 48 ) . He attempted to establish control by restoring Japanese colonial administrators to power , but in the face of Korean protests quickly reversed this decision . The USAMGIK refused to recognize the provisional government of the short - lived People 's Republic of Korea ( PRK ) due to its suspected Communist sympathies .