vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
European exploration of Africa
In 1895 , the British South Africa Company hired the American scout Frederick Russell Burnham to look for minerals and ways to improve river navigation in the central and southern Africa region . Burnham oversaw and led the Northern Territories British South Africa Exploration Company expedition that first established that major copper deposits existed north of the Zambezi in North - Eastern Rhodesia . Along the Kafue River , Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States , and he encountered native peoples wearing copper bracelets . Copper rapidly became the primary export of Central Africa and it remains essential to the economy even today .
Roanoke Colony
However , the case was far from settled . A similar legend claims that the now extinct Saponi of Person County , North Carolina , are descended from the English colonists of Roanoke Island . However , no documented evidence exists to link the Saponi to the Roanoke colonists .
Roanoke Colony
Between their arrival in Roanoke in April 1585 and the July 1586 departure , Harriot and White both conducted detailed studies of the Roanoke area , with Harriot compiling his samples and notes into several notebooks that did not survive the colony 's disappearance . Harriot also wrote descriptions of the surrounding flora and fauna of the area , which survive in his work A Brief and True Report of the New Founde Land of Virginia , written as a report on the colony 's progress to the English government on the request of Raleigh . Viewed by modern historians as propaganda for the colony , this work has become vastly important to Roanoke 's history due to Harriot 's observations on wildlife as well as his depictions of Indian activities at the time of the colony 's disappearance .
Aihole
According to James Harle of Oxford Ashmolean Museum , Aihole was a meeting place of styles but one of several around the 6th - century CE , that were on `` their way to development elsewhere '' . They became preserved in Aihole probably because building and cultural activity stopped there around the 12th - century . Though excavations have yielded evidence that scholars disagree in dating , states Harle , it is probable that the earliest surviving temples in Aihole are from the 6th century and later .
Uluru
Archaeological findings to the east and west indicate that humans settled in the area more than 10,000 years ago . Europeans arrived in the Australian Western Desert in the 1870s . Uluru and Kata Tjuta were first mapped by Europeans in 1872 during the expeditionary period made possible by the construction of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line . In separate expeditions , Ernest Giles and William Gosse were the first European explorers to this area .
Thebes, Egypt
The archaeological remains of Thebes offer a striking testimony to Egyptian civilization at its height . The Greek poet Homer extolled the wealth of Thebes in the Iliad , Book 9 ( c. 8th Century BC ) : `` ... in Egyptian Thebes the heaps of precious ingots gleam , the hundred - gated Thebes . ''
Moai
From 1955 through 1978 , an American archaeologist , William Mulloy , undertook extensive investigation of the production , transportation and erection of Easter Island 's monumental statuary . Mulloy 's Rapa Nui projects include the investigation of the Akivi - Vaiteka Complex and the physical restoration of Ahu Akivi ( 1960 ) ; the investigation and restoration of Ahu Ko Te Riku and Ahu Vai Uri and the Tahai Ceremonial Complex ( 1970 ) ; the investigation and restoration of two ahu at Hanga Kio'e ( 1972 ) ; the investigation and restoration of the ceremonial village at Orongo ( 1974 ) and numerous other archaeological surveys throughout the island .
European exploration of Africa
The Phoenicians explored North Africa , establishing a number of colonies , the most prominent of which was Carthage . Carthage itself conducted exploration of West Africa . The first circumnavigation of the African continent was probably made by Phoenician sailors , in an expedition commissioned by Egyptian pharaoh Necho II , in c. 600 BC and took three years . A report of this expedition is provided by Herodotus ( 4.37 ) . They sailed south , rounded the Cape heading west , made their way north to the Mediterranean and then returned home . He states that they paused each year to sow and harvest grain . Herodotus himself is sceptical of the historicity of this feat , which would have taken place close about 120 years before his birth ; however , the reason he gives for disbelieving the story is the sailors ' reported claim that when they sailed along the southern coast of Africa , they found the Sun stood to their right , in the north ; Herodotus , who was unaware of the spherical shape of the Earth found this impossible to believe . Some commentators took this circumstance as proof that the voyage is historical , but other scholars still dismiss the report as unlikely .
Hellenistic period
However , William Woodthorpe Tarn , between World War I and World War II and the heyday of the League of Nations , focused on the issues of racial and cultural confrontation and the nature of colonial rule . Michael Rostovtzeff , who fled the Russian Revolution , concentrated predominantly on the rise of the capitalist bourgeoisie in areas of Greek rule . Arnaldo Momigliano , an Italian Jew who wrote before and after the Second World War , studied the problem of mutual understanding between races in the conquered areas . Moses Hadas portrayed an optimistic picture of synthesis of culture from the perspective of the 1950s , while Frank William Walbank in the 1960s and 1970s had a materialistic approach to the Hellenistic period , focusing mainly on class relations . Recently , however , papyrologist C. Préaux has concentrated predominantly on the economic system , interactions between kings and cities , and provides a generally pessimistic view on the period . Peter Green , on the other hand , writes from the point of view of late 20th century liberalism , his focus being on individualism , the breakdown of convention , experiments , and a postmodern disillusionment with all institutions and political processes .
Fur trade
Rich 's other work gets to the heart of the formalist / substantivist debate that dominated the field or , as some came to believe , muddied it . Historians such as Harold Innis had long taken the formalist position , especially in Canadian history , believing that neoclassical economic principles affect non-Western societies just as they do Western ones . Starting in the 1950s , however , substantivists such as Karl Polanyi challenged these ideas , arguing instead that primitive societies could engage in alternatives to traditional Western market trade ; namely , gift trade and administered trade . Rich picked up these arguments in an influential article in which he contended that Indians had `` a persistent reluctance to accept European notions or the basic values of the European approach '' and that `` English economic rules did not apply to the Indian trade . '' Indians were savvy traders , but they had a fundamentally different conception of property , which confounded their European trade partners . Abraham Rotstein subsequently fit these arguments explicitly into Polanyi 's theoretical framework , claiming that `` administered trade was in operation at the Bay and market trade in London . '' Trapper
Wales
In the mid-19th century , two prominent geologists , Roderick Murchison and Adam Sedgwick ( who first proposed the name of the Cambrian period ) , independently used their studies of the geology of Wales to establish certain principles of stratigraphy and palaeontology . The next two periods of the Paleozoic era , the Ordovician and Silurian , were named after ancient Celtic tribes from this area based on Murchison 's and Sedgwick 's work .
Celtic Britons
The Brythonic languages in these areas was replaced by the Old English of the Anglo - Saxons and Scots Gaelic , although this was likely a gradual process in many areas .
Celtic Britons
In addition , a Brittonic legacy remains in England , Scotland and Galicia in Spain , in the form of often large numbers of Brittonic place and geographical names . Some examples of geographical Brittonic names survive in the names of rivers , such as the Thames , Clyde , Severn , Tyne , Wye , Exe , Dee , Tamar , Tweed , Avon , Trent , Tambre , Navia and River Forth . A number of place names in England and Scotland are of Brittonic rather than Anglo - Saxon or Gaelic origin , such as ; London , Manchester , Glasgow , Edinburgh , Carlisle , Caithness , Aberdeen , Dundee , Barrow , Exeter , Lincoln , Dumbarton , Brent , Penge , Colchester , Durham , Dover , Leatherhead and York .
Republic of Ireland
Christianity introduced simple monastic houses , such as Clonmacnoise , Skellig Michael and Scattery Island . A stylistic similarity has been remarked between these double monasteries and those of the Copts of Egypt . Gaelic kings and aristocrats occupied ringforts or crannógs . Church reforms during the 12th century via the Cistercians stimulated continental influence , with the Romanesque styled Mellifont , Boyle and Tintern abbeys . Gaelic settlement had been limited to the Monastic proto - towns , such as Kells , where the current street pattern preserves the original circular settlement outline to some extent . Significant urban settlements only developed following the period of Viking invasions . The major Hiberno - Norse Longphorts were located on the coast , but with minor inland fluvial settlements , such as the eponymous Longford . Dublin
Brittany
Bretons are mainly Catholic and the Christianisation occurred during the Roman Gaul and Frank era . During the Briton emigration to Brittany , several Christian missionaries , mostly Welsh , came in the region and founded dioceses . They are known as the `` Seven founder saints '' :
Mycenaean Greece
Sporadic objects of Mycenaean manufacture were found in various distant locations , like in Central Europe , such as in Bavaria , Germany , where an amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been unearthed . Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects dating from the 13th century BC have been found in Ireland and in Wessex and Cornwall in England .
France–United Kingdom relations
When Julius Caesar invaded Gaul , he encountered allies of the Gauls and Belgae from southeastern Britain offering assistance , some of whom even acknowledged the king of the Belgae as their sovereign .
Brittany
The Asterix comics , set during the time of Julius Caesar and written in the second half of the twentieth century , are set in Armorica , now Brittany .
Cherokee
Researchers in the 19th century recorded conversations with elders who recounted an oral tradition of the Cherokee people 's migrating south from the Great Lakes region in ancient times . They may have moved south into Muscogee Creek territory and settled at the sites of mounds built by the Mississippian culture and earlier moundbuilders . In the 19th century , European - American settlers mistakenly attributed several Mississippian culture sites in Georgia to the Cherokee , including Moundville and Etowah Mounds . However , other evidence shows that the Cherokee did not reach this part of Georgia until the late 18th century and could not have built the mounds .
Celtic music
The oldest musical tradition which fits under the label of Celtic fusion originated in the rural American south in the early colonial period and incorporated Scottish , Scots - Irish , Irish , Welsh , English , and African influences . Variously referred to as roots music , American folk music , or old - time music , this tradition has exerted a strong influence on all forms of American music , including country , blues , and rock and roll . In addition to its lasting effects on other genres , it marked the first modern large - scale mixing of musical traditions from multiple ethnic and religious communities within the Celtic diaspora .
Hellenistic period
After 278 BC the Odrysians had a strong competitor in the Celtic Kingdom of Tylis ruled by the kings Comontorius and Cavarus , but in 212 BC they conquered their enemies and destroyed their capital .
Colonies in antiquity
The Greeks also colonised modern - day Crimea on the Black Sea . Among the settlements they established there was the city of Chersonesos , at the site of modern - day Sevastopol . Another area with significant Greek colonies was the coast of ancient Illyria on the Adriatic Sea ( e.g. the ancient `` Aspalathos '' , modern day Split , Croatia ) . The
History of the Church of England
Irish Anglicans trace their origins back to the founding saint of Irish Christianity ( St Patrick ) who is believed to have been a Roman Briton and pre-dated Anglo - Saxon Christianity . Anglicans also consider Celtic Christianity a forerunner of their church , since the re-establishment of Christianity in some areas of Great Britain in the 6th century came via Irish and Scottish missionaries , notably followers of St Patrick and St Columba .
Roanoke Colony
Other tribes claiming partial descent from surviving Roanoke colonists include the Catawba ( who absorbed the Shakori and Eno people ) , and the Coree and the people who call themselves the Lumbee . Samuel A'Court Ashe was convinced that the colonists had relocated westward to the banks of the Chowan River in Bertie County , and Conway Whittle Sams claimed that after being attacked by Wanchese and Powhatan , the colonists scattered to multiple locations : the Chowan River , and south to the Pamlico and Neuse Rivers .
Colony of Virginia
England supplied the great majority of colonists . In 1608 , the first Poles and Slovaks arrived as part of a group of skilled craftsmen . In 1619 , the first Africans arrived , though the concept of racially based slavery did not evolve for several decades . In the mid-17th century , French Huguenots arrived in the colony . In the early 18th century , German specialists arrived to establish the Germanna settlement . Scots and Scots - Irish settled on the Virginia frontier . Some Welsh arrived including the ancestors of Thomas Jefferson .
Olmec
While the actual ethno - linguistic affiliation of the Olmec remains unknown , various hypotheses have been put forward . For example , in 1968 Michael D. Coe speculated that the Olmec were Mayan predecessors .
Olmec
In 1976 , linguists Lyle Campbell and Terrence Kaufman published a paper in which they argued a core number of loanwords had apparently spread from a Mixe -- Zoquean language into many other Mesoamerican languages . Campbell and Kaufman proposed that the presence of these core loanwords indicated that the Olmec -- generally regarded as the first `` highly civilized '' Mesoamerican society -- spoke a language ancestral to Mixe -- Zoquean . The spread of this vocabulary particular to their culture accompanied the diffusion of other Olmec cultural and artistic traits that appears in the archaeological record of other Mesoamerican societies .
Welsh language
Welsh ( Cymraeg or y Gymraeg , pronounced Welsh pronunciation : ( kəmˈraiɡ , ə ɡəmˈraiɡ ) ( listen ) ) is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages . It is spoken natively in Wales , by some in England , and in Y Wladfa ( the Welsh colony in Chubut Province , Argentina ) . Historically , it has also been known in English as `` Cambrian '' , `` Cambric '' and `` Cymric '' .
Brittany
The late 5th century Brittonic leader Riothamus received correspondence from the eminent Roman jurist Sidonius Apollinaris and was called `` King of the Britons '' by Jordanes . Some suggest that he was a Breton , though others believe that he was from Britain , pointing to the passage that he arrived in the land of the Biturges `` by way of Ocean '' , which would hardly have been efficient or required for a Breton . Both historians describe Riothamus 's losing battle against King Euric of the Visigoths at Déols around the year 470 . In response to a plea from the Roman Emperor Anthemius , Riothamus had led twelve thousand men to establish a military presence in Bourges in central Gaul , but was betrayed by Arvandus , the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul , and subsequently ambushed by Euric 's army . After a long battle , the Armorican survivors escaped to Avallon in Burgundy , after which they are lost to history . According to Breton king - lists , Riotham survived and reigned as Prince of Domnonia until his death sometime between 500 and 520 , though this may have been a different person .
Cahokia
The Mounds were later named after the Cahokia tribe , a historic Illiniwek people living in the area when the first French explorers arrived in the 17th century . As this was centuries after Cahokia was abandoned by its original inhabitants , the Cahokia tribe was not necessarily descended from the earlier Mississippian - era people . Most likely multiple indigenous ethnic groups settled in the Cahokia Mounds area during the time of the city 's apex .
Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe
Therefore , the minerals were not collected because people were looking for copper but for virtues like those mentioned or simply because of its brightness and colour , but this knowledge of the minerals is critical since they already knew how to recognize them and where to collect them when , later , they started the systematic search for ores .
Celtic music
Outside of America , the first deliberate attempts to create a `` Pan-Celtic music '' were made by the Breton Taldir Jaffrennou , having translated songs from Ireland , Scotland , and Wales into Breton between the two world wars . One of his major works was to bring `` Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau '' ( the Welsh national anthem ) back in Brittany and create lyrics in Breton . Eventually this song became `` Bro goz va zadoù '' ( `` Old land of my fathers '' ) and is the most widely accepted Breton anthem . In the 70s , the Breton Alan Cochevelou ( future Alan Stivell ) began playing a mixed repertoire from the main Celtic countries on the Celtic harp his father created . Probably the most successful all inclusive Celtic music composition in recent years is Shaun Daveys composition ' The Pilgrim ' . This suite depicts the journey of St. Colum Cille through the Celtic nations of Ireland , Scotland , the Isle of Man , Wales , Cornwall , Brittany and Galicia . The suite which includes a Scottish pipe band , Irish and Welsh harpists , Galician gaitas , Irish uilleann pipes , the bombardes of Brittany , two vocal soloists and a narrator is set against a background of a classical orchestra and a large choir .
Brittany
The army recruited for Flavius Aetius to combat Attila the Hun at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains included Romans , Visigoths , Franks , Alans and Armoricans , amongst others . The Alans were placed front and centre , opposite the Huns . The Armoricans supplied archers who attacked the Huns ' front lines during the main battle and thwarted Attila 's night assault on the Roman camp with a hail of arrows `` like rain '' . After the battle was won , Aetius sent the Alans to Armorica and Galicia .
Blond
From an ethnic point of view , Roman authors associated blond and red hair with the Gauls and the Germans : e.g. , Virgil describes the hair of the Gauls as `` golden '' ( aurea caesaries ) , Tacitus wrote that `` the Germans have fierce blue eyes , red - blond hair ( rutilae comae ) , huge ( tall ) frames '' ; in accordance with Ammianus , almost all the Gauls were `` of tall stature , fair and ruddy '' . Celtic and Germanic peoples of the provinces , among the free subjects called peregrini , served in Rome 's armies as auxilia , such as the cavalry contingents in the army of Julius Caesar . Some became Roman citizens as far back as the 1st century BC , following a policy of Romanization of Gaul and Lesser Germania . For instance , Gaius Julius Civilis , a prince of the Batavii , was a Roman citizen either by birth or naturalization ( as indicated by his name ) . Before the Constitutio Antoniniana , which granted citizenship to all free men of the empire in 212 AD , entire auxiliary cohorts were occasionally granted citizenship for their performance in battle . Sometimes entire Celtic and Germanic tribes were granted citizenship , such as when emperor Otho granted citizenship to all of the Lingones in 69 AD . By the 1st century BC , the Roman Republic had expanded its control into parts of western Germany , and by 85 AD the provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior were formally established there . Yet as late as the 4th century AD , Ausonius , a poet and tutor from Burdigala , wrote a poem about an Alemanni slave girl named Bissula , who he had recently freed after she 'd been taken as a prisoner of war in the campaigns of Valentinian I , noting that her adopted Latin language marked her as a woman of Latium yet her blond - haired , blue - eyed appearance ultimately signified her true origins from the Rhine .
Celtic music
In the 1960s several bands put forward modern adaptations of Celtic music pulling influences from several of the Celtic nations at once to create a modern pan-celtic sound . A few of those include bagado ù ( Breton pipe bands ) , Fairport Convention , Pentangle , Steeleye Span and Horslips .
Celtic music
Later , beginning in 1982 with The Pogues ' invention of Celtic folk - punk and Stockton 's Wing blend of Irish traditional and Pop , Rock and Reggae , there has been a movement to incorporate Celtic influences into other genres of music . Bands like Flogging Molly , Black 47 , Dropkick Murphys , The Young Dubliners , The Tossers introduced a hybrid of Celtic rock , punk , reggae , hardcore and other elements in the 1990s that has become popular with Irish - American youth .
Celtic music
The modern Celtic music scene involves a large number of music festivals , as it has traditionally . Some of the most prominent festivals focused solely on music include :
Middle Ages
Under Childeric 's son Clovis I ( r . 509 -- 511 ) , the founder of the Merovingian dynasty , the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity . The Britons , related to the natives of Britannia -- modern - day Great Britain -- settled in what is now Brittany . Other monarchies were established by the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula , the Suebi in northwestern Iberia , and the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa . In the sixth century , the Lombards settled in Northern Italy , replacing the Ostrogothic kingdom with a grouping of duchies that occasionally selected a king to rule over them all . By the late sixth century , this arrangement had been replaced by a permanent monarchy , the Kingdom of the Lombards .
Brittany
Gallo is spoken on the eastern half of Brittany . It is one of the romance Langues d'oïl , but has some Celtic influences , particularly in its vocabulary .
Celtic music
These two latter usage patterns may simply be remnants of formerly widespread melodic practices .
Comparative mythology
In the Greek myth of the Titanomachy , the Olympian gods defeat the Titans , an older and more primitive divine race , and establish cosmic order . Similarly , the Celtic gods of life and light struggle against the Fomorians , ancient gods of death and darkness .
Celtic music
Celtic traditional music Strathspeys are specific to Highland Scotland , for example , and it has been hypothesized that they mimic the rhythms of the Scottish Gaelic language . Reels Pibroch Cerdd Dant ( string music ) or Canu Penillion ( verse singing ) is the art of vocal improvisation over a given melody in Welsh musical tradition . It is an important competition in eisteddfodau . The singer or ( small ) choir sings a counter melody over a harp melody . Waulking song Puirt à beul Kan ha diskan Sean - nós song Celtic hip hop Celtic rock Celtic metal Celtic punk Celtic fusion
Kingdom of England
The Welsh language -- derived from the British language , continued to be spoken by the majority of the population of Wales for at least another 500 years , and is still a majority language in parts of the country .
Celtic music
These following melodic practices may be used widely across the different variants of Celtic Music : Celtic