vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of the United States Merchant Marine
The effect of this trade policy upon American shipping was detrimental . After the passage of the U.S. Constitution in 1789 the congress was petitioned for relief . On June 5 , 1789 , a petition from the tradesmen and manufacturers of Boston was sent to the Congress which stated `` that the great decrease of American manufactures , and almost total stagnation of American ship - building , urge us to apply to the sovereign Legislature of these States for their assistance to promote these important branches , so essential to our national wealth and prosperity . It is with regret we observe the resources of this country exhausted for foreign luxuries , our wealth expended for various articles which could be manufactured among ourselves , and our navigation subject to the most severe restrictions in many foreign ports , whereby the extensive branch of American ship - building is essentially injured , and a numerous body of citizens , who were formerly employed in its various departments , deprived of their support and dependence ... '' `` The congress responded with passage of the Tariff of 1789 which established tonnage rates favorable to American carriers by charging them lower cargo fees than those imposed on foreign boats importing similar goods . Coastal trade was reserved exclusively for American flag vessels .
Foreign policy of the United States
After it captured the islands from Japan during World War II , the United States administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 to 1986 ( 1994 for Palau ) . The Northern Mariana Islands became a U.S. territory ( part of the United States ) , while Federated States of Micronesia , the Marshall Islands , and Palau became independent countries . Each has signed a Compact of Free Association that gives the United States exclusive military access in return for U.S. defense protection and conduct of military foreign affairs ( except the declaration of war ) and a few billion dollars of aid . These agreements also generally allow citizens of these countries to live and work in the United States with their spouses ( and vice versa ) , and provide for largely free trade . The federal government also grants access to services from domestic agencies , including the Federal Emergency Management Agency , National Weather Service , the United States Postal Service , the Federal Aviation Administration , the Federal Communications Commission , and U.S. representation to the International Frequency Registration Board of the International Telecommunication Union . Further
Military history of the United States during World War II
As a result of several key improvements in strategy and tactics , from 1943 , Allied submarines waged a more effective campaign against Japanese merchant shipping and the IJN , in effect strangling the Japanese Empire of resources . By the end of the war in August , 1945 , U.S. Navy submarines sank around 1300 Japanese merchant ships , as well as roughly 200 warships . Only 42 U.S. submarines were sunk in the Pacific , but 3,500 ( 22 % ) submariners were killed , the highest casualty rate of any American force in World War II . The force destroyed over half of all Japanese merchant ships , totaling well over five million tons of shipping . Atomic
Foreign trade of the United States
According to economists such as Larry Summers and Paul Krugman , the enormous inflow of capital from China is one of the causes of the global financial crisis of 2008 -- 2009 . China had been buying huge quantities of dollar assets to keep its currency value low and its export economy humming , which caused American interest rates and saving rates to remain artificially low . These low interest rates , in turn , contributed to the United States housing bubble because when mortgages are cheap , house prices are inflated as people can afford to borrow more .
North Korea–South Korea relations
On December 12 , 2012 , North Korea launched the Kwangmyŏngsŏng - 3 Unit 2 , a scientific and technological satellite , and it reached orbit . In response , the United States reployed its warships in the region . January -- September 2013 saw an escalation of tensions between North Korea and South Korea , the United States , and Japan that began because of United Nations Security Council Resolution 2087 , which condemned North Korea for the launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng - 3 Unit 2 . The crisis was marked by extreme escalation of rhetoric by the new North Korean administration under Kim Jong - un and actions suggesting imminent nuclear attacks against South Korea , Japan , and the United States .
Foreign trade of the United States
In 1896 , the GOP platform pledged to `` renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection , as the bulwark of American industrial independence , and the foundation of development and prosperity . This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry . It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods ; it secures the American market for the American producer . It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman . ''
Conquistador
Throughout the 15th century , Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa , establishing trading posts for tradable commodities such as firearms , spices , silver , gold , and slaves , in a worldwide route to Japan , crossing Africa , India , China and Korea . In 1434 the first consignment of slaves was brought to Lisbon ; slave trading was the most profitable branch of Portuguese commerce until the Indian subcontinent was reached .
Spanish–American War
The US had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict and deepening uncertainty about the future of Cuba . Shipping firms that had relied heavily on trade with Cuba now suffered losses as the conflict continued unresolved . These firms pressed Congress and McKinley to seek an end to the revolt . Other American business concerns , specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar , looked to the Spanish to restore order . Stability , not war , was the goal of both interests . How stability would be achieved would depend largely on the ability of Spain and the US to work out their issues diplomatically . An
Military history of the United States
The U.S. sponsored a major world conference to limit the naval armaments of world powers , including the U.S. , Britain , Japan , and France , plus smaller nations . Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes made the key proposal of each country to reduce its number of warships by a formula that was accepted . The conference enabled the great powers to reduce their navies and avoid conflict in the Pacific . The treaties remained in effect for ten years , but were not renewed as tensions escalated .
Ryukyu Islands
The southern islands had strategic importance for Japan because they were on one of the three major routes used by Japanese missions to Tang China ( 630 -- 840 ) . The 702 mission seems to have been the first to successfully switch from the earlier route via Korea to the southern island route . The missions of 714 , 733 and 752 probably took the same route . In 754 the Chinese monk Jianzhen managed to reach Japan . His biography Tō Daiwajō Tōseiden ( 779 ) makes reference to Akonaha ( 阿児 奈波 ) on the route , which may refer to modern - day Okinawa Island . An article of 754 states that the government repaired mileposts that had originally been set in the southern islands in 735 . However , the missions from 777 onward chose another route that directly connected Kyūshū to China . Thereafter the central government lost its interest in the southern islands .
Pearl Harbor
Following the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom , the United States Navy established a base on the island in 1899 . On December 7 , 1941 , the base was attacked by the Imperial Japanese Navy airplanes and midget submarines , causing the American entry into World War II . One of the main reasons that Pearl Harbor happened was because the United States had major communication breakdowns among several branches of the U.S. armed services and departments of the U.S. government . This led to the surprise Japanese attack at the Hawaiian air base . There was no meaningful plan for the air defense of Hawaii , for American commanders had no understanding of the capabilities and proper employment of air power . As it was , had the Pacific Fleet acted on the war warnings it undoubtedly would have sortied and been at sea on December 7 , where the major ships would have been sunk in deep water , making salvage impossible . Shortly after the devastating Japanese surprise attack at Pearl Harbor two American military commanders , Lt. Gen. Walter Short and Adm. Husband Kimmel were demoted of their full ranks . The two American commanders later sought to restore their reputations and full ranks . Post-world
Military history of the United States during World War II
In May 1942 , the United States fleet engaged the Japanese fleet during the first battle in history in which neither fleet fired directly on the other , nor did the ships of both fleets actually see each other . It was also the first time that aircraft carriers were used in battle . While indecisive , it was nevertheless a starting point because American commanders learned the tactics that would serve them later in the war .
Fur trade
Because of the wealth at stake , different European - American governments competed with various native societies for control of the fur trade . Native Americans sometimes based decisions of which side to support in times of war in relation to which people had provided them with the best trade goods in an honest manner . Because trade was so politically important , the Europeans tried to regulate it in hopes ( often futile ) of preventing abuse . Unscrupulous traders sometimes cheated natives by plying them with alcohol during the transaction , which subsequently aroused resentment and often resulted in violence .
United States home front during World War II
In February 1943 , when activating the 442nd Regimental Combat Team -- a unit composed mostly of American - born American citizens of Japanese descent living in Hawaii -- Roosevelt said , `` No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship , regardless of his ancestry . The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart ; Americanism is not , and never was , a matter of race or ancestry . '' In 1944 , the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the legality of the executive order in the Korematsu v. United States case . The executive order remained in force until December when Roosevelt released the Japanese internees , except for those who announced their intention to return to Japan .
Foreign trade of the United States
According to Paul Bairoch , since the end of the 18th century , the United States has been `` the homeland and bastion of modern protectionism '' . In fact , the United States never adhered to free trade until 1945 . A very protectionist policy was adopted as soon as the presidency of George Washington by Alexander Hamilton , the first US Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795 and author of the text Report on Manufactures which called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries , including bounties ( subsidies ) derived in part from those tariffs . This text was one of the references of the German economist Friedrich List ( 1789 -- 1846 ) . The United States has become the main opposition to free trade and this policy remained throughout the 19th century and the overall level of tariffs was very high ( close to 50 % in 1830 ) . The victory of the protectionist states of the North over the free trade southern states at the end of the Civil War ( 1861 -- 1865 ) perpetuated this trend , even during periods of free trade in Europe ( 1860 -- 1880 ) .
Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
On July 12 , 1909 , the resolution proposing the Sixteenth Amendment was passed by the Congress and was submitted to the state legislatures . Support for the income tax was strongest in the western and southern states , while opposition was strongest in the northeastern states . Supporters of the income tax believed that it would be a much better method of gathering revenue than tariffs , which were the primary source of revenue at the time . From well before 1894 , Democrats , Progressives , Populists and other left - oriented parties argued that tariffs disproportionately affected the poor , interfered with prices , were unpredictable , and were an intrinsically limited source of revenue . The South and the West tended to support income taxes because their residents were generally less prosperous , more agricultural and more sensitive to fluctuations in commodity prices . A sharp rise in the cost of living between 1897 and 1913 greatly increased support for the idea of income taxes , including in the urban Northeast . A growing number of Republicans also began supporting the idea , notably Theodore Roosevelt and the `` Insurgent '' Republicans ( who would go on to form the Progressive Party ) . These Republicans were driven mainly by a fear of the increasingly large and sophisticated military forces of Japan , Britain and the European powers , their own imperial ambitions and the perceived need to defend American merchant ships . Moreover , these progressive Republicans were , as the name suggests , convinced that central governments could play a positive role in national economies . A bigger government and a bigger military , of course , required a correspondingly larger and steadier source of revenue to support it .
Military history of the United States during World War II
On the afternoon of 7 December 1941 , six hours after the Japanese attack , U.S. naval commanders in the Pacific were ordered by the U.S. Navy Chief of Staff to `` execute unrestricted air and submarine warfare against Japan '' . This order authorized all U.S. submarines in the Pacific to attack and sink any warship , commercial vessel , or civilian passenger ship flying the Japanese flag , without warning . The Pacific Fleet and the Asiatic Fleet Submarine Force immediately went into action to counter the Japanese offensive across the Pacific , such as in the Philippines , Indochina , Dutch East Indies and Malaya . The U.S. Navy submarine force was small ; less than 2 % . On 7 December 1941 , the U.S. Navy had 55 fleet and 18 - medium - sized submarines ( S - boats ) in the Pacific , 38 submarines elsewhere , and 73 under construction . By war 's end , the U.S. would complete 228 submarines .
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
Data on the dispersal of radioactive materials were provided to the U.S. forces by the Japanese Ministry for Science a few days after March 11 ; however , the data was not shared publicly until the Americans published their map on March 23 , at which point Japan published fallout maps compiled from ground measurements and SPEEDI the same day . According to Watanabe 's testimony before the Diet , the US military was given access to the data `` to seek support from them '' on how to deal with the nuclear disaster . Although SPEEDI 's effectiveness was limited by not knowing the amounts released in the disaster , and thus was considered `` unreliable '' , it was still able to forecast dispersal routes and could have been used to help local governments designate more appropriate evacuation routes .
Japan–Netherlands relations
After the forcible opening of Japan by Commodore Perry in 1854 it was decided to modernise the Japanese fleet . To do this orders were placed for modern steam powered warships . The first of which was the ZM SS Soembing , a gift from King William III of the Netherlands , which was renamed the Kankō Maru . To train Japanese sailors in the use of these new and powerful ships the Nagasaki Naval Training Center was established literally right at the entrance of Dejima , to maximize interaction with Dutch naval know - how . Among the students at the Nagasaki Naval Training Center was Enomoto Takeaki , one of the founders of the Imperial Japanese Navy .
Perry Expedition
Although having told the Japanese that he would return the following year , Perry soon learned that Russian admiral Vice-Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin had called in at Nagasaki shortly after he departed from Edo Bay , and had spent a month attempting to force the Chinese to sign a treaty before his return . He also was told by both the British and French that they intended to accompany him to Japan in the spring to ensure that the Americans did not obtain any exclusive privileges . Perry thus returned on 13 February 1854 with a total of ten vessels and 1600 men . The fleet now also included : Lexington , Macedonian , Powhatan , Vandalia , Southampton and Supply .
Economy of New Zealand
New Zealand 's small size and long distances from major world markets creates significant challenges in its ability to compete in global markets . Australia , New Zealand 's closest neighbour , is New Zealand 's biggest trading partner . In 2013 New Zealand 's main trading partners were Australia , China , the United States , Japan , Singapore and the United Kingdom . In March 2014 , the total value of goods exported from New Zealand topped $50 billion for the first time , up from $30 billion in 2001 . New Zealand Trade and Enterprise ( NZTE ) offers strategic advice and support to New Zealand businesses wanting to export goods and services to other countries .
Foreign trade of the United States
The Embargo Act of 1807 was designed to force Britain to rescind its restrictions on American trade , but failed , and was repealed in early 1809 .
Ryukyu Islands
In 601 , the Chinese sent an expedition to the `` Country of Liuqiu '' ( 流 求 國 ) . They noted that the people were small but pugnacious . The Chinese could n't understand the local language and returned to China . In 607 , they sent another expedition to trade , and brought back one of the islanders . A Japanese embassy was in Loyang when the expedition returned , and one of the Japanese exclaimed that the islander wore the dress and spoke the language of Yaku Island . In 610 , a final expedition was sent with an army that demanded submission to the Chinese Emperor . The islanders fought the Chinese , but their `` palaces '' were burned and `` thousands '' of people were taken captive , and the Chinese left the island .
Japanese cuisine
Two of the first Japanese restaurants in the United States were Saito and Nippon . Restaurants such as these popularized dishes such as sukiyaki and tempura , while Nippon was the first restaurant in Manhattan to have a dedicated sushi bar . Nippon was also one of the first Japanese restaurants in the U.S. to grow and process their own soba and responsible for creation of the now standard beef negimayak i dish .
South Africa
Principal international trading partners of South Africa -- besides other African countries -- include Germany , the United States , China , Japan , the United Kingdom and Spain .
New Zealand
Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy . The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan . On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming , `` Where she goes , we go ; where she stands , we stand . ''
United States embargo against Cuba
In response to pressure from some American farmers and agribusiness , the embargo was relaxed by the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act , which was passed by the Congress in October 2000 and signed by President Bill Clinton . The relaxation allowed the sale of agricultural goods and medicine to Cuba for humanitarian reasons . Although Cuba initially declined to engage in such trade ( having even refused U.S. food aid in the past , seeing it as a half - measure serving U.S. interests ) , the Cuban government began to allow the purchase of food from the U.S. as a result of Hurricane Michelle in November 2001 . These purchases have grown since then , even though all sales are made in cash . In 2007 , the U.S. was the largest food supplier of Cuba , which nevertheless is largely self - sufficient , and its fifth largest trading partner .
Military history of the United States during World War II
Guadalcanal made it clear to the Americans that the Japanese would fight to the bitter end . After brutal fighting in which few prisoners were taken on either side , the United States and the Allies pressed on the offensive . The landings at Tarawa on 20 November 1943 , by the Americans became bogged down as armor attempting to break through the Japanese lines of defense either sank , were disabled or took on too much water to be of use . The Americans were eventually able to land a limited number of tanks and drive inland . After days of fighting they took control of Tarawa on 23 November . Of the original 2,600 Japanese soldiers on the island , only 17 were still alive . Operations
Military history of the United States during World War II
As victory for the United States slowly approached , casualties mounted . A fear in the American high command was that an invasion of mainland Japan would lead to enormous losses on the part of the Allies , as casualty estimates for the planned Operation Downfall demonstrate . President Harry Truman gave the order to drop the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 , hoping that the destruction of the city would break Japanese resolve and end the war . A second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on 9 August after it appeared that the Japanese high command was not planning to surrender . Approximately 140,000 people died in Hiroshima from the bomb and its aftereffects by the end of 1945 , and approximately 74,000 in Nagasaki .
Military history of the United States during World War II
Okinawa became the last major battle of the Pacific Theater and the Second World War . The island was to become a staging area for the eventual invasion of Japan since it was just 350 miles ( 550 km ) south of the Japanese mainland . Marines and soldiers landed unopposed on 1 April 1945 , to begin an 82 - day campaign which became the largest land - sea - air battle in history and was noted for the ferocity of the fighting and the high civilian casualties with over 150,000 Okinawans losing their lives . Japanese kamikaze pilots caused the largest loss of ships in U.S. naval history with the sinking of 38 and the damaging of another 368 . Total U.S. casualties were over 12,500 dead and 38,000 wounded , while the Japanese lost over 110,000 men . The fierce combat and high American losses led the Navy to oppose an invasion of the main islands . An alternative strategy was chosen : using the atomic bomb to induce surrender . Strategic
World War II
In the Pacific theatre , American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945 . They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins . Fighting continued on Luzon , Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . Meanwhile , the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) were destroying strategic and populated cities and towns in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale . On the night of 9 -- 10 March , USAAF B - 29 bombers struck Tokyo with thousands of incendiary bombs , which killed 100,000 civilians and destroyed 16 square miles ( 41 km ) within a few hours . Over the next five months , the USAAF firebombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians and destroying 65 % of built - up areas .