vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Sociology
The sociology of change and development attempts to understand how societies develop and how they can be changed . This includes studying many different aspects of society , for example demographic trends , political or technological trends , or changes in culture . Within this field , sociologists often use macrosociological methods or historical - comparative methods . In contemporary studies of social change , there are overlaps with international development or community development . However , most of the founders of sociology had theories of social change based on their study of history . For instance , Marx contended that the material circumstances of society ultimately caused the ideal or cultural aspects of society , while Weber argued that it was in fact the cultural mores of Protestantism that ushered in a transformation of material circumstances . In contrast to both , Durkheim argued that societies moved from simple to complex through a process of sociocultural evolution . Sociologists in this field also study processes of globalization and imperialism . Most notably , Immanuel Wallerstein extends Marx 's theoretical frame to include large spans of time and the entire globe in what is known as world systems theory . Development sociology is also heavily influenced by post-colonialism . In recent years , Raewyn Connell issued a critique of the bias in sociological research towards countries in the Global North . She argues that this bias blinds sociologists to the lived experiences of the Global South , specifically , so - called , `` Northern Theory '' lacks an adequate theory of imperialism and colonialism .
European colonization of the Americas
Colonial Brazil ( 1500 -- 1815 ) became a Kingdom , United Kingdom of Portugal , Brazil and the Algarves . Terra do Labrador ( 1499 / 1500 -- ? ) Claimed region ( sporadically settled ) . Land of the Corte - Real , also known as Terra Nova dos Bacalhaus ( Land of Codfish ) -- Terra Nova ( Newfoundland ) ( 1501 -- ? ) Claimed region ( sporadically settled ) . Portugal Cove - St. Philip 's ( 1501 -- 1696 ) Nova Scotia ( 1519 ? -- 1520s ? ) Claimed region ( sporadically settled ) . Barbados ( 1536 -- 1620 ) Colonia do Sacramento ( 1680 -- 1705 / 1714 -- 1762 / 1763 -- 1777 ( 1811 -- 1817 ) ) Cisplatina ( 1811 -- 1822 , now Uruguay ) French Guiana ( 1809 -- 1817 )
Colonial history of the United States
The First Great Awakening focused on people who were already church members , unlike the Second Great Awakening that began around 1800 and reached out to the unchurched . It changed their rituals , their piety , and their self - awareness . The new style of sermons and the way that people practiced their faith breathed new life into religion in America . People became passionately and emotionally involved in their religion , rather than passively listening to intellectual discourse in a detached manner . Ministers who used this new style of preaching were generally called `` new lights '' , while the traditional - styled preachers were called `` old lights '' .
Colonial history of the United States
Shopkeepers , artisans , shipwrights , butchers , coopers , seamstresses , cobblers , bakers , carpenters , masons , and many other specialized professions made up the middle class of seaport society . Wives and husbands often worked as a team and taught their children their crafts to pass it on through the family . Many of these artisans and traders made enough money to create a modest life .
Colonies in antiquity
The cleruchs ( κληροῦχοι , klêrouchoi ) formed a special class of Greek colonists , each being assigned an individual plot of land ( κλῆρος , klêros ) in the place to which they had been assigned . The trade factories set up in foreign countries , such as Egypt , were somewhat different from the ordinary colonies , the members retaining the right of domicile in their own fatherland and confining themselves to their own quarter in the foreign city .
Colonial history of the United States
A majority of New England residents were small farmers . A man had complete power over the property within these small farm families .
Colonial history of the United States
Women played a role in the emergence of the capitalist economy in the Atlantic world . The types of local commercial exchange in which they participated independently were well integrated with the trade networks between colonial merchants throughout the Atlantic region , especially markets in dairy and produce commodities . For example , local women merchants were important suppliers of foodstuffs to transatlantic shipping concerns .
Relationship between religion and science
During the Enlightenment , a period `` characterized by dramatic revolutions in science '' and the rise of Protestant challenges to the authority of the Catholic Church via individual liberty , the authority of Christian scriptures became strongly challenged . As science advanced , acceptance of a literal version of the Bible became `` increasingly untenable '' and some in that period presented ways of interpreting scripture according to its spirit on its authority and truth .
Colonial history of the United States
New Sweden ( Swedish : Nya Sverige ) was a Swedish colony that existed along the Delaware River Valley from 1638 to 1655 and encompassed land in present - day Delaware , southern New Jersey , and southeastern Pennsylvania . The several hundred settlers were centered around the capital of Fort Christina , at the location of what is today the city of Wilmington , Delaware . The colony also had settlements near the present - day location of Salem , New Jersey ( Fort Nya Elfsborg ) and on Tinicum Island , Pennsylvania . The colony was captured by the Dutch in 1655 and merged into New Netherland , with most of the colonists remaining . Years later , the entire New Netherland colony was incorporated into England 's colonial holdings .
Australia–Canada relations
Canada held the 1894 Colonial Conference in Ottawa , drawing representatives from the six Australian colonies , New Zealand , the South African colonies and Britain . Frustration in Ottawa arose though , when the Canadian proposal to strengthen imperial trade relations through a system of preferential British tariffs was effectively defeated by the opposition of two of Australia 's largest colonies , New South Wales and Queensland , who were suspicious the Canadian initiative seemed designed to undermine Australia 's protective Tariffs . The visit of John Short Larke also did not go as planned , as he was met with a protectionist press , warning `` ( t ) he measure of ( Larke 's ) continuous success will also be the measure of our suicidal folly . '' Only the colony of New South Wales heeded the plead of Larke to help Ottawa subsidize Huddart 's struggling steamship line . The Eastern Extension Company , which operated a telegraph service linking Australia to Egypt and thence to Europe , promoted widespread opposition to the whole idea of a Pacific Cable . The only sign of Australian interest in trade with Canada disappeared abruptly when exploratory talks between Larke and the premier of Victoria were suspended pending Australian federation .
France–United Kingdom relations
Their post-colonial entanglements have given them a more outward focus than the other countries of Europe , leading them to work together on issues such as the Libyan Civil War .
Colonial history of the United States
Most of the settlers came from Protestant backgrounds in England and Western Europe , with a small proportion of Catholics ( chiefly in Maryland ) and a few Jews in port cities . The English and the Germans brought along multiple Protestant denominations . Several colonies had an `` established '' church , which meant that local tax money went to the established denomination . Freedom of religion became a basic American principle , and numerous new movements emerged , many of which became established denominations in their own right .
Colonial history of the United States
There were ethnic differences in the treatment of women . Among Puritan settlers in New England , wives almost never worked in the fields with their husbands . In German communities in Pennsylvania , however , many women worked in fields and stables . German and Dutch immigrants granted women more control over property , which was not permitted in the local English law . Unlike English colonial wives , German and Dutch wives owned their own clothes and other items and were also given the ability to write wills disposing of the property brought into the marriage .
European colonization of the Americas
The first phase of well - financed European activity in the Americas began with the Atlantic Ocean crossings of Christopher Columbus ( 1492 -- 1504 ) , sponsored by Spain , whose original attempt was to find a new route to India and China , known as `` the Indies '' . He was followed by other explorers such as John Cabot , who was sponsored by England and reached Newfoundland . Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil and claimed it for Portugal .
Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)
Explorations resumed on December 6 / 16 . The shallop party headed south along the cape , consisting of seven colonists from Leiden , three from London , and seven crew ; they chose to land at the area inhabited by the Nauset people ( the area around Brewster , Chatham , Eastham , Harwich , and Orleans ) where they saw some people on the shore who fled when they approached . Inland they found more mounds , one containing acorns , which they exhumed and left , and more graves , which they decided not to dig .
Colonies in antiquity
The extensive Greek colonization is remarked upon by Cicero when noting that `` It were as though a Greek fringe has been woven about the shores of the barbarians . '' Several formulae were generally adhered to on the solemn and sacred occasions when a new colony set forth . If a Greek city was sending out a colony , an oracle , especially one such as the Oracle of Delphi , was almost invariably consulted beforehand . Sometimes certain classes of citizens were called upon to take part in the enterprises ; sometimes one son was chosen by lot from every house where there were several sons ; and strangers expressing a desire to join were admitted . A person of distinction was selected to guide the emigrants and make the necessary arrangements . It was usual to honor these founders of colonies , after their death , as heroes . Some of the sacred fire was taken from the public hearth in the Prytaneum , from which the fire on the public hearth of the new city was kindled . And , just as each individual had his private shrines , so the new community maintained the worship of its chief domestic deities , the colony sending embassies and votive gifts to the mother - city 's principal festivals for centuries afterwards .
Relationship between religion and science
Most scientists have rejected creation science for several reasons , including that its claims do not refer to natural causes and can not be tested . In 1987 , the United States Supreme Court ruled that creationism is religion , not science , and can not be advocated in public school classrooms .
Human skin color
Colonization and enslavement as carried out by European countries became involved with colorism and racism , associated with the belief that people with dark skin were uncivilized , inferior , and should be subordinate to lighter - skinned invaders . This has been perpetuated in modern times . Institutionalized slavery in North America led people to perceive lighter - skinned African - Americans as more intelligent , cooperative , and beautiful . Such lighter - skinned individuals had a greater likelihood of working as house slaves and of receiving preferential treatment from plantation owners and from overseers . For example , they had a chance to get an education , while darker African - Americans worked in the fields and did not get an education . The preference for fair skin remained prominent until the end of the Victorian era , but racial stereotypes about worth and beauty persisted in the last half of the 20th century and continue in the present day . African - American journalist Jill Nelson wrote that , `` To be both prettiest and black was impossible , '' and elaborated :
European colonization of the Americas
A strong believer in the notion of rule by divine right , Charles I , King of England and Scotland , persecuted religious dissenters . Waves of repression led to the migration of about 20,000 Puritans to New England between 1629 and 1642 , where they founded multiple colonies . Later in the century , the new Pennsylvania colony was given to William Penn in settlement of a debt the king owed his father . Its government was set up by William Penn in about 1682 to become primarily a refuge for persecuted English Quakers ; but others were welcomed . Baptists , Quakers , German and Swiss Protestants and Anabaptists flocked to Pennsylvania . The lure of cheap land , religious freedom and the right to improve themselves with their own hand was very attractive .
Spanish colonization of the Americas
These began a movement for colonial independence that spread to Spain 's other colonies in the Americas . The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts . All of the colonies , except Cuba and Puerto Rico , attained independence by the 1820s . The British Empire offered support , wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas .
Relationship between religion and science
Concerning specific topics like creationism , it is not an exclusively American phenomenon . A poll on adult Europeans revealed that 40 % believed in naturalistic evolution , 21 % in theistic evolution , 20 % in special creation , and 19 % are undecided ; with the highest concentrations of young earth creationists in Switzerland ( 21 % ) , Austria ( 20 % ) , Germany ( 18 % ) . Other countries such as Netherlands , Britain , and Australia have experienced growth in such views as well .
Spanish colonization of the Americas
In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire . It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas . In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization .
Sahara
European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century . France conquered the regency of Algiers from the Ottomans in 1830 , and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from Senegal into the upper Niger to include present - day Algeria , Chad , Mali then French Sudan including Timbuktu , Mauritania , Morocco ( 1912 ) , Niger , and Tunisia ( 1881 ) . By the beginning of the 20th century , the trans - Saharan trade had clearly declined because goods were moved through more modern and efficient means , such as airplanes , rather than across the desert .
Relationship between religion and science
According to Guillermo Paz - y - Miño - C and Avelina Espinosa , the historical conflict between evolution and religion is intrinsic to the incompatibility between scientific rationalism / empiricism and the belief in supernatural causation ; these authors have formally proposed the incompatibility hypothesis ( IH ) to explain the `` everlasting - conflict - science - and - faith '' . According to Jerry Coyne , views on evolution and levels of religiosity in some countries , along with the existence of books explaining reconciliation between evolution and religion , indicate that people have trouble in believing both at the same time , thus implying incompatibility . According to Lawrence Krauss , compatibility or incompatibility is a theological concern , not a scientific concern . In Lisa Randall 's view , questions of incompatibility or otherwise are not answerable , since by accepting revelations one is abandoning rules of logic which are needed to identify if there are indeed contradictions between holding certain beliefs . Daniel Dennett holds that incompatibility exists because religion is not problematic to a certain point before it collapses into a number of excuses for keeping certain beliefs , in light of evolutionary implications .
The impact of geography on colonial America
Colonization of the South during the period of 1600 -- 1650 was mainly confined to Virginia and the Jamestown region in particular . While the majority of people who initially arrived at Jamestown in the first few years of colonization were Englishmen , the Virginia Company did hire artisans from Prussia , the Netherlands and Poland to fill the ranks of colonists , with the hope that they would be able to produce profitable goods for the company to sell in England .
Relationship between religion and science
From an Islamic standpoint , science , the study of nature , is considered to be linked to the concept of Tawhid ( the Oneness of God ) , as are all other branches of knowledge . In Islam , nature is not seen as a separate entity , but rather as an integral part of Islam 's holistic outlook on God , humanity , and the world . The Islamic view of science and nature is continuous with that of religion and God . This link implies a sacred aspect to the pursuit of scientific knowledge by Muslims , as nature itself is viewed in the Qur'an as a compilation of signs pointing to the Divine . It was with this understanding that science was studied and understood in Islamic civilizations , specifically during the eighth to sixteenth centuries , prior to the colonization of the Muslim world . Robert Briffault , in The Making of Humanity , asserts that the very existence of science , as it is understood in the modern sense , is rooted in the scientific thought and knowledge that emerged in Islamic civilizations during this time . Ibn al - Haytham , an Arab Muslim , was an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be proved by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical evidence -- hence understanding the scientific method 200 years before Renaissance scientists . Ibn al - Haytham described his theology :
Relationship between religion and science
H. Floris Cohen argued for a biblical Protestant , but not excluding Catholicism , influence on the early development of modern science . He presented Dutch historian R. Hooykaas ' argument that a biblical world - view holds all the necessary antidotes for the hubris of Greek rationalism : a respect for manual labour , leading to more experimentation and empiricism , and a supreme God that left nature open to emulation and manipulation . It supports the idea early modern science rose due to a combination of Greek and biblical thought .
French colonization of the Americas
Unchallenged by the Portuguese , who initially took little notice of his landing , Villegaignon endeavoured to expand the colony by calling for more colonists in 1556 . He sent one of his ships , the Grande Roberge , to Honfleur , entrusted with letters to King Henry II , Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts , the Protestant leader John Calvin . After one ship was sent to France to ask for additional support , three ships were financed and prepared by the king of France and put under the command of Sieur De Bois le Comte , a nephew of Villegagnon . They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva , led by Philippe de Corguilleray , including theologians Pierre Richier and Guillaume Chartrier . The new colonists , numbering around 300 , included 5 young women to be wed , 10 boys to be trained as translators , as well as 14 Calvinists sent by Calvin , and also Jean de Léry , who would later write an account of the colony . They arrived in March 1557 . The relief fleet was composed of : The Petite Roberge , with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte . The Grande Roberge , with about 120 on board , captained by Sieur de Sainte - Marie dit l'Espine . The Rosée , with about 90 people , led by Captain Rosée . Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists , especially in relation to the Eucharist , and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result . They settled among the Tupinamba until January 1558 , when some of them managed to return to France by ship together with Jean de Léry , and five others chose to return to Coligny island where three of them were drowned by Villegagnon for refusing to recant . Portuguese
British Empire
The loss of such a large portion of British America , at the time Britain 's most populous overseas possession , is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the `` first '' and `` second '' empires , in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia , the Pacific and later Africa . Adam Smith 's Wealth of Nations , published in 1776 , had argued that colonies were redundant , and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion , dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal . The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith 's view that political control was not necessary for economic success .
Colonies in antiquity
The duty of leading the colonists and founding the settlement was entrusted to a commission usually consisting of three members . These men continued to stand in the relation of patrons ( patroni ) to the colony after its foundation . The colonists entered the conquered city in military array , preceded by banners , and the foundation was celebrated with special solemnities . The coloniae were free from taxes , and had their own constitution , a copy of the Roman , electing from their own body their Senate and other officers of State . To this constitution the original inhabitants had to submit . The coloniae civium Romanorum retained Roman citizenship , and were free from military service , their position as outposts being regarded as an equivalent . The members of the coloniae Latinae served among the socii , the allies , and possessed the so - called ius Latinum or Latinitas . This secured to them the right of acquiring property , the concept of commercium , and the right of settlement in Rome , and under certain conditions the power of becoming Roman citizens ; though in course of time these rights underwent many limitations .
Colonial history of the United States
Russia explored the area that became Alaska , starting with the Second Kamchatka expedition in the 1730s and early 1740s . Their first settlement was founded in 1784 by Grigory Shelikhov . The Russian - American Company was formed in 1799 with the influence of Nikolay Rezanov , for the purpose of buying sea otters for their fur from native hunters . In 1867 , the U.S. purchased Alaska , and nearly all Russians abandoned the area except a few missionaries of the Russian Orthodox Church working among the natives .
Colonial history of the United States
In New England , the Puritans created self - governing communities of religious congregations of farmers ( or yeomen ) and their families . High - level politicians gave out plots of land to settlers ( or proprietors ) who then divided the land amongst themselves . Large portions were usually given to men of higher social standing , but every man who was n't indentured or criminally bonded had enough land to support a family . Every male citizen had a voice in the town meeting . The town meeting levied taxes , built roads , and elected officials who managed town affairs . The towns did not have courts ; that was a function of the county , whose officials were appointed by the state government .