vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Causes of World War II
French security demands , such as reparations , coal payments , and a demilitarized Rhineland , took precedence at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and shaped the Treaty of Versailles by severely punishing Germany ; however , Austria found the treaty to be unjust which encouraged Hitler 's popularity . Ginsberg argues , `` France was greatly weakened and , in its weakness and fear of a resurgent Germany , sought to isolate and punish Germany ... French revenge would come back to haunt France during the Nazi invasion and occupation twenty years later . '' Paris
American Revolution
Morris used a French loan in 1782 to set up the private Bank of North America to finance the war . Seeking greater efficiency , Morris reduced the civil list , saved money by using competitive bidding for contracts , tightened accounting procedures , and demanded the national government 's full share of money and supplies from the confederated states .
History of Pennsylvania
Even before the Civil War , Pennsylvania had emerged as a center of scientific discovery , and the state , led by its two major urban centers , continued to be a major place of innovation . The state continued to innovate , as Pennsylvanians invented the first iron and steel t - rails , iron bridges , air brakes , switching signals , and drawn metal wires . Pennsylvanians also contributed to advances in aluminum production , radio , television , airplanes , and farm machinery . During this period , Pittsburgh emerged as an important center of industry and technological innovation , and George Westinghouse became one of the preeminent inventors of the United States . Philadelphia became one of the leading medical science centers in the nation , although it no longer rivaled New York City as a financial capital . Frederick Winslow Taylor pioneered the field of scientific management , becoming America 's first `` efficiency engineer . '' By 1910 , Chicago had passed Philadelphia as the second most populous city in the United States , while Pittsburgh rose to the eighth spot after annexing Allegheny .
American Civil War
The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s , when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery . However , Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers .
Confederate States of America
By the end of the war deterioration of the Southern infrastructure was widespread . The number of civilian deaths is unknown . Every Confederate state was affected , but most of the war was fought in Virginia and Tennessee , while Texas and Florida saw the least military action . Much of the damage was caused by direct military action , but most was caused by lack of repairs and upkeep , and by deliberately using up resources . Historians have recently estimated how much of the devastation was caused by military action . Paul Paskoff calculates that Union military operations were conducted in 56 % of 645 counties in nine Confederate states ( excluding Texas and Florida ) . These counties contained 63 % of the 1860 white population and 64 % of the slaves . By the time the fighting took place , undoubtedly some people had fled to safer areas , so the exact population exposed to war is unknown .
Technological and industrial history of the United States
The period after the Civil War was marked by increasing intense and pervasive industrialization and successive technological advances like the railroad , telegraph & telephone , and internal combustion engine . This facilitated America 's westward expansion and economic development by connecting the frontier with the industrial , financial , and political centers of the East . Americans increasingly relied upon technological infrastructures like the railroad , electric , and telecommunications systems for economic and social activities .
American Civil War
A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because , as E. Merton Coulter put it , `` people did not will hard enough and long enough to win . '' Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees , pointing to a class conflict in the Confederate army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners . He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery , and fought less enthusiastically . He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict . However , most historians reject the argument . James M. McPherson , after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers , found strong patriotism that continued to the end ; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty . Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864 -- 65 , he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard . Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented , `` The devils seem to have a determination that can not but be admired . '' Despite their loss of slaves and wealth , with starvation looming , Sherman continued , `` yet I see no sign of let up -- some few deserters -- plenty tired of war , but the masses determined to fight it out . ''
American Civil War
The Confederacy experimented with a submarine , which did not work well , and with building an ironclad ship , the CSS Virginia , which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship , the Merrimack . On its first foray on March 8 , 1862 , the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union 's wooden fleet , but the next day the first Union ironclad , the USS Monitor , arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay . The resulting three hour battle between the Ironclads was a draw , but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships . Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture , while the Union built many copies of the Monitor . Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships , the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain . Blockade
Conclusion of the American Civil War
Waddell finally learned of Lee 's surrender on June 27 when the captain of the prize Susan & Abigail produced a newspaper from San Francisco . The same paper contained Confederate President Jefferson Davis 's proclamation that the `` war would be carried on with re-newed vigor '' . Shenandoah proceeded to capture a further ten whalers in the following seven hours . Wadell then steered Shenandoah south , intending to raid the port of San Francisco which he believed to be poorly defended . En route they encountered an English barque , Barracouta , on August 2 from which Wadell learned of the final collapse of the Confederacy including the surrenders of Johnston 's , Kirby Smith 's , and Magruder 's armies and the capture of President Davis . The long log entry of the Shenandoah for August 2 , 1865 , begins `` The darkest day of my life . '' Captain Waddell realized then in his grief that they had taken innocent unarmed Union whaling ships as prizes when the rest of the country had ended hostilities .
History of Arkansas
Once it became apparent to Arkansans and the nation that the war would not be a quick and painless proposition , excitement began to temper . Unpopular Confederate programs like higher taxes and a draft from which one could be exempted from by owning 20 or more slaves became major issues for civilians in addition to the Confederate soldiers losing battles such as the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862 . Casualties were high for both sides at the Battle of Shiloh , a function of better rifles , but also poor battlefield medicine . Both sides battled disease , poor nutrition , and transportation issues throughout the war . The Union began an offensive across Arkansas in early 1862 in which General Samuel Curtis led troops to Pea Ridge , where the Battle of Pea Ridge occurred . After securing a Union victory , Curtis swept across the state to Helena . Curtis intended to knock Arkansas out of the war by capturing Little Rock . However , reinforcements arrived in Spring 1862 under General William Steele . General Thomas C. Hindman , fresh off a decisive Rebel victory at the Battle of Cotton Plant , attempted to return northwest Arkansas to Confederate control . The Battle of Prairie Grove was essentially a stalemate , but Hindman 's unit withdrew to Van Buren and was driven from the region completely by December 1862 . Black
English Reformation
It was between these two groups that , after Elizabeth 's death in 1603 , a new , more savage episode of the Reformation was in the process of gestation . During the reigns of the Stuart kings , James I and Charles I , the battle lines were to become more defined , leading ultimately to the English Civil War , the first on English soil to engulf parts of the civilian population . The war was only partly about religion , but the abolition of prayer book and episcopacy by a Puritan Parliament was an element in the causes of the conflict . As historian MacCulloch has noted , the legacy of these tumultuous events can be recognised , throughout the Commonwealth ( 1649 -- 60 ) and the Restoration that followed it , and beyond . This third party was to become the core of the restored Church of England , but at the price for further division .
American Civil War
At the beginning of 1864 , Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies . Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac , and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies . Grant understood the concept of total war and believed , along with Lincoln and Sherman , that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war . This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes , farms , and railroads , that Grant said `` would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion . This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end . '' Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions . Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond , General Franz Sigel ( and later Philip Sheridan ) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley , General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea ( the Atlantic Ocean ) , Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia , and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile , Alabama . These
American Civil War
By 1860 , four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories , and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution , implicitly or explicitly . The first of these `` conservative '' theories , represented by the Constitutional Union Party , argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate . The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view .
Turning point of the American Civil War
The First Battle of Bull Run , on July 21 , 1861 , was the first major land battle of the war . Until this time , the North was generally confident about its prospects for quickly crushing the rebellion with an easy , direct strike against the Confederate capital at Richmond , Virginia . The embarrassing rout of Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell 's army during the battle made clear the fallacy of this viewpoint . Many Northerners were shocked and realized that the war was going to be much lengthier and bloodier than they had anticipated . It steeled their determination . Lincoln immediately signed legislation that increased the Union Army by 500,000 men and allowed for their terms of service to last the duration of the war . Congress quickly passed the Confiscation Act of 1861 , which provided for freeing slaves whose masters participated in the rebellion and was the first attempt to define the war legislatively as a matter of ending slavery . If Confederates had hoped before this that they could sap Northern determination and quietly slip away from the Union with a minor military investment , their victory at Bull Run , ironically , destroyed those hopes .
Cotton-Eyed Joe
Scarborough noted that the song seemed to be well known in the South prior to the Civil War , and parts of it had been sent in by various persons . ``
Confederate States of America
At the onset of the Civil War the South had a rail network disjointed and plagued by changes in track gauge as well as lack of interchange . Locomotives and freight cars had fixed axles and could not use tracks of different gauges ( widths ) . Railroads of different gauges leading to the same city required all freight to be off - loaded onto wagons for transport to the connecting railroad station , where it had to await freight cars and a locomotive before proceeding . Centers requiring off - loading included Vicksburg , New Orleans , Montgomery , Wilmington and Richmond . In addition , most rail lines led from coastal or river ports to inland cities , with few lateral railroads . Due to this design limitation , the relatively primitive railroads of the Confederacy were unable to overcome the Union naval blockade of the South 's crucial intra-coastal and river routes .
Confederate States of America
In an attempt to seize the initiative , reprovision , protect farms in mid-growing season and influence U.S. Congressional elections , two major Confederate incursions into Union territory had been launched in August and September 1862 . Both Braxton Bragg 's invasion of Kentucky and Lee 's invasion of Maryland were decisively repulsed , leaving Confederates in control of but 63 % of its population . Civil War scholar Allan Nevins argues that 1862 was the strategic high - water mark of the Confederacy . The failures of the two invasions were attributed to the same irrecoverable shortcomings : lack of manpower at the front , lack of supplies including serviceable shoes , and exhaustion after long marches without adequate food . Also in September Confederate General William W. Loring pushed Federal forces from Charleston , Virginia , and the Kanawha Valley in western Virginia , but lacking re-inforcements Loring abandoned his position and by November the region was back in Federal control . Anaconda
Conclusion of the American Civil War
On May 10 , Union cavalrymen , under Major General James H. Wilson , captured Confederate President Jefferson Davis after he fled Richmond , Virginia , following its evacuation in the early part of April 1865 . On May 5 , 1865 , in Washington , Georgia , Davis had held the last meeting of his Cabinet . At that time , the Confederate government was declared dissolved .
Smith & Wesson
White 's vigorous defense of his patent caused a problem for armsmakers in the United States at the time as they could not manufacture cartridge revolvers . At the end of the war the U.S. Government charged White with causing the retardation of arms development in America .
Maple syrup
Around the time of the American Civil War ( 1861 - 1865 ) , syrup makers started using large , flat sheet metal pans as they were more efficient for boiling than heavy , rounded iron kettles , because of a greater surface area for evaporation . Around this time , cane sugar replaced maple sugar as the dominant sweetener in the US ; as a result , producers focused marketing efforts on maple syrup . The first evaporator , used to heat and concentrate sap , was patented in 1858 . In 1872 , an evaporator was developed that featured two pans and a metal arch or firebox , which greatly decreased boiling time . Around 1900 , producers bent the tin that formed the bottom of a pan into a series of flues , which increased the heated surface area of the pan and again decreased boiling time . Some producers also added a finishing pan , a separate batch evaporator , as a final stage in the evaporation process .
English Civil War
At the outset of the conflict , much of the country remained neutral , though the Royal Navy and most English cities favoured Parliament , while the King found considerable support in rural communities . Historians estimate that between them , both sides had only about 15,000 men . However , the war quickly spread and eventually involved every level of society . Many areas attempted to remain neutral . Some formed bands of Clubmen to protect their localities against the worst excesses of the armies of both sides , but most found it impossible to withstand both the King and Parliament . On one side , the King and his supporters fought for traditional government in Church and state . On the other , most supporters of the Parliamentary cause initially took up arms to defend what they thought of as the traditional balance of government in Church and state , which the bad advice the King had received from his advisers had undermined before and during the `` Eleven Years ' Tyranny '' . The views of the Members of Parliament ranged from unquestioning support of the King -- at one point during the First Civil War , more members of the Commons and Lords gathered in the King 's Oxford Parliament than at Westminster -- through to radicals , who wanted major reforms in favour of religious independence and the redistribution of power at the national level . However , even the most radical supporters of the Parliamentarian cause still favoured the retention of Charles on the throne .
Conclusion of the American Civil War
Despite the fact that there were still small pockets of resistance in the South , the president declared that the armed resistance was `` virtually '' ended and that nations or ships still harboring fugitives would be denied entry into U.S. ports . Persons found aboard such vessels would no longer be given immunity from prosecution of their crimes .
American Civil War
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war . Most scholars , including James McPherson , argue that Confederate victory was at least possible . McPherson argues that the North 's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed . He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics , they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union .
American Civil War
A great slave society ... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic . It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional , legal , metaphysical , and religious defenses ... When the crisis came it chose to fight . It proved to be the death struggle of a society , which went down in ruins .
Battle of Gettysburg
Gettysburg became a postbellum focus of the `` Lost Cause '' , a movement by writers such as Edward A. Pollard and Jubal Early to explain the reasons for the Confederate defeat in the war . A fundamental premise of their argument was that the South was doomed because of the overwhelming advantage in manpower and industrial might possessed by the North . However , they claim it also suffered because Robert E. Lee , who up until this time had been almost invincible , was betrayed by the failures of some of his key subordinates at Gettysburg : Ewell , for failing to seize Cemetery Hill on July 1 ; Stuart , for depriving the army of cavalry intelligence for a key part of the campaign ; and especially Longstreet , for failing to attack on July 2 as early and as forcefully as Lee had originally intended . In this view , Gettysburg was seen as a great lost opportunity , in which a decisive victory by Lee could have meant the end of the war in the Confederacy 's favor .
American Civil War
The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government ( 1881 ) by Jefferson Davis The Red Badge of Courage ( 1885 ) by Stephen Crane The Private History of a Campaign That Failed ( 1885 ) by Mark Twain Texar 's Revenge , or , North Against South ( 1887 ) by Jules Verne `` An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge '' ( 1890 ) by Ambrose Bierce Gone with the Wind ( 1936 ) by Margaret Mitchell Shiloh ( 1952 ) by Shelby Foote North and South ( 1982 ) by John Jakes Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All ( 1989 ) by Allan Gurganus
Conclusion of the American Civil War
The first major stage in the peace - making process was when Lee 's surrender occurred at Appomattox on April 9 , 1865 . This , coupled with Lincoln 's assassination , induced Johnston to act , believing : `` With such odds against us , without the means of procuring ammunition or repairing arms , without money or credit to provide food , it was impossible to continue the war except as robbers . '' On April 17 Sherman and Johnston met at Bennett Place , and the following day an armistice was arranged , when terms were discussed and agreed upon . Grant had authorized only the surrender of Johnston 's forces , but Sherman exceeded his orders by providing very generous terms . These included : that the warring states be immediately recognized after their leaders signed loyalty oaths ; that property and personal rights be returned to the Confederates ; the reestablishment of the federal court system ; and that a general amnesty would be given . On April 24 the authorities in Washington rejected Sherman 's proposed terms , and two days later Johnston agreed to the same terms Lee had received previously on April 9 .
Border states (American Civil War)
According to Glatthaar ( 2001 ) , Union forces established `` free - fire zones '' . Union cavalry units would identify and track down scattered Confederate remnants , who had no places to hide and no secret supply bases . To gain recruits , and to threaten St. Louis , Confederate General Sterling Price raided Missouri with 12,000 men in September / October 1864 . Price coordinated his moves with the guerrillas , but was nearly trapped , escaping to Arkansas with only half his force after a decisive Union victory at the Battle of Westport . The battle , which took place in the modern - day Westport neighborhood of Kansas City , is identified as the `` Gettysburg of the West '' ; it marked a definitive end to organized Confederate incursions inside Missouri 's borders . The Republicans made major gains in the fall 1864 elections on the basis of Union victories and Confederate ineptness . Quantrill 's Raiders , after raiding Kansas in the Lawrence Massacre on August 21 , 1863 , killing 150 civilians , broke up in confusion . Quantrill and a handful of followers moved on to Kentucky , where he was ambushed and killed .
American Civil War
God had chastised them and given them a special mission -- to maintain orthodoxy , strict biblicism , personal piety , and traditional race relations . Slavery , they insisted , had not been sinful . Rather , emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God 's favor .
American Civil War
In Missouri , an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union . When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia , it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon , who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state . ( See also : Missouri secession ) . In the resulting vacuum , the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri .
American Civil War
God 's gift of freedom . They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence , to worship in their own way , to affirm their worth and dignity , and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man . Most of all , they could form their own churches , associations , and conventions . These institutions offered self - help and racial uplift , and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed . As a result , black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him ; God would be their rock in a stormy land .