vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of women in the United States
Apart from individual women , working largely on their own , the first organized systematic efforts to develop women 's history came from the United Daughters of the Confederacy ( UDC ) in the early 20th century . It coordinated efforts across the South to tell the story of the women on the Confederate homefront , while the male historians spent their time with battles and generals . The women emphasized female activism , initiative , and leadership . They reported that when all the men left for war , the women took command , found ersatz and substitute foods , rediscovered their old traditional skills with the spinning wheel when factory cloth became unavailable , and ran all the farm or plantation operations . They faced danger without having menfolk in the traditional role of their protectors . Historian Jacquelyn Dowd Hall argues that the UDC was a powerful promoter of women 's history :
History of Antarctica
Once women were allowed in Antarctica , they still had to fight against sexism and sexual harassment . However , a tipping point was reached in the mid 1990s when it became the new normal that women were part of Antarctic life . Women began to see a change as more and more women began working and researching in Antarctica .
History of women in the United States
Roosevelt appointed more women to office than any previous president , headed by the first woman to the cabinet , Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins . His wife Eleanor played a highly visible role in support of relief programs . In 1941 , Eleanor became co-head of the Office of Civil Defense , the major civil defense agency . She tried to involve women at the local level , but she feuded with her counterpart Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia , and had little impact on policy . Historian Alan Brinkley states :
Orchestra
Historically , major professional orchestras have been mostly or entirely composed of male musicians . The first women members hired in professional orchestras have been harpists . The Vienna Philharmonic , for example , did not accept women to permanent membership until 1997 , far later than comparable orchestras ( the other orchestras ranked among the world 's top five by Gramophone in 2008 ) . The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was the Berlin Philharmonic . In February 1996 , the Vienna Philharmonic 's principal flute , Dieter Flury , told Westdeutscher Rundfunk that accepting women would be `` gambling with the emotional unity ( emotionelle Geschlossenheit ) that this organism currently has '' . In April 1996 , the orchestra 's press secretary wrote that `` compensating for the expected leaves of absence '' of maternity leave would be a problem .
History of women in the United States
The Marine Corps created a Women 's Reserve in 1943 ; women served as Marines during the war in over 225 different specialties , filling 85 % of the enlisted jobs at Headquarters Marine Corps and comprising one - half to two - thirds of the permanent personnel at major Marine Corps posts . Marine women served stateside as clerks , cooks , mechanics , drivers , and in a variety of other positions .
Civil Rights Act of 1964
In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp. , a 1971 Supreme Court case regarding the gender provisions of the Act , the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool - age child unless they did the same with potential male employees . A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs which required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women to take lunch breaks when men were not required to . In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations , the United States Supreme Court decided that printing separate job listings for men and women was illegal , which ended that practice among the country 's newspapers . The United States Civil Service Commission ended the practice among federal jobs which designated them `` women only '' or `` men only '' .
History of women in the United States
American women achieved many political firsts in the 2000s . In 2007 , Nancy Pelosi became the first female Speaker of the House of Representatives ; she held the position for just under four years . In 2008 Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton became the first woman to win a presidential primary , winning the New Hampshire Democratic primary although polls had predicted she would lose . She eventually lost the Democratic nomination for President to Barack Obama , who went on to become President ; however , Hillary Clinton did receive 18 million votes . In 2008 , Alaska governor Sarah Palin became the first woman nominated for Vice President by the Republican Party , although she was not elected . In 2009 and 2010 , respectively , Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan were confirmed as Supreme Court Associate Justices , making them the third and fourth female justices , but because Justice O'Connor had previously retired , this made the first time three women have served together on the Supreme Court . Sen. Barbara Mikulski of Maryland was re-elected to a fifth term in 2010 ; when the 112th Congress was sworn in , she became the longest serving female senator ever , passing Sen. Margaret Chase Smith . During this term , she surpassed Edith Nourse Rogers as the woman to serve the longest in the U.S. Congress .
Women's empowerment
The UN came out with a set of goals called the Sustainable Development Goals , or SDGs , to help make the world a better place . Of the 17 , the fourth goal works to allow access to education for all people alike . A large effort has been made to include women in schools to better their education . Similarly , the fifth goal focuses on empowering women and girls to achieve gender equality through equal access to various types of opportunities ( health care , education , work , etc . ) .
History of women in the United States
The achievement of suffrage led to feminists refocusing their efforts towards other goals . Groups such as the National Women 's Party ( NWP ) continued the political fight , proposing the Equal Rights Amendment in 1923 and working to remove laws that used sex to discriminate against women . But many women shifted their focus from politics to challenge traditional definitions of womanhood . Carrie Chapman Catt and others established The League of Women Voters to help women carry out their new responsibilities as voters . Clara
History of women in the United States
College women enrollment Women 's colleges Coed - colleges % of all students 1870 6,500 2,600 21 % 1890 16,800 39,500 36 % 1910 34,100 106,500 40 % 1930 82,100 398,700 44 % Source : Dorothea
History of women in the United States
The 1980s brought more firsts for American women . 1980 was the first year that a higher percentage of women than men voted in a Presidential election , and a higher percentage of women than men have voted in every Presidential election since . In 1981 Sandra Day O'Connor was confirmed unanimously by the Senate and became the first female Supreme Court Justice . In 1983 Sally Ride became the first female American astronaut . In 1984 , Geraldine Ferraro became the first woman nominated for Vice President by a major party ( the Democratic Party ) , although she was not elected .
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
Section 2 protects the right to vote only of adult males , not adult females , making it the only provision of the Constitution to explicitly discriminate on the basis of sex . Section 2 was condemned by women 's suffragists , such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony , who had long seen their cause as linked to that of black rights . The separation of black civil rights from women 's civil rights split the two movements for decades .
History of women in the United States
A powerful coercive tool the Americans used to protest British policies after 1765 was the boycott of imported British consumer goods . Women played an active role in encouraging patriotic boycotts and monitoring compliance . They refused to purchase imports , while emphasizing the virtues of avoiding luxury by using homespun clothing and other locally made products . Breen says , `` the consumer boycott was a brilliantly original American invention . '' O'Dowd , however , shows that it has roots in Ireland . The
Prime Minister of France
Édith Cresson is the only woman to have held the position of Prime Minister .
Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom
1818 : Jeremy Bentham advocates female suffrage in his book A Plan for Parliamentary Reform . The Vestries Act 1818 allowed some single women to vote in parish vestry elections 1832 : Great Reform Act -- confirmed the exclusion of women from the electorate . 1851 : The Sheffield Female Political Association is founded and submits a petition calling for women 's suffrage to the House of Lords . 1864 : The first Contagious Disease Act is passed in England , which is intended to control venereal disease by having prostitutes and women believed to be prostitutes be locked away in hospitals for examination and treatment . When information broke to the general public about the shocking stories of brutality and vice in these hospitals , Josephine Butler launched a campaign to get them repealed . Many have since argued that Butler 's campaign destroyed the conspiracy of silence around sexuality and forced women to act in protection of others of their gender . In doing so , clear linkages emerge between the suffrage movement and Butler 's campaign . 1865 : John Stuart Mill elected as an MP showing direct support for women 's suffrage . 1867 : Second Reform Act -- Male franchise extended to 2.5 million 1869 : Municipal Franchise Act gives single women ratepayers the right to vote in local elections . 1883 : Conservative Primrose League formed . 1884 : Third Reform Act -- Male electorate doubled to 5 million 1889 : Women 's Franchise League established . 1894 : Local Government Act ( women who owned property could vote in local elections , become Poor Law Guardians , act on School Boards ) 1894 : The publication of C.C. Stopes 's British Freewomen , staple reading for the suffrage movement for decades . 1897 : National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies NUWSS formed ( led by Millicent Fawcett ) . 1903 : Women 's Social and Political Union WSPU is formed ( led by Emmeline Pankhurst ) 1904 : Militancy begins . Emmeline Pankhurst interrupts a Liberal Party meeting . February 1907 : NUWSS `` Mud March '' -- largest open air demonstration ever held ( at that point ) -- over 3000 women took part . In this year , women were admitted to the register to vote in and stand for election to principal local authorities .
Covering: The Hidden Assault on Our Civil Rights
In sex - based covering there is both covering and reverse covering , being masculine when expected , while you are feminine , and vice versa . For certain jobs women were asked to be more masculine to show that they are rough , aggressive and forceful . In many workforces , women earn the respect of her co-workers by acting masculine . Sex discrimination surfaces in the courts , like the case in which Ann Hopkins sued Price Waterhouse . She was asked to both cover and reverse cover but when she could not deliver , her nomination for the partnership was taken away . She later went on to win this case and was the first person admitted into the partnership by court order .
History of women in the United States
From 1870 to 1875 several women , including Virginia Louisa Minor , Victoria Woodhull , and Myra Bradwell , attempted to use the Fourteenth Amendment in the courts to secure the vote ( Minor and Woodhull ) or the right to practice law ( Bradwell ) , but they were all unsuccessful . In 1872 Susan B. Anthony was arrested and brought to trial in Rochester , New York , for attempting to vote for Ulysses S. Grant in the presidential election ; she was convicted and fined $100 and the costs of her prosecution but refused to pay . At the same time , Sojourner Truth appeared at a polling booth in Battle Creek , Michigan , demanding a ballot ; she was turned away . Also in 1872 , Victoria Woodhull became the first woman to run for President , although she could not vote and only received a few votes , losing to Ulysses S. Grant . She was nominated to run by the Equal Rights Party , and advocated the 8 - hour work day , graduated income tax , social welfare programs , and profit sharing , among other positions . In 1874 The Woman 's Christian Temperance Union ( WCTU ) was founded by Annie Wittenmyer to work for the prohibition of alcohol ; with Frances Willard at its head ( starting in 1876 ) , the WCTU also became an important force in the fight for women 's suffrage . In 1878 a woman suffrage amendment was first introduced in the United States Congress , but it did not pass .
History of women in the United States
The campaign for women 's suffrage picked up speed in the 1910s as the established women 's groups won in the western states and moved east , leaving the conservative South for last . Parades were favorite publicity devices . In 1916 Jeannette Rankin , a Republican from Montana , was elected to Congress and became the first woman to serve in any high federal office . A lifelong pacifist , she was one of fifty members of Congress who voted against entry into World War I in 1917 , and the only member of Congress who voted against declaring war on Japan after the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 . Alice Paul was the leader of a small militant faction that courted arrest to publicized the injustice of denying women the vote . After 1920 , Paul spent a half century as leader of the National Woman 's Party , which fought for her Equal Rights Amendment to secure constitutional equality for women . It never passed , but she won a large degree of success with the inclusion of women as a group protected against discrimination by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . She insisted that her National Woman 's Party focus exclusively on the legal status of all women and resisted calls to address issues like birth control .
History of women in the United States
The concerns of military women again came to the fore as the Persian Gulf War ( 1990 -- 1991 ) utilized an unprecedented proportion of women from the active forces ( 7 % ) as well as the Reserve and National Guard ( 17 % ) . Over 40,000 US military women served in combat support positions throughout the war . Sixteen women died during the war and two were held prisoner . In 1991 the Tailhook Scandal occurred at the annual Tailhook Association convention held in Las Vegas , with more than 26 women ( 14 of them officers ) being assaulted by scores of drunken naval and marine officers . Accusations that the Navy mishandled the subsequent investigation were deeply damaging to the Navy 's reputation .
History of women in the United States
The arrival of the railroads in the 1870s open up the Great Plains for settlement , for now it was possible to ship wheat and other crops at low cost to the urban markets in the East , and Europe . Immigrants poured in , especially from Germany and Scandinavia . On the plains , very few single men attempted to operate a farm or ranch by themselves ; they clearly understood the need for a hard - working wife , and numerous children , to handle the many chores , including child - rearing , feeding and clothing the family , managing the housework , feeding the hired hands , and , especially after the 1930s , handling the paperwork and financial details . During the early years of settlement in the late 19th century , farm women played an integral role in assuring family survival by working outdoors . After a generation or so , women increasingly left the fields , thus redefining their roles within the family . New conveniences such as sewing and washing machines encouraged women to turn to domestic roles . The scientific housekeeping movement , promoted across the land by the farm magazines and ( after 1914 ) by government extension agents , as well as county fairs which featured achievements in home cookery and canning , advice columns for women in the farm papers , and home economics courses in the schools . Grange
History of women in the United States
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Women's empowerment
The Gender - related Development Index ( GDI ) is a way in which the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) measures the inequality between genders within a country . Some critique of this measurement is that , because GDI calculations rely solely on the achievement distribution between males and females of a population , GDI does n't measure gender inequality ; rather , it measures absolute levels on income , education and health
History of women in the United States
The major departments had few if any women professors . Breakthroughs began in the late 1960s , as increasing numbers of women entered graduate schools , wrote seminar papers that became journal articles , and finished dissertations that became published books . By the 1970s , major publishers were eager to have a few titles on women in their list , and journal editors were equally receptive . The field of women 's history exploded dramatically after 1970 , The field of women 's history exploded dramatically after 1970 , along with the growth of the new social history and the acceptance of women into graduate programs in history departments . An important development is to integrate women into the history of race and slavery . A pioneer effort was Deborah Gray White 's ' Ar' n't I a Woman ? Female Slaves in the Plantation South ( 1985 ) , which helped to open up analysis of race , slavery , abolitionism and feminism , as well as resistance , power , and activism , and themes of violence , sexualities , and the body . A major trend in recent years has been to emphasize a global perspective .
History of women in the United States
Women staffed millions of jobs in community service roles , such as nursing , the USO , and the Red Cross . Unorganized women were encouraged to collect and turn in materials that were needed by the war effort . Women collected fats rendered during cooking , children formed balls of aluminum foil they peeled from chewing gum wrappers and also created rubber band balls , which they contributed to the war effort . Hundreds of thousands of men joined civil defense units to prepare for disasters , such as enemy bombing .
Vietnam War
During the Vietnam War , American women served on active duty doing a variety of jobs . Early in 1963 , the Army Nurse Corps ( ANC ) launched Operation Nightingale , an intensive effort to recruit nurses to serve in Vietnam . First Lieutenant Sharon Lane was the only female military nurse to be killed by enemy gunfire during the war , on 8 June 1969 . One civilian doctor , Eleanor Ardel Vietti , who was captured by Viet Cong on May 30 , 1962 , in Buôn Ma Thuột , remains the only American woman unaccounted for from the Vietnam War . A
I Am Woman
Immediately after that , guitarist Deasy played the riff on his 12 - string electric guitar that became the signature sound for the song . Senter then asked friend and noted sax man Jim Horn to write string and horn charts to be recorded the following week , while Senter went into the studio with Clydie King , Venetta Fields and Shirley Matthews ( the Blossoms ) and layered the background vocals .
Female reproductive system
Reproductive rights are legal rights related to reproduction and reproductive health . Women have the right to control matters involving their sexuality including their sexual and reproductive health . Violation of these rights include forced pregnancy , forced sterilization , forced abortion and genital mutilation . Female genital mutilation is the complete or partial removal of a female 's external genitals .
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War also saw women play a prominent role as front - line reporters in the conflict , directly reporting on the conflict as it occurred . A number of women volunteered on the North Vietnamese side as embedded journalists including author Lê Minh Khuê embedded with PAVN forces , including on the Ho Chi Minh trail as well as on combat fronts . A number of prominent Western journalists were also involved in covering the war , with Dickey Chapelle being among the first as well as the first American female reporter killed in a war . The French - speaking Australian journalist Kate Webb was captured alongside a photographer and others by the Viet Cong in Cambodia and travelled into Laos with them , released back into Cambodia afterwards after 23 days of captivity . She would be the first Western journalist to be captured and released , as well as cover the perspective of the Viet Cong in her memoir On The Other Side . Another French - speaking journalist Catherine Leroy was briefly captured and released by North Vietnamese forces during the Battle of Huế , capturing some of the famous photos from the battles that would appear on the cover of Life Magazine .
Actor
Occasionally , the issue is further complicated , for example , by a woman playing a woman acting as a man -- who then pretends to be a woman , such as Julie Andrews in Victor / Victoria , or Gwyneth Paltrow in Shakespeare in Love . In It 's Pat : The Movie , filmwatchers never learn the gender of the androgynous main characters Pat and Chris ( played by Julia Sweeney and Dave Foley ) . Similarly , in the aforementioned example of The Marriage of Figaro , there is a scene in which Cherubino ( a male character portrayed by a woman ) dresses up and acts as a woman ; the other characters in the scene are aware of a single level of gender role obfuscation , while the audience is aware of two levels .
History of women in the United States
UDC leaders were determined to assert women 's cultural authority over virtually every representation of the region 's past . This they did by lobbying for state archives and museums , national historic sites , and historic highways ; compiling genealogies ; interviewing former soldiers ; writing history textbooks ; and erecting monuments , which now moved triumphantly from cemeteries into town centers . More than half a century before women 's history and public history emerged as fields of inquiry and action , the UDC , with other women 's associations , strove to etch women 's accomplishments into the historical record and to take history to the people , from the nursery and the fireside to the schoolhouse and the public square .