vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Vredefort crater
The impact distorted the Witwatersrand Basin which was laid down over a period of 250 million years between 950 and 700 million years before the Vredefort impact . The overlying Ventersdorp lavas and the Transvaal Supergroup which were laid down between 700 and 80 million years before the meteorite strike , were similarly distorted by the formation of the 300 km wide crater . These rocks form partial concentric rings round the crater center today , with the oldest , the Witwatersrand rocks , forming a semicircle 25 km from the center . Since the Witwatersrand rocks consist of several layers of very hard , erosion resistant sediments ( e.g. quartzites and banded ironstones ) , they form the prominent arc of hills that can be seen to the NW of the crater center in the satellite picture above . The Witwatersrand rocks are followed , in succession , by the Ventersdorp lavas at a distance of about 35 km from the center , and the Transvaal Supergroup , consisting of a narrow band of the Ghaap Dolomite rocks and the Pretoria Subgroup of rocks , which together form a 25 -- 30 km wide band beyond that . From about halfway through the Pretoria Subgroup of rocks around the crater center , the order of the rocks is reversed . Moving outwards towards where the crater rim used to be , the Ghaap Dolomite group resurfaces at 60 km from the center , followed by an arc of Ventersdorp lavas , beyond which , at between 80 and 120 km from the center , the Witwatersrand rocks re-emerge to form an interrupted arc of outcrops today , of which the Johannesburg group is the most famous , because it was here that gold was discovered in 1886 . It is thus possible that if it had not been for the Vredefort impact this gold would never have been discovered .
Ancient Greek cuisine
The most widespread drink was water . Fetching water was a daily task for women . Though wells were common , spring water was preferred : it was recognized as nutritious because it caused plants and trees to grow , and also as a desirable beverage . Pindar called spring water `` as agreeable as honey '' .
Baptism
Many cultures practice or have practiced initiation rites , with or without the use of water , including the ancient Egyptian , the Hebraic / Jewish , the Babylonian , the Mayan , and the Norse cultures . The modern Japanese practice of Miyamairi is such as ceremony that does not use water . In some , such evidence may be archaeological and descriptive in nature , rather than a modern practice .
Maya civilization
Maya households interred their dead underneath the floors of their houses , with offerings appropriate to the social status of the family . There the dead could act as protective ancestors . Maya lineages were patrilineal , so the worship of a prominent male ancestor would be emphasized , often with a household shrine . As Maya society developed , and the elite became more powerful , Maya royalty developed their household shrines into the great pyramids that held the tombs of their ancestors .
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred relatively independent city - states ( poleis ) . This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies , which were either tribal or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories . Undoubtedly the geography of Greece -- divided and sub-divided by hills , mountains , and rivers -- contributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece . On the one hand , the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were `` one people '' ; they had the same religion , same basic culture , and same language . Furthermore , the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins ; Herodotus was able to extensively categorise the city - states by tribe . Yet , although these higher - level relationships existed , they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics . The independence of the poleis was fiercely defended ; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks . Even when , during the second Persian invasion of Greece , a group of city - states allied themselves to defend Greece , the vast majority of poleis remained neutral , and after the Persian defeat , the allies quickly returned to infighting .
Saudi Arabia
Thamud is the name of an ancient civilization in the Hejaz known from the 1st millennium BC to near the time of Muhammad . More than 9,000 Thamudic inscriptions were recorded in south - west Saudi Arabia . Nabatean
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
The rotten remains of the ship sink in a whirlpool , leaving only the mariner behind . A hermit on the mainland had seen the approaching ship and had come to meet it with a pilot and his boy , in a boat . When they pull him from the water , they think he is dead , but when he opens his mouth , the pilot has a fit . The hermit prays , and the mariner picks up the oars to row . The pilot 's boy goes crazy and laughs , thinking the mariner is the devil , and cries , `` The Devil knows how to row '' . As penance for shooting the albatross , the mariner , driven by guilt , is forced to wander the earth , telling his story over and over , and teaching a lesson to those he meets :
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
The crew is angry with the mariner , believing the albatross brought the south wind that led them out of the Antarctic . However , the sailors change their minds when the weather becomes warmer and the mist disappears :
Blackwater (Game of Thrones)
The episode was written by George R.R. Martin , the author of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels on which the series is based . For this episode Martin adapted material from chapters 58 to 63 ( Sansa V , Davos III , Tyrion XIII , Sansa VI , Tyrion XIV , and Sansa VII ) of his novel A Clash of Kings . Martin said that `` Blackwater '' was much harder to write than the episode he wrote for the show 's first season , `` The Pointy End '' , because he was forced to weigh budget restrictions against the huge scope of the battle he described in the novels .
First Fleet
Assisted by the gales in the `` Roaring Forties '' latitudes below the 40th parallel , the heavily laden transports surged through the violent seas . In the last two months of the voyage , the Fleet faced challenging conditions , spending some days becalmed and on others covering significant distances ; the Friendship travelled 166 miles one day , while a seaman was blown from the Prince of Wales at night and drowned . Water was rationed as supplies ran low , and the supply of other goods including wine ran out altogether on some vessels . Van Diemen 's Land was sighted from the Friendship on 4 January 1788 . A freak storm struck as they began to head north around the island , damaging the sails and masts of some of the ships .
Ancient Egypt
The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley , and several other cereal grains , all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer . Flax plants , uprooted before they started flowering , were grown for the fibers of their stems . These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread , which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing . Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper . Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots , close to habitations and on higher ground , and had to be watered by hand . Vegetables included leeks , garlic , melons , squashes , pulses , lettuce , and other crops , in addition to grapes that were made into wine . Animals
Mycenaean Greece
Mycenaean Greece ( or Mycenaean civilization ) was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece , spanning the period from approximately 1600 -- 1100 BC . It represents the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece , with its palatial states , urban organization , works of art and writing system . Among the centers of power that emerged , the most notable were those of Pylos , Tiryns , Midea in the Peloponnese , Orchomenos , Thebes , Athens in Central Greece and Iolcos in Thessaly . The most prominent site was Mycenae , in the Argolid , after which the culture of this era is named . Mycenaean and Mycenaean - influenced settlements also appeared in Epirus , Macedonia , on islands in the Aegean Sea , on the coast of Asia Minor , the Levant , Cyprus and Italy .
The Left Hand of Darkness
The myths and legends serve to explain specific features about Gethenian culture , as well as larger philosophical aspects of society . Many of the tales used in the novel immediately precede chapters describing Ai 's experience with a similar situation . For instance , a story about the dangers of foretelling is presented before Ai 's own experience witnessing a foretelling . Other stories include a discussion of the legend of the `` place inside the storm '' ; another discusses the roots of the Yomeshta cult ; a third is an ancient Orgota creation myth ; a fourth is a story of one of Estraven 's ancestors , which discusses what a traitor is . The presence of myths and legends has also been cited by reviewers who state that Le Guin 's work , particularly Left Hand , is similar to allegory in many ways . These include the presence of a guide ( Estraven ) for the protagonist ( Ai ) , and the use of myths and legends to provide a backdrop for the story .
Ancient Egypt
The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world : the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes . Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes , but also to reinforce the wide - ranging power of the pharaoh . The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders ; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments , architects could build large stone structures with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today .
Semen
In some pre-industrial societies , semen and other body fluids were revered because they were believed to be magical . Blood is an example of such a fluid , but semen was also widely believed to be of supernatural origin and effect and was , as a result , considered holy or sacred . The ancient Sumerians believed that semen was `` a divine substance , endowed on humanity by Enki '' , the god of water . The semen of a god was believed to have magical generative powers . In Sumerian mythology , when Enki 's seed was planted in the ground , it caused the spontaneous growth of eight previously - nonexistent plants . Enki was believed to have created the Tigris and Euphrates rivers by masturbating and ejaculating into their empty riverbeds . The Sumerians believed that rain was the semen of the sky - god An , which fell from the heavens to inseminate his consort , the earth - goddess Ki , causing her to give birth to all the plants of the earth .
Ancient Egypt
Egyptian society was highly stratified , and social status was expressly displayed . Farmers made up the bulk of the population , but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state , temple , or noble family that owned the land . Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system . Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers , but they were also under state control , working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury . Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt , known as the `` white kilt class '' in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank . The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature . Below the nobility were the priests , physicians , and engineers with specialized training in their field . Slavery was known in ancient Egypt , but the extent and prevalence of its practice are unclear . Punishment
Blackwater (Game of Thrones)
According to the novels , the song is about Tywin Lannister 's victory over vassals led by House Reyne of Castamere , who had rebelled against House Lannister , about 40 years before the events of the novels . The stanza of the song that was adapted for the series tells of the vassals ' defiance - -- `` And who are you , the proud lord said / That I must bow so low ? '' -- - and the subsequent obliteration of their houses : `` But now the rains weep o'er his hall / With no one there to hear . ''
Southwestern United States
According to archeological finds , the Ancestral Pueblo people , also known as the Anasazi ( although that term is becoming more and more disused ) , began settling in the area in approximately 1500 BC . Eventually , they would spread throughout the entire northern section of the Southwest . This culture would go through several different eras lasting from approximately 1500 BC through the middle of the 15th century AD : the Basketmaker I , II , and III phases followed by the Pueblo I , II , III , and IV . As the Puebloans transitioned from a nomadic lifestyle to one based on agriculture , their first domiciles were pithouses . The Mogollon culture developed later than the Puebloan , arising in the eastern area of the region at around 300 BC . Their range would eventually extend deep into what would become Mexico , and dominate the southeastern portion of the Southwest . Their settlements would evolve over time from pit - dwellings through pueblos and finally also incorporating cliff - dwellings . The Hohokam were the last of these ancestral cultures to develop , somewhere around 1 AD , but they would grow to be the most populous of the three by 1300 AD , despite being the smallest of the three in terms of area , covering most of the southwest portion . Beginning in approximately 600 AD , the Hohokam began to develop an extensive series of irrigation canals ; of the three major cultures in the Southwest , only the Hohokam developed irrigation as a means of watering their agriculture .
Ancient Egypt
The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods , reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite , as well as societal personal - use items , which included combs , small statuary , painted pottery , high quality decorative stone vases , cosmetic palettes , and jewelry made of gold , lapis , and ivory . They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience , which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups , amulets , and figurines . During the last predynastic phase , the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language .
Blackwater (Game of Thrones)
With their still - limited resources , the show 's producers decided not to attempt to create spectacular mass scenes similar to that of The Lord of the Rings 's Battle of Helm 's Deep , but rather to focus on the infantryman 's perspective , hampered as he is by the fog of war . They said that this also allows the series to draw on its viewers ' empathy for the battle 's participants , with whom viewers are already much more familiar than the audience of a typical two - hour movie . They resisted pressure to stage the battle exclusively on land , avoiding the problems of shooting on water , because they considered the naval confrontation to be essential to the series 's principal storyline .
The Orville
But Klyden and the tribunal are unconvinced , and the baby undergoes the surgery . Despite their disagreement , Bortus and Klyden are committed to one another and to giving their son , Topa , a good life . `` If the Stars Should Appear '' James L. Conway Seth MacFarlane September 28 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 28 ) 1LAB02 3.70 The Orville encounters a huge , 2000 - year - old derelict ship drifting into a star . Mercer , Grayson , Kitan , Finn , and Isaac enter , discovering an artificial biosphere and a civilization of 3 million who worship an entity called Dorahl , and do not know they are on a ship . Grayson is held prisoner by their theocratic dictator Hamelac , who imposes a death penalty on `` Reformers '' who believe anything exists beyond the known world . While Bortus takes the Orville to save a colony ship from a Krill attack , Grayson 's crewmates rescue her and lead a group of Reformers to the alien ship 's bridge . An ancient recording from Captain Jahavus Dorahl ( played by Liam Neeson ) reveals that it was a generation ship disabled by an ion storm . Isaac initiates repairs and opens the hull 's window , enabling the populace to see stars for the first time , moving even Hamelac . Mercer makes arrangements for the Union to train the people to operate their ship . Meanwhile , Klyden is frustrated that Bortus ' duties leave him little time for family . 5 `` Pria '' Jonathan Frakes Seth MacFarlane October 5 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 05 ) 1LAB05 3.43 The Orville comes to the rescue of a mining ship . Grayson is suspicious of their new guest , Pria Lavesque ( Charlize Theron ) , to whom Mercer is clearly attracted . Grayson 's concerns are shown to have merit when Pria is discovered to be a time - traveling artifact dealer from the 29th Century . Pria claims to have rescued the Orville from a dark matter storm that would have killed them all , mainly so she could sell the ship to an artifact buyer in her own time .
Siege
Advances in the prosecution of sieges in ancient and medieval times naturally encouraged the development of a variety of defensive countermeasures . In particular , medieval fortifications became progressively stronger -- for example , the advent of the concentric castle from the period of the Crusades -- and more dangerous to attackers -- witness the increasing use of machicolations and murder - holes , as well the preparation of hot or incendiary substances . Arrowslits ( also called arrow loops or loopholes ) , sally ports ( airlock - like doors ) for sallies , and deep water wells were also integral means of resisting siege at this time . Particular attention would be paid to defending entrances , with gates protected by drawbridges , portcullises , and barbicans . Moats and other water defences , whether natural or augmented , were also vital to defenders .
Ancient Egypt
By the New Kingdom , the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification ; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs , removing the brain through the nose , and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron . The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin . Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases . Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras , while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy , which was decorated .
Cradle of civilization
Circa 1800 BC , the Norte Chico civilization began to decline , with more powerful centers appearing to the south and north along the coast and to the east inside the belt of the Andes . Pottery eventually developed in the Amazon Basin and spread to the Andean culture region around 2000 BC . The next major civilization to arise in the Andes would be the Chavín culture at Chavín de Huantar , located in the Andean highlands of the present - day Ancash Region . It is believed to have been built around 900 BC and was the religious and political center of the Chavín people .
National Convention
Bicameral legislature as a precaution against sudden political fluctuations was proposed : the Council of Five Hundred with rights to propose laws and Council of the Ancients , 250 deputies , with powers to accept or reject proposed laws . Executive power was to be shared between five Directors chosen by the Ancients from the list drawn by Five Hundred . One of the Directors would be renewed each year with re-election after five years . As one of the practical precautions , no military were allowed within 60 miles of the sitting assembly and it could relocate in case of danger . The Directory still retained great power , including emergency powers to curb freedom of the press and freedom of association .
Stratovolcano
In recorded history , explosive eruptions at subduction zone ( convergent - boundary ) volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations . Subduction - zone stratovolcanoes , such as Mount St. Helens , Mount Etna and Mount Pinatubo , typically erupt with explosive force : the magma is too stiff to allow easy escape of volcanic gases . As a consequence , the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain in the pasty magma . Following the breaching of the magma chamber , the magma degasses explosively . The gases and water gush out with speed and force .
Priesthood in the Catholic Church
Historical number of priests worldwide Year Priests ± % 1970 419,728 -- 404,783 − 3.6 % 1980 413,600 + 2.2 % 1985 403,480 − 2.4 % Year Priests ± % 1990 403,173 − 0.1 % 1995 404,750 + 0.4 % 2000 405,178 + 0.1 % 2005 406,411 + 0.3 % Year Priests ± % 412,236 + 1.4 % 2014 414,313 + 0.5 % Includes both diocesan and religious priests .
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The church reports a worldwide membership of 16 million ; This is the church 's own accounting , based on membership records . The church 's definition of `` membership '' includes all persons who were ever baptized , or whose parents were members while the person was under the age of eight called `` members of record '' ( LDS Church 2006 , pp. 145 -- 46 ) , who have neither been excommunicated nor asked to have their names removed from church records ( LDS Church 2006 , pp. 116 , 148 -- 49 ). < / ref > with approximately 8.3 million residing outside the United States , as of December 2011 . According to these statistics it is the fourth largest religious body in the United States . The church membership report includes all baptized members and their children . Although the church does not release attendance figures to the public , researchers estimate that actual attendance at weekly LDS worship services globally is around 4 million . Members living in the U.S. and Canada constitute 46 % percent of membership , Latin America 38 percent , and members in the rest of the world 16 percent . The 2012 Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey , conducted by Princeton Survey Research Associates International , found that approximately 2 percent of the U.S. adult population self identified as Mormon .
Vitiligo
Globally about 1 % of people are affected by vitiligo . Some populations have rates as high as 2 -- 3 % . Males and females are equally affected . About half show the disorder before age 20 and most develop it before age 40 . Vitiligo has been described since ancient history .
Polar bear
Warnings about the future of the polar bear are often contrasted with the fact that worldwide population estimates have increased over the past 50 years and are relatively stable today . Some estimates of the global population are around 5,000 to 10,000 in the early 1970s ; other estimates were 20,000 to 40,000 during the 1980s . Current estimates put the global population at between 20,000 and 25,000 or 22,000 and 31,000 .
Priesthood in the Catholic Church
Worldwide , the number of priests has remained fairly steady since 1970 , decreasing by about 5,000 . This stagnation is due to a balance of large growth in Africa and Asia and a significant decrease in North America and Europe .
Chernobyl disaster
Worldwide , an estimated excess of about 150,000 elective abortions may have been performed on otherwise healthy pregnancies out of unfounded fears of radiation from Chernobyl , according to Dr Robert Baker and ultimately a 1987 article published by Linda E. Ketchum in the Journal of Nuclear Medicine which mentions but does not reference an IAEA source on the matter .