vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies
When colonists arrived in America , they planted familiar crops from the Old World with varying degrees of success and raised domestic animals for meat , leather , and wool , as they had done in Britain . The colonists faced difficulties owing to different climate and other environmental factors , but trade with Britain , continental Europe , and the West Indies allowed the American colonists to create a cuisine similar to the various regional British cuisines . Local plants and animals offered tantalizing alternatives to the Old World diet , but the colonists held on to old traditions and tended to use these items in the same fashion as they did their Old World equivalents ( or even ignore them if more familiar foods were available ) . The American colonial diet varied depending on region , with local cuisine patterns established by the mid-18th century .
Colonial history of the United States
Spain established several small outposts in Florida in the early 16th century . The most important of these was St. Augustine , founded in 1565 but repeatedly attacked and burned by pirates , privateers , and English forces . Its buildings survived , even as nearly all the Spanish left . It claims to be the oldest European settlement in the continental United States .
Colonial history of the United States
Thousands of poor German farmers , chiefly from the Palatine region of Germany , migrated to upstate districts after 1700 . They kept to themselves , married their own , spoke German , attended Lutheran churches , and retained their own customs and foods . They emphasized farm ownership . Some mastered English to become conversant with local legal and business opportunities . They ignored the Indians and tolerated slavery ( although few were rich enough to own a slave ) . Ways
Colony of Virginia
The cultural geography of colonial Virginia gradually evolved , with a variety of settlement and jurisdiction models experimented with . By the late 17th century and into the 18th century , the primary settlement pattern was based on plantations ( to grow tobacco ) , farms , and some towns ( mostly ports or courthouse villages ) .
Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)
They resumed exploration on Monday , December 11 / 21 when the party crossed over to the mainland and surveyed the area that ultimately became the settlement . The anniversary of this survey is observed in Massachusetts as Forefathers ' Day and is traditionally associated with the Plymouth Rock landing tradition . This land was especially suited to winter building because it had already been cleared , and the tall hills provided a good defensive position .
Relationship between religion and science
David C. Lindberg states that the widespread popular belief that the Middle Ages was a time of ignorance and superstition due to the Christian church is a `` caricature '' . According to Lindberg , while there are some portions of the classical tradition which suggest this view , these were exceptional cases . It was common to tolerate and encourage critical thinking about the nature of the world . The relation between Christianity and science is complex and can not be simplified to either harmony or conflict , according to Lindberg . Lindberg reports that `` the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free ( particularly in the natural sciences ) to follow reason and observation wherever they led . There was no warfare between science and the church . '' Ted Peters in Encyclopedia of Religion writes that although there is some truth in the `` Galileo 's condemnation '' story but through exaggerations , it has now become `` a modern myth perpetuated by those wishing to see warfare between science and religion who were allegedly persecuted by an atavistic and dogma - bound ecclesiastical authority '' . In 1992 , the Catholic Church 's seeming vindication of Galileo attracted much comment in the media .
Atlantic Ocean
Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas in 1492 under Spanish flag . Six years later Vasco da Gama reached India under Portuguese flag , by navigating south around the Cape of Good Hope , thus proving that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are connected . In 1500 , in his voyage to India following Vasco da Gama , Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil , taken by the currents of the South Atlantic Gyre . Following these explorations , Spain and Portugal quickly conquered and colonized large territories in the New World and forced the Native American population into slavery in order to explore the vast quantities of silver and gold they found . Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade in order to keep other European nations out , but conflicting interests nevertheless led to a series of Spanish - Portuguese wars . A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories into Spanish and Portuguese sectors while keeping other colonial powers away . England , France , and the Dutch Republic enviously watched the Spanish and Portuguese wealth grow and allied themselves with pirates such as Henry Mainwaring and Alexandre Exquemelin . They could explore the convoys leaving America because prevailing winds and currents made the transport of heavy metals slow and predictable . Embarked
Boreal forest of Canada
The boreal forest is deeply ingrained in the Canadian identity and the images foreigners have of Canada . The history of the early European fur traders , their adventures , discoveries , aboriginal alliances and misfortunes is an essential part of the popular colonial history of Canada . The canoe , the beaver pelt , the coureur des bois , the voyageurs , the Hudson 's Bay Company and the North - West Mounted Police , the construction of Canada 's transcontinental railways -- all are symbols of Canadian history familiar to school children that are inextricably linked to the boreal forest .
History of Pennsylvania
By the time that European colonization of the Americas began , several Native American tribes inhabited the region . The Lenape spoke an Algonquian language , and inhabited an area known as the Lenapehoking , which was mostly made up of the state of New Jersey , but incorporated a lot of surrounding area , including eastern Pennsylvania . Their territory ended somewhere between the Delaware & Susquehanna rivers , within the state bounds . The Susquehannock spoke an Iroquoian language and held a region spanning from New York to West Virginia , that went from the area surrounding the Susquehanna River all the way to the Allegheny & Monongahela Rivers ( about level with modern - day Pittsburgh ) . They were both affected by European disease and constant warfare with several neighbors and groups of Europeans , then began to be grossly outpaced financially as the Hurons & Iroquois blocked them from proceeding into Ohio during the Beaver Wars . As they lost numbers and land , they abandoned much of their western territory and moved closer to the Susquehanna River & the Iroquois & Mohawk to the north . Northwest of the Allegheny River was the Iroquoian Petun , known mostly for their vast Tobacco plantations , although this is believed to be complete fabrication . They were fragmented into three groups during the Beaver Wars -- the Petun of New York , the Wyandot of Ohio & the Tiontatecaga of the Kanawha River in southern West Virginia . ( Their much grander than previously thought size evidenced by Kentatentonga being used on the Jean Louis Baptiste Franquelin map , a known name for Petun , showing them with PA bounds & with 19 villages destroyed & the use of Tiontatecaga , mimicking the Petun autonym , Tionontati ) South of the Alleghany River was , allegedly , a nation known as the Calicua ( probably Kah - dee - kwuh ) , or Cali . They may have been the same as the Monongahela Culture & very little is known about them , except that they were probably a Siouan culture . Archaeological sites from this time in this region are scarce and the very few historical sources even mention them -- most of these sources only coming from those who met Calicua traders further east on the Allegheny .
Ecuador
When Ecuador seceded from the Gran Colombia , Peru decided not to follow the treaty of Guayaquil of 1829 or the protocoled agreements made . Peru contested Ecuador 's claims with the newly discovered Real Cedula of 1802 , by which Peru claims the King of Spain had transferred these lands from the Viceroyalty of New Granada to the Viceroyalty of Peru . During colonial times this was to halt the ever - expanding Portuguese settlements into Spanish domains , which were left vacant and in disorder after the expulsion of Jesuit missionaries from their bases along the Amazon Basin . Ecuador countered by labeling the Cedula of 1802 an ecclesiastical instrument , which had nothing to do with political borders . Peru began its de facto occupation of disputed Amazonian territories , after it signed a secret 1851 peace treaty in favor of Brazil . This treaty disregarded Spanish rights that were confirmed during colonial times by a Spanish - Portuguese treaty over the Amazon regarding territories held by illegal Portuguese settlers .
Hawaii
According to Schütz , the Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 CE and were later followed by waves of seafarers from the Society Islands , Samoa and Tonga .
Fur trade
Before the European colonization of the Americas , Russia was a major supplier of fur pelts to Western Europe and parts of Asia . Its trade developed in the Early Middle Ages ( 500 -- 1000 AD / CE ) , first through exchanges at posts around the Baltic and Black seas . The main trading market destination was the German city of Leipzig . Kievan Russia , the first Russian State , was the first supplier of the Russian Fur Trade .
Missouri
Indigenous peoples inhabited Missouri for thousands of years before European exploration and settlement . Archaeological excavations along the rivers have shown continuous habitation for more than 7,000 years . Beginning before 1000 CE , there arose the complex Mississippian culture , whose people created regional political centers at present - day St. Louis and across the Mississippi River at Cahokia , near present - day Collinsville , Illinois . Their large cities included thousands of individual residences , but they are known for their surviving massive earthwork mounds , built for religious , political and social reasons , in platform , ridgetop and conical shapes . Cahokia was the center of a regional trading network that reached from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico . The civilization declined by 1400 CE , and most descendants left the area long before the arrival of Europeans . St. Louis was at one time known as Mound City by the European Americans , because of the numerous surviving prehistoric mounds , since lost to urban development . The Mississippian culture left mounds throughout the middle Mississippi and Ohio river valleys , extending into the southeast as well as the upper river . The
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
Scholars who were part of a branch of Mesoamerican ethnohistory , more recently called the New Philology have , using indigenous texts in the indigenous languages , been able to examine in considerable detail how the indigenous lived during the era of Spanish colonial rule . A major work that utilizes colonial - era indigenous texts as its main source is James Lockhart 's The Nahuas After the Conquest : Postconquest Central Mexican History and Philology . The key to understanding how considerable continuity of pre-Conquest indigenous structures was possible was the Spanish colonial utilization of the indigenous nobility . In the colonial era , the indigenous nobility were largely recognized as nobles by the Spanish colonial regime , with privileges including the noble Spanish title don for noblemen and doña for noblewomen . To this day , the title of Duke of Moctezuma is held by a Spanish noble family . A few of the indigenous nobility learned Spanish . Spanish friars taught indigenous tribes to write their own languages in Latin letters , which soon became a self - perpetuating tradition at the local level . Their surviving writings are crucial in our knowledge of colonial era Nahuas .
Pre-Columbian era
The Valdivia culture was concentrated on the coast of Ecuador . Their existence was recently discovered by archeological findings . Their culture is among the oldest found in the Americas , spanning from 3500 to 1800 BCE . The Valdivia lived in a community of houses built in a circle or oval around a central plaza . They were sedentary people who lived off farming and fishing , though occasionally they hunted for deer . From the remains that have been found , scholars have determined that Valdivians cultivated maize , kidney beans , squash , cassava , hot peppers , and cotton plants , the last of which was used to make clothing . Valdivian pottery initially was rough and practical , but it became showy , delicate , and big over time . They generally used red and gray colors ; and the polished dark red pottery is characteristic of the Valdivia period . In its ceramics and stone works , the Valdivia culture shows a progression from the most simple to much more complicated works . Cañaris
History of United States prison systems
The most common sentence of the colonial era was a fine or a whipping , but the stocks were another common punishment -- so much so that most colonies , like Virginia in 1662 , hastened to build these before either the courthouse or the jail . The theocratic communities of Puritan Massachusetts imposed faith - based punishments like the admonition -- a formal censure , apology , and pronouncement of criminal sentence ( generally reduced or suspended ) , performed in front of the church - going community . Sentences to the colonial American workhouse -- when they were actually imposed on defendants -- rarely exceeded three months , and sometimes spanned just a single day .
New Amsterdam
At the time , beaver pelts were highly prized in Europe , because the fur could be felted to make waterproof hats . A by - product of the trade in beaver pelts was castoreum -- the secretion of the animals ' anal glands -- which was used for its medicinal properties and for perfumes . The expeditions by Adriaen Block and Hendrick Christiaensen in 1611 , 1612 , 1613 and 1614 , resulted in the surveying and charting of the region from the 38th parallel to the 45th parallel . On their 1614 map , which gave them a four - year trade monopoly under a patent of the States General , they named the newly discovered and mapped territory New Netherland for the first time . It also showed the first year - round trading presence in New Netherland , Fort Nassau , which would be replaced in 1624 by Fort Orange , which eventually grew into the town of Beverwyck , now Albany .
History of Texas
As of the colonial period , Texas was largely divided between 6 culture groups . The Caddoan peoples occupied the area surrounding the entire length of the Red River . Upon contact with Europeans , they formed four collective confederacies known as the Natchitoches , the Hasinai , the Wichita & the Kadohadocho ( Caddo ) . All four of them held some land in what is now Texas . Along the Gulf Coast region were the Atakapa tribes , with at least one Coahuiltecan tribe ( a culture group primarily from Northeast Mexico ) a little further west on the Rio Grande . Largely between the Rio Grande & Peco River were the Puebloan peoples , part of an extensive civilization of tribes that lived in what are now the states of Texas , New Mexico , Colorado & Utah . While the northern-most groups faced a cultural collapse due to a drought , many of the southern tribes survive to the present . North of the Pueblos were the Apachean tribes . Although commonly referred to as one , single nation , they are actually a culture group . North of the Apacheans , in the Northern Panhandle region , were the Comanches .
Conquistador
Infante Dom Henry the Navigator of Portugal , son of King João I , became the main sponsor of exploration travels . In 1415 , Portugal conquered Ceuta , its first overseas colony .
Treaty of Waitangi
Nonetheless , on 21 May 1840 , Lieutenant - Governor Hobson proclaimed sovereignty over the whole country , ( the North Island by Treaty and the South Island and Stewart Island by discovery ) and New Zealand was constituted as a colony separate from New South Wales on 16 November 1840 . The British government was told that the North Island had been ceded with `` unanimous adherence '' ( which was not accurate ) and while Hobson claimed the South Island by discovery based on the `` uncivilised state of the natives '' , in actuality he had no basis to make such a claim . In reality , Hobson issued the proclamation because he felt it was forced on him by settlers from the New Zealand Company who had attempted to form an independent settlement government at Port Nicholson and claimed legality from local chiefs . Hobson also failed to report to the British government that the Māori version of the Treaty was substantially different from the English one ( which he might not have known at the time ) and also reported that both versions had received 512 signatures , where in truth the majority of signatures had been on the Māori copies that had been sent around the country , rather than on the single English copy . Basing their decision on this information , on October 2 , 1840 , the Colonial Office approved Hobson 's proclamation . They did not have second thoughts when later reports revealed more detail about the inadequacies of the Treaty negotiations , and they did not take issue with the fact that large areas of the North Island had not signed . The government had never asked for Hobson to obtain unanimous agreement from the indigenous people .
French and Indian War
Céloron 's expedition force consisted of about 200 Troupes de la marine and 30 Indians , and they covered about 3,000 miles ( 4,800 km ) between June and November 1749 . They went up the St. Lawrence , continued along the northern shore of Lake Ontario , crossed the portage at Niagara , and followed the southern shore of Lake Erie . At the Chautauqua Portage near Barcelona , New York , the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River which it followed to the site of Pittsburgh . There Céloron buried lead plates engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country . Whenever he encountered British colonial merchants or fur - traders , he informed them of the French claims on the territory and told them to leave .
Colonial history of the United States
By the time of the Revolutionary War , approximately 85 percent of white Americans were of English , Irish , Welsh , or Scottish descent . Approximately 8.8 percent of whites were of German ancestry , and 3.5 percent were of Dutch origin . Farming
Roanoke Colony
In the late 1880s , North Carolina state legislator Hamilton McMillan discovered that his `` redbones '' ( those of Indian blood ) neighbors in Robeson County claimed to have been descended from the Roanoke settlers . He also noticed that many of the words in their language had striking similarities to obsolete English words . Furthermore , many of the family names were identical to those listed in Hakluyt 's account of the colony . Thus on February 10 , 1885 , convinced that these were the descendants of the Lost Colony , he helped to pass the `` Croatan bill '' , that officially designated the population around Robeson county as Croatan . Two days later on February 12 , 1885 , the Fayetteville Observer published an article regarding the Robeson people 's origins . This article states :
Tree of life
An archaeological discovery in the 1990s was of a sacrificial pit at Sanxingdui in Sichuan , China . Dating from about 1200 BCE , it contained three bronze trees , one of them 4 meters high . At the base was a dragon , and fruit hanging from the lower branches . At the top is a bird - like ( phoenix ) creature with claws . Also found in Sichuan , from the late Han dynasty ( c 25 -- 220 CE ) , is another tree of life . The ceramic base is guarded by a horned beast with wings . The leaves of the tree represent coins and people . At the apex is a bird with coins and the Sun .
Colombian emeralds
Historians believe the indigenous Indians of Colombia mastered the art of mining as early as 500 AD . But Spanish Conquistadors are the ones who are credited with discovering and marketing globally what we now call Colombian emeralds . Colombia , during pre-colonial times , was occupied by Muzo indigenous people , who were overpowered by Spain in the mid 1500s . It took Spain five decades to overpower the Muzo Indians who occupied this entire mining area . Once in control , the Spanish forced this native , indigenous population to work the mining fields that it previously held for many centuries .
Latin America
The earliest known settlement was identified at Monte Verde , near Puerto Montt in Southern Chile . Its occupation dates to some 14,000 years ago and there is some disputed evidence of even earlier occupation . Over the course of millennia , people spread to all parts of the continents . By the first millennium CE , South America 's vast rainforests , mountains , plains and coasts were the home of tens of millions of people . The earliest settlements in the Americas are of the Las Vegas Culture from about 8000 BCE and 4600 BCE , a sedentary group from the coast of Ecuador , the forefathers of the more known Valdivia culture , of the same era . Some groups formed more permanent settlements such as the Chibcha ( or `` Muisca '' or `` Muysca '' ) and the Tairona groups . These groups are in the circum Caribbean region . The Chibchas of Colombia , the Quechuas and Aymaras of Bolivia and Perú were the three indigenous groups that settled most permanently .
Murti
During the colonial era , Christian missionaries aiming to convert Hindus to Christianity wrote memoirs and books that were widely distributed in Europe , which Mitter , Pennington and other scholars call as fictionalized stereotypes , where Murti were claimed as the evidence of lack of spiritual heritage in primitive Hindus , of `` idolatry and savage worship of stones '' practices akin to Biblical demons , calling Murti as monstrous devils to eroticized bizarre beings carved in stone . The British Missionary Society with colonial government 's assistance bought and sometimes seized , then transferred Murti from India and displayed it in their `` trophies '' room in the United Kingdom with the note claiming that these were given up by Hindus who now accept the `` folly and sin of idolatry '' . In other instances , the colonial British authorities , seeking additional government revenue , introduced Pilgrim Tax on Hindus to view murti inside major temples .
One-drop rule
In colonial Spanish America , many soldiers and explorers took indigenous women as wives . Native - born Spanish women were always a minority . The colonists developed an elaborate classification and caste system that identified the mixed - race descendants of blacks , Amerindians , and whites by different names , related to appearance and known ancestry . Racial caste not only depended on ancestry or skin color , but also could be raised or lowered by the person 's financial status or class . Lena