vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Indo-Roman trade relations
There is evidence of animal trade between Indian Ocean harbours and the Mediterranean . This can be seen in the mosaics and frescoes of the remains of Roman villas in Italy . For example , the Villa del Casale has mosaics depicting the capture of animals in India , Indonesia and Africa . The intercontinental trade of animals was one of the sources of wealth for the owners of the villa . In the Ambulacro della Grande Caccia , the hunting and capture of animals is represented in such detail that it is possible to identify the species . There is a scene that shows a technique to distract a mother tiger with a shimmering ball of glass or mirror in order to take her cubs . Tiger hunting with red ribbons serving as a distraction is also shown . In the mosaic there are also numerous other animals such as rhinoceros , an Indian elephant ( recognized from the ears ) with his Indian conductor , and the Indian peafowl , and other exotic birds . There are also numerous animals from Africa . Tigers , leopards and Asian and African lions were used in the arenas and circuses . The European lion was already extinct at that time . Probably the last lived in the Balkan Peninsula and were hunted to stock arenas . The birds and monkeys entertained the guests of many villas . Also in the Villa Romana del Tellaro there is a mosaic with a tiger in the jungle attacking a man with Roman clothes , probably a careless hunter . The animals were transported in cages by ship .
Ancient Roman architecture
These enabled the building of the many aqueducts throughout the empire , such as the Aqueduct of Segovia , the Pont du Gard , and the eleven aqueducts of Rome . The same concepts produced numerous bridges , some of which are still in daily use , for example the Puente Romano at Mérida in Spain , and the Pont Julien and the bridge at Vaison - la - Romaine , both in Provence , France .
Ancient Roman architecture
The Romans only began to achieve significant originality in architecture around the beginning of the Imperial period , after they had combined aspects of their original Etruscan architecture with others taken from Greece , including most elements of the style we now call classical architecture . They moved from trabeated construction mostly based on columns and lintels to one based on massive walls , punctuated by arches , and later domes , both of which greatly developed under the Romans . The classical orders now became largely decorative rather than structural , except in colonnades . Stylistic developments included the Tuscan and Composite orders ; the first being a shortened , simplified variant on the Doric order and the Composite being a tall order with the floral decoration of the Corinthian and the scrolls of the Ionic . The period from roughly 40 BC to about 230 AD saw most of the greatest achievements , before the Crisis of the Third Century and later troubles reduced the wealth and organizing power of the central government .
Blond
Roman fresco from Pompeii showing a Maenad in silk dress , 1st century AD Ancient Roman fresco ( detail ) featuring Perseus and the head of Medusa , Stabiae , Italy , 1st century AD . Fresco depicting a seated woman , from the Villa Arianna at Stabiae , 1st century AD Fresco of a man holding a papyrus roll , Pompeii , Italy , 1st century AD Heracles and Omphale , Pompeian Fourth Style ( 45 -- 79 AD ) Roman fresco of a blond maiden reading a text , Pompeian Fourth Style ( 60 - 79 AD ) , Pompeii Mosaic of Aphrodite from Pompeii Achilles and Agamemnon , from a fresco of Pompeii , 1st century AD Dye worker 's shop of Veranius Hypsaeus , fresco from Pompeii , 1st century AD A maenad holding a cupid , Pompeii , 1st century AD The so - called `` Venus in a bikini '' , from the House of Julia Felix , Pompeii , Italy actually depicts the Roman goddess Aphrodite as she is about to untie her sandal , with a small Eros squatting beneath her left arm Ancient Roman bust of Antinous , made during the reign of Hadrian ( 117 -- 138 AD ) , National Archaeological Museum in Athens . Remnants of a Roman bust of a youth with a blond beard , perhaps depicting Roman emperor Commodus ( r . 177 -- 192 ) , National Archaeological Museum , Athens Polychrome marble statue depicting the goddess Tyche holding the infant Plutus in her arms , 2nd century AD , Istanbul Archaeological Museum Ancient Roman statue of Isis , in the Collection of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the Kunsthistorisches Museum , Vienna ; first half of the 2nd century AD , found in Naples , Italy ; made out of black and white marble . Marble table support adorned by a group including Dionysos , Pan and a Satyr ; Dionysos holds a rhyton in the shape of a panther ; traces of red and yellow colour are preserved on the hair of the figures and the branches ; from an Asia Minor workshop , AD 170 -- 180 , National Archaeological Museum , Athens , Greece Bust of Tiberius Julius Sauromates II ( d .
Italian Empire
On 7 September 1901 , a concession in Tientsin was ceded to the Kingdom of Italy by Imperial China . It was administered by the Italian consul in Tientsin . Several ships of the Italian Royal Navy ( Regia Marina ) were based at Tientsin .
Military history of Italy during World War II
In 1935 , Italy initiated the Second Italo - Ethiopian War , `` a nineteenth - century colonial campaign waged out of due time '' . The campaign gave rise to optimistic talk on raising a native Ethiopian army `` to help conquer '' Anglo - Egyptian Sudan . The war also marked a shift towards a more aggressive Italian foreign policy and also `` exposed ( the ) vulnerabilities '' of the British and French . This in turn created the opportunity Mussolini needed to begin to realize his imperial goals . In 1936 , the Spanish Civil War broke out . From the beginning , Italy played an important role in the conflict . Their military contribution was so vast , that it played a decisive role in the victory of the rebel forces led by Francisco Franco . Mussolini had engaged in `` a full - scale external war '' due to the insinuation of future Spanish subservience to the Italian Empire , and as a way of placing the country on a war footing and creating `` a warrior culture '' . The aftermath of the war in Ethiopia saw a reconciliation of German - Italian relations following years of a previously strained relationship , resulting in the signing of a treaty of mutual interest in October 1936 . Mussolini referred to this treaty as the creation of a Berlin - Rome Axis , which Europe would revolve around . The treaty was the result of increasing dependence on German coal following League of Nations sanctions , similar policies between the two countries over the conflict in Spain , and German sympathy towards Italy following European backlash to the Ethiopian War . The aftermath of the treaty saw the increasing ties between Italy and Germany , and Mussolini falling under Adolf Hitler 's influence from which `` he never escaped '' .
History of the Latin script
From the italic scripts after the 16th century , more cursive forms evolved and were known as Copperplate script due to way the calligraphy books were printed and reached their height in the 18 - 19th century . The main examples were the Italian hand and the English round - hand , which in Britain were taught to men and women respectively , these scripts feature flowing letters which could be written with a single pen lift ( with the exception of x and the marks added after writing the word which were dots on i and j and the bar of the ascender of t ) with straight or looped ascenders and descenders . In Italy Italian hand is instead known as `` posata '' ( posed ) . Several national styles of cursive were developed , such as Spencerian Script in the US . Despite the recent decline , in several countries cursive scripts are still taught in schools today , often modified to be more similar to roman type letters ( tailless z , w - like instead of a 90 ° CW turned s for w , capitals without `` belly '' or swashes , forward - facing capital F etc . ) .
Italian language
Italy has always had a distinctive dialect for each city because the cities , until recently , were thought of as city - states . Those dialects now have considerable variety . As Tuscan - derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy , features of local speech were naturally adopted , producing various versions of Regional Italian . The most characteristic differences , for instance , between Roman Italian and Milanese Italian are the gemination of initial consonants and the pronunciation of stressed `` e '' , and of `` s '' in some cases : e.g. va bene `` all right '' : is pronounced ( va ˈbːɛne ) by a Roman ( and by any standard - speaker ) , ( va ˈbene ) by a Milanese ( and by any speaker whose native dialect lies to the north of the La Spezia -- Rimini Line ) ; a casa `` at home '' is ( a ˈkːasa ) for Roman and standard , ( a ˈkaza ) for Milanese and generally northern .
Jacques-Louis David
Each year the Academy awarded an outstanding student the prestigious Prix de Rome , which funded a three - to five - year stay in the Eternal City . The culmination of the Academy 's educational program , the Rome trip provided its winners the opportunity to study the remains of classical antiquity and the works of the Italian Renaissance masters at first hand . Each pensionnaire was lodged in the French Academy 's Roman outpost , which from the years 1737 to 1793 was the Palazzo Mancini in the Via del Corso . David competed for , and failed to win , the prize for three consecutive years ( with Minerva Fighting Mars , Diana and Apollo Killing Niobe 's Children and The Death of Seneca ) , each failure contributing to his lifelong grudge against the institution . After his second loss in 1772 , David went on a hunger strike , which lasted two and a half days before the faculty encouraged him to continue painting . Confident he now had the support and backing needed to win the prize , he resumed his studies with great zeal -- only to fail to win the Prix de Rome again the following year . Finally , in 1774 , David was awarded the Prix de Rome on the strength of his painting of Erasistratus Discovering the Cause of Antiochus ' Disease , a subject set by the judges . In October 1775 he made the journey to Italy with his mentor , Joseph - Marie Vien , who had just been appointed director of the French Academy at Rome .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
However , in 405 , Stilicho was distracted by a fresh invasion of Northern Italy . Another group of Goths fleeing the Huns , led by one Radagaisus , devastated the north of Italy for six months before Stilicho could muster enough forces to take the field against them . Stilicho recalled troops from Britannia and the depth of the crisis was shown when he urged all Roman soldiers to allow their personal slaves to fight beside them . His forces , including Hun and Alan auxiliaries , may in the end have totalled rather less than 15,000 men . Radagaisus was defeated and executed . 12,000 prisoners from the defeated horde were drafted into Stilicho 's service . Stilicho continued negotiations with Alaric ; Flavius Aetius , son of one of Stilicho 's major supporters , was sent as a hostage to Alaric in 405 . In 406 Stilicho , hearing of new invaders and rebels who had appeared in the northern provinces , insisted on making peace with Alaric , probably on the basis that Alaric would prepare to move either against the Eastern court or against the rebels in Gaul . The Senate deeply resented peace with Alaric ; in 407 , when Alaric marched into Noricum and demanded a large payment for his expensive efforts in Stilicho 's interests , the senate , `` inspired by the courage , rather than the wisdom , of their predecessors , '' preferred war . One senator famously declaimed Non est ista pax , sed pactio servitutis ( `` This is not peace , but a pact of servitude '' ) . Stilicho paid Alaric four thousand pounds of gold nevertheless . Stilicho sent Sarus , a Gothic general , over the Alps to face the usurper Constantine III , but he lost and barely escaped , having to leave his baggage to the bandits who now infested the Alpine passes .
Military history of Italy during World War II
King Victor Emmanuel III and his family , with Marshal Badoglio , General Mario Roatta , and others , abandoned Rome on 9 September . General Caroni , who was tasked with defending Rome , was given duplicitous orders to have his troops abandon Rome ( something he did not want to do ) , and essentially to provide rear guard protection to the King and his entourage so they could flee to the Abruzzi hills , and later out to sea . They later landed at Brindisi . Most importantly , Badoglio never gave the order `` OP 44 '' for the Italian people to rise up against the Germans until he knew it was too late to do any good ; that is , he belatedly issued the order on 11 September . However , from the day of the announcement of the Armistice , when Italian citizens , military personnel and military units decided to rise up and resist on their own , they were sometimes quite effective against the Germans .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
According to Roman myth , Rome was founded by Romulus , the first victor to dedicate spoils taken from an enemy ruler to the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius . In Rome 's many subsequent wars , blood - stained armor and weaponry were gathered and placed in temples as a symbol of respect toward the enemies ' deities and as a way to win their patronage . As Roman power spread throughout Italy where Greek cities once reigned , Greek art was looted and ostentatiously displayed in Rome as a triumphal symbol of foreign territories brought under Roman rule . However , the triumphal procession of Marcus Claudius Marcellus after the fall of Syracuse in 211 is believed to have set a standard of reverence to conquered sanctuaries as it engendered disapproval by critics and a negative social reaction .
Medieval household
Neither Greek nor Latin had a word corresponding to modern - day `` family '' . The Latin familia must be translated to `` household '' rather than `` family '' . The aristocratic household of ancient Rome was similar to that of medieval Europe , in that it consisted -- in addition to the paterfamilias , his wife and children -- of a number of clients ( clientes ) , or dependents of the lord who would attend upon him , counsel him and receive rewards . Where it differed from its medieval equivalent was in the use of slaves rather than paid servants for the performance of menial tasks . Another difference was that , due to the relative security and peacefulness within the borders of the Roman Empire , there was little need for fortification . The aristocratic household of medieval Europe , on the other hand , was as much a military as a socio - economic unit , and from the 9th century onwards the ideal residence was the castle .
Pope
Later the same year , Victor Emmanuel II of Italy seized Rome from the pope 's control and substantially completed the Italian unification .
History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
The Roman aristocracy was composed of a class of citizens called Patricians ( Latin : patricii ) , while all other citizens were called Plebeians ( Latin : plebs ) . During the first phase of political development , the Patrician aristocracy dominated the state , and the Plebeians began seeking political rights . During the second phase , the Plebeians completely overthrew the Patrician aristocracy , and since the aristocracy was overthrown simply through alterations to the Roman law , this revolution was not violent . The third phase saw the emergence of a joint Patricio - Plebeian aristocracy , along with a dangerous military situation that helped to maintain internal stability within the republic . The fourth phase began shortly after Rome 's wars of expansion had ended , because without these wars , the factor that had ensured internal stability was removed . While the Plebeians sought to address their economic misfortune through the enactment of laws , the underlying problems were ultimately caused by the organization of society . The final phase began when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon river , and ended with the complete overthrow of the republic . This final revolution triggered a wholesale reorganization of the constitution , and with it , the emergence of the Roman Empire .
Education in ancient Rome
There were two fields of oratory study that were available for young men . The first of these fields was the deliberative branch of study . This field was for the training of young men who would later need to urge the `` advisability or inadvisability '' of measures affecting the Roman Senate . The second field of study was much more lucrative and was known as judicial oratory . These orators would later enter into fields such as criminal law , which was important in gaining a public following . The support of the public was necessary for a successful political career in Rome .
Roman calendar
The nundinae were the market days which formed a kind of weekend in Rome , Italy , and some other parts of Roman territory . By Roman inclusive counting , they were reckoned as `` ninth days '' although they actually occurred every eighth day . Because the republican and Julian years were not evenly divisible into eight - day periods , Roman calendars included a column giving every day of the year a nundinal letter from A to H marking its place in the cycle of market days . Each year , the letter used for the markets would shift 2 -- 5 letters along the cycle . As a day when the city swelled with rural plebeians , they were overseen by the aediles and took on an important role in Roman legislation , which was supposed to be announced for three nundinal weeks ( between 17 and 24 days ) in advance of its coming to a vote . The patricians and their clients sometimes exploited this fact as a kind of filibuster , since the tribunes of the plebs were required to wait another three - week period if their proposals could not receive a vote before dusk on the day they were introduced . Superstitions arose concerning the bad luck that followed a nundinae on the nones of a month or , later , on the first day of January . Intercalation was supposedly used to avoid such coincidences , even after the Julian reform of the calendar .
History of the Roman Empire
Now sole ruler of Rome , Octavian began a full - scale reformation of military , fiscal and political matters . The Senate granted him power over appointing its membership and over the governors of the provinces . In doing so , the Senate had created for Octavian what would become the office of Roman emperor . In 27 BC , Octavian offered to transfer control of the state back to the Senate . The senate refused the offer , in effect ratifying his position within the state and the new political order . Octavian was then granted the title of `` Augustus '' by the Senate and took the title of Princeps or `` first citizen '' . Augustus ( as modern scholars usually refer to him from this point ) was seen by the Senate and People of Rome as the savior of the Republic , and as such he operated within the existing constitutional machinery . He thus rejected titles that Romans associated with monarchy , such as rex ( `` king '' ) . The dictatorship , a military office in the early Republic typically lasting only for the six - month military campaigning season , had been resurrected first by Sulla in the late 80s BC and then by Julius Caesar in the mid-40s ; the title dictator was never again used . As the adopted heir of Julius Caesar , Augustus had taken Caesar as a component of his name , and handed down the name to his heirs of the Julio - Claudian dynasty . With Vespasian , one of the first emperors outside the dynasty , Caesar evolved from a family name to a formal title .
History of the Catholic Church
In 1521 , through the leadership and preaching of the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan , the first Catholics were baptized in what became the first Christian nation in Southeast Asia , the Philippines . The following year , Franciscan missionaries arrived in what is now Mexico , and sought to convert the Indians and to provide for their well - being by establishing schools and hospitals . They taught the Indians better farming methods , and easier ways of weaving and making pottery . Because some people questioned whether the Indians were truly human and deserved baptism , Pope Paul III in the papal bull Veritas Ipsa or Sublimis Deus ( 1537 ) confirmed that the Indians were deserving people . Afterward , the conversion effort gained momentum . Over the next 150 years , the missions expanded into southwestern North America . The native people were legally defined as children , and priests took on a paternalistic role , often enforced with corporal punishment . Elsewhere , in India , Portuguese missionaries and the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized among non-Christians and a Christian community which claimed to have been established by Thomas the Apostle . Whitby
History of the Catholic Church
In 1685 gallicanist King Louis XIV of France issued the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes , ending a century of religious toleration . France forced Catholic theologians to support conciliarism and deny Papal infallibility . The king threatened Pope Innocent XI with a general council and a military take - over of the Papal state . The absolute French State used Gallicanism to gain control of virtually all major Church appointments as well as many of the Church 's properties . State authority over the Church became popular in other countries as well . In Belgium and Germany , Gallicanism appeared in the form of Febronianism , which rejected papal prerogatives in an equal fashion . Emperor Joseph II of Austria ( 1780 -- 1790 ) practiced Josephinism by regulating Church life , appointments , and massive confiscation of Church properties .
History of calendars
For chronological purposes , the flaw of the Anno Domini system was that dates have to be reckoned backwards or forwards according as they are BC or AD . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , `` in an ideally perfect system all events would be reckoned in one sequence . The difficulty was to find a starting point whence to reckon , for the beginnings of history in which this should naturally be placed are those of which chronologically we know least . '' For both Christians and Jews , the prime historical date was the Year of Creation , or Annus Mundi . The Eastern Orthodox Church fixed the date of Creation at 5509 BC . This remained the basis of the ecclesiastical calendar in the Greek and Russian Orthodox world until modern times . The Coptic Church fixed on 5500 BC . Later , the Church of England , under Archbishop Ussher in 1650 , would pick 4004 BC .
Traditionalist Catholicism
On 3 March 2008 a group of Basilian priests stationed in Pidhirtsi , Ukraine , informed Pope Benedict XVI that four of them had been consecrated as bishops in order to save the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church ( UGCC ) from heresy and apostasy . On 11 August 2009 , they announced the formation of the Ukrainian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church as a `` new Church structure for the orthodox faithful of the UGCC '' , professing the Catholic faith , including the primacy of the Roman Pontiff , and disassociating themselves from `` contemporary heresies which destroy both the Eastern and the Western Church '' . Having elected their own patriarch , they declared on 1 May 2011 that both Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI were excommunicated , leaving the Holy See vacant ; they added : `` The Byzantine Catholic Patriarchate is now commissioned by God to protect the orthodox doctrine of the Catholic Church , including the Latin Church . Only after an orthodox Catholic hierarchy and an orthodox successor to the Papacy is elected , will the Patriarchate be relieved of this God - given duty . ''