vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Medieval music
Around AD 1011 , the Roman Catholic Church wanted to standardize the Mass and chant across its empire . At this time , Rome was the religious centre of western Europe , and Paris was the political centre . The standardization effort consisted mainly of combining these two ( Roman and Gallican ) regional liturgies . Pope Gregory I and Charlemagne sent trained singers throughout the Holy Roman Empire to teach this new form of chant . This body of chant became known as Gregorian Chant , named after Pope Gregory I. By the 12th and 13th centuries , Gregorian chant had superseded all the other Western chant traditions , with the exception of the Ambrosian chant in Milan and the Mozarabic chant in a few specially designated Spanish chapels . Hildegard von Bingen ( 1098 -- 1179 ) was the earliest known female composer . She wrote many monophonic works for the Catholic Church , almost all of them for female voices .
History of the Catholic Church
When Leo XIII became pope in 1878 he tried to calm Church - State relations . In 1884 he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner to the State . In 1892 he issued an encyclical advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in Republican politics . This attempt at improving the relationship failed . Deep - rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the Dreyfus Affair . Catholics were for the most part anti-dreyfusard . The Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their journal La Croix . This infuriated Republican politicians , who were eager to take revenge . Often they worked in alliance with Masonic lodges . The Waldeck - Rousseau Ministry ( 1899 -- 1902 ) and the Combes Ministry ( 1902 -- 05 ) fought with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops . Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals ( 1903 -- 04 ) , and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs ( 1904 ) . Combes as Prime Minister in 1902 , was determined to thoroughly defeat Catholicism . He closed down all parochial schools in France . Then he had parliament reject authorisation of all religious orders . This meant that all fifty four orders were dissolved and about 20,000 members immediately left France , many for Spain . In 1905 the 1801 Concordat was abrogated ; Church and State were finally separated . All Church property was confiscated . Public worship was given over to associations of Catholic laymen who controlled access to churches . In practise , Masses and rituals continued . The Church was badly hurt and lost half its priests . In the long run , however , it gained autonomy -- for the State no longer had a voice in choosing bishops and Gallicanism was dead . Church
History of the Catholic Church
According to Catholic teaching , the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ . The New Testament records Jesus ' activities and teaching , his appointment of the twelve Apostles , and his instructions to them to continue his work . The Catholic Church teaches that the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles , in an event known as Pentecost , signaled the beginning of the public ministry of the Church . Catholics hold that Saint Peter was Rome 's first bishop and the consecrator of Linus as its next bishop , thus starting the unbroken line which includes the current pontiff , Pope Francis . That is , the Catholic Church maintains the apostolic succession of the Bishop of Rome , the Pope - the successor to Saint Peter .
History of the Catholic Church
The Catholic Church engaged in a comprehensive process of reform following the Second Vatican Council ( 1962 -- 65 ) . Intended as a continuation of Vatican I , under Pope John XXIII the council developed into an engine of modernisation . It was tasked with making the historical teachings of the Church clear to a modern world , and made pronouncements on topics including the nature of the church , the mission of the laity and religious freedom . The council approved a revision of the liturgy and permitted the Latin liturgical rites to use vernacular languages as well as Latin during mass and other sacraments . Efforts by the Church to improve Christian unity became a priority . In addition to finding common ground on certain issues with Protestant churches , the Catholic Church has discussed the possibility of unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church . Reforms
Council of Trent
Part of a series on Ecumenical councils of the Catholic Church Renaissance depiction of the Council of Trent Antiquity ( c. 50 -- 451 ) Jerusalem Nicaea I Constantinople I Ephesus Chalcedon Early Middle Ages ( 553 -- 870 ) Constantinople II Constantinople III Nicaea II Constantinople IV High and Late Middle Ages ( 1122 -- 1517 ) Lateran I Lateran II Lateran III Lateran IV Lyon I Lyon II Vienne Constance Florence Lateran V Modernity ( 1545 -- 1965 ) Trent Vatican I Vatican II Catholicism portal
Timeline of the Ottoman Empire
Year Date Event 1718 Treaty of Passarowitz signed . 1718 Beginning of Tulip era ( up to 1730 ) 1729 First printing press in Turkish by Ibrahim Muteferrika 1730 Revolt of Patrona Halil . End of Tulip era . Ahmet III is dethroned . 1739 Treaty of Belgrade signed . 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca signed .
Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church
In the early 20th century , Church law prescribed fasting throughout Lent , with abstinence only on Friday and Saturday . Some countries received dispensations : Rome in 1918 allowed the bishops of Ireland to transfer the Saturday obligation to Wednesday ; in the United States , abstinence was not required on Saturday . The other weekdays were simply days of `` fasting without abstinence . '' A similar practice ( common in the United States ) was called `` partial abstinence '' , which allowed meat only once during the day at the main meal . ( There is nothing in current Catholic Canon Law which corresponds to `` partial abstinence '' . ) The countries of the former Spanish empire also had their own extensive dispensations from the Roman rules of fasting and abstinence , based on the `` Crusader privileges '' of the Spanish dominions as codified in the Bull of the Crusade . In some European colonies , the obligation to fast and abstain differed by race , with natives often having more lenient rules than Europeans or mestizos .
History of the Catholic Church
Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch , in his book The Reformation , A History noted that through all the slaughter of the Reformation era emerged the valuable concept of religious toleration and an improved Catholic Church which responded to doctrinal challenges and abuses highlighted by the Reformation at the Council of Trent ( 1545 -- 1563 ) . The council became the driving - force of the Counter-Reformation , and reaffirmed central Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation , and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation . It also reformed many other areas of importance to the Church , most importantly by improving the education of the clergy and consolidating the central jurisdiction of the Roman Curia . The criticisms of the Reformation were among factors that sparked new religious orders including the Theatines , Barnabites and Jesuits , some of which became the great missionary orders of later years . Spiritual renewal and reform were inspired by many new saints like Teresa of Avila , Francis de Sales and Philip Neri whose writings spawned distinct schools of spirituality within the Church ( Oratorians , Carmelites , Salesian ) , etc . Improvement to the education of the laity was another positive effect of the era , with a proliferation of secondary schools reinvigorating higher studies such as history , philosophy and theology . To popularize Counter-Reformation teachings , the Church encouraged the Baroque style in art , music and architecture . Baroque religious expression was stirring and emotional , created to stimulate religious fervor .
History of Catholic education in the United States
The History of Catholic Education in The United States extends from the early colonial era in Louisiana and Maryland to the parochial school system set up in most parishes in the 19th century , to hundreds of colleges , all down to the present .
History of the Catholic Church
During this period the Church faced colonial abuses from the Portuguese and Spanish governments . In South America , the Jesuits protected native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called reductions . Pope Gregory XVI , challenging Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty , appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies , condemned slavery and the slave trade in 1839 ( papal bull In supremo apostolatus ) , and approved the ordination of native clergy in spite of government racism .
Ancient Egypt
In 609 BC Necho II went to war with Babylonia , the Chaldeans , the Medians and the Scythians in an attempt to save Assyria , which after a brutal civil war was being overrun by this coalition of powers . However , the attempt to save Egypt 's former masters failed . The Egyptians delayed intervening too long , and Nineveh had already fallen and King Sin - shar - ishkun was dead by the time Necho II sent his armies northwards . However , Necho easily brushed aside the Israelite army under King Josiah but he and the Assyrians then lost a battle at Harran to the Babylonians , Medes and Scythians . Necho II and Ashur - uballit II of Assyria were finally defeated at Carchemish in Aramea ( modern Syria ) in 605 BC . The Egyptians remained in the area for some decades , struggling with the Babylonian kings Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II for control of portions of the former Assyrian Empire in The Levant . However , they were eventually driven back into Egypt , and Nebuchadnezzar II even briefly invaded Egypt itself in 567 BC . The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture , but in 525 BC , the powerful Persians , led by Cambyses II , began their conquest of Egypt , eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium . Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh , but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia ( modern Iran ) , leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy . A few temporarily successful revolts against the Persians marked the fifth century BC , but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians .
Ancient Egypt
Sennacherib had been murdered by his own sons for destroying the rebellious city of Babylon , a city sacred to all Mesopotamians , the Assyrians included . In 674 BC Esarhaddon launched a preliminary incursion into Egypt ; however , this attempt was repelled by Taharqa . However , in 671 BC , Esarhaddon launched a full - scale invasion . Part of his army stayed behind to deal with rebellions in Phoenicia , and Israel . The remainder went south to Rapihu , then crossed the Sinai , and entered Egypt . Esarhaddon decisively defeated Taharqa , took Memphis , Thebes and all the major cities of Egypt , and Taharqa was chased back to his Nubian homeland . Esarhaddon now called himself `` king of Egypt , Patros , and Kush '' , and returned with rich booty from the cities of the delta ; he erected a victory stele at this time , and paraded the captive Prince Ushankhuru , the son of Taharqa in Nineveh . Esarhaddon stationed a small army in northern Egypt and describes how `` All Ethiopians ( read Nubians / Kushites ) I deported from Egypt , leaving not one left to do homage to me '' . He installed native Egyptian princes throughout the land to rule on his behalf . The conquest by Esarhaddon effectively marked the end of the short lived Kushite Empire . Twenty
Israel
In 1947 , the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem . The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine , and rejected by Arab leaders . The following year , the Jewish Agency declared the independence of the State of Israel , and the subsequent 1948 Arab -- Israeli War saw Israel 's establishment over most of the former Mandate territory , while the West Bank and Gaza were held by neighboring Arab states . Israel has since fought several wars with Arab countries , and it has since 1967 occupied territories including the West Bank , Golan Heights and the Gaza Strip ( still considered occupied after 2005 disengagement , although some legal experts , dispute this claim ) . It extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem , but not the West Bank . Israel 's occupation of the Palestinian territories is the world 's longest military occupation in modern times . Efforts to resolve the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace . However , peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have been signed .
Biblical judges
Biblical scholar Kenneth Kitchen argues that , from the conquest of Canaan by Joshua until the formation of the first Kingdom of Israel and Judah ( ca . 1150 -- 1025 BC ) , the Israelite tribes formed a loose confederation . No central government existed in this confederation ; in times of crisis , the people were led by ad hoc chieftains , known as judges ( shoftim ) .
Israel
On 7 June 1981 , the Israeli air force destroyed Iraq 's sole nuclear reactor under construction just outside Baghdad , in order to impede Iraq 's nuclear weapons program . Following a series of PLO attacks in 1982 , Israel invaded Lebanon that year to destroy the bases from which the PLO launched attacks and missiles into northern Israel . In the first six days of fighting , the Israelis destroyed the military forces of the PLO in Lebanon and decisively defeated the Syrians . An Israeli government inquiry -- the Kahan Commission -- would later hold Begin , Sharon and several Israeli generals as indirectly responsible for the Sabra and Shatila massacre . In 1985 , Israel responded to a Palestinian terrorist attack in Cyprus by bombing the PLO headquarters in Tunisia . Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986 , but maintained a borderland buffer zone in southern Lebanon until 2000 , from where Israeli forces engaged in conflict with Hezbollah . The First Intifada , a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule , broke out in 1987 , with waves of uncoordinated demonstrations and violence occurring in the occupied West Bank and Gaza . Over the following six years , the Intifada became more organised and included economic and cultural measures aimed at disrupting the Israeli occupation . More than a thousand people were killed in the violence . During the 1991 Gulf War , the PLO supported Saddam Hussein and Iraqi Scud missile attacks against Israel . Despite public outrage , Israel heeded American calls to refrain from hitting back and did not participate in that war . Shimon
Israel
Following the 1967 war and the `` three nos '' resolution of the Arab League , during the 1967 -- 1970 War of Attrition Israel faced attacks from the Egyptians in the Sinai , and from Palestinian groups targeting Israelis in the occupied territories , in Israel proper , and around the world . Most important among the various Palestinian and Arab groups was the Palestinian Liberation Organization ( PLO ) , established in 1964 , which initially committed itself to `` armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland '' . In the late 1960s and early 1970s , Palestinian groups launched a wave of attacks against Israeli and Jewish targets around the world , including a massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich . The Israeli government responded with an assassination campaign against the organizers of the massacre , a bombing and a raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon .
Anthony Eden
Israel invaded the Sinai peninsula at the end of October 1956 . Britain and France moved in ostensibly to separate the two sides and bring peace , but in fact to regain control of the canal and overthrow Nasser . The United States immediately and strongly opposed the invasion . The United Nations denounced the invasion , the Soviets were bellicose , and only New Zealand , Australia , West Germany and South Africa spoke out for Britain 's position .
Crusades
The Ottomans had conquered most of the Balkans and reduced Byzantine influence to the area immediately surrounding Constantinople after victory at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 . Nicopolis was seized from the Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Shishman in 1393 and a year later Pope Boniface IX proclaimed a new Crusade against the Turks , although the Western Schism had split the papacy . This Crusade was led by Sigismund of Luxemburg , King of Hungary ; many French nobles joined Sigismund 's forces , including the Crusade 's military leader , John the Fearless ( son of the Duke of Burgundy ) . Sigismund advised the Crusaders to adopt a cautious , more defensive strategy , when they reached the Danube , instead they besieged the city of Nicopolis . The Ottomans defeated them in the Battle of Nicopolis on 25 September , capturing 3,000 prisoners . Hussite
The Twelve Spies
Two of the spies -- Joshua and Caleb -- did not go along with the majority and tried to convince the Israelites that they could conquer the land :
Israel
Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations by majority vote on 11 May 1949 . Both Israel and Jordan were genuinely interested in a peace agreement but the British acted as a brake on the Jordanian effort in order to avoid damaging British interests in Egypt . In the early years of the state , the Labor Zionist movement led by Prime Minister David Ben - Gurion dominated Israeli politics . The kibbutzim , or collective farming communities , played a pivotal role in establishing the new state .
Gupta Empire
The 4th century Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with conquering about twenty one kingdoms , both in and outside India . After finishing his campaign in East and West India , Vikramaditya ( Chandragupta II ) proceeded northwards , subjugated the Parasikas , then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively . Thereafter , the king proceeded into the Himalaya mountains to reduce the mountain tribes of the Kinnaras , Kiratas , as well as India proper .
Israel
After a year of fighting , a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders , known as the Green Line , were established . Jordan annexed what became known as the West Bank , including East Jerusalem , and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip . The United Nations estimated that more than 700,000 Palestinians were expelled by or fled from advancing Israeli forces during the conflict -- what would become known in Arabic as the Nakba ( `` catastrophe '' ) . Some 156,000 remained and became Arab citizens of Israel .
Israel
The United States and the Soviet Union were the first two countries to recognize the State of Israel , having declared recognition roughly simultaneously . Diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were broken in 1967 , following the Six - Day War , and renewed in October 1991 . The United States regards Israel as its `` most reliable partner in the Middle East , '' based on `` common democratic values , religious affinities , and security interests '' . The United States has provided $68 billion in military assistance and $32 billion in grants to Israel since 1967 , under the Foreign Assistance Act ( period beginning 1962 ) , more than any other country for that period until 2003 . The United Kingdom is seen as having a `` natural '' relationship with Israel on account of the British Mandate for Palestine . Relations between the two countries were also made stronger by former prime minister Tony Blair 's efforts for a two state resolution . By 2007 , Germany had paid 25 billion euros in reparations to the Israeli state and individual Israeli Holocaust survivors . Israel is included in the European Union 's European Neighbourhood Policy ( ENP ) , which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer .
Hellenistic period
As a result of the confusion in Greece at the end of the Second Macedonian War , the Seleucid Empire also became entangled with the Romans . The Seleucid Antiochus III had allied with Philip V of Macedon in 203 BC , agreeing that they should jointly conquer the lands of the boy - king of Egypt , Ptolemy V. After defeating Ptolemy in the Fifth Syrian War , Antiochus concentrated on occupying the Ptolemaic possessions in Asia Minor . However , this brought Antiochus into conflict with Rhodes and Pergamum , two important Roman allies , and began a ' cold war ' between Rome and Antiochus ( not helped by the presence of Hannibal at the Seleucid court ) . Meanwhile , in mainland Greece , the Aetolian League , which had sided with Rome against Macedon , now grew to resent the Roman presence in Greece . This presented Antiochus III with a pretext to invade Greece and ' liberate ' it from Roman influence , thus starting the Roman - Syrian War ( 192 -- 188 BC ) . In 191 BC , the Romans under Manius Acilius Glabrio routed him at Thermopylae and obliged him to withdraw to Asia . During the course of this war Roman troops moved into Asia for the first time , where they defeated Antiochus again at the Battle of Magnesia ( 190 BC ) . A crippling treaty was imposed on Antiochus , with Seleucid possessions in Asia Minor removed and given to Rhodes and Pergamum , the size of the Seleucid navy reduced , and a massive war indemnity invoked . Perseus
Israel
The Israel Defense Forces is the sole military wing of the Israeli security forces , and is headed by its Chief of General Staff , the Ramatkal , subordinate to the Cabinet . The IDF consist of the army , air force and navy . It was founded during the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War by consolidating paramilitary organizations -- chiefly the Haganah -- that preceded the establishment of the state . The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate ( Aman ) , which works with Mossad and Shabak . The Israel Defense Forces have been involved in several major wars and border conflicts in its short history , making it one of the most battle - trained armed forces in the world . Squad
Lebanon
In May 1948 , Lebanon supported neighbouring Arab countries in a war against Israel . While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel , it was without the support of the Lebanese government , and Lebanese troops did not officially invade . Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire , armored cars , volunteers and logistical support . On 5 -- 6 June 1948 , the Lebanese army -- led by the then Minister of National Defence , Emir Majid Arslan -- captured Al - Malkiyya . This was Lebanon 's only success in the war .
Israel
After World War II , Britain found itself in intense conflict with the Jewish community over Jewish immigration limits , as well as continued conflict with the Arab community over limit levels . The Haganah joined Irgun and Lehi in an armed struggle against British rule . At the same time , hundreds of thousands of Jewish Holocaust survivors and refugees sought a new life far from their destroyed communities in Europe . The Yishuv attempted to bring these refugees to Palestine but many were turned away or rounded up and placed in detention camps in Atlit and Cyprus by the British . UN
The Twelve Spies
For 40 years , the Israelites wandered in the wilderness , eating quail and manna . They were led into the Promised Land by Joshua ; the victory at Jericho marked the beginning of possession of the land . As victories were won , the tracts of land were assigned to each tribe , and they lived peacefully with each other . God brought victories where needed , and his promise to Abraham was fulfilled .