vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Collectivization in the Soviet Union
The situation changed incredibly quickly in the fall of 1929 and winter of 1930 . Between September and December 1929 , collectivization increased from 7.4 % to 15 % , but in the first two months of 1930 , 11 million households joined collectivized farms , pushing the total to nearly 60 % almost overnight .
Tax incidence
Consider a 7 % import tax applied equally to all imports ( oil , autos , hula hoops , and brake rotors ; steel , grain , everything ) and a direct refund of every penny of collected revenue in the form of a direct egalitarian `` Citizen 's Dividend '' to every person who files Income Tax returns . At the macro level ( aggregate ) the people as a whole will break even . But the people who consume foreign produced goods will bear more of the burden than the people who consume a mix of goods . The people who consume no foreign goods will bear none of the burden and actually receive an increase in utility . On the producer side , the tax burden distribution will depend on whether a firm produces its goods within the sovereignty or outside the sovereignty . Firms that produce goods inside the sovereignty will increase their market share and their profits when compared to firms who offshore their production . And if the current mix of firms is tilted toward offshore production then the owners of firms will be burdened more than the consumers while the workers / employees will benefit from greater employment opportunities .
Great Depression
By 1936 , the main economic indicators had regained the levels of the late 1920s , except for unemployment , which remained high at 11 % , although this was considerably lower than the 25 % unemployment rate seen in 1933 . In the spring of 1937 , American industrial production exceeded that of 1929 and remained level until June 1937 . In June 1937 , the Roosevelt administration cut spending and increased taxation in an attempt to balance the federal budget . The American economy then took a sharp downturn , lasting for 13 months through most of 1938 . Industrial production fell almost 30 per cent within a few months and production of durable goods fell even faster . Unemployment jumped from 14.3 % in 1937 to 19.0 % in 1938 , rising from 5 million to more than 12 million in early 1938 . Manufacturing output fell by 37 % from the 1937 peak and was back to 1934 levels . WPA
Pizza cheese
In the United States , the production and consumption of Mozzarella and pizza cheese steadily increased in the mid-20th century , and this trend has continued into the first decade of the 21st century . In the U.S. , several hundred million pounds of pizza cheese is consumed annually . In 1997 , it was estimated that annual production of the product was 1 million tons ( 2 billion pounds ) in the United States and 100,000 tonnes ( 98,000 long tons ; 110,000 short tons , 220,460,000 pounds ) in Europe . It has been estimated that 30 % of all pizza cheese used in the United States is Mozzarella cheese . As of 2000 , demand for the product was growing in Europe by 8 percent per year .
Standard of living in China
The highest agricultural incomes were earned by suburban units that were able to sell produce and sideline products in the nearby cities . Under the responsibility system , household incomes depended on the number of workers in each household and the household 's success in holding down production costs and in supplying goods and services to local markets . Most of the rural families with the highest incomes - the `` 10,000 - yuan households '' - were `` specialized households '' that concentrated family efforts on supplying a particular service or good . Many of these families owned their own equipment , such as trucks or specialized buildings , and operated essentially as private concerns . An increasingly important influence on rural incomes in the mid-1980s was the expansion of nonagricultural rural enterprises , often referred to as `` township enterprises . '' These were factories , construction teams , and processing operations , most of which were owned by collectives , primarily villages , towns , and townships . Some were owned by voluntary groups of families . Township enterprises were considered by the government to be the main source of employment for rural workers who were leaving agriculture because of rising productivity under the responsibility system . By the end of 1986 , township enterprises employed 21 percent of the rural labor force . The movement of rural labor into township enterprises helped to increase average rural incomes because of the higher productivity in nonagricultural jobs . In 1986 industrial workers in rural areas produced an average annual value of ¥ 4,300 per person , compared with about ¥ 1,000 per farmer in the same year .
Coal
Historically , production of chemicals from coal has been used since the 1950s and has become established in the market . According to the 2010 Worldwide Gasification Database , a survey of current and planned gasifiers , from 2004 to 2007 chemical production increased its gasification product share from 37 % to 45 % . From 2008 to 2010 , 22 % of new gasifier additions were to be for chemical production .
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
The CBO estimated that enacting the bill would increase federal budget deficits by $185 billion over the remaining months of fiscal year 2009 , by $399 billion in 2010 , and by $134 billion in 2011 , or $787 billion over the 2009 -- 2019 period .
Medicare (United States)
This measure , which examines Medicare spending in the context of the US economy as a whole , is expected to increase from 3.6 percent in 2010 to 6.2 percent by 2090 under current law and over 9 percent under what the actuaries really expect will happen ( called an `` illustrative example '' in recent - year Trustees Reports ) .
Pennsylvania Turnpike
Another 30 - percent toll increase went into effect on June 1 , 1991 to fund expansion projects , bringing the rate to 4 cents per mile ( 2.5 ¢ / km ) or 7 ¢ / mi ( 4.3 ¢ / km ) in 2016 .
Great Depression
The Agricultural Adjustment Act provided incentives to cut farm production in order to raise farming prices . The National Recovery Administration ( NRA ) made a number of sweeping changes to the American economy . It forced businesses to work with government to set price codes through the NRA to fight deflationary `` cut - throat competition '' by the setting of minimum prices and wages , labor standards , and competitive conditions in all industries . It encouraged unions that would raise wages , to increase the purchasing power of the working class . The NRA was deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1935 . CCC
Balkans
/ km2 81 / km2 45 / km2 83 / km2 91 / km2 102 / km2 101 / km2 Water area % 4.7 % 0.02 % 2.16 % 1.1 % 0.99 % 1.0 % 1.09 % 2.61 % 2.97 % 0.13 % 0.6 % 1.3 % GDP ( nominal ) total ( 2016 ) $12.269 billion $16.324 billion $49.364 billion $49.928 billion $194.594 billion $6.471 billion $10.424 billion $4.182 billion $181.944 billion $42.139 billion $43.791 billion $751 billion GDP ( PPP ) per capita ( 2015 ) $11,301 $10,492 $19,097 $21,581 $26,449 $9,540 $14,009 $16,123 $20,787 $13,671 $31,007 $18,035 Gini Index ( 2012 ) 29.0 33.0 36.0 32.0 36.7 N / A 43.2 33.2 27.3 29.7 25.6 40.0 HDI ( 2017 ) 0.764 ( High ) 0.750 ( High ) 0.794 ( High ) 0.827 ( Very High ) 0.866 ( Very High ) 0.786 ( High ) 0.748 ( High ) 0.807 ( Very High ) 0.802 ( Very High ) 0.776 ( High ) 0.890 ( Very High ) 0.767 ( High ) Internet TLD . al . ba . bg . hr . gr . mk . me . ro . rs . si . tr Calling code + 355 + 387 + 359 + 385 + 30 + 383 + 389 + 382 + 40 + 381 + 386 + 90
Maple syrup
As of 2016 , Quebec had some 7,300 producers working with 13,500 farmers , collectively making over 8,090,000 US gallons ( 30,600,000 L ) of syrup . Production in Quebec is controlled through a supply management system , with producers receiving quota allotments from the Federation of Quebec Maple Syrup Producers ( Fédération des producteurs acéricoles du Québec , FPAQ ) , which also maintains reserves of syrup , although there is a black - market trade in Quebec product . In 2017 , the FPAQ mandated increased output of maple syrup production , attempting to establish Quebec 's dominance in the world market . Canada exported more than C $ 362 million of maple syrup in 2016 . The provinces of Ontario , Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , and Prince Edward Island produce smaller amounts of syrup .
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
The Congressional Budget Office reported in October 2009 the reasons for the changes in the 2008 and 2009 deficits , which were approximately $460 billion and $1.41 trillion , respectively . The CBO estimated that ARRA increased the deficit by $200 billion for 2009 , split evenly between tax cuts and additional spending , excluding any feedback effects on the economy .
Hurricane Katrina
The economic effects of the storm reached high levels . The Bush Administration sought $105 billion for repairs and reconstruction in the region , which did not account for damage to the economy caused by potential interruption of the oil supply , destruction of the Gulf Coast 's highway infrastructure , and exports of commodities such as grain . Katrina damaged or destroyed 30 oil platforms and caused the closure of nine refineries ; the total shut - in oil production from the Gulf of Mexico in the six - month period following Katrina was approximately 24 % of the annual production and the shut - in gas production for the same period was about 18 % . The forestry industry in Mississippi was also affected , as 1.3 million acres ( 5,300 km ) of forest lands were destroyed . The total loss to the forestry industry from Katrina is calculated to rise to about $5 billion . Furthermore , hundreds of thousands of local residents were left unemployed . Before the hurricane , the region supported approximately one million non-farm jobs , with 600,000 of them in New Orleans . It is estimated that the total economic impact in Louisiana and Mississippi may eventually exceed $150 billion . Forensic accountants were involved in the assessment of economic damages resulting from this catastrophe .
Expenditures in the United States federal budget
The CBO projected in 2010 that an increase in payroll taxes ranging from 1.6 -- 2.1 % of the payroll tax base , equivalent to 0.6 % - 0.8 % of GDP , would be necessary to put the Social Security program in fiscal balance for the next 75 years . In other words , raising the payroll tax rate to about 14.4 % during 2009 ( from the current 12.4 % ) or cutting benefits by 13.3 % would address the program 's budgetary concerns indefinitely ; these amounts increase to around 16 % and 24 % if no changes are made until 2037 . Projections of Social Security 's solvency are sensitive to assumptions about rates of economic growth and demographic changes .
Carbon dioxide
The rate at which reef - building corals produce their skeletons decreases , while production of numerous varieties of jellyfish increases . The ability of marine algae and free - swimming zooplankton to maintain protective shells is reduced . The survival of larval marine species , including commercial fish and shellfish , is reduced . ''
Latin America
Social and economic indicators for Latin American countries Country HDI 2015 estimates GDP ( PPP ) 2015 per capita in US $ Real GDP 2015 growth % Income inequality ( 2015 ) Gini Extreme poverty ( 2011 ) < 1.25 US $ % Youth literacy 2015 % 2016 life expectancy Murder ( 2014 ) rate per 100,000 Peace ( 2016 ) GPI Argentina 0.827 20,170 2.6 43.6 0.9 99.2 78 6 1.957 Bolivia 0.662 6,421 4.1 46.6 14.0 99.4 69 12 2.038 Brazil 0.755 15,690 − 3.0 52.7 0.3 97.5 74 25 2.176 Chile 0.847 25,564 2.3 50.8 0.8 98.9 79 1.635 Colombia 0.720 13,794 2.5 52.2 8.2 98.2 76 28 2.764 Costa Rica 0.766 15,318 3.0 48.6 0.7 98.3 79 10 1.699 Cuba 0.769 N / A N / A N / A N / A
Helium
For many years , the United States produced more than 90 % of commercially usable helium in the world , while extraction plants in Canada , Poland , Russia , and other nations produced the remainder . In the mid-1990s , a new plant in Arzew , Algeria , producing 17 million cubic meters ( 600 million cubic feet ) began operation , with enough production to cover all of Europe 's demand . Meanwhile , by 2000 , the consumption of helium within the U.S. had risen to more than 15 million kg per year . In 2004 -- 2006 , additional plants in Ras Laffan , Qatar , and Skikda , Algeria were built . Algeria quickly became the second leading producer of helium . Through this time , both helium consumption and the costs of producing helium increased . From 2002 to 2007 helium prices doubled .
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
Noble and church landowners responded in various ways . They began to invest significantly less in agriculture and land was increasingly taken out of production altogether . In some cases entire settlements were abandoned , and nearly 1,500 villages were lost during this period . Landowners also abandoned the system of direct management of their demesne lands , which had begun back in the 1180s , and turned instead to `` farming '' out large blocks of land for fixed money rents . Initially , livestock and land were rented out together under `` stock and lease '' contracts , but this was found to be increasingly impractical and contracts for farms became centred purely on land . Many of the rights to church parish tithes were also `` farmed '' out in exchange for fixed rents . This process was encouraged by the trend for tithe revenues being increasing `` appropriated '' by central church authorities , rather than being used to support local clergy : around 39 % of parish tithes had been centralised in this way by 1535 . As the major estates transformed , a new economic grouping , the gentry , became evident , many of them benefiting from the opportunities of the farming system . Land distribution remained heavily unequal ; estimates suggest that the English nobility owned 20 % of English lands , the Church and Crown 33 % , the gentry 25 % , and the remainder was owned by peasant farmers . Agriculture itself continued to innovate , and the loss of many English oxen to the murrain sickness in the crisis increased the number of horses used to plough fields in the 14th century , a significant improvement on older methods . Forests
Political campaign
Traditional ground campaigning and voter contacts remain the most effective strategies . Some research suggests that knocking on doors can increase turnout by as much as 10 % and phone calls by as much as 4 % . One study suggests that lawn signs increase vote share by 1.7 percentage points . A review of more than 200 get - out - the - vote experiments finds that The most effective tactics are personal : Door - to - door canvassing increases turnout by an average of about 2.5 percentage points ; volunteer phone calls raise it by about 1.9 points , compared to 1.0 points for calls from commercial phone banks ; automated phone messages are ineffective . Each field office that the Obama campaign opened in 2012 gave him approximately a 0.3 % greater vote share . The Obama 2008 campaign 's use of field most offices has been credited as crucial in winning Indiana and North Carolina . According to one study , the cost per vote by having a field office is $49.40 . Using out - of - state volunteers for canvassing is less effective in increasing turnout than using local and trained volunteers .
Early 1980s recession
Determined to wring inflation out of the economy , Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker slowed the rate of growth of the money supply and raised interest rates . The federal funds rate , which was about 11 % in 1979 , rose to 20 % by June 1981 . The prime interest rate , an important economic measure , eventually reached 21.5 % in June 1982 .
Economy of New Zealand
Financial markets were deregulated and tariffs on imported goods lowered and phased out . At the same time subsidies to many industries , notably agriculture , were removed or significantly reduced . Income and company taxes were reduced and the top marginal tax rate was reduced from 66 % to 33 % . These were replaced by a comprehensive tax on goods and services ( GST ) initially set at 10 % , then increased to 12.5 % and recently increased to 15 % in 2011 . A surtax on universal superannuation was also introduced . Many government departments were corporatised , and from 1 April 1987 became State owned enterprises , required to make a profit . The new corporations shed thousands of jobs adding to unemployment ; Electricity Corporation 3,000 ; Coal Corporation 4,000 ; Forestry Corporation 5,000 ; New Zealand Post 8,000 .
History of Mexico
Increased tax revenue and better administration dramatically improved public safety , public health , railways , mining , industry , foreign trade , and national finances . Díaz modernized the army and suppressed some banditry . After a half - century of stagnation , where per capita income was merely a tenth of the developed nations such as Britain and the US , the Mexican economy took off and grew at an annual rate of 2.3 % ( 1877 to 1910 ) , which was high by world standards .
Wind turbine
Permanent magnets for wind turbine generators contain rare earth metals such as Nd , Pr , Tb , and Dy . Systems that use magnetic direct drive turbines require higher amounts of rare metals . Therefore , an increase in wind production would increase the demand for these resources . It is estimated that the additional demand for Nd in 2035 may be 4,000 to 18,000 tons and Dy could see an increase of 200 to 1200 tons . These values represent a quarter to half of current production levels . However , since technologies are developing rapidly , driven by supply and price of materials these estimated levels are extremely uncertain .
Zimbabwe
Between 2005 -- 11 , the number of smallholders practising conservation agriculture in Zimbabwe increased from 5000 to more than 150000 . Cereal yields rose between 15 and 100 per cent across different regions .
Economic history of Argentina
In December 2007 Fernández de Kirchner became president . In 2008 the rural sector mobilized against a resolution that would have increased the export tax rate on soybean exports from 35 % to 44.1 % . Ultimately , the new taxation regime was abandoned . Official Argentine statistics are believed to have significantly underreported inflation since 2007 , and independent economists publishing their own estimates of Argentine inflation have been threatened with fines and prosecution .
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
During the 12th century major landowners tended to rent out their demesne lands for money , motivated by static prices for produce and the chaos of the Anarchy between 1135 and 1153 . This practice began to alter in the 1180s and 1190s , spurred by the greater political stability . In the first years of John 's reign , agricultural prices almost doubled , at once increasing the potential profits on the demesne estates and also increasing the cost of living for the landowners themselves . Landowners now attempted wherever possible to bring their demesne lands back into direct management , creating a system of administrators and officials to run their new system of estates .
Income inequality in the United States
Income inequality ( as measured by the Gini coefficient ) is not uniform among the states : after - tax income inequality in 2009 was greatest in Texas and lowest in Maine . Income inequality has grown from 2005 to 2012 in more than 2 out of 3 metropolitan areas .
Mercantilism
Adam Smith rejected the mercantilist focus on production , arguing that consumption was paramount to production . He added that mercantilism was popular among merchants because it was what is now called rent seeking . However , John Maynard Keynes argued that encouraging production was just as important as encouraging consumption , and he favoured the `` new mercantilism '' . Keynes also noted that in the early modern period the focus on the bullion supplies was reasonable . In an era before paper money , an increase in bullion was one of the few ways to increase the money supply . Keynes said mercantilist policies generally improved both domestic and foreign investment -- domestic because the policies lowered the domestic rate of interest , and investment by foreigners by tending to create a favorable balance of trade .
New Deal
The economy had hit bottom in March 1933 and then started to expand . Economic indicators show the economy reached nadir in the first days of March , then began a steady , sharp upward recovery . Thus the Federal Reserve Index of Industrial Production sank to its lowest point of 52.8 in July 1932 ( with 1935 -- 1939 = 100 ) and was practically unchanged at 54.3 in March 1933 . However , by July 1933 it reached 85.5 , a dramatic rebound of 57 % in four months . Recovery was steady and strong until 1937 . Except for employment , the economy by 1937 surpassed the levels of the late 1920s . The Recession of 1937 was a temporary downturn . Private sector employment , especially in manufacturing , recovered to the level of the 1920s , but failed to advance further until the war . The U.S. population was 124,840,471 in 1932 and 128,824,829 in 1937 , an increase of 3,984,468 . The ratio of these numbers , times the number of jobs in 1932 , means there was a need for 938,000 more 1937 jobs to maintain the same employment level . Fiscal
Tax incidence
Imagine a $1 tax on every barrel of apples an apple farmer produces . If the product ( apples ) is price inelastic to the consumer the farmer is able to pass the entire tax on to consumers of apples by raising the price by $1 . In this example , consumers bear the entire burden of the tax ; the tax incidence falls on consumers . On the other hand , if the apple farmer is unable to raise prices because the product is price elastic the farmer has to bear the burden of the tax or face decreased revenues : the tax incidence falls on the farmer . If the apple farmer can raise prices by an amount less than $1 , then consumers and the farmer are sharing the tax burden . When the tax incidence falls on the farmer , this burden will typically flow back to owners of the relevant factors of production , including agricultural land and employee wages .
Conclusion of the American Civil War
Confederate leaders asked General Kirby Smith to send reinforcements from his Army of the Trans - Mississippi east of the Mississippi River , in the spring of 1864 following the Battle of Mansfield and the Battle of Pleasant Hill . This was not practicable due to the Union naval control of the Mississippi River and the unwillingness of western troops to be transferred east of the river . Smith instead dispatched Major General Sterling Price and his cavalry on an invasion of Missouri that was ultimately not successful . Thereafter the war west of the Mississippi River was principally one of small raids . By May 26 1865 , a representative of Smith 's negotiated and signed surrender documents with a representative of Major General Edward Canby in Shreveport , Louisiana , then took custody of Smith 's force of 43,000 soldiers when they surrendered , by then the only significant Confederate forces left west of the Mississippi River . With this ended all organized Southern military resistance to the Union forces . Smith signed the surrender papers on June 2 on board the U.S.S. Fort Jackson just outside Galveston Harbor .
Andrew Carnegie
Before the Civil War , Carnegie arranged a merger between Woodruff 's company and that of George Pullman , the inventor of a sleeping car for first class travel which facilitated business travel at distances over 500 miles ( 800 km ) . The investment proved a great success and a source of profit for Woodruff and Carnegie . The young Carnegie continued to work for the Pennsylvania 's Tom Scott , and introduced several improvements in the service .