vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Timeline of the Ottoman Empire
Year Date Event 1908 July 3 Second Constitutional Era ( Young Turk revolution ) October 5 Bulgaria obtains full independence . October 7 Austria - Hungary annexes Bosnia by mere declaration . 1912 The Ottomans are defeated by Italy in a short war , with the Italians gaining Libya and ending the 340 - year Ottoman presence in North Africa . November 28 First Balkan War : Albania declares independence 1913 May 17 First Balkan War : The Ottoman Empire is nearly wiped out from Europe , save for Istanbul and just enough land around to defend it . 1914 August 2 The Empire enters into World War I on the side of the Central Powers . Cyprus is annexed outright by Britain . 1915 April 24 The Ottoman Empire initiates forced deportation of Armenians . 1915 April 25 The Gallipoli Campaign : Britain unsuccessfully invades the Dardanelles in Turkey . 1920 August 10 Treaty of Sèvres . Rejected by Turkish nationalists and eventually leads to the abolition of the monarchy by the Government of the Grand National Assembly based in Ankara . 1922 November 1 Abolition of the Ottoman dynasty by Republic of Turkey . 1923 July 24 Treaty of Lausanne signed . 1924 March 3 Abolition of the Caliphate by Grand National Assembly of Turkey
Balkan Wars
The 1908 Young Turk Revolution saw the reinstatement of constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire and the start of the Second Constitutional Era . When the revolt broke out , it was supported by intellectuals , the army , and almost all the ethnic minorities of the Empire , and forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to re-adopt the long defunct Ottoman constitution of 1876 and parliament . Hopes were raised among the Balkan ethnicities of reforms and autonomy , and elections were held to form a representative , multi-ethnic , Ottoman parliament . However , following the Sultan 's attempted counter-coup , the liberal element of the Young Turks was sidelined and the nationalist element became dominant .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
By 1370 Murad controlled most of Thrace , bringing him into direct contact with Bulgaria and the southeastern Serbian lands ruled by Uglješa . Uglješa , the most powerful Serb regional ruler , unsuccessfully attempted to forge an anti-Ottoman alliance of Balkan states in 1371 . Byzantium , vulnerable to the Turks because of its food supply situation , refused to cooperate . Bulgaria , following Ivan Aleksandur 's death early that year , lay officially divided into the `` Empire '' of Vidin , ruled by Stratsimir ( 1370 -- 96 ) , and Aleksandur 's direct successor Tsar Ivan Shishman ( 1371 -- 95 ) , who ruled central Bulgaria from Turnovo . Young , his hold on the throne unsteady , threatened by Stratsimir , and probably pressured by the Turks , Shishman could not afford to participate in Uglješa 's scheme . Of the regional Serb bojars , only Vukašin , protector of Uroš and Uglješa 's brother , joined in the effort . The others either failed to recognize the Ottoman danger or refused to participate lest competitors attacked while they were in the field . Maritsa
Western Roman Empire
Constantine II 337 -- 340 ( Emperor of Gaul , Britannia and Hispania : 337 -- 340 ) .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
The Bulgarians and Serbs enjoyed a brief respite during the 1370s and into the 1380s when matters in Anatolia and increased meddling in Byzantium 's political affairs kept Murad preoccupied . In Serbia , the lull permitted the northern Serb ' ' bojar ' ' Prince Lazar Hrebeljanovic ( 1371 - 89 ) , with the support of powerful Bulgarian and Montenegrin nobles and the backing of the Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Pec , to consolidate control over much of the core Serbian lands . Most of the Serb regional rulers in Macedonia , including Marko , accepted vassalage under Murad to preserve their positions , and many of them led Serb forces in the sultan 's army operating in Anatolia against his Turkish rivals . Dubravnica
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Bulgaria under Tsar Ivan Aleksandar was expanding and prosperous . However , at the end of his rule the Bulgarian Tsar made the fatal mistake to divide the Second Bulgarian Empire into three appanages held by his sons . Bulgaria 's cohesion was shattered further in the 1350s by a rivalry between the holder of Vidin , Ivan Stratsimir , Ivan Aleksandar 's sole surviving son by his first wife , and Ivan Shishman , the product of Aleksandar 's second marriage and the tsar 's designated successor . In addition to internal problems , Bulgaria was further crippled by Hungarian attack . In 1365 Hungarian King Louis I invaded and seized Vidin province , whose ruler Stratsimir was taken captive . Despite the concurrent loss of most Bulgarian Thracian holdings to Murad , Ivan Aleksandar became fixated on the Hungarians in Vidin . He formed a coalition against them with Dobrudja ruler Dobrotitsa and Voievod Vladislav I Vlaicu of Wallachia . Although the Hungarians were repulsed and Stratsimir was restored to his throne , Bulgaria emerged more intensely divided than previously . Stratsimir proclaimed himself tsar of an `` Empire '' of Vidin in 1370 , and Dobrotitsa received de facto recognition as independent despot in Dobrudzha . Bulgaria 's efforts were squandered to little domestic purpose and against the wrong enemy .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
In 1430 a large Ottoman fleet attacked Salonika by surprise . The Venetians signed a peace treaty in 1432 . The treaty gave the Ottomans the city of Salonika and the surrounding land . The war between Serbia and Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had come to a standstill in 1441 when the Holy Roman Empire , Poland , Albania , and the Jandarid and Karamanid emirates ( in violation of the peace treaty ) intervened against the Ottomans . Niš and Sofia fell to the Christians in 1443 and the year after the Empire suffered a major defeat in the Battle of Jalowaz . July 12 , 1444 Murad signed a treaty that officially gave Wallachia and the Bulgarian province of Varna to Hungary , western Bulgaria ( including Sofia ) to Serbia and forced Murad to abdicate in favor of his twelve - year - old son Mehmed . Later the same year the Christians violated the peace treaty and attacked anew . Varna
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
In 1396 Hungarian King Sigismund finally pulled together a crusade against the Ottomans . The crusader army was composed primarily of Hungarian and French knights , but included some Wallachian troops . Though nominally led by Sigismund , it lacked command cohesion . The crusaders crossed the Danube , marched through Vidin , and arrived at Nikopol , where they met the Turks . The headstrong French knights refused to follow Sigismund 's battle plans , resulting in their crushing defeat . Because Stratsimir had permitted the crusaders to pass through Vidin , Bayezid invaded his lands , took him prisoner , and annexed his territories . With Vidin 's fall , Bulgaria ceased to exist , becoming the first major Balkan Christian state to disappear completely by direct Ottoman conquest .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
What little unity Serbia possessed collapsed after the catastrophe at Ormenion . Uroš died before the year was out , ending the Nemanjić dynasty , and large areas of central Serbia broke away as independent principalities , reducing it to half of its former size . No future ruler ever again officially held the office of car , and no single bojar enjoyed enough power or respect to gain recognition as a unifying leader . Vukasin 's son Marko , who survived the slaughter , proclaimed himself Serbian `` king '' ( kralj ) but was unable to make good on his claim outside of his lands around Prilep in central Macedonia . Serbia slipped into accelerated fragmentation and internecine warfare among the proliferating regional princes .
Modern history
The once mighty Ottoman Empire was wracked with a series of revolutions , resulting with the Ottoman 's only holding a small region that surrounded the capital , Istanbul .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Within the late Roman military , many recruits and even officers had barbarian origins , and soldiers are recorded as using possibly - barbarian rituals such as elevating a claimant on shields . Some scholars have seen this as an indication of weakness ; others disagree , seeing neither barbarian recruits nor new rituals as causing any problem with the effectiveness or loyalty of the army .
Peloponnesian War
Following the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily , it was widely believed that the end of the Athenian Empire was at hand . Her treasury was nearly empty , her docks were depleted , and the flower of her youth was dead or imprisoned in a foreign land . They overestimated the strength of their own empire and the beginning of the end was indeed imminent .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The numbers and effectiveness of the regular soldiers may have declined during the fourth century : payrolls were inflated so that pay could be diverted and exemptions from duty sold , their opportunities for personal extortion were multiplied by residence in cities , and their effectiveness was reduced by concentration on extortion instead of drill . However , extortion , gross corruption , and occasional ineffectiveness were not new to the Roman army ; there is no consensus whether its effectiveness significantly declined before 376 . Ammianus Marcellinus , himself a professional soldier , repeats longstanding observations about the superiority of contemporary Roman armies being due to training and discipline , not to physical size or strength . Despite a possible decrease in its ability to assemble and supply large armies , Rome maintained an aggressive and potent stance against perceived threats almost to the end of the fourth century . Solidus
Conquistador
One important reason was the need for alternatives to the expensive eastern trade routes that followed the Silk Road . Those routes were dominated first by the republics of Venice and Genoa , and then by the Ottoman Empire after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 . He barred European access . For decades the Spanish Netherlands ports produced more revenue than the colonies since all goods brought from Spain , Mediterranean possessions , and the colonies were sold directly there to neighbouring European countries : wheat , olive oil , wine , silver , spice , wool and silk were big businesses .
Balkan Wars
The Ottoman Empire 's situation was difficult . Its population of about 26 million people provided a massive pool of manpower , but three quarters of the population and nearly all of the Muslim component lived in the Asian part of the Empire . Reinforcements had to come from Asia mainly by sea , which depended on the result of battles between the Turkish and Greek navies in the Aegean .
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Edward Gibbon speaks of a period from the celebration of the great secular games by the Emperor Philip to the death of Gallienus ( in 268 AD ) as the 20 years of shame and misfortune , of confusion and calamity , as a time when the ruined empire approached the last and fatal moment of its dissolution . Every instant of time in every province of the Roman world was afflicted by military tyrants and barbarous invaders -- the sword from within and without .
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
For a time in the late 260s , the strength of Aurelian crushed the enemies of Rome , yet after his assassination certain of them revived . While the Goths had been destroyed for almost a century and the Empire reunited , the Sassanid Persians were uncowed in the East and during the following year hosts of central Asian Alani spread themselves over Pontus , Cappadocia , Cilicia and Galatia , etching their course by the flames of cities and villages they pillaged .
Spartan army
Spartan ascendancy did not last long . By the end of the 5th century BC , Sparta had suffered serious casualties in the Peloponnesian Wars , and its conservative and narrow mentality alienated many of its former allies . At the same time , its military class - the Spartiate caste - was in decline for several reasons :
History of the Roman Empire
Meanwhile , Gratian , Valentinian II and Theodosius were joined by a fourth Augustus . Theodosius proclaimed his oldest son Arcadius an Augustus in January 383 in an obvious attempt to secure succession . The boy was still only five or six years old and held no actual authority . Nevertheless , he was recognised as a co-ruler by all three Augusti .
Western Roman Empire
Constantius I Chlorus : 305 -- 306 . Valerius Severus : 305 -- 306 .
Western Roman Empire
Petronius Maximus : 455 ( Not recognized by Eastern Emperor ) . Palladius : 455 .
Romance languages
Italo - Western is in turn split along the so - called La Spezia -- Rimini Line in northern Italy , which divides the central and southern Italian languages from the so - called Western Romance languages to the north and west . The primary characteristics dividing the two are :
Romance languages
Generally , those languages south and east of the La Spezia -- Rimini Line ( Romanian and Central - Southern Italian ) maintained intertonic vowels , while those to the north and west ( Western Romance ) dropped all except / a / . Standard Italian generally maintained intertonic vowels , but typically raised unstressed / e / > / i / . Examples :
Italian language
Italian ( italiano ( help info ) ( itaˈljaːno ) or lingua italiana ( ˈliŋɡwa itaˈljaːna ) ) is a Romance language . By most measures , Italian , together with Sardinian , is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages . Italian is an official language in Italy , Switzerland , San Marino , Vatican City and western Istria ( in Slovenia and Croatia ) . It used to have official status in Albania , Malta and Monaco , where it is still widely spoken , as well as in former Italian East Africa and Italian North Africa regions where it plays a significant role in various sectors . Italian is also spoken by large expatriate communities in the Americas and Australia . It has official minority status in Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia , Slovenia and Romania . Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages . Italian is a major European language , being one of the official languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe and one of the working languages of the Council of Europe . It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers ( 13 % of the EU population ) and it is spoken as a second language by 14 million EU citizens ( 3 % ) . Including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries ( such as Switzerland and Albania ) and on other continents , the total number of speakers is around 85 million .
Romance languages
Romania did not establish a colonial empire , but beyond its native territory in southeastern Europe , the Romanian language is spoken as a minority language by autochthonous populations in Serbia , Bulgaria , and Hungary , and in some parts of the former Greater Romania ( before 1945 ) , as well as in Ukraine ( Bukovina , Budjak ) and in some villages between the Dniester and Bug rivers . The Aromanian language is spoken today by Aromanians in Bulgaria , Macedonia , Albania , Kosovo , and Greece . Romanian also spread to other countries on the Mediterranean ( especially the other Romance - speaking countries , most notably Italy and Spain ) , and elsewhere such as Israel , where it is the native language of five percent of the population , and is spoken by many more as a secondary language . This is due to the large number of Romanian - born Jews who moved to Israel after World War II . And finally , some 2.6 million people in the former Soviet republic of Moldova speak a variety of Romanian , called variously Moldovan or Romanian by them .
Italian language
Italian italiano , lingua italiana Pronunciation ( itaˈljaːno ) Native to Italy , Switzerland , San Marino , Vatican City , Istria County ( Croatia ) and Slovene Istria ( Slovenia ) Region Italy , Ticino and southern Graubünden , Slovene Littoral and western Istria Native speakers 64 million native speakers in the EU . ( c. 2012 ) 85 million , total number of speakers . Language family Indo - European Italic Romance Italo - Dalmatian Tuscan Italian Writing system Latin ( Italian alphabet ) Italian Braille Signed forms Italiano segnato `` ( Signed Italian ) '' italiano segnato esatto `` ( Signed Exact Italian ) '' Official status Official language in Italy Switzerland San Marino Vatican City Sovereign Military Order of Malta Istria County ( Croatia ) Slovene Istria ( Slovenia ) European Union Recognised minority language in Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Eritrea Libya Romania Slovenia Somalia Regulated by Accademia della Crusca ( de facto ) Language codes ISO 639 - 1 it ISO 639 - 2 ita ISO 639 - 3 ita Glottolog ital1282 Linguasphere 51 - AAA - q The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world : blue indicates where Italian is the main language ; large Italian - speaking communities are shown in green dots ; light blue indicates areas where the Italian language was used officially during the Italian colonial period . This article contains IPA phonetic symbols . Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks , boxes , or other symbols instead of Unicode characters . For an introductory guide on IPA symbols , see Help : IPA .
Romance languages
There is evidence that in the imperial period all the short vowels except a differed by quality as well as by length from their long counterparts . So , for example ē was pronounced close - mid / eː / while ĕ was pronounced open - mid / ɛ / , and ī was pronounced close / iː / while ĭ was pronounced near - close / ɪ / .
Italian language
In the European Union statistics , Italian is spoken as a native language by 13 % of the EU population , or 65 million people , mainly in Italy . In the EU , it is spoken as a second language by 3 % of the EU population , or 14 million people . Among EU states , the percentage of people able to speak Italian well enough to have a conversation is 66 % in Malta , 15 % in Slovenia , 14 % in Croatia , 8 % in Austria , 5 % in France and Luxembourg , and 4 % in the former West Germany , Greece , Cyprus , and Romania . Italian is also one of the national languages of Switzerland , which is not a part of the European Union . The Italian language is well - known and studied in Albania , another non-EU member , due to its historical ties and geographical proximity to Italy and to the diffusion of Italian television in the country .
History of the Roman Empire
( hide ) Year of the Four Emperors Forum Julii Placentia Locus Castorum 1st Bedriacum 2nd Bedriacum Castra Vetera Augusta Treverorum
Romance languages
In fact , the reality is somewhat more complex . All of the `` southeast '' characteristics apply to all languages southeast of the line , and all of the `` northwest '' characteristics apply to all languages in France and ( most of ) Spain . However , the Gallo - Italic languages are somewhere in between . All of these languages do have the `` northwest '' characteristics of lenition and loss of gemination . However :
Balkans
Croatia ( southern mainland ) : 30,000 km ( 54 % ) Greece ( mainland ) : 104,470 km ( 80 % ) Italy ( Trieste and Monfalcone ) : 300 km ( 0.1 % ) Romania ( mainland Dobruja ) : 12,000 km ( 5 % ) Serbia ( southern part excluding Vojvodina , northern Belgrade 54,000 km ( 65 % ) Slovenia ( southwestern part ) : 5,000 km ( 25 % ) Turkey ( European part ) : 23,764 km ( 3 % )
Italian language
Throughout Italy , regional variations of Standard Italian , called Regional Italian , are spoken . In Italy , almost all Romance languages spoken as the vernacular -- other than standard Italian and distantly - related , non-Romance languages spoken in border regions or among immigrant communities -- are often imprecisely called `` Italian dialects '' , even though they are quite different , with some belonging to different branches of the Romance language family . The only exceptions to this are Sardinian , Ladin and Friulian , which are officially recognized as distinct regional languages by the law . On the other hand , Corsican ( a language spoken on the France island of Corsica ) is closely related to Tuscan , from which Standard Italian derives and evolved .
Romance languages
The classification of the Romance languages is inherently difficult , because most of the linguistic area is a dialect continuum , and in some cases political biases can come into play . Along with Latin ( which is not included among the Romance languages ) and a few extinct languages of ancient Italy , they make up the Italic branch of the Indo - European family .
Balkans
According to an earlier version of the Britannica , the Balkans comprise the territories of the states of Albania , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Bulgaria , Croatia , Greece , Kosovo , the Republic of Macedonia , Montenegro , Serbia , Slovenia and the European part of Turkey ; it notes Turkey as a non-Balkan state and the inclusion of Slovenia and the Transylvanian part of Romania in the region as dubious .
Romance languages
Romance languages are the continuation of Vulgar Latin , the popular and colloquial sociolect of Latin spoken by soldiers , settlers , and merchants of the Roman Empire , as distinguished from the classical form of the language spoken by the Roman upper classes , the form in which the language was generally written . Between 350 BC and 150 AD , the expansion of the Empire , together with its administrative and educational policies , made Latin the dominant native language in continental Western Europe . Latin also exerted a strong influence in southeastern Britain , the Roman province of Africa , western Germany , Pannonia and the whole Balkans .
Italian language
There is no definitive date when the various Italian variants of Latin -- including varieties that contributed to modern Standard Italian -- began to be distinct enough from Latin to be considered separate languages . From a linguistic perspective , two language variants are considered separate languages ( rather than variant dialects of a single language ) when they are no longer mutually intelligible . For the Italian Romance languages , the first extant written evidence of varieties that can be considered no longer to be Latin comes from the ninth and tenth centuries C.E. These written sources demonstrate certain vernacular characteristics and sometimes explicitly mention the use of the vernacular in Italy . Full literary manifestations of the vernacular began to surface around the 13th century in the form of various religious texts and poetry . Although these are the first written records of Italian varieties separate from Latin , the spoken language had likely diverged long before the first written records appear , since those who were literate generally wrote in Latin even if they spoke other Romance varieties in person .
Romance languages
The usual solution to these issues is to create various nested subgroups . Western Romance is split into the Gallo - Iberian languages , in which lenition happens and which include nearly all the Western Romance languages , and the Pyrenean - Mozarabic group , which includes the remaining languages without lenition ( and is unlikely to be a valid clade ; probably at least two clades , one for Mozarabic and one for Pyrenean ) . Gallo - Iberian is split in turn into the Iberian languages ( e.g. Spanish and Portuguese ) , and the larger Gallo - Romance languages ( stretching from eastern Spain to northeast Italy ) .