vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Penny dreadful
Victorian era Britain experienced social changes that resulted in increased literacy rates . With the rise of capitalism and industrialisation , people began to spend more money on entertainment , contributing to the popularisation of the novel . Improvements in printing resulted in newspapers such as Joseph Addison 's The Spectator and Richard Steele 's The Tatler , and England 's more fully recognizing the singular concept of reading as a form of leisure ; it was , of itself , a new industry . Other significant changes included industrialisation and an increased capacity for travel via the invention of tracks , engines , and the corresponding railway distribution .
Wealth inequality in the United States
Additionally , income does not capture the extent of wealth inequality . Wealth is derived over time from the collection of income earnings and growth of assets . The income of one year can not encompass the accumulation over a lifetime . Income statistics view too narrow a time span for it to be an adequate indicator of financial inequality . For example , the Gini coefficient for wealth inequality increased from 0.80 in 1983 to 0.84 in 1989 . In the same year , 1989 , the Gini coefficient for income was only 0.52 . The Gini coefficient is an economic tool on a scale from 0 to 1 that measures the level of inequality. 1 signifies perfect inequality and 0 represents perfect equality . From this data , it is evident that in 1989 there was a discrepancy about the level of economic disparity with the extent of wealth inequality significantly higher than income inequality . Recent research shows that many households , in particular those headed by young parents ( younger than 35 ) , minorities , and individuals with low educational attainment , display very little accumulation . Many have no financial assets and their total net worth is also low . Play
History of women in the United States
The benefits of economic growth were widely distributed , with even farm laborers better off at the end of the colonial period . The growing population led to shortages of good farm land on which young families could establish themselves ; one result was to delay marriage , and another was to move to new lands further west . In the towns and cities , there was strong entrepreneurship , and a steady increase in the specialization of labor . Wages for men went up steadily before 1775 ; new occupations were opening for women , including weaving , teaching , and tailoring . The region bordered New France , which used Indian warriors to attack outlying villages . Women were sometimes captured . In the numerous French and Indian Wars the British government poured money in to purchase supplies , build roads and pay colonial soldiers . The coastal ports began to specialize in fishing , international trade and shipbuilding -- and after 1780 in whaling . Combined with a growing urban markets for farm products , these factors allowed the economy to flourish despite the lack of technological innovation . Schooling
Tariff
In 1812 , all tariffs were increased to 25 % due to the war . There was a brief episode of free trade from 1846 but the panic of 1857 eventually led to higher tariff demands than President James Buchanan , signed in 1861 ( Morrill Tariff ) .
New Deal
James T. Patterson has reiterated this argument , though he observes that this increased tension can be accounted for not just from a political perspective , but from an economic one too . Patterson has argued that the tension between the federal and state governments at least partly also resulted from the economic strain under which the states had been put by the federal government 's various policies and agencies . Some states were either simply unable to cope with the federal government 's demand and thus refused to work with them , or admonished the economic restraints and actively decided to sabotage federal policies . This was demonstrated , Patterson has noted , with the handling of federal relief money by Ohio governor , Martin L. Davey . The case in Ohio became so detrimental to the federal government that Harry Hopkins , supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration , had to federalize Ohio relief . Although this argument differs somewhat from Schlesinger 's , the source of federal - state tension remained the growth of the federal government . As Patterson has asserted , `` though the record of the FERA was remarkably good -- almost revolutionary -- in these respects it was inevitable , given the financial requirements imposed on deficit - ridden states , that friction would develop between governors and federal officials '' .
History of the United States Merchant Marine
There was a decidedly unhealthy element to this remarkable activity in ship building . In the first place the demand from Europe because of the Crimean War was abnormal ; between 1854 and 1859 the European nations were buying 50,000 tons of shipping as against 10,000 tons in normal years . Unfortunately , this increase in the building of sailing ships came at a time when their days were numbered , for between 1850 and 1860 the share of ocean freight carried by steamers increased from 14 to 28 percent . When the abnormal demand for sailing ships should let up , as it did in 1858 , it meant that shipyards built and equipped for the production of wooden ships and shipwrights trained for a type no longer wanted would be idle , while foreign shipyards already engaged in the building of the iron steamship would be in a decidedly superior position . The panic of 1857 precipitated the crash . In 1858 ship building , which had been maintained for the preceding years at an average of 400,000 tons a year dropped to 244,000 and in 1859 to 156,000 . At that time the combined imports and exports carried in American bottoms was steadily declining , only 65.2 percent being carried in 1861 as against 92.5 percent in 1826 . Another factor in the decline of American ship building was a fundamental economic change in progress throughout the United States . Capital was finding new and more profitable fields for investment . Manufacturing , which grew rapidly after the War of 1812 , absorbed some of it ; while considerable amounts were drawn into such internal improvements as canals and railways . Between 1820 and 1838 the states contracted debts of over $110,000,000 for the building of roads , canals , and railroads ; from 1830 to 1860 over 30,000 miles of railroad were built , most of the capital coming from private investors . The minds of the venturous and ambitious turned from the sea to the unexploited West , and capital turned from ship building to the development of natural resources .
Early skyscrapers
Skyscrapers continued to grow in height throughout the 1920s . In part this was the result of improvements in technology : steel - frame structures had become increasingly efficient , while improvements in elevator design made taller buildings easier to ascend . Commercial factors were at work too , as growing commercial demand pushed up rents , enabling taller projects , while the higher offices attracted more sunlight , permitting the charging of premium rents . The tallest buildings could also acquire publicity for their owners , in turn making it easier to find and keep the best tenants . Furthermore , the higher the cost of the underlying real estate , the taller a building needed to be to generate a suitable return on the investment , and the minimum sensible commercial height for a skyscraper project grew to between 40 and 45 stories . 70 story skyscrapers became relatively common , although an influential 1930 study demonstrated that the best rate of return on a skyscraper was to build it 63 stories high , returning an annual profit of 10.25 percent . Main
Socioeconomic status
Income inequality is most commonly measured around the world by the Gini coefficient , where 0 corresponds to perfect equality and 1 means perfect inequality . Low income families focus on meeting immediate needs and do not accumulate wealth that could be passed on to future generations , thus increasing inequality . Families with higher and expendable income can accumulate wealth and focus on meeting immediate needs while being able to consume and enjoy luxuries and weather crises .
History of the United States (1945–64)
Consumerism represented one of the consequences ( as well as one of the key ingredients ) of the postwar economic boom . The initial quest for cars , appliances , and new furniture after the end of World War II quickly expanded into the mass consumption of goods , services , and recreational materials during the Fifties . Between 1945 and 1960 , GNP grew by 250 % , expenditures on new construction multiplied nine times , and consumption on personal services increased three times . By 1960 , per capita income was 35 % higher than in 1945 , and America had entered what the economist Walt Rostow referred to as the `` high mass consumption '' stage of economic development . Short - term credit went up from $8.4 billion in 1946 to $45.6 billion in 1958 . As a result of the postwar economic boom , 60 % of the American population had attained a `` middle - class '' standard of living by the mid-50s ( defined as incomes of $3,000 to $10,000 in constant dollars ) , compared with only 31 % in the last year of prosperity before the onset of the Great Depression . By the end of the decade , 87 % of families owned a TV set , 75 % a car , and 75 % a washing machine . Between 1947 and 1960 , the average real income for American workers increased by as much as it had in the previous half - century .
Great Depression
Many economists have argued that the sharp decline in international trade after 1930 helped to worsen the depression , especially for countries significantly dependent on foreign trade . In a 1995 survey of American economic historians , two - thirds agreed that the Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act at least worsened the Great Depression . Most historians and economists partly blame the American Smoot -- Hawley Tariff Act ( enacted June 17 , 1930 ) for worsening the depression by seriously reducing international trade and causing retaliatory tariffs in other countries . While foreign trade was a small part of overall economic activity in the U.S. and was concentrated in a few businesses like farming , it was a much larger factor in many other countries . The average ad valorem rate of duties on dutiable imports for 1921 -- 25 was 25.9 % but under the new tariff it jumped to 50 % during 1931 -- 35 . In dollar terms , American exports declined over the next four ( 4 ) years from about $5.2 billion in 1929 to $1.7 billion in 1933 ; so , not only did the physical volume of exports fall , but also the prices fell by about 1 / 3 as written . Hardest hit were farm commodities such as wheat , cotton , tobacco , and lumber .
National Convention
Only to the wage earners did the Maximum seem thoroughly advantageous . It increased wages by one - half in relation to 1790 , and commodities by only one - third . But since the Committee did not ensure that it was respected ( except for bread ) , they would have been duped had they not been benefiting from the favorable conditions that a great war always offers the labor force . Still Paris became calmer , because the sans - culottes were gradually finding ways to subsist ; the levée en masse and the formation of the revolutionary army were thinning their ranks ; many now were working in arms and equipment shops , or in the offices of the committees and ministries , which were expanded enormously . The
Collectivization in the Soviet Union
This demand for more grain resulted in the reintroduction of requisitioning which was resisted in rural areas . In 1928 there was a 2 - million - ton shortfall in grains purchased by the Soviet Union from neighbouring markets . Stalin claimed the grain had been produced but was being hoarded by `` kulaks . '' Instead of raising the price , the Politburo adopted an emergency measure to requisition 2.5 million tons of grain .
Atlantic Ocean
Trans - Atlantic trade also resulted in an increasing urbanization : in European countries facing the Atlantic urbanization grew from 8 % in 1300 , 10.1 % in 1500 , to 24.5 % in 1850 ; in other European countries from 10 % in 1300 , 11.4 % in 1500 , to 17 % in 1850 . Likewise , GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but rose by only 30 % in the rest of Europe . By end of the 17th century the volume of the Trans - Atlantic trade had surpassed that of the Mediterranean trade . See
Sugar Act
New England ports especially suffered economic losses from the Sugar Act as the stricter enforcement made smuggling molasses more dangerous and risky . Also they argued that the profit margin on rum was too small to support any tax on molasses . Forced to increase their prices , many colonists feared being priced out of the market . The British West Indies , on the other hand , now had undivided access to colonial exports . With supply of molasses well exceeding demand , the islands prospered with their reduced expenses while New England ports saw revenue from their rum exports decrease . Also the West Indies had been the primary colonial source for hard currency , or specie , and as the reserves of specie were depleted the soundness of colonial currency was threatened .
History of Mexico
The American Panic of 1907 was an economic downturn that caused a sudden drop in demand for Mexican copper , silver , gold , zinc , and other metals . Mexico in turn cut its imports of horses and mules , mining machinery , and railroad supplies . The result was an economic depression in Mexico in 1908 -- 1909 that soured optimism and raised discontent with the Díaz regime , thus helping to set the stage for revolution in 1910 .
Aggregate demand
But different levels of economic activity imply different mixtures of output and price increases . As shown , with very low levels of real gross domestic product and thus large amounts of unemployed resources , most economists of the Keynesian school suggest that most of the change would be in the form of output and employment increases . As the economy gets close to potential output ( Y ∗ ( \ displaystyle Y ^ ( * ) ) ) , we would see more and more price increases rather than output increases as A D ( \ displaystyle AD ) increases .
Federalist Era
In December 1791 , Hamilton published the Report on Manufactures , which recommended numerous policies designed to protect U.S. merchants and industries in order to increase national wealth , induce artisans to immigrate , cause machinery to be invented , and employ women and children . Hamilton called for federally - funded infrastructure projects , the establishment of state - owned munitions factories and subsidies for privately owned factories , and the imposition of a protective tariff . Though Congress had adopted much of Hamilton 's earlier proposals , his manufacturing proposals fell flat , even in the more - industrialized North , as merchant - shipowners had a stake in free trade . These opponents also raised questions regarding the constitutionality of Hamilton 's proposals . Jefferson and others feared that Hamilton 's expansive interpretation of the Taxing and Spending Clause would grant Congress the power to legislate on any subject . Opponents of Hamilton won several seats in the 1792 Congressional elections , and Hamilton was unable to win Congressional approval of his ambitious economic proposals after 1792 . Federalists would not pass further major economic until after John Adams took office as president in 1797 .
Panic of 1837
In 1836 , directors of the Bank of England noticed that the Bank 's monetary reserves had declined precipitously in recent years , possibly because of poor wheat harvests that forced Great Britain to import much of its food . To compensate , the directors indicated that they would gradually raise interest rates from 3 to 5 percent . Conventional financial theory held that banks should raise interest rates and curb lending when faced with low monetary reserves . Raising interest rates , according to the laws of supply and demand , was supposed to attract specie since money generally flows where it will generate the greatest return ( assuming equal risk among possible investments ) . In the open economy of the 1830s , characterized by free trade and relatively weak trade barriers , the monetary policies of the hegemonic power -- in this case , Great Britain -- were transmitted to the rest of the interconnected global economic system , included the U.S. The result was that as the Bank of England raised interest rates , major banks in the United States were forced to do the same . An
French Revolution
The economy did poorly in 1790 -- 96 as industrial and agricultural output dropped , foreign trade plunged , and prices soared . The government decided not to repudiate the old debts . Instead it issued more and more paper money ( called `` assignat '' ) that supposedly were grounded seized lands . The result was escalating inflation . The government imposed price controls and persecuted speculators and traders in the black market . People increasingly refused to pay taxes as the annual government deficit increased from 10 % of gross national product in 1789 to 64 % in 1793 . By 1795 , after the bad harvest of 1794 and the removal of price controls , inflation had reached a level of 3500 % . The assignats were withdrawn in 1796 but the replacements also fuelled inflation . The inflation was finally ended by Napoleon in 1803 with the franc as the new currency .
Standardized test
It was from Britain that standardized testing spread , not only throughout the British Commonwealth , but to Europe and then America . Its spread was fueled by the Industrial Revolution . The increase in number of school students during and after the Industrial Revolution , as a result of compulsory education laws , decreased the use of open - ended assessment , which was harder to mass - produce and assess objectively due to its intrinsically subjective nature . For instance , measurement error is easy to determine in standardized testing , whereas in open - ended assessment , graders have more individual discretion and therefore are more likely to produce unfair results through unconscious bias . When the score depends upon the graders ' individual preferences , then the result an individual student receives depends upon who grades the test .
Economy of Mexico
Mexico City is the most important financial and economic center in Mexico Currency Mexican peso ( MXN $ ) 1 US $ = 18.10 MXN ( 2018 ) Fiscal year Calendar Trade organizations APEC , NAFTA , OECD and WTO Statistics GDP $1.147 trillion ( nominal ; 2017 ) $2.4 trillion ( PPP ; 2017 ) ) GDP rank 15th ( nominal ) / 11th ( PPP ) GDP growth 3.3 % ( 2015 ) , 2.9 % ( 2016 ) , 2.0 % ( 2017f ) , 2.3 % ( 2018f ) GDP per capita $8,700 ( 2016 ) ( nominal ) $18,900 ( 2016 ) ( PPP ) GDP by sector agriculture : 3.6 % , industry : 36.6 % , services : 59.8 % ( 2013 est . ) Inflation ( CPI ) 2.5 % ( 2015 est . ) Population below poverty line 42 , 3 % ( 2017 ) Gini coefficient 53.6 ( 2017 ) Labor force 53 million ( 2015 est . ) Labor force by occupation agriculture : 13.4 % , industry : 24.1 % , services : 61.9 % ( 2011 ) Unemployment 3.44 % ( 2017 ) Main industries Food and beverages tobacco aerospace chemicals iron and steel petroleum mining textiles clothing motor vehicles consumer durables tourism Ease - of - doing - business rank 49th ( 2018 ) External Exports $406.5 billion ( 2017 est . ) Export goods automobiles , electronics , televisions , computers , mobile phones , LCDs , oil and oil products , silver , fruits , vegetables , coffee , cotton . Main export partners United States 80.3 % Canada 2.7 % China 1.5 % Spain 1.5 % Brazil 1.2 % ( 2014 est . ) Imports $417.3 billion ( 2017 est . ) Import goods metalworking machines , steel mill products , agricultural machinery , metals , repair parts for motor vehicles , aircraft , and aircraft parts , oil production equipment Main import partners United States 49.0 % China 16.6 % Japan 4.4 % Germany 3.4 % South Korea 3.4 % ( 2014 est . ) Public finances Public debt $341 billion ( 2010 ) / 47.9 % of GDP ( 2016 est . ) Revenues $234.3 billion ( 2010 est . ) Expenses $263.8 billion ( 2010 est .
American Revolutionary War
Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war , from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779 . Spain more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally , partially due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies ; production increased approximately 600 % in Mexico , and by 250 % in Peru and Bolivia .
United States Postal Service
In response , the USPS has increased productivity each year from 2000 to 2007 , through increased automation , route re-optimization , and facility consolidation . Despite these efforts , the organization saw an $8.5 billion budget shortfall in 2010 , and was losing money at a rate of about $3 billion per quarter in 2011 .
New Deal
Analysts agree the New Deal produced a new political coalition that sustained the Democratic Party as the majority party in national politics into the 1960s . A 2013 study found that `` an average increase in New Deal relief and public works spending resulted in a 5.4 percentage point increase in the 1936 Democratic voting share and a smaller amount in 1940 . The estimated persistence of this shift suggests that New Deal spending increased long - term Democratic support by 2 to 2.5 percentage points . Thus , it appears that Roosevelt 's early , decisive actions created long - lasting positive benefits for the Democratic party ... The New Deal did play an important role in consolidating Democratic gains for at least two decades '' .
Great Depression
Producers reduced their expenditures on durable goods , and inventories declined , but personal income was only 15 % lower than it had been at the peak in 1937 . As unemployment rose , consumers ' expenditures declined , leading to further cutbacks in production . By May 1938 retail sales began to increase , employment improved , and industrial production turned up after June 1938 . After the recovery from the Recession of 1937 -- 38 , conservatives were able to form a bipartisan conservative coalition to stop further expansion of the New Deal and , when unemployment dropped to 2 % in the early 1940s , they abolished WPA , CCC and the PWA relief programs . Social Security remained in place .
New Deal
From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third . Prices fell by 20 % , causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder . Unemployment in the United States increased from 4 % to 25 % . Additionally , one - third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part - time on much smaller paychecks . In the aggregate , almost 50 % of the nation 's human work - power was going unused .
Tooth decay
Reduced salivary flow rate is associated with increased caries since the buffering capability of saliva is not present to counterbalance the acidic environment created by certain foods . As a result , medical conditions that reduce the amount of saliva produced by salivary glands , in particular the submandibular gland and parotid gland , are likely to lead to dry mouth and thus to widespread tooth decay . Examples include Sjögren 's syndrome , diabetes mellitus , diabetes insipidus , and sarcoidosis . Medications , such as antihistamines and antidepressants , can also impair salivary flow . Stimulants , most notoriously methylamphetamine , also occlude the flow of saliva to an extreme degree . This is known as meth mouth . Tetrahydrocannabinol ( THC ) , the active chemical substance in cannabis , also causes a nearly complete occlusion of salivation , known in colloquial terms as `` cotton mouth '' . Moreover , 63 % of the most commonly prescribed medications in the United States list dry mouth as a known side - effect . Radiation therapy of the head and neck may also damage the cells in salivary glands , somewhat increasing the likelihood of caries formation .