vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Colonial history of the United States
Part of a series on European colonization of the Americas First wave of European colonization British Couronian Danish Dutch French German Hospitaller ( Maltese ) Norse Portuguese Russian Scottish Spanish Swedish Colonization of Canada Colonization of the United States Decolonization Colonialism portal
Colonial history of the United States
The Awakening had a major impact in reshaping the Congregational , Presbyterian , Dutch Reformed , and German Reformed denominations , and it strengthened the small Baptist and Methodist denominations . It brought Christianity to the slaves and was a powerful event in New England that challenged established authority . It incited rancor and division between the new revivalists and the old traditionalists who insisted on ritual and liturgy . The Awakening had little impact on Anglicans and Quakers .
Indian painting
Several terms including Paul Gilroy 's counter culture of modernity and Tani Barlow 's Colonial modernity have been used to describe the kind of alternative modernity that emerged in non-European contexts . Professor Gall argues that ' Contextual Modernism ' is a more suited term because `` the colonial in colonial modernity does not accommodate the refusal of many in colonised situations to internalise inferiority . Santiniketan 's artist teachers ' refusal of subordination incorporated a counter vision of modernity , which sought to correct the racial and cultural essentialism that drove and characterised imperial Western modernity and modernism . Those European modernities , projected through a triumphant British colonial power , provoked nationalist responses , equally problematic when they incorporated similar essentialisms . ''
Relationship between religion and science
Both science and religion are complex social and cultural endeavors that vary across cultures and have changed over time . Most scientific and technical innovations prior to the scientific revolution were achieved by societies organized by religious traditions . Elements of the scientific method were pioneered by ancient pagan , Islamic , and Christian scholars . During the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the scientific method were laid by Ibn al - Haytham . Roger Bacon , who is often credited with formalizing the scientific method , was a Franciscan friar . Hinduism has historically embraced reason and empiricism , holding that science brings legitimate , but incomplete knowledge of the world . Confucian thought has held different views of science over time . Most Buddhists today view science as complementary to their beliefs . While the classification of the material world by the ancient Indians and Greeks into air , earth , fire and water was more philosophical , medieval Middle Easterns used practical and experimental observation to classify materials .
Colonial history of the United States
( show ) New Netherland series Exploration Fortifications : Fort Amsterdam Fort Nassau ( North ) Fort Orange Fort Nassau ( South ) Fort Goede Hoop De Wal Fort Casimir Fort Altena Fort Wilhelmus Fort Beversreede Fort Nya Korsholm De Rondout Settlements : Noten Eylandt Nieuw Amsterdam Rensselaerswijck Nieuw Haarlem Beverwijck Wiltwijk Bergen Pavonia Vriessendael Achter Col Vlissingen Oude Dorpe Colen Donck Greenwich Heemstede Rustdorp Gravesende Breuckelen Nieuw Amersfoort Midwout Nieuw Utrecht Boswijk Swaanendael Nieuw Amstel Nieuw Dorp The Patroon System Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions Cornelius Jacobsen May ( 1620 -- 25 ) Willem Verhulst ( 1625 -- 26 ) Peter Minuit ( 1626 -- 32 ) Sebastiaen Jansen Krol ( 1632 -- 33 ) Wouter van Twiller ( 1633 -- 38 ) Willem Kieft ( 1638 -- 47 ) Peter Stuyvesant ( 1647 -- 64 ) People of New Netherland New Netherlander Twelve Men Eight Men Nine Men Flushing Remonstrance A
Chartism
Chartism was also an important influence in some British colonies . Some leaders had been transported to Australia , where they spread their beliefs . In 1854 , Chartist demands were put forward by the miners at the Eureka Stockade on the gold fields at Ballarat , Victoria , Australia . Within two years of the military suppression of the Eureka revolt , the first elections of the Victorian parliament were held , with near - universal male suffrage and by secret ballot . In the African colonies after 1920 , there were occasional appearances of a `` colonial chartism '' which called for improved welfare , upgraded education , freedom of speech , and greater political representation for natives .
North America
European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south . Because of the history of colonialism , most North Americans speak English , Spanish or French and societies and states commonly reflect Western traditions .
European colonization of the Americas
Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the Aztecs , Incas , and other large Native American populations in the 16th century , the first Englishmen to settle permanently in America hoped for some of the same rich discoveries when they established their first permanent settlement in Jamestown , Virginia in 1607 . They were sponsored by common stock companies such as the chartered Virginia Company financed by wealthy Englishmen who exaggerated the economic potential of this new land . The main purpose of this colony was the hope of finding gold .
Relationship between religion and science
Protestantism had an important influence on science . According to the Merton Thesis there was a positive correlation between the rise of Puritanism and Protestant Pietism on the one hand and early experimental science on the other . The Merton Thesis has two separate parts : Firstly , it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental techniques and methodology ; secondly , it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th - century England and the religious demography of the Royal Society ( English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants ) can be explained by a correlation between Protestantism and the scientific values . In his theory , Robert K. Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries . Merton explained that the connection between religious affiliation and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science . Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to study God 's influence on the world and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research .
European colonization of the Americas
These explorations were followed , notably in the case of Spain , by a phase of conquest : The Spaniards , having just finished the Reconquista of Spain from Muslim rule , were the first to colonize the Americas , applying the same model of governing their European holdings to their territories of the New World .
The impact of geography on colonial America
The middle colonies contained Native American tribes of Algonquian and Iroquois language groups as well as a sizable percentage of African slaves during the early years . Unlike solidly Puritan New England , the middle colonies presented an assortment of religions . The presence of Quakers , Mennonites , Lutherans , Dutch Calvinists , and Presbyterians made the dominance of one faith next to impossible . This was because some of the proprietors there believed in religious tolerance and some did not care as long the people paid for the land they inhabited .
Colonial history of the United States
The Pilgrims were a small group of Puritan separatists who felt that they needed to physically distance themselves themselves from the Church of England . They initially moved to the Netherlands , then decided to re-establish themselves in America . The initial Pilgrim settlers sailed to North America in 1620 on the Mayflower . Upon their arrival , they drew up the Mayflower Compact , by which they bound themselves together as a united community , thus establishing the small Plymouth Colony . William Bradford was their main leader . After its founding , other settlers traveled from England to join the colony .
Colonial history of the United States
By the mid-18th century , the values of the American Enlightenment became established and weakened the view that husbands were natural `` rulers '' over their wives . There was a new sense of shared marriage . Legally , husbands took control of wives ' property when marrying . Divorce was almost impossible until the late eighteenth century .
Relationship between religion and science
Oxford University historian and theologian John Hedley Brooke wrote that `` when natural philosophers referred to laws of nature , they were not glibly choosing that metaphor . Laws were the result of legislation by an intelligent deity . Thus the philosopher René Descartes ( 1596 -- 1650 ) insisted that he was discovering the `` laws that God has put into nature . '' Later Newton would declare that the regulation of the solar system presupposed the `` counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being . '' Historian Ronald L. Numbers stated that this thesis `` received a boost '' from mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead 's Science and the Modern World ( 1925 ) . Numbers has also argued , `` Despite the manifest shortcomings of the claim that Christianity gave birth to science -- most glaringly , it ignores or minimizes the contributions of ancient Greeks and medieval Muslims -- it too , refuses to succumb to the death it deserves . '' The sociologist Rodney Stark of Baylor University , argued in contrast that `` Christian theology was essential for the rise of science . ''
Colonial history of the United States
Spanish explorers sailed along the coast of present - day California from the early 16th century to the mid-18th century , but no settlements were established over those centuries .
Murti
The missionaries and orientalist scholars attempted to justify the need for colonial rule of India by attacking Murti as a symbol of depravity and primitiveness , arguing that it was , states Tanisha Ramachandran , `` the White Man 's Burden to create a moral society '' in India . This literature by the Christian missionaries constructed the foundation of a `` Hindu image '' in Europe , during the colonial era , and it blamed Murti idolatry as `` the cause for the ills of Indian society '' . By 19th - century , ideas such as pantheism ( universe is identical with god ) , contained in newly translated Sanskrit texts were linked to idolatry of murti and declared as additional evidence of superstitions and evil by Christian missionaries and colonial authorities in British India .
Colonies in antiquity
In Ancient Greece , colonies were sometimes founded by vanquished people , who left their homes to escape subjection at the hand of a foreign enemy ; sometimes as a sequel to civil disorders , when the losers in internecine battles left to form a new city elsewhere ; sometimes to get rid of surplus population , and thereby to avoid internal convulsions ; and sometimes as a result of ostracism . But in most cases the motivation was to establish and facilitate relations of trade with foreign countries and further the wealth of the mother - city ( in Greek metropolis ) . Colonies were established in Ionia and Thrace as early as the 8th century BC .
Colonial history of the United States
The non-separatist Puritans constituted a much larger group than the Pilgrims , and they established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 with 400 settlers . They sought to reform the Church of England by creating a new , pure church in the New World . By 1640 , 20,000 had arrived ; many died soon after arrival , but the others found a healthy climate and an ample food supply . The Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies together spawned other Puritan colonies in New England , including the New Haven , Saybrook , and Connecticut colonies . During the 17th century , the New Haven and Saybrook colonies were absorbed by Connecticut .
Colonial history of the United States
Puritans founded Harvard College in 1636 and Yale College in 1701 . Later , Baptists founded Rhode Island College ( now Brown University ) in 1764 and Congregationalists established Dartmouth College in 1769 . Virginia founded the College of William and Mary in 1693 ; it was primarily Anglican . The colleges were designed for aspiring ministers , lawyers , or doctors . There were no departments or majors , as every student shared the same curriculum , which focused on Latin and Greek , mathematics , and history , philosophy , logic , ethics , rhetoric , oratory , and a little basic science . There were no sports or fraternities and few extracurricular activities apart from literary societies . There were no separate seminaries , law schools , or divinity schools . The first medical schools were founded late in the colonial era in Philadelphia and New York . Religion
Great Expectations
Edward W. Said , in his 1993 work Culture and Imperialism , interprets Great Expectations in terms of postcolonial theory about of late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries British imperialism . Pip 's disillusionment when he learns his benefactor is an escaped convict from Australia , along with his acceptance of Magwitch as surrogate father , is described by Said as part of `` the imperial process '' , that is the way colonialism exploits the weaker members of a society . Thus the British trading post in Cairo legitimatises Pip 's work as a clerk , but the money earned by Magwitch 's honest labour is illegitimate , because Australia is a penal colony , and Magwitch is forbidden to return to Britain . Said states that Dickens has Magwitch return to be redeemed by Pip 's love , paving the way for Pip 's own redemption , but despite this moral message , the book still reinforces standards that support the authority of the British empire . Said 's interpretation suggests that Dickens ' attitude backs Britain 's exploitation of Middle East `` through trade and travel '' , and that Great Expectations affirms the idea of keeping the Empire and its peoples in their place -- at the exploitable margins of British society .
Dutch colonization of the Americas
On March 27 , 1614 , the States General would move away from traditional monopolistic endeavors and take a new and freer approach to exploration and commercial development of the New World ; the issuance of the General Charter for Those who Discover Any New Passages , Havens , Countries , or Places stated that `` the said undertaking to be laudable , honorable , and serviceable for the prosperity of the United Provinces and wishing that the experiment be free and open to all and every of the inhabitants of this country , have invited and do hereby invite all and every of the inhabitants of the United Netherlands to the aforesaid search . ''
Zihuatanejo
The Museo Arqueológico de la Costa Grande ( Archeological Museum of the Costa Grande ) is located at the southern end of the municipal beach and the Paseo de los Pescadores . It has six rooms that document the history , archeology and culture of this part of the Guerrero coast . Many of the artifacts are from as far away as the Olmec and Toltec civilizations , as both explored this area . Room one of the museum displays artifacts from settlements established on the coasts of Jalisco , Nayarit , Colima and Guerrero . Room two houses ceramics and carvings from the area of Cerro de la Madera , in Zihuatanejo , among others . Room three features the Tierras Prietas site , the cultivation of food plants and use of natural resources such as the bajareque technique of walls made of interwoven branches and clay . Room 4 covers aspects of village life and cultural exchange from 200 to 750 A.C. ; the introduction of ball games and new pottery techniques . Room five contains pieces from the Aztec period from 1487 to the 1520s , when the province of Cihuatlan was established , and tribute was paid to the Aztecs by the local population in shells , chocolate , basketry and textiles . Room six covers the colonial period and search for a maritime route to the west during the 16th and 17th centuries . During this time the ports of Zihuatanejo and Acapulco were important points of reference for Spanish and other navigators .
Colonial history of the United States
In the 17th century , high mortality rates for newcomers and a very high ratio of men to women made family life either impossible or unstable for most colonists . These factors made families and communities fundamentally different from their counterparts in Europe and New England in the Virginia - Maryland region before 1700 , along with dispersed settlements and a reluctance to live in villages , together with a growing immigration of white indentured servants and black slaves . These extreme conditions both demeaned and empowered women .
Atlantic Ocean
From Columbus to the Industrial Revolution Trans - Atlantic trade , including colonialism and slavery , became crucial for Western Europe . For European countries with a direct access to the Atlantic ( including Britain , France , the Netherlands , Portugal , and Spain ) 1500 -- 1800 was a period of sustained growth during which these countries grew richer than those in Eastern Europe and Asia . Colonialism evolved as part of the Trans - Atlantic trade , but this trade also strengthened the position of merchant groups at the expense of monarchs . Growth was more rapid in non-absolutist countries , such as Britain and the Netherlands , and more limited in absolutist monarchies , such as Portugal , Spain , and France , where profit mostly or exclusively benefited the monarchy and its allies .
Colonial history of the United States
Historians have paid special attention to the role of women , family , and gender in the colonial South since the social history revolution in the 1970s .
The impact of geography on colonial America
The New England colonies tried to help the Native Americans and also , known as the North - Eastern , included Massachusetts Colony , Rhode Island Colony , Connecticut Colony , and New Hampshire Colony . The region was first found by people from Britain in 1620 . British
European colonization of the Americas
In 1532 , Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor sent a vice-king to Mexico , Antonio de Mendoza , in order to prevent Cortes ' independentist drives , who definitively returned to Spain in 1540 . Two years later , Charles V signed the New Laws ( which replaced the Laws of Burgos of 1512 ) prohibiting slavery and the repartimientos , but also claiming as his own all the American lands and all of the indigenous people as his own subjects . Painting
Colonial history of the United States
Second , a very wide range of public and private business was decided by elected bodies in the colonies , especially the assemblies and county governments in each colony . They handled land grants , commercial subsidies , and taxation , as well as oversight of roads , poor relief , taverns , and schools . Americans sued each other at a very high rate , with binding decisions made not by a great lord but by local judges and juries . This promoted the rapid expansion of the legal profession , so that the intense involvement of lawyers in politics became an American characteristic by the 1770s .
Colonial history of the United States
The French and Spanish established colonies in Florida , Louisiana , and Texas . The Spanish colonized Florida in the 16th century , with their communities reaching a peak in the late 17th century . In the British and French colonies , most immigrants arrived after 1700 . They cleared land , built houses and outbuildings , and worked on the large plantations that dominated export agriculture . Many were involved in the labor - intensive cultivation of tobacco , the first cash crop of Virginia . With a decrease in the number of British willing to go to the colonies in the eighteenth century , planters began importing more enslaved Africans , who became the predominant labor force on the plantations . Tobacco exhausted the soil quickly , requiring new fields to be cleared on a regular basis . Old fields were used as pasture and for crops such as corn and wheat , or allowed to grow into woodlots .
History of women in the United States
Historians point out that reading and writing were different skills in the colonial era . School taught both , but in places without schools reading was mainly taught to boys and also a few privileged girls . Men handled worldly affairs and needed to read and write . Girls only needed to read ( especially religious materials ) . This educational disparity between reading and writing explains why the colonial women often could read , but could not write so they used an `` X '' to sign their names .
Colonial history of the United States
Third , the American colonies were exceptional in the world because of the representation of many different interest groups in political decision - making . The American political culture was open to economic , social , religious , ethnic , and geographical interests , with merchants , landlords , petty farmers , artisans , Anglicans , Presbyterians , Quakers , Germans , Scotch Irish , Yankees , Yorkers , and many other identifiable groups taking part . Elected representatives learned to listen to these interests because 90 % of the men in the lower houses lived in their districts , unlike England where it was common to have an absentee member of Parliament . All of this was very unlike Europe , where aristocratic families and the established church were in control .
Colonial history of the United States
Francois Furstenberg ( 2008 ) offers a different perspective on the historical period . He suggests that warfare was critical among the major imperial players : Britain , the American colonies , Spain , France , and the First Nations ( Indians ) . They fought a series of conflicts from 1754 to 1815 that Furstenberg calls a `` Long War for the West '' over control of the region .
French colonization of the Americas
The French first came to the New World as explorers , seeking a route to the Ocean and wealth . Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I , King of France . In 1524 , Francis sent Italian - born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean . Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland , thus promoting French interests .
History of United States prison systems
Colonial jails served a variety of public functions other than penal imprisonment . Civil imprisonment for debt was one of these , but colonial jails also served as warehouses for prisoners - of - war and political prisoners ( especially during the American Revolution ) . They were also an integral part of the transportation and slavery systems -- not only as warehouses for convicts and slaves being put up for auction , but also as a means of disciplining both kinds of servants . Depiction
European colonization of the Americas
Part of a series on European colonization of the Americas First wave of European colonization British Couronian Danish Dutch French German Hospitaller ( Maltese ) Norse Portuguese Russian Scottish Spanish Swedish Colonization of Canada Colonization of the United States Decolonization Colonialism portal
History of education in the United States
Historians note that reading and writing were different skills in the colonial era . Schools taught both , but in places without schools , writing was taught mainly to boys and a few privileged girls . Men handled worldly affairs and needed to both read and write . It was believed that girls needed only to read ( especially religious materials ) . This educational disparity between reading and writing explains why the colonial women often could read , but could not write and could not sign their names -- they used an `` X '' .