vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Qing dynasty
By the end of the nineteenth century , national artistic and cultural worlds had begun to come to terms with the cosmopolitan culture of the West and Japan . The decision to stay within old forms or welcome Western models was now a conscious choice rather than an unchallenged acceptance of tradition . Classically trained Confucian scholars such as Liang Qichao and Wang Guowei read widely and broke aesthetic and critical ground later cultivated in the New Culture Movement .
Qing dynasty
From the early Qing , the central government was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it . The Han Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing rule . The distinction between Han Chinese and Manchus extended to their court costumes . During the Qianlong Emperor 's reign , for example , members of his family were distinguished by garments with a small circular emblem on the back , whereas Han officials wore clothing with a square emblem .
Qing dynasty
Among the Banners , gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were specifically wielded by the Chinese Banners .
Qing dynasty
People in this period were also remarkably on the move . There is evidence suggesting that the empire 's rapidly expanding population was geographically mobile on a scale , which , in term of its volume and its protracted and routinized nature , was unprecedented in Chinese history . Indeed , the Qing government did far more to encourage mobility than to discourage it . Migration took several different forms , though might be divided in two varieties : permanent migration for resettlement , and relocation conceived by the party ( in theory at least ) as a temporary sojourn . Parties to the latter would include the empire 's increasingly large and mobile manual workforce , as well as its densely overlapping internal diaspora of local - origin - based merchant groups . It would also included the patterned movement of Qing subjects overseas , largely to Southeastern Asia , in search of trade and other economic opportunities .
End of the Han dynasty
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Written Chinese
For over two thousand years , the prevailing written standard was a vocabulary and syntax rooted in Chinese as spoken around the time of Confucius ( about 500 BC ) , called Classical Chinese , or 文言文 wényánwén . Over the centuries , Classical Chinese gradually acquired some of its grammar and character senses from the various dialects . This accretion was generally slow and minor ; however , by the 20th century , Classical Chinese was distinctly different from any contemporary dialect , and had to be learned separately . Once learned , it was a common medium for communication between people speaking different dialects , many of which were mutually unintelligible by the end of the first millennium AD . A Mandarin speaker might say yī , a Cantonese yāt , a Shanghainese iq , and a Hokkien chit , but all four will understand the character < 一 > to mean `` one '' .
Gobi Desert
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Qing dynasty
Hong Taiji 's bureaucracy was staffed with many Han Chinese , including many newly surrendered Ming officials . The Manchus ' continued dominance was ensured by an ethnic quota for top bureaucratic appointments . Hong Taiji 's reign also saw a fundamental change of policy towards his Han Chinese subjects . Nurhaci had treated Han in Liaodong differently according to how much grain they had : those with less than 5 to 7 sin were treated badly , while those with more than that amount were rewarded with property . Due to a revolt by Han in Liaodong in 1623 , Nurhaci , who previously gave concessions to conquered Han subjects in Liaodong , turned against them and ordered that they no longer be trusted . He enacted discriminatory policies and killings against them , while ordering that Han who assimilated to the Jurchen ( in Jilin ) before 1619 be treated equally , as Jurchens were , and not like the conquered Han in Liaodong . Hong Taiji recognized that Han defectors were needed by the Manchus to assist in the conquest of the Ming , explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General Hong Chengchou leniently . Hong Taiji instead incorporated them into the Jurchen `` nation '' as full ( if not first - class ) citizens , obligated to provide military service . By 1648 , less than one - sixth of the bannermen were of Manchu ancestry . This change of policy not only increased Hong Taiji 's manpower and reduced his military dependence on banners not under his personal control , it also greatly encouraged other Han Chinese subjects of the Ming dynasty to surrender and accept Jurchen rule when they were defeated militarily . Through these and other measures Hong Taiji was able to centralize power unto the office of the Khan , which in the long run prevented the Jurchen federation from fragmenting after his death .
Qing dynasty
Qing dynasty Chinese name Chinese 清朝 ( show ) Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Qīng cháo Wade -- Giles Ch'ing ch'ao IPA ( tɕhíŋ ʈʂhǎu ) Wu Suzhounese Tshin záu Yue : Cantonese Yale Romanization Ching Chiu IPA ( tshéŋ tshȉːu ) Jyutping Cing ciu Southern Min Hokkien POJ Chheng tiâu Tâi - lô Tshing tiâu Great Qing Traditional Chinese 大 清 Simplified Chinese 大 清 ( show ) Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Dà Qīng Wade -- Giles Ta Ch'ing Yue : Cantonese Yale Romanization Daai Ching IPA ( tàːi tshéŋ ) Jyutping daai cing Southern Min Hokkien POJ Tāi - chheng Tâi - lô Tāi - tshing Mongolian name Mongolian Cyrillic Дайчин улс Mongolian script ᠳᠠᠶᠢᠴᠢᠩ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ( show ) Transcriptions SASM / GNC Daiqing ulus Manchu name Manchu script ᡩᠠᡳ᠌ᠴᡳᠩ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ Abkai Daiqing gurun Möllendorff Daicing gurun
Movable type
Bi Sheng ( 990 -- 1051 ) also pioneered the use of wooden movable type around 1040 AD , as described by the Chinese scholar Shen Kuo ( 1031 -- 1095 ) . However , this technology was abandoned in favour of clay movable types due to the presence of wood grains and the unevenness of the wooden type after being soaked in ink . A
Qing dynasty
This board was responsible for all matters concerning court protocol . It organized the periodic worship of ancestors and various gods by the emperor , managed relations with tributary nations , and oversaw the nationwide civil examination system .
Movable type
Bi Sheng ( 毕 昇 / 畢昇 ) ( 990 -- 1051 ) developed the first known movable - type system for printing in China around 1040 AD during the Northern Song dynasty , using ceramic materials . As described by the Chinese scholar Shen Kuo ( 沈括 ) ( 1031 -- 1095 ) :
Gupta Empire
He was the founder of Nalanda University which on July 15 , 2016 was declared as a UNESCO world heritage site .
Forbidden City
After being the home of 24 emperors -- 14 of the Ming dynasty and 10 of the Qing dynasty -- the Forbidden City ceased being the political centre of China in 1912 with the abdication of Puyi , the last Emperor of China . Under an agreement with the new Republic of China government , Puyi remained in the Inner Court , while the Outer Court was given over to public use , until he was evicted after a coup in 1924 . The Palace Museum was then established in the Forbidden City in 1925 . In 1933 , the Japanese invasion of China forced the evacuation of the national treasures in the Forbidden City . Part of the collection was returned at the end of World War II , but the other part was evacuated to Taiwan in 1948 under orders by Chiang Kai - shek , whose Kuomintang was losing the Chinese Civil War . This relatively small but high quality collection was kept in storage until 1965 , when it again became public , as the core of the National Palace Museum in Taipei .
Ship
In China , miniature models of ships that feature steering oars have been dated to the Warring States period ( c. 475 -- 221 BC ) . By the Han dynasty , a well kept naval fleet was an integral part of the military . Sternpost - mounted rudders started to appear on Chinese ship models starting in the 1st century AD . Ship technology advanced to the point where by the medieval period , water tight compartments were developed .
Qing dynasty
Early during the Taiping Rebellion , Qing forces suffered a series of disastrous defeats culminating in the loss of the regional capital city of Nanjing in 1853 . Shortly thereafter , a Taiping expeditionary force penetrated as far north as the suburbs of Tianjin , the imperial heartlands . In desperation the Qing court ordered a Chinese official , Zeng Guofan , to organize regional and village militias into an emergency army called tuanlian . Zeng Guofan 's strategy was to rely on local gentry to raise a new type of military organization from those provinces that the Taiping rebels directly threatened . This new force became known as the Xiang Army , named after the Hunan region where it was raised . The Xiang Army was a hybrid of local militia and a standing army . It was given professional training , but was paid for out of regional coffers and funds its commanders -- mostly members of the Chinese gentry -- could muster . The Xiang Army and its successor , the Huai Army , created by Zeng Guofan 's colleague and protégée Li Hongzhang , were collectively called the `` Yong Ying '' ( Brave Camp ) . In
Chinese Buddhism
During the Zhou dynasty , Chinese believed that smoke resulting from burning wood act as a bridge between the human world and the spirits . When Buddhism reached China , this wood evolved into sandalwood incense which were originally burned by Indian Buddhists so they could concentrate better .
Siege
During the Warring States period in China ( 481 -- 221 BC ) , warfare lost its honourable , gentlemen 's duty that was found in the previous era of the Spring and Autumn period , and became more practical , competitive , cut - throat , and efficient for gaining victory . The Chinese invention of the hand - held , trigger - mechanism crossbow during this period revolutionized warfare , giving greater emphasis to infantry and cavalry and less to traditional chariot warfare .
Silk Road
From the 4th century CE onward , Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures , with Fa - hsien 's pilgrimage to India ( 395 -- 414 ) , and later Xuanzang ( 629 -- 644 ) and Hyecho , who traveled from Korea to India . The travels of the priest Xuanzang were fictionalized in the 16th century in a fantasy adventure novel called Journey to the West , which told of trials with demons and the aid given by various disciples on the journey . A
Silk Road
The Sogdians dominated the East - West trade after the 4th century up to the 8th century , with Suyab and Talas ranking among their main centres in the north . They were the main caravan merchants of Central Asia . Their commercial interests were protected by the resurgent military power of the Göktürks , whose empire has been described as `` the joint enterprise of the Ashina clan and the Soghdians '' . A.V. Dybo noted that `` according to historians , the main driving force of the Great Silk Road were not just Sogdians , but the carriers of a mixed Sogdian - Türkic culture that often came from mixed families . '' Their trade , with some interruptions , continued in the 9th century within the framework of the Uighur Empire , which until 840 extended across northern Central Asia and obtained from China enormous deliveries of silk in exchange for horses . At this time caravans of Sogdians travelling to Upper Mongolia are mentioned in Chinese sources . They played an equally important religious and cultural role . Part of the data about eastern Asia provided by Muslim geographers of the 10th century actually goes back to Sogdian data of the period 750 -- 840 and thus shows the survival of links between east and west . However , after the end of the Uighur Empire , Sogdian trade went through a crisis . What mainly issued from Muslim Central Asia was the trade of the Samanids , which resumed the northwestern road leading to the Khazars and the Urals and the northeastern one toward the nearby Turkic tribes .
Porus
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Forbidden City
In 1997 , Greek - born composer and keyboardist Yanni performed a live concert in front of the Forbidden City the first modern Western artist to perform at the historic Chinese site . The concert was recorded and later released as part of the Tribute album . Giacomo Puccini 's opera , Turandot , the story of a Chinese princess , was performed at the Imperial Shrine just outside the Forbidden City for the first time in 1998 . In 2001 , the Three Tenors , Plácido Domingo and José Carreras and Luciano Pavarotti , sang in front of Forbidden City main gate as one of their performances . In 2004 , the French musician Jean Michel Jarre performed a live concert in front of the Forbidden City , accompanied by 260 musicians , as part of the `` Year of France in China '' festivities .
Migration in China
Despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands , by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine , floods , and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s .
Golden Horde
Batu allowed Möngke 's census takers to operate freely in his realm , though his prestige as kingmaker and elder Borjigin was at its height . In 1252 -- 59 , Möngke conducted a census of the Mongol Empire , including Iran , Afghanistan , Georgia , Armenia , Russia , Central Asia , and North China . While the census in China was completed in 1252 , Novgorod in the far northwest was not counted until winter 1258 -- 59 . There was an uprising in Novgorod against the Mongol census , but Alexander Nevsky forced the city to submit to the census and taxation .
Siege
By concentrating on the field armies , the strongholds had to wait . Of course , smaller fortresses , or ones easily surprised , were taken as they came along . This had two effects . First , it cut off the principal city from communicating with other cities where they might expect aid . Secondly , refugees from these smaller cities would flee to the last stronghold . The reports from these cities and the streaming hordes of refugees not only reduced the morale of the inhabitants and garrison of the principal city , it also strained their resources . Food and water reserves were taxed by the sudden influx of refugees . Soon , what was once a formidable undertaking became easy . The Mongols were then free to lay siege without interference of the field army , as it had been destroyed . At the siege of Aleppo , Hulagu used twenty catapults against the Bab al - Iraq ( Gate of Iraq ) alone . In Jûzjânî , there are several episodes in which the Mongols constructed hundreds of siege machines in order to surpass the number which the defending city possessed . While Jûzjânî surely exaggerated , the improbably high numbers which he used for both the Mongols and the defenders do give one a sense of the large numbers of machines used at a single siege .
History of Vietnam
During the Trần dynasty , the armies of the Mongol Empire under Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan invaded Annam in 1258 , 1285 , and 1287 88 . Annam repelled all attacks of the Yuan Mongols during the reign of Kublai Khan . Three Mongol armies said to have numbered from 300,000 to 500,000 men were defeated . The key to Annam 's successes was to avoid the Mongols ' strength in open field battles and city sieges -- the Trần court abandoned the capital and the cities . The Mongols were then countered decisively at their weak points , which were battles in swampy areas such as Chương Dương , Hàm Tử , Vạn Kiếp and on rivers such as Vân Đồn and Bạch Đằng . The Mongols also suffered from tropical diseases and loss of supplies to Trần army 's raids . The Yuan - Trần war reached its climax when the retreating Yuan fleet was decimated at the Battle of Bạch Đằng ( 1288 ) . The military architect behind Annam 's victories was Commander Trần Quốc Tuấn , more popularly known as Trần Hưng Đạo . In order to avoid further disastrous campaigns , the Tran and Champa acknowledged Mongol supremacy .
Mali Empire
Mama Maghan , mansa of Kangaba , campaigned against the Bamana in 1667 and laid siege to Segou - Koro for a reported three years . Segou , defended by Biton Coulibaly , successfully defended itself and Mama Maghan was forced to withdraw . Either as a counter-attack or simply the progression of pre-planned assaults against the remnants of Mali , the Bamana sacked and burned Niani in 1670 . Their forces marched as far north as Kangaba , where the mansa was obliged to make a peace with them , promising not to attack downstream of Mali . The Bamana , likewise , vowed not to advance farther upstream than Niamina . Following this disastrous set of events , Mansa Mama Maghan abandoned the capital of Niani .
Grand Trunk Road
The route spanning the Grand Trunk ( GT ) road existed during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya , extending from the mouth of the Ganges to the north - western frontier of the Empire . The predecessor of the modern road was rebuilt by Sher Shah Suri , who renovated and extended the ancient Mauryan route in the 16th century . The road was considerably upgraded in the British period between 1833 and 1860 .
Akbar
In 1586 , Akbar negotiated a pact with Abdullah Khan in which the Mughals agreed to remain neutral during the Uzbek invasion of Safavid held Khorasan . In return , Abdullah Khan agreed to refrain from supporting , subsidising , or offering refuge to the Afghan tribes hostile to the Mughals . Thus freed , Akbar began a series of campaigns to pacify the Yusufzais and other rebels . Akbar ordered Zain Khan to lead an expedition against the Afghan tribes . Raja Birbal , a renowned minister in Akbar 's court , was also given military command . The expedition turned out to be a disaster , and on its retreat from the mountains , Birbal and his entourage were ambushed and killed by the Afghans at the Malandarai Pass in February 1586 . Akbar immediately fielded new armies to reinvade the Yusufzai lands under the command of Raja Todar Mal . Over the next six years , the Mughals contained the Yusufzai in the mountain valleys , and forced the submission of many chiefs in Swat and Bajaur . Dozens of forts were built and occupied to secure the region . Akbar 's response demonstrated his ability to clamp firm military control over the Afghan tribes .
Forbidden City
In recent years , the presence of commercial enterprises in the Forbidden City has become controversial . A Starbucks store that opened in 2000 sparked objections and eventually closed on 13 July 2007 . Chinese media also took notice of a pair of souvenir shops that refused to admit Chinese citizens in order to price - gouge foreign customers in 2006 .
Chinese Buddhism
Chinese Buddhist temples , administrated by local governments , have become increasingly commercialized by sales of tickets , incense , or other religious items ; soliciting donations ; and even the listing of temples on the stock market and local governments obtain large incomes . In October 2012 , the State Administration for Religious Affairs announced a crackdown on religious profiteering . Many sites have done enough repairs and have already cancelled ticket fares and are receiving voluntary donation instead .
Silk Road
After an earthquake that hit Tashkent in Central Asia in 1966 , the city had to rebuild itself . Although it took a huge toll on their markets , this commenced a revival of modern silk road cities .
Ancient Egypt
Tourists riding a camel in front of Giza pyramids Frontispiece of Description de l'Égypte , published in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829 . Relief from interior of the Temple of Rameses II .
Victoria Falls
By the end of the 1990s almost 400,000 people were visiting the falls annually , and this was expected to rise to over a million in the next decade . Unlike the game parks , Victoria Falls has more Zimbabwean and Zambian visitors than international tourists ; the attraction is accessible by bus and train , and is therefore comparatively inexpensive to reach .
Tower of London
The Tower of London has become established as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country . It has been a tourist attraction since at least the Elizabethan period , when it was one of the sights of London that foreign visitors wrote about . Its most popular attractions were the Royal Menagerie and displays of armour . The Crown Jewels also garner much interest , and have been on public display since 1669 . The Tower steadily gained popularity with tourists through the 19th century , despite the opposition of the Duke of Wellington to visitors . Numbers became so high that by 1851 a purpose - built ticket office was erected . By the end of the century , over 500,000 were visiting the castle every year .
Titanic II
Clive Palmer 's project should not be confused with a Chinese Titanic replica ship which had its keel laying on November 29 , 2016 . Commissioned by Seven Star Energy Investment , it is to function as a part of Romandisea resort on the River Qi in Sichuan province . Unlike Palmer 's Titanic II , the all - Chinese replica is not intended to sail on any ocean but will be permanently docked within a reservoir . The finished ship , which is already under construction , is scheduled to be completed in 2019 , although the initial completion date was 2018 .
Great Barrier Reef
Approximately two million people visit the Great Barrier Reef each year . Although most of these visits are managed in partnership with the marine tourism industry , there is a concern among the general public that tourism is harmful to the Great Barrier Reef .
Titanic II
The Titanic II represents the first major passenger vessel constructed in China , a country with much more experience of building cargo ships than cruise ships , and a significant investment would have been required to ensure it met the much more stringent safety requirements for passenger vessels .
Qing dynasty
The second commercial revolution also had a profound effect on the dispersion of the Qing populace . Up until the late - Ming there existed a stark contrast between the rural countryside and city metropoles and very few mid-sized cities existed . This was due to the fact that extraction of surplus crops from the countryside was traditionally done by the state and not commercial organizations . However , as commercialization expanded exponentially in the late - Ming and early - Qing , mid-sized cities began popping up to direct the flow of domestic , commercial trade . Some towns of this nature had such a large volume of trade and merchants flowing through them that they developed into full - fledged market - towns . Some of these more active market - towns even developed into small - cities and became home to the new rising merchant - class . The proliferation of these mid-sized cities was only made possible by advancements in long - distance transportation and methods of communication . As more and more Chinese - citizens were travelling the country conducting trade they increasingly found themselves in a far - away place needing a place to stay , in response the market saw the expansion of guild halls to house these merchants .