vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Insulin
Insufficient recognition has been given to Paulescu , the distinguished Romanian scientist , who at the time when the Toronto team were commencing their research had already succeeded in extracting the antidiabetic hormone of the pancreas and proving its efficacy in reducing the hyperglycaemia in diabetic dogs .
Indian elephant
Young wild - born elephants are removed from their mothers in Myanmar for use in Thailand 's tourism industry . Mothers are often killed in the process , and calves are placed alongside unrelated cows to suggest they are with their mothers . The calves are often subjected to a ' breaking in ' process , which may involve being tied up , confined , starved , beaten and tortured , as a result of which two - thirds may perish .
Institutional review board
An institutional review board ( IRB ) , also known as an independent ethics committee ( IEC ) , ethical review board ( ERB ) , or research ethics board ( REB ) , is a type of committee that applies research ethics by reviewing the methods proposed for research to ensure that they are ethical . Such boards are formally designated to approve ( or reject ) , monitor , and review biomedical and behavioral research involving humans . They often conduct some form of risk - benefit analysis in an attempt to determine whether or not research should be completed . The purpose of the IRB is to assure that appropriate steps are taken to protect the rights and welfare of humans participating as subjects in a research study . Along with developed countries , many developing countries have established National , regional or local Institutional Review Boards in order to safeguard ethical conduct of research concerning both national and international norms , regulations or codes .
Thalidomide
According to Canadian news magazine program W5 , most , but not all , victims of thalidomide receive annual benefits as compensation from the Government of Canada . Excluded are those who can not provide the documentation the government requires . United
Van de Graaff generator
One of Van de Graaff 's accelerators used two charged domes of sufficient size that each of the domes had laboratories inside - one to provide the source of the accelerated beam , and the other to analyze the actual experiment . The power for the equipment inside the domes was from generators that ran off the belt , and several sessions came to a rather gruesome end when a pigeon attempted to fly between the two domes , causing them to discharge . ( The accelerator was set in an airplane hangar . )
Spider web
Spider webs were spun in low earth orbit in 1973 aboard Skylab , involving two female European garden spiders ( cross spiders ) called Arabella and Anita , as part of an experiment on the Skylab 3 mission . The aim of the experiment was to test whether the two spiders would spin webs in space , and , if so , whether these webs would be the same as those that spiders produced on Earth . The experiment was a student project of Judy Miles of Lexington , Massachusetts .
Spider
While the venom of a few species is dangerous to humans , scientists are now researching the use of spider venom in medicine and as non-polluting pesticides . Spider silk provides a combination of lightness , strength and elasticity that is superior to that of synthetic materials , and spider silk genes have been inserted into mammals and plants to see if these can be used as silk factories . As a result of their wide range of behaviors , spiders have become common symbols in art and mythology symbolizing various combinations of patience , cruelty and creative powers . An abnormal fear of spiders is called arachnophobia .
List of The League of Gentlemen characters
In the live show , he is allowed some audience participation by playing `` Blind Man 's Poof '' with an unfortunate young man .
Institutional review board
Although `` IRB '' is a generic term used in the United States by the FDA and HHS , each institution that establishes such a board may use whatever name it chooses . Many simply capitalize the term `` Institutional Review Board '' as the proper name of their instance . Regardless of the name chosen , the IRB is subject to the FDA 's IRB regulations when studies of FDA - regulated products are reviewed and approved . At one time such a committee was named the `` Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects '' . Originally , IRBs were simply committees at academic institutions and medical facilities to monitor research studies involving human participants , primarily to minimize or avoid ethical problems . Today , some of these reviews are conducted by for - profit organizations known as ' independent ' or ' commercial ' IRBs . The responsibilities of these IRBs are identical to those based at academic or medical institutions , and they are governed by the same U.S. federal regulations .
Evidence of common descent
Like the codfish , human - caused pollution can come in different forms . Radiotrophic fungi is a perfect example of natural selection taking place after a chemical accident . Radiotrophic fungi appears to use the pigment melanin to convert gamma radiation into chemical energy for growth and were first discovered in 2007 as black molds growing inside and around the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant . Research at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine showed that three melanin - containing fungi , Cladosporium sphaerospermum , Wangiella dermatitidis , and Cryptococcus neoformans , increased in biomass and accumulated acetate faster in an environment in which the radiation level was 500 times higher than in the normal environment .
Theory of mind
To make it easier for animals , young children , and individuals with classical ( Kanner - type ) autism to understand and perform theory of mind tasks , researchers have developed tests in which verbal communication is de-emphasized : some whose administration does not involve verbal communication on the part of the examiner , some whose successful completion does not require verbal communication on the part of the subject , and some that meet both of the foregoing standards . One category of tasks uses a preferential looking paradigm , with looking time as the dependent variable . For instance , 9 - month - old infants prefer looking at behaviors performed by a human hand over those made by an inanimate hand - like object . Other paradigms look at rates of imitative behavior , the ability to replicate and complete unfinished goal - directed acts , and rates of pretend play .
Jockey
To replace child jockeys whose use had been deplored by human rights organizations , a camel race in Doha , Qatar for the first time featured robots at the reins . On July 13 , 2005 , workers fixed robotic jockeys on the backs of seven camels and raced the machine - mounted animals around a track . Operators controlled the jockeys remotely , signalling them to pull their reins and prod the camels with whips .
Scientific method
The practice of experimental control and reproducibility can have the effect of diminishing the potentially harmful effects of circumstance , and to a degree , personal bias . For example , pre-existing beliefs can alter the interpretation of results , as in confirmation bias ; this is a heuristic that leads a person with a particular belief to see things as reinforcing their belief , even if another observer might disagree ( in other words , people tend to observe what they expect to observe ) .
Agent Orange
During Pointman I , commission researchers devised ways to determine small dioxin levels in blood . Prior to this , such levels could only be found in the adipose ( fat ) tissue . The project studied dioxin ( TCDD ) levels in blood as well as in adipose tissue in a small group of Vietnam veterans who had been exposed to Agent Orange and compared them to those of a matched control group ; the levels were found to be higher in the former group .
Thermoregulation
H.M. Vernon performed work on the death temperature and paralysis temperature ( temperature of heat rigor ) of various animals . He found that species of the same class showed very similar temperature values , those from the Amphibia examined being 38.5 ° C , fish 39 ° C , reptiles 45 ° C , and various molluscs 46 ° C. Also , in the case of pelagic animals , he showed a relation between death temperature and the quantity of solid constituents of the body . In higher animals , however , his experiments tend to show that there is greater variation in both the chemical and physical characteristics of the protoplasm and , hence , greater variation in the extreme temperature compatible with life .
Vinegar
Esophageal injury by apple cider vinegar tablets has been reported , and , because vinegar products sold for medicinal purposes are neither regulated nor standardized , they vary widely in content , pH , and other respects . Long - term heavy vinegar ingestion has one recorded case of possibly causing hypokalemia , high blood levels of renin , and osteoporosis .
Insulin
In October 1920 , Canadian Frederick Banting concluded that the digestive secretions that Minkowski had originally studied were breaking down the islet secretion , thereby making it impossible to extract successfully . A surgeon by training , Banting knew certain arteries could be tied off that would lead most of the pancreas to atrophy , while leaving the islets of Langerhans intact . He reasoned that a relatively pure extract could be made from the islets once most of the rest of the pancreas was gone . He jotted a note to himself : `` Ligate pancreatic ducts of the dog . Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving islets . Try to isolate internal secretion of these and relieve glycosuria . ''
German Shepherd
Glucosamine is an amino - monosaccharide that naturally occurs in all tissues , particularly in articular cartilage of joints and from the biosynthesis of glucose . Natural synthesis of glucosamine occurs in the extracellular matrix of articular cartilage in joints . However , as a result of damage to the joint or cartilage , there is decreased ability to synthesize glucosamine resulting in the deterioration of the joint , and supplementation is required . Clinical trials of long term administration of glucosamine in German Shepherds have reduced symptoms of degenerative joint disease and accelerated cartilage healing . Anti-inflammatory effects of glucosamine are believed to contribute to the reduction of pain , promote joint recovery and mobility , and prevent further cartilage degradation . Similarly , chondroitin supplementation is proposed to have comparable results in inhibiting degradative enzymes within the cartilage matrix to reduce the effects of osteoarthritis , but further research is required to assess long term benefits .
Geography and wealth
Diamond also notes the feedback effect in the growth of medical technology , stating that more research money goes into curing the ailments of northerners .
Caenorhabditis elegans
Numerous gut granules are present in the intestine of C. elegans , the functions of which are still not fully known , as are many other aspects of this nematode , despite the many years that it has been studied . These gut granules are found in all of the Rhabditida orders . They are very similar to lysosomes in that they feature an acidic interior and the capacity for endocytosis , but they are considerably larger , reinforcing the view of their being storage organelles . A remarkable feature of the granules is that when they are observed under ultraviolet light , they react by emitting an intense blue fluorescence . Another phenomenon seen is termed ' death fluorescence ' . As the worms die , a dramatic burst of blue fluorescence is emitted . This death fluorescence typically takes place in an anterior to posterior wave that moves along the intestine , and is seen in both young and old worms , whether subjected to lethal injury or peacefully dying of old age . Many theories have been posited on the functions of the gut granules , with earlier ones being eliminated by later findings . They are thought to store zinc as one of their functions . Recent chemical analysis has identified the blue fluorescent material they contain as a glycosylated form of anthranilic acid ( AA ) . The need for the large amounts of AA the many gut granules contain is questioned . One possibility is that the AA is antibacterial and used in defense against invading pathogens . Another possibility is that the granules provide photoprotection : the bursts of AA fluorescence entail the conversion of damaging UV light to relatively harmless visible light . This is seen a possible link to the melanin -- containing melanosomes . A
Germ theory of disease
Gideon Mantell , the Sussex doctor more famous for discovering dinosaur fossils , spent time with his microscope , and speculated in his Thoughts On Animalcules ( 1850 ) that perhaps `` many of the most serious maladies which afflict humanity , are produced by peculiar states of invisible animalcular life '' .
Meyer Friedman
Then , there was the furniture . In the waiting room of the practice the two doctors ran , the chairs badly needed reupholstering . What was unusual was that the chairs were worn down on the front edges of the seats and armrests instead of on the back areas , which would have been more typical . The doctors later observed that those chairs were chosen by coronary patients , who tended to sit on the edge of the seat and leaped up frequently , usually to ask how much longer they would have to wait for their appointments to begin . They were as tense as racehorses at the gate . And they had heart problems . Was there a link ? After some initial observations , the doctors hypothesized that there was a connection . Friedman began some studies . In one , he observed 40 accountants , to see if their cholesterol levels rose under the stress of tax season . `` In March , their cholesterol shot up , '' said Dr. Gerald W. Friedland , a Stanford University professor emeritus of radiology who collaborated with Friedman on `` Medicine 's 10 Greatest Discoveries , '' a 1998 book .
Vinegar
Vinegar has been reputed to have strong antibacterial properties . One test by Good Housekeeping 's microbiologist found that 5 % vinegar is 90 % effective against mold and 99.9 % effective against bacteria , though another study showed that vinegar is less effective than Clorox and Lysol against poliovirus . In modern times , experts have advised against using vinegar as a household disinfectant against human pathogens , as it is less effective than chemical disinfectants .
Evidence of common descent
A large - scale example of experimental evolution is Richard Lenski 's multi-generation experiment with Escherichia coli . Lenski observed that some strains of E. coli evolved a complex new ability , the ability to metabolize citrate , after tens of thousands of generations . The evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne commented as a critique of creationism , saying , `` the thing I like most is it says you can get these complex traits evolving by a combination of unlikely events . That 's just what creationists say ca n't happen . '' In addition to the metabolic changes , the different bacterial populations were found to have diverged in respect to both morphology ( the overall size of the cell ) and fitness ( of which was measured in competition with the ancestors ) . The E. coli long - term evolution experiment that began in 1988 is still in progress , and has shown adaptations including the evolution of a strain of E. coli that was able to grow on citric acid in the growth media -- a trait absent in all other known forms of E. coli , including the initial strain .
Pleurisy
Extracts from the Brazilian folk remedy Wilbrandia ebracteata ( `` Taiuia '' ) have been shown to reduce inflammation in the pleural cavity of mice . The extract is thought to inhibit the same enzyme , cyclooxygenase - 2 ( COX - 2 ) , as the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs .
Human skin color
One of the most recently proposed drivers of the evolution of skin pigmentation in humans is based on research that shows a superior barrier function in darkly pigmented skin . Most protective functions of the skin , including the permeability barrier and the antimicrobial barrier , reside in the stratum corneum ( SC ) and the researchers surmise that the SC has undergone the most genetic change since the loss of human body hair . Natural selection would have favored mutations that protect this essential barrier ; one such protective adaptation is the pigmentation of interfollicular epidermis , because it improves barrier function as compared to non-pigmented skin . In lush rainforests , however , where UV - B radiation and xeric stress were not in excess , light pigmentation would not have been nearly as detrimental . This explains the side - by - side residence of lightly pigmented and darkly pigmented peoples .
Agent Orange
During the Malayan Emergency ( 1948 -- 1960 ) , Britain was the first nation to employ the use of herbicides and defoliants to destroy bushes , trees , and vegetation to deprive insurgents of concealment and targeting food crops as part of a starvation campaign in the early 1950s . A detailed account of how the British experimented with the spraying of herbicides was written by two scientists , E.K. Woodford of Agricultural Research Council 's Unit of Experimental Agronomy and H.G.H. Kearns of the University of Bristol .
Peter and Rosemary Grant
Ecology - 1968 -- 1970 Evolutionary Theory - 1973 -- Biological Journal of the Linnean Society - 1984 -- Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London - 1990 -- 1993
Health care in the United States
There is considerable research into inequalities in health care . In some cases these inequalities are caused by income disparities that result in lack of health insurance and other barriers to receiving services . According to the 2009 National Healthcare Disparities Report , uninsured Americans are less likely to receive preventive services in health care . For example , minorities are not regularly screened for colon cancer and the death rate for colon cancer has increased among African Americans and Hispanic people . In other cases , inequalities in health care reflect a systemic bias in the way medical procedures and treatments are prescribed for different ethnic groups . Raj Bhopal writes that the history of racism in science and medicine shows that people and institutions behave according to the ethos of their times . Nancy Krieger wrote that racism underlies unexplained inequities in health care , including treatment for heart disease , renal failure , bladder cancer , and pneumonia . Raj Bhopal writes that these inequalities have been documented in numerous studies . The consistent and repeated findings were that black Americans received less health care than white Americans -- particularly when the care involved expensive new technology . One recent study has found that when minority and white patients use the same hospital , they are given the same standard of care .
William Beaumont
By August 1825 , Beaumont had been relocated to Fort Niagara in New York , and Alexis St. Martin had come with him . Beaumont recognized that he had in St. Martin an unusual opportunity to observe digestive processes . Dr. Beaumont began to perform experiments on digestion using the stomach of St. Martin . Most of the experiments were conducted by tying a piece of food to a string and inserting it through the hole into St. Martin 's stomach . Every few hours , Beaumont would remove the food and observe how well it had been digested . Beaumont also extracted a sample of gastric acid from St. Martin 's stomach for analysis . In September , Alexis St. Martin ran away from Dr. Beaumont and moved to Canada , leaving Beaumont to concentrate on his duties as an army surgeon but Dr. Beaumont had him caught to continue to exhibit him . Beaumont also used samples of stomach acid taken out of St. Martin to `` digest '' bits of food in cups . This led to the important discovery that the stomach acid , and not solely the mashing , pounding and squeezing of the stomach , digests the food into nutrients the stomach can use ; in other words , digestion was primarily a chemical process and not a mechanical one .
Vitiligo
Among the inflammatory products of NALP1 are caspase 1 and caspase 7 , which activate the inflammatory cytokine interleukin - 1β . Interleukin - 1β and interleukin - 18 are expressed at high levels in patients with vitiligo . In one of the mutations , the amino acid leucine in the NALP1 protein was replaced by histidine ( Leu155 - > His ) . The original protein and sequence is highly conserved in evolution , and is found in humans , chimpanzee , rhesus monkey , and the bush baby . Addison 's disease ( typically an autoimmune destruction of the adrenal glands ) may also be seen in individuals with vitiligo .
Lead poisoning
In the 2nd century BCE the Greek botanist Nicander described the colic and paralysis seen in lead - poisoned people . Dioscorides , a Greek physician who lived in the 1st century CE , wrote that lead makes the mind `` give way '' .
Vinegar
Small amounts of vinegar ( approximately 25 g of domestic vinegar ) added to food , or taken along with a meal , were proposed in preliminary research to reduce the glycemic index of carbohydrate food for people with and without diabetes .
Christmas tree cultivation
The Christmas Tree Research Center in Bible Hill , Nova Scotia does research on Balsam firs for Canadian producers .
Saliva
A common belief is that saliva contained in the mouth has natural disinfectants , which leads people to believe it is beneficial to `` lick their wounds '' . Researchers at the University of Florida at Gainesville have discovered a protein called nerve growth factor ( NGF ) in the saliva of mice . Wounds doused with NGF healed twice as fast as untreated and unlicked wounds ; therefore , saliva can help to heal wounds in some species . NGF has not been found in human saliva ; however , researchers find human saliva contains such antibacterial agents as secretory IgA , lactoferrin , lysozyme and peroxidase . It has not been shown that human licking of wounds disinfects them , but licking is likely to help clean the wound by removing larger contaminants such as dirt and may help to directly remove infective bodies by brushing them away . Therefore , licking would be a way of wiping off pathogens , useful if clean water is not available to the animal or person .
Cranberry
`` Sauce for the Pilgrims , cranberry or bearberry , is a small trayling ( sic ) plant that grows in salt marshes that are overgrown with moss . The berries are of a pale yellow color , afterwards red , as big as a cherry , some perfectly round , others oval , all of them hollow with sower ( sic ) astringent taste ; they are ripe in August and September . They are excellent against the Scurvy . They are also good to allay the fervor of hoof diseases . The Indians and English use them mush , boyling ( sic ) them with sugar for sauce to eat with their meat ; and it is a delicate sauce , especially with roasted mutton . Some make tarts with them as with gooseberries . ''
History of chemistry
An important piece in the double helix puzzle was solved by one of Pauling 's students Matthew Meselson and Frank Stahl , the result of their collaboration ( Meselson -- Stahl experiment ) has been called as `` the most beautiful experiment in biology '' .
Benzo(a)pyrene
The detoxification enzymes cytochrome P450 1A1 ( CYP1A1 ) and cytochrome P450 1B1 ( CYP1B1 ) are both protective and necessary for benzo ( a ) pyrene toxicity . Experiments with strains of mice engineered to remove ( knockout ) CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 reveal that CYP1A1 primarily acts to protect mammals from low doses of BaP , and that removing this protection accumulates large concentrations of BaP . Unless CYP1B1 is also knocked out , toxicity results from the bioactivation of BaP to benzo ( a ) pyrene - 7 , 8 - dihydrodiol - 9 , 10 - epoxide , the ultimate toxic compound , .
Retina
George Wald , Haldan Keffer Hartline and Ragnar Granit won the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their scientific research on the retina .