vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Cherokee
After the Civil War , the US government required the Cherokee Nation to sign a new treaty , because of its alliance with the Confederacy . The US required the 1866 Treaty to provide for the emancipation of all Cherokee slaves , and full citizenship to all Cherokee freedmen and all African Americans who chose to continue to reside within tribal lands , so that they `` shall have all the rights of native Cherokees . '' Both before and after the Civil War , some Cherokee intermarried or had relationships with African Americans , just as they had with whites . Many Cherokee Freedmen have been active politically within the tribe .
History of United States prison systems
Many prisons in the South were in a state of disrepair by the end of the American Civil War , and state budgets across the region were exhausted . Mississippi 's penitentiary , for instance , was devastated during the war , and its funds depleted . In 1867 the state 's military government began leasing convicts to rebuild wrecked railroad and levees within the state . By 1872 , it began leasing convicts to Nathan Bedford Forrest , a former Confederate general and slave trader , as well as the first Imperial Wizard of the then emerging Ku Klux Klan .
Jim Crow laws
During the Reconstruction period of 1865 -- 1877 , federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U.S. South for freedmen , the African Americans who had formerly been slaves , and the minority of blacks who had been free before the war . In the 1870s , Democrats gradually regained power in the Southern legislatures , having used insurgent paramilitary groups , such as the White League and the Red Shirts , to disrupt Republican organizing , run Republican officeholders out of town , and intimidate blacks to suppress their voting . Extensive voter fraud was also used . Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years , with increasing violence against blacks during campaigns from 1868 onward .
Henry Clay
In 1840 Henry Clay finally gave Charlotte and her daughter Mary Ann Dupuy their freedom . He kept her son Charles Dupuy as a personal servant , frequently citing him as an example of how well he treated his slaves . Clay granted Charles Dupuy his freedom in 1844 . While no deed of emancipation has been found for Aaron Dupuy , in 1860 he and Charlotte were living together as free black residents in Fayette County , Kentucky . He may have been freed or `` given his time '' by one of Clay 's sons , as Dupuy continued to work at Ashland , for pay .
Midwestern United States
The U.S. federal government was supported by 20 mostly - Northern free states in which slavery already had been abolished , and by five slave states that became known as the border states . All of the Midwestern states but one , Missouri , banned slavery . Though most battles were fought in the South , skirmishes between Kansas and Missouri continued until culmination with the Lawrence Massacre on August 21 , 1863 . Also known as Quantrill 's Raid , the massacre was a rebel guerrilla attack by Quantrill 's Raiders , led by William Clarke Quantrill , on pro-Union Lawrence , Kansas . Quantrill 's band of 448 Missouri guerrillas raided and plundered Lawrence , killing more than 150 and burning all the business buildings and most of the dwellings . Pursued by federal troops , the band escaped to Missouri .
History of Arkansas
Although the slave issue had been tabled following the Missouri Compromise , it again came to the forefront when California 's admission to the Union threatened the political balance between free and slave states . John Selden Roane , William Sebastian , Solon Borland , and Robert Ward Johnson began rallying support for the Southern cause in Arkansas , including discussing secession . However , most Arkansans were looking to compromise and preserve the Union . After the Compromise of 1850 , several Family members in favor of secession acquired political office , including Elias Conway as governor . Thomas Hindman , a lawyer from Helena and strong supporter of Southern rights , acquired the congressional seat in Arkansas 's northern district with the support of the Family . Hindman would later side with Henry Rector against the Family , and both were successful in 1860 . During this time , the nation was continuing to grapple with the slavery issue . The Dred Scott v. Sandford decision and John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry kept slavery in the news . The creation of a Republican party who wanted to restrict the spread of slavery gave abolitionists a new option at the polls .
Great Migration (African American)
When the Emancipation Proclamation was signed in 1863 , less than eight percent of the African - American population lived in the Northeastern or Midwestern United States . This began to change over the next decade ; by 1880 , a migration was underway to Kansas . The U.S. Senate ordered an investigation into it . In 1900 , about 90 percent of blacks still lived in Southern states .
Freedmen's Bureau
In 1866 , the depot at Huntsville provided five thousand rations a day . The food was distributed without regard to race . Corruption and abuse was so great that in October 1866 , the President ended in - kind aid in that state . One hundred twenty thousand dollars was given to the state to provide relief to the end of January 1867 . Aid then ended in the state .
Georgia during Reconstruction
Bartow County was representative of the postwar difficulties . Property destruction and the deaths of a third of the soldiers caused financial and social crises ; recovery was delayed by repeated crop failures . The Freedmen 's Bureau agents were unable to give blacks the help they needed .
United States
Southern white Democrats , calling themselves `` Redeemers '' , took control of the South after the end of Reconstruction . From 1890 to 1910 , so - called Jim Crow laws disenfranchised most blacks and some poor whites throughout the region . Blacks faced racial segregation , especially in the South . They also occasionally experienced vigilante violence , including lynching .
History of United States prison systems
Just as the convict lease emerged gradually in the post-war South , it also made a gradual exit .
History of Texas (1845–1860)
The expansion of the Great Britain after the Mexican -- American War led to tensions between the slave and free states as to how to maintain the balance between the opposing viewpoints . Texas had been admitted to the United States as a slave state , yet Texas claimed territory north of the 36 ° 30 ' demarcation line for slavery set by the 1820 Missouri Compromise . According to the annexation agreement , if Texas were to be subdivided into multiple states , those north of the compromise line would become free states . Following the conclusion of the Mexican -- American War , Texas also tried to exert control over much of New Mexico .
Pottery of ancient Greece
Much of the early study of Greek vases took the form of production of albums of the images they depict , however neither D'Hancarville's nor Tischbein 's folios record the shapes or attempt to supply a date and are therefore unreliable as an archaeological record . Serious attempts at scholary study made steady progress over the 19th century starting with the founding of the Instituto di Corrispondenza in Rome in 1828 ( later the German Archaeological Institute ) , followed by Eduard Gerhard 's pioneering study Auserlesene Griechische Vasenbilder ( 1840 to 1858 ) , the establishment of the journal Archaeologische Zeitung in 1843 and the Ecole d'Athens 1846 . It was Gerhard who first outlined the chronology we now use , namely : Orientalizing ( Geometric , Archaic ) , Black Figure , Red Figure , Polychromatic ( Hellenistic ) . Neoclassical
Pottery of ancient Greece
Where the 19th century was a period of discovery and the laying out of first principles , the 20th century has been one of consolidation and intellectual industry . Efforts to record and publish the totality of public collections of vases began with the creation of the Corpus vasorum antiquorum under Edmond Pottier and the Beazley archive of John Beazley .
Pottery of ancient Greece
Finally it was Otto Jahn 's 1854 catalogue Vasensammlung of the Pinakothek , Munich , that set the standard for the scientific description of Greek pottery , recording the shapes and inscriptions with a previously unseen fastidousness . Jahn 's study was the standard textbook on the history and chronology of Greek pottery for many years , yet in common with Gerhard he dated the introduction of the red figure technique to a century later than was in fact the case . This error was corrected when the Aρχαιολογικη ' Εταιρεια undertook the excavation of the Acropolis in 1885 and discovered the so - called `` Persian debris '' of red figure pots destroyed by Persian invaders in 480 BC . With a more soundly established chronology it was possible for Adolf Furtwängler and his students in the 1880s and 90s to date the strata of his archaeological digs by the nature of the pottery found within them , a method of seriation Flinders Petrie was later to apply to unpainted Egyptian pottery .
Ancient Egypt
The excavation of the workers ' village of Deir el - Madinah has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world that spans almost four hundred years . There is no comparable site in which the organization , social interactions , working and living conditions of a community were studied in such detail .
Arrowhead
These hafted points might have been launched from bows . While `` most attributes such as micro-residue distribution patterns and micro-wear will develop similarly on points used to tip spears , darts or arrows '' and `` explicit tests for distinctions between thrown spears and projected arrows have not yet been conducted '' the researchers find `` contextual support '' for the use of these points on arrows : a broad range of animals were hunted , with an emphasis on taxa that prefer closed forested niches , including fast moving , terrestrial and arboreal animals . This is an argument for the use of traps , perhaps including snares . If snares were used , the use of cords and knots which would also have been adequate for the production of bows is implied . The employment of snares also demonstrates a practical understanding of the latent energy stored in bent branches , the main principle of bow construction . Cords and knots are implied by use - wear facets on perforated shell beads around 72,000 years old from Blombos . Archeologists in Louisiana have discovered that early Native Americans used Alligator gar scales as arrow heads .
Middle Ages
Peasant society is much less documented than the nobility . Most of the surviving information available to historians comes from archaeology ; few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century . Most of the descriptions of the lower classes come from either law codes or writers from the upper classes . Landholding patterns in the West were not uniform ; some areas had greatly fragmented landholding patterns , but in other areas large contiguous blocks of land were the norm . These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies , some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having a great deal of autonomy . Land settlement also varied greatly . Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants . Others lived in small groups of a few families and still others lived on isolated farms spread over the countryside . There were also areas where the pattern was a mix of two or more of those systems . Unlike in the late Roman period , there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat , and it was possible for a free peasant 's family to rise into the aristocracy over several generations through military service to a powerful lord .
Theatre of ancient Greece
Most costuming detail comes from pottery paintings from that time as costumes and masks were fabricated out of disposable material , so there are little to no remains of any costume from that time . The biggest source of information is the Pronomos Vase where actors are painted at a show 's after party .
Nubia
Toby Wilkinson , based on work by Bruce Williams in the 1980s , wrote that `` The white crown , associated in historic times with Upper Egypt , is first attested later than the red crown , but is directly associated with the ruler somewhat earlier . The earliest known depiction of the white crown is on a ceremonial incense burner from Cemetery at Qustul in Lower Nubia '' . Based on a 1998 excavation report , Jane Roy has written that `` At the time of Williams ' argument , the Qustul cemetery and the ' royal ' iconography found there was dated to the Naqada IIIA period , thus antedating royal cemeteries in Egypt of the Naqada IIIB phase . New evidence from Abydos , however , particularly the excavation of Cemetery U and the tome U-j , dating to Naqada IIIA has shown that this iconography appears earlier in Egypt . '' Pottery
Arrowhead
`` Hunting with a bow and arrow requires intricate multi-staged planning , material collection and tool preparation and implies a range of innovative social and communication skills . ''
Maya civilization
Commoners are estimated to have comprised over 90 % of the population , but relatively little is known about them . Their houses were generally constructed from perishable materials , and their remains have left little trace in the archaeological record . Some commoner dwellings were raised on low platforms , and these can be identified , but an unknown quantity of commoner houses were not . Such low - status dwellings can only be detected by extensive remote - sensing surveys of apparently empty terrain . The range of commoners was broad ; it consisted of everyone not of noble birth , and therefore included everyone from the poorest farmers to wealthy craftsmen and commoners appointed to bureaucratic positions . Commoners engaged in essential production activities , including that of products destined for use by the elite , such as cotton and cacao , as well as subsistence crops for their own use , and utilitarian items such as ceramics and stone tools . Commoners took part in warfare , and could advance socially by proving themselves as outstanding warriors . Commoners paid taxes to the elite in the form of staple goods such as maize flour and game . It is likely that hard - working commoners who displayed exceptional skills and initiative could become influential members of Maya society .
Ancient Greek architecture
The mainland and islands of Greece are rocky , with deeply indented coastline , and rugged mountain ranges with few substantial forests . The most freely available building material is stone . Limestone was readily available and easily worked . There is an abundance of high quality white marble both on the mainland and islands , particularly Paros and Naxos . This finely grained material was a major contributing factor to precision of detail , both architectural and sculptural , that adorned ancient Greek architecture . Deposits of high quality potter 's clay were found throughout Greece and the Islands , with major deposits near Athens . It was used not only for pottery vessels , but also roof tiles and architectural decoration .
Pottery of ancient Greece
The process of making a pot and firing it is fairly simple . The first thing a potter needs is clay . Attica 's high - iron clay gave its pots an orange color .
Middle Ages
The migrations and invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries disrupted trade networks around the Mediterranean . African goods stopped being imported into Europe , first disappearing from the interior and by the 7th century found only in a few cities such as Rome or Naples . By the end of the 7th century , under the impact of the Muslim conquests , African products were no longer found in Western Europe . The replacement of goods from long - range trade with local products was a trend throughout the old Roman lands that happened in the Early Middle Ages . This was especially marked in the lands that did not lie on the Mediterranean , such as northern Gaul or Britain . Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods . In the northern parts of Europe , not only were the trade networks local , but the goods carried were simple , with little pottery or other complex products . Around the Mediterranean , pottery remained prevalent and appears to have been traded over medium - range networks , not just produced locally .
Metallurgy during the Copper Age in Europe
The tools employed are mainly presented in Lewis ' observations , but other ones have been recovered in archaeological context :
Potentiality and actuality
In an influential 1969 paper Aryeh Kosman divided up previous attempts to explain Aristotle 's definition into two types , criticised them , and then gave his own third interpretation . While this has not become a consensus , it has been described as having become `` orthodox '' . This and similar more recent publications are the basis of the following summary .
Midwestern United States
Following the Paleo - Indian period is the Archaic period ( 8,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE ) , the Woodland Tradition ( 1,000 BCE to 100 CE ) , and the Mississippian Period ( 900 to 1500 CE ) . Archaeological evidence indicates that Mississippian culture traits probably began in the St. Louis , Missouri area and spread northwest along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers and entered the state along the Kankakee River system . It also spread northward into Indiana along the Wabash , Tippecanoe , and White Rivers .
Mycenaean Greece
Mycenaean domestic architecture originates mainly from earlier Middle Helladic traditions ( c. 2000 -- 1650 BC ) both in shape , as well as in location of settlement . The observed uniformity in domestic architecture came probably as a result of a shared past among the communities of the Greek mainland rather than as a consequence of cultural expansion of the Mycenaean Koine . Moreover , varying sizes of mudbricks were used in the construction of buildings .
Pottery of ancient Greece
Several clay vases owed their inspiration to metalwork forms in bronze , silver and sometimes gold . These were increasingly used by the elite when dining , but were not placed in graves , where they would have been robbed , and were often treated as a store of value to be traded as bullion when needed . Very few metal vessels have survived as at some point they were melted down and the metal reused .
Evidence of common descent
For fossilization to take place , the traces and remains of organisms must be quickly buried so that weathering and decomposition do not occur . Skeletal structures or other hard parts of the organisms are the most commonly occurring form of fossilized remains . There are also some trace `` fossils '' showing moulds , cast or imprints of some previous organisms .
History of Native Americans in the United States
Since the 1990s , archeologists have explored and dated eleven Middle Archaic sites in present - day Louisiana and Florida at which early cultures built complexes with multiple earthwork mounds ; they were societies of hunter - gatherers rather than the settled agriculturalists believed necessary according to the theory of Neolithic Revolution to sustain such large villages over long periods . The prime example is Watson Brake in northern Louisiana , whose 11 - mound complex is dated to 3500 BCE , making it the oldest , dated site in the Americas for such complex construction . It is nearly 2,000 years older than the Poverty Point site . Construction of the mounds went on for 500 years until was abandoned about 2800 BCE , probably due to changing environmental conditions .
Mycenaean Greece
Meanwhile , new types of burials and more imposing ones have been unearthed , which display a great variety of luxurious objects . Among the various burial types , the shaft grave became the most common form of elite burial , a feature that gave the name to the early period of Mycenaean Greece . Among the Mycenaean elite , deceased men were usually laid to rest in gold masks and funerary armor , and women in gold crowns and clothes gleaming with gold ornaments . The royal shaft graves next to the acropolis of Mycenae , in particular the Grave Circles A and B signified the elevation of a native Greek - speaking royal dynasty whose economic power depended on long - distance sea trade .
History of Mexico
significant urban settlements ; monumental architecture such as temples , palaces , and other monumental architecture , such as the ball court ; the division of society into religious , political , and political elites ( such as warriors and merchants ) and commoners who pursued subsistence agriculture ; transfer of tribute and rending of labor from commoners to elites ; reliance on agriculture often supplemented by hunting and fishing and the complete absence of a pastoral ( herding ) economy , since there were no domesticated herd animals prior to the arrival of the Europeans ; trade networks and markets .
Châteauneuf-du-Pape
In 1994 , a small archaeological excavation was carried out on the terrace at the foot of the southern façade of the papal quarters . Altogether fifty tiles were recovered that had been scattered in the modern landfill . At the same time , a survey was conducted in the village to locate tiles held in private collections . A hundred more tiles were identified that had been collected by local people in the 19th and 20th centuries . These new finds enlarged the established iconography and provided more precise information on how the tiles were made .
National Geographic (U.S. TV channel)
Archaeologists have protested that National Geographic shows such as Diggers and Nazi War Diggers promote the looting and destruction of archaeological sites by promoting the work of metal detecting souvenir hunters and collectable dealers . In 2013 the National Geographic Channel set off a firestorm of controversy with its reality show Diggers . Professional archaeologists from the Society for Historical Archaeology , the largest scholarly group concerned with the archaeology of the modern world ( A.D. 1400 -- present ) , roundly criticized the network for promoting the theft of cultural materials on public and private land . The show Nazi War Diggers was accused of showing unscientific and disrespectful handling of human remains . A promotional quote from a military relic dealer , `` I feel that by selling things that are Nazi - related and for lots of money , I am preserving things that museums do n't want to deal with , '' was removed from the channel 's website in March 2014 . National Geographic expressed regret for how the series was presented by its own website but maintained that many of the accusations against the series were based on misinformation . The program was subsequently pulled from the schedules while National Geographic reviewed allegations against the series . The show was repackaged , amid controversy , as Battlefield Recovery for air during 2016 on Channel 5 in the UK .
Ancient Greek cuisine
Modern knowledge of ancient Greek cuisine and eating habits is derived from literary and artistic evidence . The literary evidence comes mostly from Aristophanes ' comedies and quotes preserved by 2nd -- 3rd century AD grammarian Athenaeus , while artistic information is provided by black - and red - figure vase - painting and terracotta figurines .