vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Income inequality in the United States
The U.S. was ranked the 41st worst among 141 countries ( 30th percentile ) on income equality measured by the Gini index . The UN , CIA World Factbook , and OECD have used the Gini index to compare inequality between countries , and as of 2006 , the United States had one of the highest levels of income inequality among similar developed or high income countries , as measured by the index . While inequality has increased since 1981 in two - thirds of OECD countries most developed countries are in the lower , more equal , end of the spectrum , with a Gini coefficient in the high twenties to mid thirties .
Sewing
Sewing has an ancient history estimated to begin during the Paleolithic Age . Sewing was used to stitch together animal hides for clothing and for shelter . The Inuit , for example , used sinew from caribou for thread and needles made of bone ; the indigenous peoples of the American Plains and Canadian Prairies used sophisticated sewing methods to assemble tipi shelters . Sewing was combined with the weaving of plant leaves in Africa to create baskets , such as those made by Zulu weavers , who used thin strips of palm leaf as `` thread '' to stitch wider strips of palm leaf that had been woven into a coil . The weaving of cloth from natural fibres originated in the Middle East around 4000 BC , and perhaps earlier during the Neolithic Age , and the sewing of cloth accompanied this development .
Sea of Galilee
The Babylonian Talmud , as well as Flavius Josephus mention the sea by the name `` Sea of Ginosar '' after the small fertile plain of Ginosar that lies on its western side . Ginosar is yet another name derived from `` Kinneret '' .
Pub
The first beer pump known in England is believed to have been invented by John Lofting ( b . Netherlands 1659 - d . Great Marlow Buckinghamshire 1742 ) an inventor , manufacturer and merchant of London .
National Association of Manufacturers
In an address at its 1911 convention , NAM president John Kirby , Jr. proclaimed , `` The American Federation of Labor is engaged in an open warfare against Jesus Christ and his cause . ''
History of mobile phones
In 1959 a private telephone company in Brewster , Kansas , USA , the S&T Telephone Company , ( still in business today ) with the use of Motorola Radio Telephone equipment and a private tower facility , offered to the public mobile telephone services in that local area of NW Kansas . This system was a direct dial up service through their local switchboard , and was installed in many private vehicles including grain combines , trucks , and automobiles . For some as yet unknown reason , the system , after being placed online and operated for a very brief time period , was shut down . The management of the company was immediately changed , and the fully operable system and related equipment was immediately dismantled in early 1960 , not to be seen again .
Paterson, New Jersey
The first steam - powered and first electric - powered model trains were both invented in Paterson . Eugene Beggs made the first steam - powered train in the city around 1871 . Beggs ' employee , Jehu Garlick , invented the first electric - powered model train that consisted of a tinplate toy locomotive with four aluminum wheels . `` Toy World '' which highlights the history of New Jersey 's toy making industry at the New Jersey State Museum prominently featured Paterson 's contribution to the history of toys .
Tooth decay
During the European Age of Enlightenment , the belief that a `` tooth worm '' caused caries was also no longer accepted in the European medical community . Pierre Fauchard , known as the father of modern dentistry , was one of the first to reject the idea that worms caused tooth decay and noted that sugar was detrimental to the teeth and gingiva . In 1850 , another sharp increase in the prevalence of caries occurred and is believed to be a result of widespread diet changes . Prior to this time , cervical caries was the most frequent type of caries , but increased availability of sugar cane , refined flour , bread , and sweetened tea corresponded with a greater number of pit and fissure caries .
History of rail transport in the United States
Steel rails began to replace iron later in the 19th century . Several railroads imported steel rails from England in the 1860s , and the first commercially available steel rails in the U.S. were manufactured in 1867 at the Cambria Iron Works in Johnstown , Pennsylvania . By the mid-1880s U.S. railroads were using more steel rails than iron in building new or replacement tracks .
History of the telescope
Actual use of lenses dates back to the widespread manufacture and use of eyeglasses in Northern Italy beginning in the late 13th century . The invention of the use of concave lenses to correct near - sightedness is ascribed to Nicholas of Cusa in 1451 .
Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)
There is no record of the term Pilgrims being used to describe Plymouth 's founders for 150 years after Bradford wrote this passage , except when quoting him . The Mayflower 's story was retold by historians Nathaniel Morton ( in 1669 ) and Cotton Mather ( in 1702 ) , and both paraphrased Bradford 's passage and used his word pilgrims . At Plymouth 's Forefathers ' Day observance in 1793 , Rev. Chandler Robbins recited this passage .
Pencil
Munroe 's method of making pencils was painstakingly slow , and in the neighbouring town of Acton , a pencil mill owner named Ebenezer Wood set out to automate the process at his own pencil mill located at Nashoba Brook . He used the first circular saw in pencil production . He constructed the first of the hexagon - and octagon - shaped wooden casings . Ebenezer did not patent his invention and shared his techniques with anyone . One of those was Eberhard Faber of New York , who became the leader in pencil production .
Copy editing
The symbols used by copyeditors today are based on those that have been used by proofreaders since the beginnings of publishing , though they have undergone some changes over time . However , the exact beginnings of the copyediting language used today are unclear . Despite its long history , copyediting as a practice has not experienced any extreme upheaval other than the desktop publishing revolution of the 1980s . This phenomenon began as the result of a series of inventions that were released during the middle of this decade , and refers to the growth of technology usage in the field of copyediting . Namely , the development of the Macintosh computer , the desktop laser printer by Hewlett - Packard , and a software for desktop publishing called PageMaker created by Aldus ( a company now under the control of Adobe ) allowed the revolution to begin . By allowing both individuals and publishing agencies alike to cheaply and effectively begin to edit compositions entirely on - screen rather than by hand , desktop publishing revolution morphed copyediting into the practice it is today . Most copyeditors today rely on more modern WYSIWYG ( ' what you see is what you get ' ) text processors such as Microsoft Word that are based on the original PageMaker to do their work .
New Jersey
New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as : FM radio , the motion picture camera , the lithium battery , the light bulb , transistors , and the electric train . Other New Jersey creations include : the drive - in movie , the cultivated blueberry , cranberry sauce , the postcard , the boardwalk , the zipper , the phonograph , saltwater taffy , the dirigible , the seedless watermelon , the first use of a submarine in warfare , and the ice cream cone . A
Who Framed Roger Rabbit
During the writing process , Price and Seaman were unsure of whom to include as the villain in the plot . They wrote scripts that had either Jessica Rabbit or Baby Herman as the villain , but they made their final decision with newly created character Judge Doom . Doom was supposed to have an animated vulture sit on his shoulder , but this was deleted due to the technical challenges this posed . Doom would also have a suitcase of 12 small animated kangaroos that act as a jury , by having their joeys pop out of their pouches , each with letters , when put together would spell YOU ARE GUILTY . This was also cut for budget and technical reasons . Doom 's five - man weasel gang ( Stupid , Smart Ass , Greasy , Wheezy , and Psycho ) satirizes the Seven Dwarfs ( Doc , Grumpy , Happy , Sleepy , Bashful , Sneezy , and Dopey ) , who appeared in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) . Originally , seven weasels were to mimic the dwarf 's complement , but eventually , two of them , Slimey and Slezey , were written out of the script . Further references included The `` Ink and Paint Club '' resembling the Harlem Cotton Club , while Zemeckis compared Judge Doom 's invention of `` the dip '' to eliminate all the toons as Hitler 's Final Solution . Doom was originally the hunter who killed Bambi 's mother . Benny the Cab was first conceived to be a Volkswagen Beetle before being changed to a taxicab . Ideas originally conceived for the story also included a sequence set at Marvin Acme 's funeral , whose attendees included Eddie , Foghorn Leghorn , Mickey Mouse , Minnie Mouse , Tom and Jerry , Heckle and Jeckle , Chip n ' Dale , Mighty Mouse , Superman , Popeye , Olive Oyl , Bluto , Clarabelle Cow , and the Seven Dwarfs in cameo appearances . However , the scene was cut for pacing reasons and never made it past the storyboard stage . Before finally agreeing on Who Framed Roger Rabbit as the film 's title , working titles included Murder in Toontown , Toons , Dead Toons Do n't Pay Bills , The Toontown Trial , Trouble in Toontown , and Eddie Goes to Toontown .
Bernina International
The present - day Bernina International AG was founded by Karl Friedrich Gegauf in 1893 , when he decided to pursue an apprenticeship as a mechanic instead of studying medicine . After completing his apprenticeship , he worked in the Baum embroidery machine factory in Rorschach . In 1890 , Karl Friedrich Gegauf set up his own business in Steckborn , Switzerland , opening an embroidery and mechanical workshop for the manufacture of his own invention , a monogram embroidery machine . Together with his brother Georg , a salesman , Karl Friedrich ran the Gebrüder Gegauf ( Bros. Gegauf ) company . Through his involvement in the textile industry , he noticed how laborious it was to produce hemstitching , which until then could only be done manually . Consequently , in 1893 , Karl Friedrich Gegauf invented the world 's first hemstitch sewing machine , capable of sewing 100 stitches per minute . In 1895 , the Bros. Gegauf workshop was completely destroyed by fire , except for the prototype of the hemstitch sewing machine , which was the only thing that could be rescued . Karl Friedrich built a new workshop in an old barn , where the focus was no longer on embroidery , but on the construction of the hemstitch sewing machine . About 70 people were employed in the serial production of the hemstitch sewing machine . The mechanical production of hemstitching , whether as embellishment for handkerchiefs , tablecloths , or bedspreads , was commonly referred to as `` gegaufing '' , because the name Gegauf became famous in the industry .
American ginseng
American ginseng in human figure Under wooden shade , American ginseng in late fall at Monk Garden in Wisconsin A picture of the American Ginseng plant with fruit . American ginseng berries are ripe by late fall in Wisconsin . A drawn image of the fruit and leaf of the American Ginseng plant A drawn image of the American ginseng plants leaves American wild ginseng root ( Panax quinquefolius ) . This is a very old specimen , showing over 60 growth scars . American wild ginseng root ( Panax quinquefolius ) . Very old roots , ranging from 40 -- 60 growth scars . American wild ginseng root ( Panax quinquefolius ) . This is a very old specimen , showing over 60 growth scars . American wild ginseng root ( Panax quinquefolius ) . Very old roots , ranging from 40 -- 65 growth scars .
European colonization of the Americas
Later , the Valladolid debate between the Dominican priest Bartolomé de Las Casas and another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda was held , with the former arguing that Native Americans were beings doted with souls , as all other human beings , while the latter argued to the contrary and justified their enslavement .
History of McDonald's
1973 : The Egg McMuffin , invented by Herb Peterson , owner and operator of a Santa Barbara franchise , is introduced to the menu . 1974 : On November 13 , the first McDonald 's in the United Kingdom opens in Woolwich , southeast London . It is the company 's 3000th restaurant . 1974 : The first Ronald McDonald House opens in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . 1975 : The first Hong Kong McDonald 's opens in January in Paterson Street , in Causeway Bay , Hong Kong Island . It is also the first McDonald 's restaurant in Greater China and the Four Asian Tigers . 1975 : Drive - Thru is introduced in January in Sierra Vista , Arizona in order to serve meals to soldiers from nearby Fort Huachuca who were not allowed to wear BDUs while off post except while in a vehicle . The Drive - Thru is later known as `` McDrive '' in some countries . 1976 : The first McDonald 's in Switzerland , on Rue du Mont - Blanc in Geneva . 1976 : McDonald 's pays its first cash dividend 1978 : The 5000th McDonald 's restaurant opens in Kanagawa , Japan . 1978 : Hamburger University celebrates the graduation of its 15,000 th student . 1979 : The Happy Meal is introduced in the U.S. 1979 : The first McDonald 's in Southeast Asia opens , in Singapore .
Horses in warfare
Chariots existed in the Minoan civilization , as they were inventoried on storage lists from Knossos in Crete , dating to around 1450 BC . Chariots were also used in China as far back as the Shang Dynasty ( c. 1600 -- 1050 BC ) , where they appear in burials . The high point of chariot use in China was in the Spring and Autumn period ( 770 -- 476 BC ) , although they continued in use up until the 2nd century BC .
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers
Serkis ' motion capture was generally used to animate Gollum 's body , except for some difficult shots such as him crawling upside down . Gollum 's face was animated manually , often using recordings of Serkis as a guide . Gino Acevedo supervised realistic skin tones , which took four hours per frame to render .
Abner Doubleday
The Mills Commission , chaired by Abraham G. Mills , the fourth president of the National League , was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball . The committee 's final report , on December 30 , 1907 , stated , in part , that `` the first scheme for playing baseball , according to the best evidence obtainable to date , was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown , New York , in 1839 . '' It concluded by saying , `` in the years to come , in the view of the hundreds of thousands of people who are devoted to baseball , and the millions who will be , Abner Doubleday 's fame will rest evenly , if not quite as much , upon the fact that he was its inventor ... as upon his brilliant and distinguished career as an officer in the Federal Army . ''
Mycenaean Greece
Stirrup jars ( Linear B : ka - ra - re-u , khlareus ; `` oil vessel '' ) , specifically , were first invented on the island of Crete during the 16th century BC and used widely by the Mycenaeans from 1400 BC onward for transporting and storing wine and oil ; the jars were usually pear - shaped or globular . As for stemmed cups ( or kylikes ) , they evolved from Ephyraean goblets and a large quantity was discovered at a site called the `` Potter 's Shop '' located in Zygouries . Mycenaean drinking vessels such as the stemmed cups contained single decorative motifs such as a shell , an octopus or a flower painted on the side facing away from the drinker . The Mycenaean Greeks also painted entire scenes ( called `` Pictorial Style '' ) on their vessels depicting warriors , chariots , horses and deities reminiscent of events described in Homer 's Iliad . Other items developed by the Mycenaeans include clay lamps , as well as metallic vessels such as bronze tripod cauldrons ( or basins ) . A few examples of vessels in faience and ivory are also known .
North America
Notable plants that were domesticated in North America include tobacco , maize , squash , tomato , sunflower , blueberry , avocado , cotton , chile pepper and vanilla .
History of Texas
The new state grew rapidly as migrants poured into the fertile cotton lands of east Texas . German immigrants started to arrive in the early 1840s because of negative economic , social and political pressures in Germany . In 1842 , German nobles organized the Adelsverein , banding together to buy land in central Texas to enable German settlement . The Revolutions of 1848 acted as a catalyst for so many immigrants that they became known as the `` Forty - Eighters . '' Many were educated artisans and businessmen . Germans continued to arrive in considerable numbers until 1890 .
History of rail transport in the United States
A railroad was reportedly used in the construction of the French fortress at Louisburg , Nova Scotia in 1720 . Between 1762 and 1764 , at the close of the French and Indian War , a gravity railroad ( mechanized tramway ) ( Montresor 's Tramway ) is built by British military engineers up the steep riverside terrain near the Niagara River waterfall 's escarpment at the Niagara Portage ( which the local Senecas called `` Crawl on All Fours . '' ) in Lewiston , New York .
History of the Isle of Wight
The famous boat - building firm of J. Samuel White was established on the Island in 1802 . Other noteworthy marine manufacturers followed over the 19th and 20th centuries including Saunders - Roe a key manufacturer of the Flying - boats and the world 's first hovercraft . The tradition of maritime industry continues on the Island today .
Telephone number
Telephone numbers were first used in 1879 in Lowell , Massachusetts , when they replaced the request for subscriber names by callers connecting to the switchboard operator . Over the course of telephone history , telephone numbers had various lengths and formats , and even included most letters of the alphabet in leading positions when telephone exchange names were in common use until the 1960s .
San Jose, California
IBM established its West Coast headquarters in San Jose in 1943 and opened a downtown research and development facility in 1952 . Both would prove to be harbingers for the economy of San Jose , as Reynold Johnson and his team would later invent RAMAC , as well as the hard disk drive , and the technological side of San Jose 's economy grew .
History of the harpsichord
A major innovation in harpsichord construction took place in Flanders some time around 1580 with the work of Hans Ruckers and his descendants , including Ioannes Couchet . The Ruckers harpsichord was more solidly constructed than the Italian . Because the Ruckers workshop used iron strings for the treble , as a result the scaling ( the length of the vibrating part of the string for a given pitch ) was longer , ( always with the basic two sets of strings ; one 8 - foot and a 4 - foot ) , with greater string tension , and a heavier case , as well as a very slender and responsive spruce soundboard , the tone was more sustaining than the Italian harpsichords ' , and was widely emulated by harpsichord builders in most other nations .
History of the United States (1945–64)
Wartime rationing was officially lifted in September 1945 , but prosperity did not immediately return as the next three years would witness the difficult transition back to a peacetime economy . 12 million returning veterans were in need of work and in many cases could not find it . Inflation became a rather serious problem , averaging over 10 % a year until 1950 and raw materials shortages dogged manufacturing industry . In addition , labor strikes rocked the nation , in some cases exacerbated by racial tensions due to African - Americans having taken jobs during the war and now being faced with irate returning veterans who demanded that they step aside . Munitions factories shut down and temporary workers returned home . Following the Republican takeover of Congress in the 1946 elections , President Truman was compelled to reduce taxes and curb government interference in the economy . With this done , the stage was set for the economic boom that , with only a few minor hiccups , would last for the next 23 years . After the initial hurdles of the 1945 - 48 period were overcome , Americans found themselves flush with cash from wartime work due to there being little to buy for several years . The result was a mass consumer spending spree , with a huge and voracious demand for new homes , cars , and housewares . Increasing numbers enjoyed high wages , larger houses , better schools , more cars and home comforts like vacuum cleaners , washing machines -- which were all made for labor - saving and to make housework easier . Inventions familiar in the early 21st century made their first appearance during this era . The live - in maid and cook , common features of middle - class homes at the beginning of the century , were virtually unheard of in the 1950s ; only the very rich had servants . Householders enjoyed centrally heated homes with running hot water . New style furniture was bright , cheap , and light , and easy to move around . As noted by John Kenneth Galbraith in 1958 :
Bessemer process
In 1898 , Scientific American published an article called Bessemer Steel and its Effect on the World explaining the significant economic effects of the increased supply in cheap steel . They noted that the expansion of railroads into previously sparsely inhabited regions of the country had led to settlement in those regions , and had made the trade of certain goods profitable , which had previously been too costly to transport .
Industrial Revolution
The demand for metal parts led to the development of several machine tools . They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch - produce small mechanisms .
Coffee
When coffee reached North America during the Colonial period , it was initially not as successful as it had been in Europe as alcoholic beverages remained more popular . During the Revolutionary War , the demand for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically ; this was also due to the reduced availability of tea from British merchants , and a general resolution among many Americans to avoid drinking tea following the 1773 Boston Tea Party .
Standard of living in China
In the 1970s before the reform period , clothing purchases were restricted by rationing . Cotton cloth consumption was limited to between four and six meters a year per person . In the 1980s one of the most visible signs of the economic `` revolution '' was the appearance in Chinese cities of large quantities of relatively modern , varied , colorful clothes , a sharp contrast to the monotone image of blue and gray suits that typified Chinese dress in earlier years . Cloth consumption increased from eight meters per person in 1978 to almost twelve meters in 1985 , and rationing was ended in the early 1980s . Production of synthetic fibers more than tripled during this period ; in 1985 synthetics constituted 40 percent of the cloth purchased . Consumers also tripled their purchases of woolen fabrics in these years and bought growing numbers of garments made of silk , leather , or down . In 1987 Chinese department stores and street markets carried clothing in a large variety of styles , colors , quality , and prices . Many people displayed their new affluence with relatively expensive and stylish clothes , while those with more modest tastes or meager incomes still could adequately outfit themselves at very low cost .