vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of Puerto Rico
The integration of immigrants into the Puerto Rican culture and other events changed Puerto Rican society . On June 25 , 1835 , Queen María Cristina abolished the slave trade to Spanish colonies . In 1851 , Governor Juan de la Pezuela Cevallos founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters . The academy licensed primary school teachers , formulated school methods , and held literary contests that promoted the intellectual and literary progress of the island .
Afghanistan
During the first century BCE , the Parthian Empire subjugated the region , but lost it to their Indo - Parthian vassals . In the mid-to - late first century CE the vast Kushan Empire , centered in Afghanistan , became great patrons of Buddhist culture , making Buddhism flourish throughout the region . The Kushans were overthrown by the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE , though the Indo - Sassanids continued to rule at least parts of the region . They were followed by the Kidarite who , in turn , were replaced by the Hephthalites . By the 6th century CE , the successors to the Kushans and Hepthalites established a small dynasty called Kabul Shahi . Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by Buddhist culture .
History of Native Americans in the United States
The most significant of these changes was the opportunity -- as a result of wartime labor shortages -- to find well - paying work in cities . After the war many Native Americans relocated to urban areas , particularly on the West Coast with the buildup of the defense industry . In the 1950s the federal government had a relocation policy encouraging them to do so because of economic opportunity in cities . But Native Americans struggled with discrimination and the great cultural changes in leaving their reservations behind .
Olmec
Olmec Head No. 1 , 1200 -- 900 BCE Olmec human figure , 1200 -- 1000 BCE One of the `` twins '' from El Azuzul , 1200 -- 900 BCE Bird Vessel , 12th -- 9th century BCE Three celts , Olmec ritual objects Olmec were - jaguar Olmec style bottle , reputedly from Las Bocas , 1100 -- 800 BCE Olmec jade mask . Olmec - style painting from the Juxtlahuaca cave Olmec Baby Figure 1200 -- 900 BCE Colossal Head Olmec - style bas relief `` El Rey '' from Chalcatzingo
Aihole
The Meguti temple is historically important for its Aihole Prashasti inscription . A slab on the outer side wall of the temple is in Sanskrit language and Old Kannada script . It is dated to Saka 556 ( 634 CE ) , and is a poem in a variety of Sanskrit meters by Ravikirti about the Hindu king Pulakeshin II . The inscription mentions the Hindu poets Kalidasa and Bharavi , whose Mahabharata - related compositions are subject of friezes in Badami - Aihole - Pattadakal region . The inscription records the Chalukya family and his royal patron 's support in the construction of the Meguti Jain temple .
Tower of London
The death in 1135 of Henry I left England with a disputed succession ; although the king had persuaded his most powerful barons to swear support for the Empress Matilda , just a few days after Henry 's death Stephen of Blois arrived from France to lay claim to the throne . The importance of the city and its Tower is marked by the speed at which he secured London . The castle , which had not been used as a royal residence for some time , was usually left in the charge of a Constable , a post held at this time by Geoffrey de Mandeville . As the Tower was considered an impregnable fortress in a strategically important position , possession was highly valued . Mandeville exploited this , selling his allegiance to Matilda after Stephen was captured in 1141 at the Battle of Lincoln . Once her support waned , the following year he resold his loyalty to Stephen . Through his role as Constable of the Tower , Mandeville became `` the richest and most powerful man in England '' . When he tried the same ploy again , this time holding secret talks with Matilda , Stephen had him arrested , forced him to cede control of his castles , and replaced him with one of his most loyal supporters . Until then the position had been hereditary , originally held by Geoffrey de Mandeville ( a friend of William the Conqueror 's and ancestor of the Geoffrey that Stephen and Matilda dealt with ) , but the position 's authority was such that from then on it remained in the hands of an appointee of the monarch . The position was usually given to someone of great importance , who might not always be at the castle due to other duties . Although the Constable was still responsible for maintaining the castle and its garrison , from an early stage he had a subordinate to help with this duty : the Lieutenant of the Tower . Constables also had civic duties relating to the city . Usually they were given control of the city and were responsible for levying taxes , enforcing the law and maintaining order . The creation in 1191 of the position of Lord Mayor of London removed many of the Constable 's civic powers , and at times led to friction between the two .
Native Hawaiians
In the early 2000s , the Congressional delegation of the State of Hawaiʻi introduced the Native Hawaiian Federal Recognition Bill , beginning the process of recognizing and forming a Native Hawaiian government entity to negotiate with state and federal governments . The significance of the bill is that it would establish , for the first time in the history of the islands , a new political and legal relationship between a Native Hawaiian entity and the federal government . This Native Hawaiian entity would be a newly created one without any historical precedent in the islands , or direct institutional continuity with previous political entities ( unlike many Native American Indian groups , for example ) .
Human sacrifice in Aztec culture
Politically human sacrifice was important in Aztec culture as a way to represent a social hierarchy between their own culture and the enemies surrounding their city . Additionally , it was a way to structure the society of the Aztec culture itself . The hierarchy of cities like Tenochtitlan were tiered with the Tlatoani ( emperor ) on the top , the remaining nobles ( pipiltin ) next who managed the land owned by the emperor . Then the warriors , the pochteca ( merchants ) , commoners and farmers . Then the lowest level of the hierarchy consisted of slaves and indentured servants . The only way of achieving social mobility was through successful performance as a warrior . This shows how important capturing enemies for sacrifice was as it was the singular way of achieving some type of `` nobility . ''
History of education in the United States
The nation 's many small colleges helped young men make the transition from rural farms to complex urban occupations . These colleges especially promoted upward mobility by preparing ministers , and thereby provided towns across the country with a core of community leaders . The more elite colleges became increasingly exclusive and contributed relatively little to upward social mobility . By concentrating on the offspring of wealthy families , ministers and a few others , the elite Eastern colleges , especially Harvard , played an important role in the formation of a Northeastern elite with great power .
History of the United Kingdom
A key element in British success was its ability to mobilize the nation 's industrial and financial resources and apply them to defeating France . With a population of 16 million Britain was barely half the size of France with 30 million . In terms of soldiers the French numerical advantage was offset by British subsidies that paid for a large proportion of the Austrian and Russian soldiers , peaking at about 450,000 in 1813 . Most important , the British national output remained strong and the well - organized business sector channeled products into what the military needed . The system of smuggling finished products into the continent undermined French efforts to ruin the British economy by cutting off markets . The British budget in 1814 reached £ 66 million , including £ 10 million for the Navy , £ 40 million for the Army , £ 10 million for the Allies , and £ 38 million as interest on the national debt . The national debt soared to £ 679 million , more than double the GDP . It was willingly supported by hundreds of thousands of investors and tax payers , despite the higher taxes on land and a new income tax . The whole cost of the war came to £ 831 million . By contrast the French financial system was inadequate and Napoleon 's forces had to rely in part on requisitions from conquered lands .
History of calendars
Time keeping was important to Vedic rituals , and Jyotisha was the Vedic era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time , in order to fix the day and time of these rituals . This study was one of the six ancient Vedangas , or ancillary science connected with the Vedas -- the scriptures of Hinduism .
History of West Africa
The Fulani were migratory people . They moved from Mauritania and settled in Futa Tooro , Futa Djallon , and subsequently throughout the rest of West Africa . By the 14th century CE , they had converted to Islam . During the 16th century , they established themselves at Macina in southern Mali . During the 1670s , they declared jihads on non-Muslims . Several states were formed from these jihadist wars , including Bundu , the Imamate of Futa Toro , the Imamate of Futa Jallon , and the Massina Empire . The most important of these states was the Sokoto Caliphate or Fulani Empire .
History of West Africa
The Igbo primarily lived east of the delta ( but with the Anioma on the west of the Niger River ) . The Kingdom of Nri rose in the 10th century CE , with the Eze Nri being its leader . It was a political entity composed of villages , and each village was autonomous and independent with its own territory and name , each recognised by its neighbours . Villages were democratic with all males and sometimes females a part of the decision - making process . Graves at Igbo - Ukwu ( 800 CE ) contained brass artefacts of local manufacture and glass beads from Egypt or India , indicative of extraregional trade .
Tower of London
The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history . It was besieged several times , and controlling it has been important to controlling the country . The Tower has served variously as an armoury , a treasury , a menagerie , the home of the Royal Mint , a public record office , and the home of the Crown Jewels of England . From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II , a procession would be led from the Tower to Westminster Abbey on the coronation of a monarch . In the absence of the monarch , the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle . This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period . In the late 15th century , the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower . Under the Tudors , the Tower became used less as a royal residence , and despite attempts to refortify and repair the castle , its defences lagged behind developments to deal with artillery .
History of the Church of England
The growth of the twin `` revivals '' in 19th century Anglicanism - -- Evangelical and Catholic - -- was hugely influential . The Evangelical Revival informed important social movements such as the abolition of slavery , child welfare legislation , prohibition of alcohol , the development of public health and public education . It led to the creation of the Church Army , an evangelical and social welfare association and informed piety and liturgy , most notably in the development of Methodism .
Dance
During the first millennium BCE in India , many texts were composed which attempted to codify aspects of daily life . Bharata Muni 's Natyashastra ( literally `` the text of dramaturgy '' ) is one of the earlier texts . It mainly deals with drama , in which dance plays an important part in Indian culture . It categorizes dance into four types - secular , ritual , abstract , and , interpretive - and into four regional varieties . The text elaborates various hand - gestures ( mudras ) and classifies movements of the various limbs , steps and so on . A strong continuous tradition of dance has since continued in India , through to modern times , where it continues to play a role in culture , ritual , and , notably , the Bollywood entertainment industry . Many other contemporary dance forms can likewise be traced back to historical , traditional , ceremonial , and ethnic dance .
History of Native Americans in the United States
In June 1975 , two FBI agents seeking to make an armed robbery arrest at Pine Ridge Reservation were wounded in a firefight , and killed at close range . The AIM activist Leonard Peltier was sentenced in 1976 to two consecutive terms of life in prison in the FBI deaths .
History of West Africa
In central Nigeria , around 1000 BCE , the Nok culture developed on the Jos Plateau , until it vanished under unknown circumstances by 200 or 300 CE . It was a highly centralised community . The Nok people produced miniature , lifelike representations in terracotta , including human heads , elephants , and other animals . Iron use , in smelting and forging for tools , appears in Nok culture in Africa at least by 550 BC and possibly earlier , prior to 1000 BC .
Maya civilization
Important rituals such as the dedication of major building projects or the enthronement of a new ruler required a human offering . The sacrifice of an enemy king was the most prized offering , and such a sacrifice involved decapitation of the captive ruler in a ritual reenactment of the decapitation of the Maya maize god by the Maya death gods . In AD 738 , the vassal king K'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat of Quiriguá captured his overlord , Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil of Copán and a few days later he ritually decapitated him ; The decapitation of an enemy king may have been performed as part of a ritual ballgame reenacting the victory of the Maya Hero Twins over the gods of the underworld . Sacrifice by decapitation is depicted in Classic period Maya art , and sometimes took place after the victim was tortured , being variously beaten , scalped , burnt or disembowelled . The Hero Twins myth recounted in the Popol Vuh relates how one of each pair of twins was decapitated by their ballgame opponents .
Economic history of Argentina
Juárez Celman 's administration saw a substantial increase in the ratio of debt to GDP toward the end of his tenure and an increasing weakness in the fiscal situation . The Baring Brothers merchant bank had developed a close and profitable association with Argentina , and when Celman 's government was unable to meet its payments to the House of Baring , a financial crisis ensued . Argentina defaulted and suffered bank runs as the Baring Brothers faced failure . The crisis was caused by the lack of co-ordination between monetary policy and fiscal policy , which ultimately led to the collapse of the banking system . The financial crisis of 1890 left the government with no funds for its immigration subsidies programme , and it was abolished in 1891 . Loans to Argentina were severely curtailed , and imports had to be cut sharply . Exports were less affected , but the value of Argentine exports did not surpass the 1889 peak until 1898 .
History of Native Americans in the United States
Hohokam culture : The Hohokam was a culture centered along American Southwest . The early Hohokam founded a series of small villages along the middle Gila River . They raised corn , squash and beans . The communities were located near good arable land , with dry farming common in the earlier years of this period . They were known for their pottery , using the paddle - and - anvil technique . The Classical period of the culture saw the rise in architecture and ceramics . Buildings were grouped into walled compounds , as well as earthen platform mounds . Platform mounds were built along river as well as irrigation canal systems , suggesting these sites were administrative centers allocating water and coordinating canal labor . Polychrome pottery appeared , and inhumation burial replaced cremation . Trade included that of shells and other exotics . Social and climatic factors led to a decline and abandonment of the area after 1400 CE .
Military history of the United States during World War II
Nevertheless , the sheer tonnage of explosive delivered by day and by night was eventually sufficient to cause widespread damage , and , more importantly from a military point of view , forced Germany to divert resources to counter it . This was to be the real significance of the Allied strategic bombing campaign -- resource allocation . For the sake of improving the US air - force Fire bombing capabilities a mock - up German Village was built up and repeatedly burned down . It contained full - scale replicas of German residential homes . Fire bombing attacks proved quite successful , in a single 1943 attack on Hamburg roughly 50,000 civilians were killed and practically the entire city destroyed .
History of coal mining
Since 1890 , coal mining has also been a political and social issue . Coal miners ' labour and trade unions became powerful in many countries in the 20th century , and often , the miners were leaders of the Left or Socialist movements ( as in Britain , Germany , Poland , Japan , Chile , Canada and the U.S. ) Since 1970 , environmental issues have been increasingly important , including the health of miners , destruction of the landscape from strip mines and mountaintop removal , air pollution , and coal combustion 's contribution to global warming .
History of India
Indo - Greek Kingdom : The Indo - Greek Menander I ( reigned 155 -- 130 BCE ) drove the Greco - Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush , becoming a king shortly after his victory . His territories covered Panjshir and Kapisa in modern Afghanistan and extended to the Punjab region , with many tributaries to the south and east . The capital Sagala ( modern Sialkot ) prospered greatly under Menander 's rule . The classical Buddhist text Milinda Pañha praises Menander , saying there was `` none equal to Milinda in all India '' . Lasting for almost two centuries , the kingdom was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Indo - Greek kings , who were often in conflict with each other . Indo - Scythian Kingdom : The Indo - Scythians were descended from the Sakas ( Scythians ) who migrated from southern Siberia to Pakistan and Arachosia to India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE . They displaced the Indo - Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura . The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythian Western Satraps were defeated by the south Indian Emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty . Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire from eastern India in the 4th century . Indo - Parthian Kingdom : The Indo - Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty , named after its eponymous first ruler Gondophares . They ruled parts of present - day Afghanistan , Pakistan , and northwestern India , during or slightly before the 1st century CE . For most of their history , the leading Gondopharid kings held Taxila ( in the present Punjab province of Pakistan ) as their residence and ruled from there , but during their last few years of existence the capital shifted between Kabul and Peshawar .
Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)
Another important growth sector were the fisheries , especially the herring fishery ( also known as the `` Great Fishery '' ) , already important in pre-Revolt days , because of the Flemish invention of gibbing , which made better preservation possible , experienced a tremendous growth due to the development of a specialized ship type , the Herring Buss by the late 16th century . This was a veritable `` factory ship '' that enabled Dutch herring fishermen to follow the herring to the shoals of the Dogger Bank and other places far from the Dutch shores , and stay away for months at a time . Actually , linked to the fishery itself was an important onshore processing industry that prepared the salted herring for export across Europe . It also attracted its own supporting industries , like salt refining and the salt trade ; fishing net manufacture ; and specialized shipbuilding . The fisheries were not particularly profitable in themselves ( they were already a mature industry by 1600 ) , but organizational innovations ( vertical integration of production , processing , and trade ) enabled an efficient business model , in which the traders used the revenues of fishing to buy up grain in Baltic ports during the winter months ( when otherwise the fishing boats would have been idle ) , which they transported to Western Europe when the ice floes thawed in Spring . The revenues of this incidental trade were invested in unrefined salt or new boats . The industry was also supported by the Dutch government by market regulation ( under the tutelage of an industry body , the Commissioners of the Great Fishery ) , and naval protection of the fishing fleet against privateers and the Royal Navy ( because the English looked askance at Dutch fishing in waters they claimed ) . The combination of these factors secured a de facto monopoly for Dutch soused herring in the two centuries between 1500 and 1700 . Art
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Of particular importance for Ottoman success was their ability to keep the empire intact from generation to generation . While other Turkic groups frequently divided their realms between the sons of a deceased ruler , the Ottomans consistently kept the empire united under a single heir .
Economic history of Argentina
Celman 's successor , Carlos Pellegrini , laid the foundations for a return to stability and growth after the restoration of convertibility in 1899 . He also reformed the banking sector in ways that were to restore stability in the medium term . Rapid growth rates soon returned : in the period 1903 -- 1913 , GDP increased at an annual rate of 7.7 % , and industry grew even faster , jumping by 9.6 % . By 1906 , Argentina had cleared the last remnants of the 1890 default and a year later the country re-entered the international bond markets .
History of the Jews in Egypt
Individual Jews played an important role in Egyptian nationalism . René Qattawi , leader of the Cairo Sephardi community , endorsed the creation in 1935 of the Association of Egyptian Jewish Youth , with its slogan : ' Egypt is our homeland , Arabic is our language . ' Qattawi strongly opposed political Zionism and wrote a note on ' The Jewish Question ' to the World Jewish Congress in 1943 in which he argued that Palestine would be unable to absorb Europe 's Jewish refugees . Synagogue
History of United States prison systems
Called for sanitary improvements and an end to the political appointment of prison administrators ; Welcomed the increased participation of women in prison management ; Advocated for a more progressive system of classifying prisoners based on individualized and continuous assessments of their character through a mark system ; Stressed the importance of educating inmates ; and Argued that prisoners ' wills must be won over via persuasion , not destroyed .