vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Colonial history of the United States
England made its first successful efforts at the start of the 17th century for several reasons . During this era , English proto - nationalism and national assertiveness blossomed under the threat of Spanish invasion , assisted by a degree of Protestant militarism and the energy of Queen Elizabeth . At this time , however , there was no official attempt by the English government to create a colonial empire . Rather , the motivation behind the founding of colonies was piecemeal and variable . Practical considerations played their parts , such as commercial enterprise , over-crowding , and the desire for freedom of religion . The main waves of settlement came in the 17th century . After 1700 , most immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants , young unmarried men and women seeking a new life in a much richer environment . The consensus view among economic historians and economists is that the indentured servitude occurred largely as `` an institutional response to a capital market imperfection , '' but that it `` enabled prospective migrants to borrow against their future earnings in order to pay the high cost of passage to America . '' Between the late 1610s and the American Revolution , the British shipped an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts to its American colonies .
Colonial history of the United States
Initially , matters concerning the colonies were dealt with primarily by the Privy Council and its committees . The Commission of Trade was set up in 1625 as the first special body convened to advise on colonial ( plantation ) questions . From 1696 until the end of the revolution , colonial affairs were the responsibility of the Board of Trade in partnership with the relevant secretaries of state , which changed from the Secretary of State for the Southern Department to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1768 .
French colonization of the Americas
In 1698 , Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville left La Rochelle and explored the area around the mouth of the Mississippi . He stopped between Isle - aux - Chats ( now Cat Island ) and Isle Surgeres ( renamed Isle - aux - Vascular or Ship Island ) on February 13 , 1699 and continued his explorations to the mainland , with his brother Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to Biloxi . He built a precarious fort , called ' Maurepas ' ( later ' Old Biloxi ' ) , before returning to France . He returned twice in the Gulf of Mexico and established a fort at Mobile in 1702 .
Roanoke Colony
In May 2011 , Brent Lane of the First Colony Foundation was studying the Virginia Pars Map , which was made by John White during his 1585 visit to Roanoke Island , and noticed two patches where the map had been corrected . The patches are made of paper contemporaneous with that of the map . Lane asked researchers at the British Museum in London , where the map has been kept since 1866 , what might be under the patches , sparking a research investigation . On May 3 , 2012 , at Wilson Library of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , members of the Foundation and representatives of the museum announced the discovery of `` a large , square - shaped symbol with oddly shaped corners . '' This symbol , presumed to represent a fort , is visible when the map is viewed on a light box . Some scholars speculate that the colonists relocated to that location , on what is now called Salmon Creek in the Bertie County community of Merry Hill . The Scotch Hall Preserve golf course community was planned on the site , but it has not been fully developed .
Colonial history of the United States
The Great Awakening emphasized the traditional Reformed virtues of Godly preaching , rudimentary liturgy , and a deep awareness of personal sin and redemption by Christ Jesus , spurred on by powerful preaching that deeply affected listeners . Pulling away from ritual and ceremony , the Great Awakening made religion personal to the average person .
World War I
Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult . Geologists such as Albert Ernest Kitson were called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies . Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese , used in munitions production , in the Gold Coast .
European exploration of Africa
But in the colony of Dutch Loango - Angola the Portuguese could expell the Netherlands .
Colonial history of the United States
By 1750 , a variety of artisans , shopkeepers , and merchants provided services to the growing farming population . Blacksmiths , wheelwrights , and furniture makers set up shops in rural villages . There they built and repaired goods needed by farm families . Stores were set up by traders selling English manufactures such as cloth , iron utensils , and window glass , as well as West Indian products such as sugar and molasses . The storekeepers of these shops sold their imported goods in exchange for crops and other local products , including roof shingles , potash , and barrel staves . These local goods were shipped to towns and cities all along the Atlantic Coast . Enterprising men set up stables and taverns along wagon roads to serve this transportation system .
Colony of Virginia
The London Company hired Captain Christopher Newport to lead its expedition . On December 20 , 1606 , he set sail from England with his flagship , the Susan Constant , and two smaller ships , the Godspeed , and the Discovery , with 105 men and boys , plus 39 sailors . After an unusually long voyage of 144 days , they arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay and came ashore at the point where the southern side of the bay meets the Atlantic Ocean , an event that has come to be called the `` First Landing '' . They erected a cross and named the point of land Cape Henry , in honor of Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , the eldest son of King James .
Colonial history of the United States
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Colonies in antiquity
It was an old custom in ancient Italy to send out colonies for the purpose of securing new conquests . The Romans , having no standing army , used to plant bodies of their own citizens in conquered towns as a kind of garrison . These bodies would consist partly of Roman citizens , usually to the number of three hundred ; partly of members of the Latin League , in larger numbers . The third part of the conquered territory was handed over to the settlers . The coloniae civium Romanorum ( colonies of Roman citizens ) were specially intended to secure the two seacoasts of Italy , and were hence called coloniae maritimae . The coloniae Latinae , of which there was a far greater number , served the same purpose for the mainland .
French colonization of the Americas
In 1562 , Charles IX , under the leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny sent Jean Ribault and a group of Huguenot settlers in an attempt to colonize the Atlantic coast and found a colony on a territory which will take the name of the French Florida . They discovered the probe and Port Royal Island , which will be called by Parris Island in South Carolina , on which he built a fort named Charlesfort . The group , led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière , moved to the south where they founded the Fort Caroline on the Saint John 's river in Florida on June 22 , 1564 .
Indo-Roman trade relations
The Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in the 15th century ( 1453 ) , marking the beginning of Turkish control over the most direct trade routes between Europe and Asia . The Ottomans initially cut off eastern trade with Europe , leading in turn to the attempt by Europeans to find a sea route around Africa , spurring the European Age of Discovery , and the eventual rise of European Mercantilism and Colonialism .
Colonial history of the United States
The top five percent or so of the white population of Virginia and Maryland in the mid-18th century were planters who possessed growing wealth and increasing political power and social prestige . They controlled the local Anglican church , choosing ministers and handling church property and disbursing local charity . They sought election to the house of purchases or appointment as justice of the peace .
Spanish colonization of the Americas
The Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile , Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand , King of Aragon , pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy . Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs , they remained separate kingdoms . The Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West . The funding came from the queen of Castile , so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile . In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories , authority for expeditions of discovery , conquest , and settlement resided in the monarchy .
Dutch colonization of the Americas
Part of a series on European colonization of the Americas First wave of European colonization British Couronian Danish Dutch French German Hospitaller ( Maltese ) Norse Portuguese Russian Scottish Spanish Swedish Colonization of Canada Colonization of the United States Decolonization Colonialism portal
Relationship between religion and science
Other lines of research on perceptions of science among the American public conclude that most religious groups see no general epistemological conflict with science and they have no differences with nonreligious groups in the propensity of seeking out scientific knowledge , although there may be subtle epistemic or moral conflicts when scientists make counterclaims to religious tenets . Findings from the Pew Center note similar findings and also note that the majority of Americans ( 80 -- 90 % ) show strong support for scientific research , agree that science makes society and individual 's lives better , and 8 in 10 Americans would be happy if their children were to become scientists . Even strict creationists tend to have very favorable views on science .
Colonial history of the United States
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Colonial history of the United States
Other countries did attempt to found colonies in America over the following century , and most of these attempts ended in failure . The colonists faced high rates of death due to many reasons , including disease , starvation , inefficient resupply , conflict with American Indians , and attacks by rival European powers .
Colonial history of the United States
The government also fought smuggling , and this became a direct source of controversy with American merchants when their business activities became classified as smuggling according to the Navigation Acts -- including activities that had been considered business as normal previously , such as direct trade with the French , Spanish , Dutch , and Portuguese . The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses , so that gold and silver would pour into London . The government took its share through duties and taxes , with the remainder going to merchants in Britain . The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy which protected the British colonies and also threatened the colonies of the other empires , sometimes even seizing them . Thus , the British Navy captured New Amsterdam ( New York ) in 1664 . The colonies were captive markets for British industry , and the goal was to enrich the mother country .
Colonial history of the United States
The Middle Colonies consisted of the present - day states of New York , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , and Delaware and were characterized by a large degree of diversity -- religious , political , economic , and ethnic .
The impact of geography on colonial America
These colonies provided fish , whale products , and lumber . They imported agricultural products from other regions .
European colonization of the Americas
Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World , as settlers in the colonies of Portugal and Spain ( and later , France ) belonged to that faith . English and Dutch colonies , on the other hand , tended to be more religiously diverse . Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans , Dutch Calvinists , English Puritans and other nonconformists , English Catholics , Scottish Presbyterians , French Huguenots , German and Swedish Lutherans , as well as Quakers , Mennonites , Amish , Moravians and Jews of various nationalities .
Cnidaria
Polymorphism refers to the occurrence of structurally and functionally more than two different types of individuals within the same organism . It is a characteristic feature of Cnidarians , particularly the polyp and medusa forms , or of zooids within colonial organisms like those in Hydrozoa . In Hydrozoans , colonial individuals arising from individuals zooids will take on separate tasks . For example , in Obelia there are feeding individuals , the gastrozooids ; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only , the gonozooids , blastostyles and free - living or sexually reproducing individuals , the medusae .
Colonial history of the United States
England , France , and the Netherlands had also started colonies in both the West Indies and North America . They had the ability to build ocean - worthy ships but did not have as strong a history of colonization in foreign lands as did Portugal and Spain . However , English entrepreneurs gave their colonies a foundation of merchant - based investment that seemed to need much less government support .
Colonial history of the United States
The British and colonists triumphed jointly over a common foe . The colonists ' loyalty to the mother country was stronger than ever before . However , disunity was beginning to form . British Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder had decided to wage the war in the colonies with the use of troops from the colonies and tax funds from Britain itself . This was a successful wartime strategy but , after the war was over , each side believed that it had borne a greater burden than the other . The British elite , the most heavily taxed of any in Europe , pointed out angrily that the colonists paid little to the royal coffers . The colonists replied that their sons had fought and died in a war that served European interests more than their own . This dispute was a link in the chain of events that soon brought about the American Revolution .
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Part of a series on European colonization of the Americas First wave of European colonization British Couronian Danish Dutch French German Hospitaller ( Maltese ) Norse Portuguese Russian Scottish Spanish Swedish Colonization of Canada Colonization of the United States Decolonization Colonialism portal Flag
French colonization of the Americas
France Équinoxiale started in 1612 , when a French expedition departed from Cancale , Brittany , France , under the command of Daniel de la Touche , Seigneur de la Ravardière , and François de Razilly , admiral . Carrying 500 colonists , it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão . De la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization . The colonists soon founded a village , which was named `` Saint - Louis '' , in honor of the French king Louis IX . This later became São Luís in Portuguese , ( 1 ) the only Brazilian state capital founded by France . On 8 September , Capuchin friars prayed the first mass , and the soldiers started building a fortress . An important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants ( see French Wars of Religion ) . The colony did not last long . A Portuguese army assembled in the Captaincy of Pernambuco , under the command of Alexandre de Moura , was able to mount a military expedition , which defeated and expelled the French colonists in 1615 , less than four years after their arrival in the land . Thus , it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique , in 1567 . A few years later , in 1620 , Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop , with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery .
Colonial history of the United States
The prospect of religious persecution by authorities of the crown and the Church of England prompted a significant number of colonization efforts . People fleeing persecution by King Charles I were responsible for settling most of New England , and the Province of Maryland was founded in part to be a haven for Roman Catholics .
Dutch colonization of the Americas
The Dutch colonization of the Americas began with the establishment of Dutch trading posts and plantations in the Americas , which preceded the much wider known colonisation activities of the Dutch in Asia . While the first Dutch fort in Asia was built in 1600 ( in present - day Indonesia ) , the first forts and settlements on the Essequibo River in Guyana date from the 1590s . Actual colonization , with the Dutch settling in the new lands , was not as common as with other European nations . Many of the Dutch settlements were lost or abandoned by the end of the 17th century , but the Netherlands managed to retain possession of Suriname until it gained independence in 1975 , as well as the Netherlands Antilles , which remain within the Kingdom of the Netherlands today .
Roanoke Colony
White re-established relations with the Croatan and other local tribes , but those with whom Lane had fought previously refused to meet with him . Shortly thereafter , colonist George Howe was killed by a native while searching alone for crabs in Albemarle Sound .
Relationship between religion and science
Richard Dawkins is hostile to fundamentalist religion because it actively debauches the scientific enterprise . According to Dawkins , religion `` subverts science and saps the intellect '' . He believes that when science teachers attempt to expound on evolution , there is hostility aimed towards them by parents who are skeptical because they believe it conflicts with their religious beliefs , that even some textbooks have had the word ' evolution ' systematically removed . According to Sean M. Carroll , since religion makes claims that are not compatible with science , such as supernatural events , and therefore both are incompatible .
History of the Latin script
During colonialism , the alphabet began its spread around the world , being employed for previously unwritten languages , notably in the wake of Christianization , being used in Bible translations . It spread to the Americas , Australia , and parts of Asia , Africa , and the Pacific , along with the Spanish , Portuguese , English , French , and Dutch languages .
You Laughed and Laughed and Laughed
Gabriel Okara 's poem consists of 10 stanzas and describes the interplay of different interpretations of the same sounds , sights , and dances . The interaction that takes place within the poem is commonly thought to be between a white colonialist and an African native . The poem follows a trope in African literature of `` The White Man Laughed '' , which embodies the notion of dismay and cynical derision of the beliefs , practices , and norms of an African . However , Okara 's poem can be seen to transcend the acceptance of the derision of the White Man and present a wiser African intellectual . The poem concludes with the African teaching the White Man of his ignorance and helping him realize that the native beliefs of the African are not primitive nor removed from intellectual thought .
The impact of geography on colonial America
The middle colonies were the Delaware Colony , the New Jersey Colony , the New York Colony , and the Pennsylvania Colony . Their climate helped them become the ' breadbasket ' of British North America . Arable land was plentiful and the soil was fertile . The excellent natural harbors helped the middle colonies become traders among the colonies . Due in part to immigration from foreign ( Mainland Europe ) countries , the people were ethnically and religiously diverse .
Technological and industrial history of the United States
Colonial artisanship emerged slowly as the market for advanced craftsmanship was small . American artisans developed a more relaxed ( less regulated ) version of the Old World apprenticeship system for educating and employing the next generation . Despite the fact that mercantilist , export - heavy economy impaired the emergence of a robust self - sustaining economy , craftsman and merchants developed a growing interdependence on each other for their trades . In the mid-18th century , attempts by the British to subdue or control the colonies by means of taxation sowed increased discontent among these artisans , who increasingly joined the Patriot cause .
Colonial history of the United States
The Puritans created a deeply religious , socially tight - knit , and politically innovative culture that still influences the modern United States . They hoped that this new land would serve as a `` redeemer nation '' . They fled England and attempted to create a `` nation of saints '' or a `` City upon a Hill '' in America : an intensely religious , thoroughly righteous community designed to be an example for all of Europe .
The impact of geography on colonial America
Some wealthy people worked in the city although most colonists were farmers . Because of fertile soil and a good growing season , most farmers grew enough for their family and a surplus , which they could sell . They grew wheat , grains , and many other things . New York and Philadelphia were the Middle Colonies ' biggest cities . This was because they were the center of trade with all the harbors to import and export goods . Many people were artisans or merchants with many skills . Other people tried to become apprentices to learn their trade . Other people became laborers . They could find general work such as helping load or unload ships or being house servants . Boys could learn shoe or boat making . Girls could open a cloth shop . However , most parents believed children should learn to run the family farm instead of going to college .
French colonization of the Americas
`` Spanish civilization crushed the Indian ; English civilization scorned and neglected him ; French civilization embraced and cherished him '' --
Spanish colonization of the Americas
The overseas expansion under the Crown of Castile was initiated under the royal authority and first accomplished by the Spanish conquistadors . The Americas were incorporated into the Spanish Empire , with the exception of Brazil , Canada , and several other small countries in South America and The Caribbean . The crown created civil and religious structures to administer the region . The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions .