vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Zimbabwe
Proto - Shona - speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands . The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Shona states , beginning around the 10th century . Around the early 10th century , trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast , helping to develop the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in the 11th century . This was the precursor to the more impressive Shona civilisations that would dominate the region during the 13th to 15th centuries , evidenced by ruins at Great Zimbabwe , near Masvingo , and other smaller sites . The main archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture .
Neolithic Revolution
Maize ( corn ) , beans and squash were among the earliest crops domesticated in Mesoamerica , with maize beginning about 7500 BC , squash , as early as 8000 to 6000 BC and beans by no later than 4000 BC . Potatoes and manioc were domesticated in South America . In what is now the eastern United States , Native Americans domesticated sunflower , sumpweed and goosefoot around 2500 BC . At Guilá Naquitz cave in the Mexican highlands , fragments of maize pollen , bottle gourd and pepo squash were recovered and variously dated between 8000 and 7000 BC . In this area of the world people relied on hunting and gathering for several millennia to come . Sedentary village life based on farming did not develop until the second millennium BC , referred to as the formative period .
Islamic architecture
According to a hypothesis developed by Jean Sauvaget , the umayyad quṣūr played a role in the systematic agricultural colonisation of the uninhabited frontier areas , and , as such , continue the colonisation strategy of earlier Christian monks and the Ghassanids . The Umayyads , however , increasingly oriented their political strategy towards a model of Client politics , of mutual interdependence and support . After the Umayyad conquest , the quṣūr lost their original function and were either abandoned or continued to serve as local market places and meeting points until the tenth century . Another type of Islamic fortress is Qalat .
Islamic architecture
The architecture of the `` oriental '' - Islamic town is based on cultural and sociological concepts which differ from those of European cities . In both cultures , a distinction is made between the areas used by the rulers and their government and administration , public places of everyday common life , and the areas of private life . Whilst the structures and concepts of European towns originated from a sociological struggle to gain basic rights of freedom -- or town privileges -- from political or religious authorities during the Middle Ages , an Islamic town or city is fundamentally influenced by the preservation of the unity of secular and religious life throughout time .
Olmec
Another type of artifact is much smaller ; hardstone carvings in jade of a face in a mask form . Curators and scholars refer to `` Olmec - style '' face masks but , to date , no example has been recovered in an archaeologically controlled Olmec context . They have been recovered from sites of other cultures , including one deliberately deposited in the ceremonial precinct of Tenochtitlan ( Mexico City ) . The mask would presumably have been about 2,000 years old when the Aztec buried it , suggesting such masks were valued and collected as were Roman antiquities in Europe .
Mesopotamia
Hundreds of graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia , revealing information about Mesopotamian burial habits . In the city of Ur , most people were buried in family graves under their houses , along with some possessions . A few have been found wrapped in mats and carpets . Deceased children were put in big `` jars '' which were placed in the family chapel . Other remains have been found buried in common city graveyards. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them . It is assumed that these were royal graves . Rich of various periods , have been discovered to have sought burial in Bahrein , identified with Sumerian Dilmun .
Maya civilization
Ceramics are the most commonly surviving type of Maya art . The Maya had no knowledge of the potter 's wheel , and Maya vessels were built up by coiling rolled strips of clay into the desired form . Maya pottery was not glazed , although it often had a fine finish produced by burnishing . Maya ceramics were painted with clay slips blended with minerals and coloured clays . Ancient Maya firing techniques have yet to be replicated . A quantity of extremely fine ceramic figurines have been excavated from Late Classic tombs on Jaina Island , in northern Yucatán . They stand from 10 to 25 centimetres ( 3.9 to 9.8 in ) high and were hand modelled , with exquisite detail . The Ik - style polychrome ceramic corpus , including finely painted plates and cylindrical vessels , originated in Late Classic Motul de San José . It includes a set of features such as hieroglyphs painted in a pink or pale red colour and scenes with dancers wearing masks . One of the most distinctive features is the realistic representation of subjects as they appeared in life . The subject matter of the vessels includes courtly life from the Petén region in the 8th century AD , such as diplomatic meetings , feasting , bloodletting , scenes of warriors and the sacrifice of prisoners of war .
Parent material
Parent material is classified by its last means of transport . Material that was transported to a location by glacier , then deposited elsewhere by streams , is classified as stream - transported parent material , or glacial fluvial parent material .
Ancient Roman architecture
A specific genre of Roman mosaic obtained the name asaroton ( Greek `` unswept floor '' ) . It represented an optical illusion of the leftovers from a feast on the floor of reach houses .
Mesoamerican ballgame
Other scholars support these arguments by pointing to the warfare imagery often found at ballcourts :
Mesoamerican ballgame
The game 's paraphernalia -- clothing , headdresses , gloves , all but the stone -- are long gone , so knowledge on clothing relies on art -- paintings and drawings , stone reliefs , and figurines -- to provide evidence for pre-Columbian ballplayer clothing and gear , which varied considerably in type and quantity . Capes and masks , for example , are shown on several Dainzú reliefs , while Teotihuacan murals show men playing stick - ball in skirts .
History of calendars
A ceramic artefact from Bulgaria , known as the Slatino furnace model , has been pronounced by local archeologists and media to be the oldest known calendar representation , a claim not endorsed in mainstream views .
Long jump
There has been some argument by modern scholars over the long jump . Some have attempted to recreate it as a triple jump . The images provide the only evidence for the action so it is more well received that it was much like today 's long jump . The main reason some want to call it a triple jump is the presence of a source that claims there once was a fifty - five ancient foot jump done by a man named Phayllos .
History of the United States Constitution
Current knowledge of drafting the Constitution comes primarily from the Journal left by James Madison , found chronologically incorporated in Max Farrand 's `` The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 '' , which included the Convention Journal and sources from other Federalists and Anti-Federalists .
Articles of Confederation
Images of an original draft of the Articles of Confederation stored at the United States National Archive .
History of education in the United States
Free schooling was available through some of the elementary grades . Graduates of these schools could read and write , though not always with great precision . Mary Chesnut , a Southern diarist , mocks the North 's system of free education in her journal entry of June 3 , 1862 , where she derides misspelled words from the captured letters of Union soldiers . Compulsory
Memorandum
The origins of the term `` briefing '' lie in legal `` briefs '' and the derivative `` military briefings '' .
History of the United States Constitution
They were all Englishmen , supposed to be a single people , with one definable interest . Legitimacy came from membership in Parliament of the sovereign realm , not elections from people . As Blackstone explained , the Member is `` not bound ... to consult with , or take the advice , of his constituents . '' As Constitutional historian Gordon Wood elaborated , `` The Commons of England contained all of the people 's power and were considered to be the very persons of the people they represented . ''
Articles of Confederation
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Modern history
The American Revolution The French Revolution The Revolutions of 1848 The Russian Revolution The First World War and the Second World War
Lords Proprietor
The documents include information about Wyche 's land - claims and the petition of the Cyril family for an endorsement of their rights under the 1699 grant ( a claim that the Privy Council in London disallowed ) . The grant was originally written in Latin and is embossed on vellum with the Great Seal of the Proprietors attached . This seal and document is one of two such 17th century documents to survive with the seal intact .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
Two lengthy accounts from the defeated indigenous viewpoint were created under the direction of Spanish friars , Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and Dominican Diego Durán , using indigenous informants .
History of women in the United States
Using the colonies of Virginia and Maryland as a case study , Mellen argues that women in the mid-18th century , had a significant role in the world of print and the public sphere . The voice of women was spread through books , newspapers , and popular almanacs . Some women writers sought equal treatment under the law and became involved in public debates even before the Stamp Act controversy of 1765 .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
A text from the Nahua point of view , the Anales de Tlatelolco , an early indigenous account in Nahuatl , perhaps from 1540 , remained in indigenous hands until it was published . An extract of this important manuscript was published in 1991 by James Lockhart in Nahuatl transcription and English translation . A popular anthology in English for classroom use is Miguel León - Portilla 's , The Broken Spears : The Aztec Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico from 1992 . Not surprisingly , many publications and republications of sixteenth - century accounts of the conquest of Mexico appeared around 1992 , the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's first voyage , when scholarly and popular interest in first encounters surged .
Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Entertainment/2012 July 7
FWIW I 've found a slightly earlier reference in 1928 . Herbert Williams , MP for Reading , in the House of Commons 24 May 1928 :
Council of Trent
Most of the official documents and private reports , however , which bear upon the council , were made known in the 16th century and since . The most complete collection of them is that of J. Le Plat , Monumentorum ad historicam Concilii Tridentini collectio ( 7 vols. , Leuven , 1781 -- 87 ) . New materials ( Vienna , 1872 ) ; by JJI von Döllinger ( Ungedruckte Berichte und Tagebücher zur Geschichte des Concilii von Trient ) ( 2 parts , Nördlingen , 1876 ) ; and August von Druffel , Monumenta Tridentina ( Munich , 1884 -- 97 ) .
Roanoke Colony
The second source of Chief Powhatan 's involvement was William Strachey , Secretary of the Jamestown colony in 1610 -- 11 . Strachey 's The Historie of Travaile Into Virginia Britannia seemed to confirm Smith 's report and provided additional information : the colonists had been living peacefully among a group of natives beyond Powhatan 's domain for more than twenty years when they were massacred . Furthermore , Powhatan himself seemed to have directed the slaughter because of prophecies by his priests that he would be overthrown by people from that area , and he reportedly produced several English - made iron implements to back his claim .
Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)
They came upon an artificial mound near the dunes which they partially uncovered and found to be an Indian grave . Farther along , a similar mound was found , more recently made , and they discovered that some of the burial mounds also contained corn . The colonists took some of the corn , intending to use it as seed for planting , while they reburied the rest . William Bradford later recorded in his book Of Plymouth Plantation that , after the shallop had been repaired ,
Fur trade
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History of education in the United States
In March 1620 , George Thorpe sailed from Bristol for Virginia . He became a deputy in charge of 10,000 acres ( 4,000 ha ) of land to be set aside for a university and Indian school . The plans for the school for Native Americans ended when George Thorpe was killed in the Indian Massacre of 1622 . In Virginia , rudimentary schooling for the poor and paupers was provided by the local parish . Most elite parents either home schooled their children using peripatetic tutors or sent them to small local private schools .
Movable type
The designs of the artists who made the first coin punches were stylized with a degree of skill that could not be mistaken for common handiwork -- salient and very specific types designed to be reproduced ad infinitum . Unlike the first typefaces used to print books in the 13th century , coin types were neither combined nor printed with ink on paper , but `` published '' in metal -- a more durable medium -- and survived in substantial numbers . As the portable face of ruling authority , coins were a compact form of standardized knowledge issued in large editions , an early mass medium that stabilized trade and civilization throughout the Mediterranean world of antiquity .
Elgin Marbles
The parliamentary record shows that the Italian copy of the firman was not presented to the committee by Elgin himself but by one of his associates , the clergyman Rev. Philip Hunt . Hunt , who at the time resided in Bedford , was the last witness to appear before the committee and stated that he had in his possession an Italian translation of the Ottoman original . He went on to explain that he had not brought the document , because , upon leaving Bedford , he was not aware that he was to testify as a witness . The English document in the parliamentary report was filed by Hunt , but the committee was not presented with the Italian translation in Hunt 's possession . William St. Clair , a contemporary biographer of Lord Elgin , said he possessed Hunt 's Italian document and `` vouches for the accuracy of the English translation '' . The committee report states on page 69 `` ( Signed with a signet . ) Seged Abdullah Kaimacan '' - however , the document presented to the committee was `` an English translation of this purported translation into Italian of the original firman '' , and had neither signet nor signature on it , a fact corroborated by St. Clair . The 1967 study by British historian William St. Clair , Lord Elgin and the Marbles , stated the sultan did not allow the removal of statues and reliefs from the Parthenon . The study judged a clause authorizing the British to take stones `` with old inscriptions and figures '' probably meant items in the excavations the site , not the art decorating the temples .
Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Entertainment/2012 July 7
And here 's another mention of the same event referred to in parliament . It occurred on 19 May 1928 . -- ♬ Jack of Oz ♬ 21 : 17 , 9 July 2012 ( UTC )
Historian
In summarising Gray 's judgement , in an article published in the Yale Law Journal , Wendie E. Schneider distils these seven points for what he meant by an objective historian :
World War I
The British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but increasingly were conscripted into service . Surviving veterans , returning home , often found that they could only discuss their experiences amongst themselves . Grouping together , they formed `` veterans ' associations '' or `` Legions '' . A small number of personal accounts of American veterans have been collected by the Library of Congress Veterans History Project .
Modern history
This combination of epoch events totally changed thinking and thought in the early modern period , and so their dates serve as well as any to separate the old from the new modes .
History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
Subsequent to the conclusion of the war , after analyzing captured insurgent papers , Major Major J.R.M. Taylor wrote , in part ,
History of Australia (1788–1850)
In the early years of colonisation , David Collins , the senior legal officer in the Sydney settlement , wrote of local Aborigines :
Stamp Act 1765
Resolved , That the first Adventurers and Settlers of this his majesty 's colony and Dominion of Virginia brought with them , and transmitted to their Posterity , and all other his Majesty 's subjects since inhabiting in this his Majesty 's said Colony , all the Liberties , privileges , Franchises , and Immunities that have at any Time been held , enjoyed , and possessed , by the People of Great Britain .
Daughters of the American Revolution
The DAR published a book , available online , an extensive resource with the names of thousands of minority patriots , to enable family and historical research . Its online Genealogical Research System ( GRS ) provides access to an extensive database , and it is digitizing family Bibles to collect more information for research .
Oral storytelling
Early storytelling probably originates in simple chants . People sang chants as they worked at grinding corn or sharpening tools . Our early ancestors created myths to explain natural occurrences . They assigned superhuman qualities to ordinary people , thus originating the hero tale .
Nile
The following is an annotated bibliography of key written documents for the Western exploration of the Nile .
Industrial Revolution
There were publications describing technology . Encyclopaedias such as Harris 's Lexicon Technicum ( 1704 ) and Abraham Rees 's Cyclopaedia ( 1802 -- 1819 ) contain much of value . Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution , very well illustrated by fine engravings . Foreign printed sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et Métiers and Diderot 's Encyclopédie explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates .
First Fleet
David Collins ' book An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales gives the following details :
American Revolution
At the time , revolutionaries were called `` Patriots '' , `` Whigs '' , `` Congress - men '' , or `` Americans '' . They included a full range of social and economic classes , but were unanimous regarding the need to defend the rights of Americans and uphold the principles of republicanism in terms of rejecting monarchy and aristocracy , while emphasizing civic virtue on the part of the citizens . Newspapers were strongholds of patriotism ( although there were a few Loyalist papers ) , and printed many pamphlets , announcements , patriotic letters and pronouncements .
History of the Latin script
Whereas the meticulously drawn textualis quadrata was the most common script for religious works , starting from the 13th century a common style of handwriting for vernacular work , which were written at speed , was Secretary hand , a cursive script , which features amongst several ligatures and contraction distinctive strong `` elephant 's ear '' ascenders and descenders
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
In this country we live ... under an unwritten Constitution . It is true that we have on the Statute - book great instruments like Magna Carta , the Petition of Right , and the Bill of Rights which define and secure many of our rights and privileges ; but the great bulk of our constitutional liberties and ... our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the formal assent of the King , Lords and Commons . They rest on usage , custom , convention , often of slow growth in their early stages , not always uniform , but which in the course of time received universal observance and respect .
Gunfight at the O.K. Corral
Spicer took written and oral testimony from a number of witnesses over more than a month . Accounts by both participants and eye - witnesses were contradictory . Those loyal to one side or the other told conflicting stories and independent eyewitnesses who did not know the participants by sight were unable to say for certain who shot first .
Stamp Act 1765
While the colonial legislatures were acting , the ordinary citizens of the colonies were also voicing their concerns outside of this formal political process . Historian Gary B. Nash wrote :
First Fleet
Historians have disagreed over whether those aboard the First Fleet were responsible for introducing smallpox to Australia 's indigenous population , and if so , whether this was the consequence of deliberate action .
First voyage of James Cook
In 2001 , the BBC set about making a documentary which involved a film crew , volunteers and historians retracing the voyage made by Captain Cook . One of the historians , Alexander Cook , documented the journey in his 2004 article `` Sailing on The Ship : Re-enactment and the Quest for Popular History '' .
United States Bullion Depository
During World War II , the depository held the original U.S. Declaration of Independence and U.S. Constitution . It held the reserves of European countries and key documents from Western history . For example , it held the Crown of St. Stephen , part of the Hungarian crown jewels , given to American soldiers to prevent them from falling into Soviet hands . The repository held one of four copies ( exemplifications ) of Magna Carta , which had been sent for display at the 1939 New York World 's Fair , and when war broke out , was kept in the US for the duration .
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
The first studies into the medieval economy of England began in the 1880s , principally around the work of English jurist and historian Frederic Maitland . This scholarship , drawing extensively on documents such as the Domesday Book and the Magna Carta , became known as the `` Whiggish '' view of economic history , focusing on law and government . Late Victorian writers argued that change in the English medieval economy stemmed primarily from the towns and cities , leading to a progressive and universalist interpretation of development over the period , focusing on trade and commerce . Influenced by the evolution of Norman laws , Maitland argued that there was a clear discontinuity between the Anglo - Saxon and Norman economic systems .
Time
Another form of time measurement consists of studying the past . Events in the past can be ordered in a sequence ( creating a chronology ) , and can be put into chronological groups ( periodization ) . One of the most important systems of periodization is the geologic time scale , which is a system of periodizing the events that shaped the Earth and its life . Chronology , periodization , and interpretation of the past are together known as the study of history .
History of childhood
The latter half of the century also saw the introduction of compulsory state schooling of children across Europe , which decisively removed children from the workplace into schools . Modern methods of public schooling , with tax - supported schools , compulsory attendance , and educated teachers emerged first in Prussia in the early 19th century , and was adopted by Britain , the United States , France and other modern nations by 1900 .