vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Crusades
Five major sources of information exist on the Council of Clermont that led to the First Crusade : the anonymous Gesta Francorum ( The Deeds of the Franks ) , dated about 1100 -- 01 ; Fulcher of Chartres , who attended the council ; Robert the Monk , who may have been present , and the absent Baldric , archbishop of Dol and Guibert de Nogent . These retrospective accounts differ greatly . In his 1106 -- 07 Historia Iherosolimitana , Robert the Monk wrote that Urban asked western Roman Catholic Christians to aid the Orthodox Byzantine Empire because `` Deus vult '' ( `` God wills it '' ) and promised absolution to participants ; according to other sources , the pope promised an indulgence . In these accounts , Urban emphasises reconquering the Holy Land more than aiding the emperor , and lists gruesome offences allegedly committed by Muslims . Urban wrote to those `` waiting in Flanders '' that the Turks , in addition to ravaging the `` churches of God in the eastern regions '' , seized `` the Holy City of Christ , embellished by his passion and resurrection -- and blasphemy to say it -- have sold her and her churches into abominable slavery '' . Although the pope did not explicitly call for the reconquest of Jerusalem , he called for military `` liberation '' of the Eastern Churches .
Containment
In January 1947 , Kennan drafted an essay entitled `` The Sources of Soviet Conduct . '' Navy Secretary James V. Forrestal gave permission for the report to be published in the journal Foreign Affairs under the pseudonym `` X . '' Biographer Douglas Brinkley has dubbed Forrestal `` godfather of containment '' on account of his work in distributing Kennan 's writing . The use of the word `` containment '' originates from this so - called `` X Article '' : `` In these circumstances it is clear that the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of long - term , patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies . ''
History of Maryland
In a series of laws passed between 1892 and 1908 , reformers worked for standard state - issued ballots ( rather than those distributed and pre-marked by the parties ) ; obtained closed voting booths to prevent party workers from `` assisting '' voters ; initiated primary elections to keep party bosses from selecting candidates ; and had candidates listed without party symbols , which discouraged the illiterate from participating . Although promoted as democratic reforms , the changes had other results sought by the middle class . They discouraged participation by the lower classes and illiterate voters . Voting participation dropped from about 82 % of eligible voters in the 1890s to about 49 % in the 1920s .
Nile
One of the most important and earliest sources on Ethiopia and the Nile . Jerónimo Lobo ( 1595 -- 1687 ) , a Jesuit priest , stayed in Ethiopia , mostly in Tigre , for 9 years and travelled to Lake Tana and the Blue Nile , reaching the province of Damot . When the Jesuits were expelled from the country , he too had to leave and did so via Massaua and Suakin . `` He was the best expert on Ethiopian matters . After Pais , Lobo is the second European to describe the sources of the Blue Nile and he did so more exactly than Bruce '' ( transl. from Henze ) .
History of United States prison systems
The primary failure of Reconstruction Era penitentiaries , according to historian David Rothman , was administrative . State governors typically appointed political patrons to prison posts , which were usually not full - time or salaried . In the 1870s , for example , the board of the Utica , New York , asylum was composed of two bankers , a grain merchant , two manufacturers , two lawyers , and two general businessman . Prison oversight boards like the Utica one , composed of local businessmen , tended to defer to prison officials in most matters and focus solely on financial oversight , Rothman writes , and therefore tended to perpetuate the status quo .
Crusades
Jonathan Riley - Smith considers that much of the popular understanding of the Crusades derives from the novels of Walter Scott and the French histories by Joseph François Michaud . The Crusades provided an enormous amount of source material , stories of heroism , and interest that underpinned growth in medieval literature , romance , and philosophy .
Waste minimisation
The main sources of waste vary from country to country . In the UK , most waste comes from the construction and demolition of buildings , followed by mining and quarrying , industry and commerce . Household waste constitutes a relatively small proportion of all waste . Reasons for the creation of waste sometimes include requirements in the supply chain . For example , a company handling a product may insist that it should be packaged using particular packing because it fits its packaging equipment .
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
Canada 's primary interest , however , was from the fear that an independent Newfoundland would join the United States due to their economic and military ties . With Newfoundland , the United States would block the Gulf of St. Lawrence and leave only about 500 km of Nova Scotia coastline open to the Atlantic . Because America already bordered Canada on the south and controlled all but about 600 km of British Columbia 's western boundary , Canada would be almost surrounded on three sides . Both Britain and Canada wished to prevent this . Newfoundlanders had regained their prosperity and their self - confidence , but were uncertain whether they should be an independent nation with close ties to the United States , or become part of Canada . Referendum
Fuel cell
The alkaline fuel cell or hydrogen - oxygen fuel cell was designed and first demonstrated publicly by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959 . It was used as a primary source of electrical energy in the Apollo space program . The cell consists of two porous carbon electrodes impregnated with a suitable catalyst such as Pt , Ag , CoO , etc . The space between the two electrodes is filled with a concentrated solution of KOH or NaOH which serves as an electrolyte . H gas and O gas are bubbled into the electrolyte through the porous carbon electrodes . Thus the overall reaction involves the combination of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water . The cell runs continuously until the reactant 's supply is exhausted . This type of cell operates efficiently in the temperature range 343 K to 413 K and provides a potential of about 0.9 V. AAEMFC is a type of AFC which employs a solid polymer electrolyte instead of aqueous potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) and it is superior to aqueous AFC .
Law
Hegel believed that civil society and the state were polar opposites , within the scheme of his dialectic theory of history . The modern dipole state -- civil society was reproduced in the theories of Alexis de Tocqueville and Karl Marx . Nowadays in post-modern theory civil society is necessarily a source of law , by being the basis from which people form opinions and lobby for what they believe law should be . As Australian barrister and author Geoffrey Robertson QC wrote of international law ,
Benzo(a)pyrene
The main source of atmospheric BaP is residential wood burning . It is also found in coal tar , in automobile exhaust fumes ( especially from diesel engines ) , in all smoke resulting from the combustion of organic material ( including cigarette smoke ) , and in charbroiled food . A 2001 National Cancer Institute study found levels of BaP to be significantly higher in foods that were cooked well - done on the barbecue , particularly steaks , chicken with skin , and hamburgers : Cooked meat products have been shown to contain up to 4 ng / g of BaP , and up to 5.5 ng / g in fried chicken and 62.6 ng / g in overcooked charcoal barbecued beef .
Solar cell
By the 1960s , solar cells were ( and still are ) the main power source for most Earth orbiting satellites and a number of probes into the solar system , since they offered the best power - to - weight ratio . However , this success was possible because in the space application , power system costs could be high , because space users had few other power options , and were willing to pay for the best possible cells . The space power market drove the development of higher efficiencies in solar cells up until the National Science Foundation `` Research Applied to National Needs '' program began to push development of solar cells for terrestrial applications .
History of Antarctica
Ernest Shackleton , who had been a member of Scott 's expedition , organized and led the Nimrod Expedition from 1907 to 1909 . The expedition 's primary objective was of reaching the South Pole . Based in McMurdo Sound , the expedition pioneered the Beardmore Glacier route to the South Pole , and the ( limited ) use of motorised transport . Its southern march reached 88 ° 23 'S , a new Farthest South record 97 geographical miles from the Pole before having to turn back . During the expedition , Shackleton was the first to reach the polar plateau . Parties led by T.W. Edgeworth David also became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole .
United States antitrust law
Per se illegality sources Sherman Act 1890 § 1 Addyston Pipe & Steel Co. v. U.S. , 175 U.S. 211 ( 1898 ) US v. Socony - Vacuum Oil Co. , Inc. , 310 U.S. 150 ( 1940 ) Hartford Fire Insurance Co. v. California , 113 S. Ct. 2891 ( 1993 ) Fashion Orig . Guild of America v. FTC , 312 U.S. 457 ( 1941 ) Klor 's , Inc. v. Broadway - Hale Stores , Inc. , 359 U.S. 207 ( 1959 ) American Medical Association v. US , 317 U.S. 519 ( 1943 ) Molinas v. NBA , 190 F. Supp. 241 ( S.D.N.Y. 1961 ) Associated Press v. United States , 326 U.S. 1 ( 1945 ) Northwest Wholesale Stationers v. Pacific Stationery , 472 U.S. 284 ( 1985 ) NYNEX Corp. v. Discon , Inc. , 525 U.S. 128 ( 1998 ) See US antitrust law and illegal per se Main
History of Arkansas
In 1836 , Arkansas was to be the recipient of funds from the Deposit and Distribution Act , rumored by some to be as much as $1 million ( $21.81 million in today 's dollars ) . A very important sources of seed money for the State Bank ; the program encountered a harsh recession that limited it 's effectiveness . State treasurer William Woodruff had trouble cashing the first two installments of $45,583.83 and $50,000 ( $994,000 and $1,090,000 today ) at the two banks in Natchez , Mississippi due to a bank run . Since the deposits were going to a state bank , the cash - strapped banks could n't simply borrow the money from the state of Arkansas . Woodruff traveled to Washington D.C. , where he received replacement drafts on Louisiana , Kentucky , and Ohio banks from United States Treasurer John Campbell , but encountered the same troubles in those states . The problems Woodruff was encountering would become known as the Panic of 1837 , a recession that took many years to recover from . Arkansas would only receive $45,583.83 of federal money , the amount of the first check which was ultimately settled by the Natchez banks . While Woodruff was trying to acquire the Distribution Act funds , the Arkansas State Banks had opened in Arkansas Post , Batesville , Fayetteville , Little Rock , and Washington and had been loaning money based on the notes given to Woodruff from various other states . Further , the bonds issued by the banks were not selling as anticipated , leaving the institutions without much of their anticipated seed money . Both banks would fail within a decade , with the bonds they had issued becoming entangled in legally questionable deals . Eventually the bonds fell into the hands of London banker James Holford , and they would come to be known as the `` Holford Bonds '' , valued at $1,239,526.82 ( $34.310 million today ) in 1858 . The issue of whether or not the bonds were a legitimate state debt and whether or not they would be repaid would be a political issue in the state throughout the 1800s .
History of coal mining
By the late 20th century , coal was , for the most part , replaced in domestic as well as industrial and transportation usage by oil , natural gas or electricity produced from oil , gas , nuclear power or renewable energy sources . By 2010 , coal produced over a fourth of the world 's energy , and by 2050 it is expected to produce about a third .
Neuron
The neuron 's place as the primary functional unit of the nervous system was first recognized in the late 19th century through the work of the Spanish anatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal .
Primary election
Only three parties organised an open primary : France ( PS ) , Greece ( ΠΑΣΟΚ ) , Italy ( PD ) Closed primary happened in nine parties : Belgium ( sp. a , PS ) , Cyprus ( ΕΔΕΚ ) , Denmark ( SD ) , France ( PS ) until 2011 , Ireland ( LP ) , Netherlands ( PvdA ) , Portugal ( PS ) , United Kingdom ( Labour ) The case of UK 's Labour party leadership election is specific , as three electoral colleges , each accounting for one third of the votes , participate in this primary election : Labour members of Parliament and of the European Parliament , party members and members of affiliated organisations such as trade unions . The designation of the party leader was made by the party 's congress in the eighteen remaining parties : Austria ( SPÖ ) , Bulgaria ( БСП ) , Czech Republic ( ČSSD ) , Estonia ( SDE ) , Finland ( SDP ) , Germany ( SPD ) , Hungary ( MSZP ) , Latvia ( LSDSP ) , Lithuania ( SDPL ) , Luxembourg ( LSAP ) , Malta ( LP ) , Poland ( SLD , UP ) , Romania ( PSD ) , Slovakia ( SMER - SD ) , Slovenia ( SD ) , Spain ( PSOE ) , Sweden ( SAP ) , United - Kingdom / Northern Ireland ( SDLP )
History of Texas
One of the primary motivations for annexation was the Texas government 's huge debts . The United States agreed to assume many of these upon annexation . However , the former Republic never fully paid off its debt until the Compromise of 1850 . In return for $10 million , a large portion of Texas - claimed territory , now parts of Colorado , Kansas , Oklahoma , New Mexico , and Wyoming , was ceded to the Federal government .
Colonial history of the United States
Finally and most dramatically , the Americans were fascinated by and increasingly adopted the political values of Republicanism which stressed equal rights , the need for virtuous citizens , and the evils of corruption , luxury , and aristocracy . Republicanism provided the framework for colonial resistance to British schemes of taxation after 1763 , which escalated into the Revolution .
Colonial history of the United States
People began to study the Bible at home , which effectively decentralized the means of informing the public on religious manners and was akin to the individualistic trends present in Europe during the Protestant Reformation .
Colonies in antiquity
The relation between colony and mother - city , known literally as the metropolis , was viewed as one of mutual affection . Any differences that arose were resolved by peaceful means whenever possible , war being deemed excusable only in cases of extreme necessity . It is worth noting that the Peloponnesian War was in part a result of a dispute between Corinth and her colony of Corcyra ( Corfu ) . The charter of foundation contained general provisions for the arrangement of the affairs of the colony , and also some special enactments . The constitution of the mother - city was usually adopted by the colony , but the new city remained politically independent . The `` holy fire '' of the metropolis was preserved in a special place to remind people of the common ties . If the colony sent out a fresh colony on its own account , the mother - city was generally consulted , or was at least requested to furnish a leader . Frequently the colonies declaring their commitment to the various metropolitic alliances formed in the Greek mainland and for religious reasons would pay tribute in religious centres , like Delphi , Olympia or Delos .
Stamp Act 1765
One member of the British Parliament argued that the colonials were no different from the 90 % residents of Great Britain who did not own property ( and thus could not vote ) , but who were nevertheless `` virtually '' represented by land - owning electors and representatives who had common interests with the nonvoters . An American attorney refuted this by pointing out that while electors in Great Britain could conceivably have enough in common with nonvoting residents of that country to justify `` virtually '' representing nonvoters , `` the relation between the British Americans , and the English electors , is a knot too infirm to be relied on . '' ( i.e. not enough in common between Parliament and the Colonials to justify imposing the law without the consent of the Colonials ) .
Colonial history of the United States
The colonies were very different from one another but they were still a part of the British Empire in more than just name . Socially , the colonial elite of Boston , New York , Charleston , and Philadelphia saw their identity as British . Many had never been to Britain , yet they imitated British styles of dress , dance , and etiquette . This social upper echelon built its mansions in the Georgian style , copied the furniture designs of Thomas Chippendale , and participated in the intellectual currents of Europe , such as the Enlightenment . The seaport cities of colonial America were truly British cities in the eyes of many inhabitants . Republicanism
Colonial history of the United States
the relatively primitive social milieu of the New World . He faced unfamiliar and challenging social institutions : the labor system that relied on black slaves , extraordinarily fluid social statuses , distasteful business methods , unpleasant conversational quirks , as well as variant habits of dress , food , and drink .
History of United States prison systems
The colonial jail differed from today 's United States prisons not only in its purpose , but in its structure . Many were no more than a cage or closet . Colonial jailers ran their institutions on a `` familial '' model and resided in an apartment attached to the jail , sometimes with a family of their own . The colonial jail 's design resembled an ordinary domestic residence , and inmates essentially rented their bed and paid the jailer for necessities .
Colonial history of the United States
Many of the political structures of the colonies drew upon the republicanism expressed by opposition leaders in Britain , most notably the Commonwealth men and the Whig traditions . Many Americans at the time saw the colonies ' systems of governance as modeled after the British constitution of the time , with the king corresponding to the governor , the House of Commons to the colonial assembly , and the House of Lords to the governor 's council . The codes of law of the colonies were often drawn directly from English law ; indeed , English common law survives not only in Canada , but also throughout the United States . Eventually , it was a dispute over the meaning of some of these political ideals ( especially political representation ) and republicanism that led to the American Revolution . Consumption
Relationship between religion and science
In recent history , the theory of evolution has been at the center of some controversy between Christianity and science . Christians who accept a literal interpretation of the biblical account of creation find incompatibility between Darwinian evolution and their interpretation of the Christian faith . Creation science or scientific creationism is a branch of creationism that attempts to provide scientific support for the Genesis creation narrative in the Book of Genesis and attempts to disprove generally accepted scientific facts , theories and scientific paradigms about the history of the Earth , cosmology and biological evolution . It began in the 1960s as a fundamentalist Christian effort in the United States to prove Biblical inerrancy and falsify the scientific evidence for evolution . It has since developed a sizable religious following in the United States , with creation science ministries branching worldwide . In 1925 , The State of Tennessee passed the Butler Act , which prohibited the teaching of the theory of evolution in all schools in the state . Later that year , a similar law was passed in Mississippi , and likewise , Arkansas in 1927 . In 1968 , these `` anti-monkey '' laws were struck down by the Supreme Court of the United States as unconstitutional , `` because they established a religious doctrine violating both the First and Fourth Amendments to the Constitution .
Relationship between religion and science
The Middle Ages laid ground for the developments that took place in science , during the Renaissance which immediately succeeded it . With significant developments taking place in science , mathematics , medicine and philosophy , the relationship between science and religion became one of curiosity and questioning . As humanism became more and more popular , people tried to understand the nature around them better , rather than turn to religious aspirations . Renaissance humanism looked to classical Greek and Roman texts to change contemporary thought , allowing for a new mindset after the Middle Ages . Renaissance readers understood these classical texts as focusing on human decisions , actions and creations , rather than blindly following the rules set forth by the Catholic Church as `` God 's plan . '' Though many Renaissance humanists remained religious , they believed God gave humans opportunities and it was humanity 's duty to do the `` best and most moral thing '' . Renaissance humanism was an `` ethical theory and practice that emphasized reason , scientific inquiry and human fulfillment in the natural world , '' said Abernethy . By 1630 , ancient authority from classical literature and philosophy , as well as their necessity , started eroding , although scientists were still expected to be fluent in Latin , the international language of Europe 's intellectuals . With the sheer success of science and the steady advance of rationalism , the individual scientist gained prestige .
Exploitation colonialism
Barbados was claimed for the English in 1625 by Captain John Powell , and by the 1660s the English had come to regard Barbados as being by far and away their most highly prized possession anywhere in the New World . The island 's value to England , and the enormous wealth of a minority of its English inhabitants , hinged on the relationship that had been forged during the previous twenty years between sugar and slavery .
Relationship between religion and science
Scientific and theological perspectives often coexist peacefully . Christians and some non-Christian religions have historically integrated well with scientific ideas , as in the ancient Egyptian technological mastery applied to monotheistic ends , the flourishing of logic and mathematics under Hinduism and Buddhism , and the scientific advances made by Muslim scholars during the Ottoman empire . Even many 19th - century Christian communities welcomed scientists who claimed that science was not at all concerned with discovering the ultimate nature of reality . According to Lawrence M. Principe , the Johns Hopkins University Drew Professor of the Humanities , from a historical perspective this points out that much of the current - day clashes occur between limited extremists -- both religious and scientistic fundamentalists -- over a very few topics , and that the movement of ideas back and forth between scientific and theological thought has been more usual . To Principe , this perspective would point to the fundamentally common respect for written learning in religious traditions of rabbinical literature , Christian theology , and the Islamic Golden Age , including a Transmission of the Classics from Greek to Islamic to Christian traditions which helped spark the Renaissance . Religions have also given key participation in development of modern universities and libraries ; centers of learning & scholarship were coincident with religious institutions -- whether pagan , Muslim , or Christian .