vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Military history of Italy during World War II
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Military history of Italy during World War II
The imperial ambitions of the Fascist regime , which aspired to restore the Roman Empire in North Africa and the Mediterranean ( the Mare Nostrum , or the Italian Empire ) , were partially met by late 1942 . By this point Italian influence extended throughout the Mediterranean . Libya had been pacified under the fascists and was undergoing Italian settlement . A friendly Fascist regime had been installed in Spain , and a puppet regime installed in Croatia following the German - Italian Invasion of Yugoslavia . Albania , Ljubljana , coastal Dalmatia , and Montenegro had been directly annexed into the Italian state . Most of Greece had been occupied by Italy following the Greco - Italian War and Battle of Greece , as had the French territories of Corsica and Tunisia following Vichy France 's collapse and Case Anton . Finally , Italo - German forces had achieved large victories against insurgents in Yugoslavia and had occupied parts of British - held Egypt on their push to El - Alamein after their victory at Gazala . However Italy 's conquests were always heavily contested , both by various insurgencies ( most prominently the Greek resistance and Yugoslav partisans ) and Allied military forces , which waged the Battle of the Mediterranean throughout and beyond Italy 's participation .
Italian Empire
In its second invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 -- 36 , Italy was successful and it merged its new conquest with its older east African colonies to create Italian East Africa . In 1939 , Italy invaded Albania and incorporated it into the Fascist state . During the Second World War ( 1939 -- 45 ) , Italy occupied British Somaliland , parts of South - Eastern France , Western Egypt and most of Greece , but then lost those conquests and its African colonies , including Ethiopia , to the invading allied forces . It was forced in the final peace to relinquish sovereignty over all its colonies . It was granted a United Nations trust to administer former Italian Somaliland in 1950 under United Nations supervision . When Somalia became independent in 1960 , Italy 's eight - decade experiment with colonialism had ended .
Italian Empire
In 1947 , the Italian Republic formally lost all her overseas colonial possessions as a result of the Treaty of Peace with Italy . There were discussions to maintain Tripolitania ( a province of Italian Libya ) as the last Italian colony , but these were not successful . In November 1949 , Italian Somaliland was made a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration . This lasted until 1 July 1960 , when Italian Somaliland was granted its independence and , together with British Somaliland , formed the Somali Republic .
Middle Ages
Between the 5th and 8th centuries , new peoples and individuals filled the political void left by Roman centralised government . The Ostrogoths , a Gothic tribe , settled in Roman Italy in the late fifth century under Theoderic the Great ( d . 526 ) and set up a kingdom marked by its co-operation between the Italians and the Ostrogoths , at least until the last years of Theodoric 's reign . The Burgundians settled in Gaul , and after an earlier realm was destroyed by the Huns in 436 formed a new kingdom in the 440s . Between today 's Geneva and Lyon , it grew to become the realm of Burgundy in the late 5th and early 6th centuries . Elsewhere in Gaul , the Franks and Celtic Britons set up small polities . Francia was centred in northern Gaul , and the first king of whom much is known is Childeric I ( d . 481 ) . His grave was discovered in 1653 and is remarkable for its grave goods , which included weapons and a large quantity of gold .
Pantheon, Rome
The Pantheon ( UK : / ˈpænθiən / , US : / - ɒn / ; Latin : Pantheum , from Greek Πάνθειον Pantheion , `` ( temple ) of all the gods '' ) is a former Roman temple , now a church , in Rome , Italy , on the site of an earlier temple commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus ( 27 BC -- 14 AD ) . It was completed by the emperor Hadrian and probably dedicated about 126 AD . Its date of construction is uncertain , because Hadrian chose not to inscribe the new temple but rather to retain the inscription of Agrippa 's older temple , which had burned down .
Roman calendar
The 7 - day week began to be observed in Italy in the early imperial period , as practitioners and converts to eastern religions introduced Hellenistic and Babylonian astrology , the Jewish Saturday sabbath , and the Christian Lord 's Day . The system was originally used for private worship and astrology but had replaced the nundinal week by the time Constantine made Sunday ( dies Solis ) an official day of rest in AD 321 . The hebdomadal week was also reckoned as a cycle of letters from A to G ; these were adapted for Christian use as the dominical letters .
Megacity
For almost five hundred years , Rome was the largest , wealthiest , and most politically important city in Europe . Its population passed one million people by the end of the 1st century BC . Rome 's population started declining in 402 AD when Flavius Honorius , Western Roman Emperor from 395 to 423 , moved the government to Ravenna and Rome 's population declined to a mere 20,000 during the Early Middle Ages , reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
In 401 Stilicho travelled over the Alps to Raetia , to scrape up further troops . He left the Rhine defended only by the `` dread '' of Roman retaliation , rather than by adequate forces able to take the field . Early in spring , Alaric , probably desperate , invaded Italy , and he drove Honorius westward from Mediolanum , besieging him in Hasta Pompeia in Liguria . Stilicho returned as soon as the passes had cleared , meeting Alaric in two battles ( near Pollentia and Verona ) without decisive results . The Goths , weakened , were allowed to retreat back to Illyricum where the Western court again gave Alaric office , though only as comes and only over Dalmatia and Pannonia Secunda rather than the whole of Illyricum . Stilicho probably supposed that this pact would allow him to put Italian government into order and recruit fresh troops . He may also have planned with Alaric 's help to relaunch his attempts to gain control over the Eastern court . Christian
Italian Empire
Italy 's stance towards Spain shifted between the 1920s and the 1930s . The Fascist regime in the 1920s held deep antagonism towards Spain due to Miguel Primo de Rivera 's pro-French foreign policy . In 1926 , Mussolini began aiding the Catalan separatist movement , which was led by Francesc Macià , against the Spanish government . With the rise of the left - wing Republican government replacing the Spanish monarchy , Spanish monarchists and fascists repeatedly approached Italy for aid in overthrowing the Republican government , in which Italy agreed to support them in order to establish a pro-Italian government in Spain . In July 1936 , Francisco Franco of the Nationalist faction in the Spanish Civil War requested Italian support against the ruling Republican faction , and guaranteed that , if Italy supported the Nationalists , `` future relations would be more than friendly '' and that Italian support `` would have permitted the influence of Rome to prevail over that of Berlin in the future politics of Spain '' . Italy intervened in the civil war with the intention of occupying the Balearic Islands and creating a client state in Spain . Italy sought the control of the Balearic Islands due to its strategic position -- Italy could use the islands as a base to disrupt the lines of communication between France and its North African colonies and between British Gibraltar and Malta . After the victory by Franco and the Nationalists in the war , Allied intelligence was informed that Italy was pressuring Spain to permit an Italian occupation of the Balearic Islands . Italian
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The magister militum in the Diocese of Africa declared for the East and stopped the supply of grain to Rome . Italy had not fed itself for centuries and could not do so now . In 398 , Stilicho sent his last reserves , a few thousand men , to re-take the Diocese of Africa , and he strengthened his position further when he married his daughter Maria to Honorius . Throughout this period Stilicho , and all other generals , were desperately short of recruits and supplies for them . In 400 , Stilicho was charged to press into service any `` laetus , Alamannus , Sarmatian , vagrant , son of a veteran '' or any other person liable to serve . He had reached the bottom of his recruitment pool . Though personally not corrupt , he was very active in confiscating assets ; the financial and administrative machine was not producing enough support for the army . An
History of the Roman Empire
The next century came to be known as the period of the `` Five Good Emperors '' , in which the succession was peaceful and the Empire prosperous . The emperors of this period were Nerva ( 96 -- 98 ) , Trajan ( 98 -- 117 ) , Hadrian ( 117 -- 138 ) , Antoninus Pius ( 138 -- 161 ) and Marcus Aurelius ( 161 -- 180 ) , each one adopted by his predecessor as his successor during the former 's lifetime . While their respective choices of successor were based upon the merits of the individual men they selected rather than dynastic , it has been argued that the real reason for the lasting success of the adoptive scheme of succession lay more with the fact that none but the last had a natural heir .
Nine Years' War
In Italy the secret negotiations were proving more productive , with the French possession of Pinerolo now central to the talks . When Amadeus threatened to besiege Pinerolo the French , concluding that its defence was not now possible , agreed to hand back the stronghold on condition that its fortifications were demolished . The terms were formalised as the Treaty of Turin on 29 August 1696 , by which provision Louis XIV also returned , intact , Montmélian , Nice , Villefranche , Susa , and other small towns . Amongst other concessions Louis XIV also promised not to interfere in Savoy 's religious policy regarding the Vaudois , provided the Duke prevents any communication between them and French Huguenots . In return , Amadeus agreed to abandon the Grand Alliance and join with Louis XIV -- if necessary -- to secure the neutralisation of northern Italy . The Emperor , diplomatically outmanoeuvred , was compelled to accept peace in the region by signing the Treaty of Vigevano of 7 October , to which the French immediately acceded . Italy was neutralised and the Nine Years ' War in the peninsula came to an end . Savoy had emerged as an independent sovereign House and a key second - rank power : the Alps , rather than the River Po , would be the boundary of France in the south - east .
Pantheon, Rome
It is one of the best - preserved of all Ancient Roman buildings , in large part because it has been in continuous use throughout its history , and since the 7th century , the Pantheon has been used as a church dedicated to `` St. Mary and the Martyrs '' ( Latin : Sancta Maria ad Martyres ) but informally known as `` Santa Maria Rotonda '' . The square in front of the Pantheon is called Piazza della Rotonda . The Pantheon is a state property , managed by Italy 's Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism through the Polo Museale del Lazio ; in 2013 it was visited by over 6 million people .
Italian Empire
Italian Empire Flag Kingdom of Italy Colonies of Italy in 1939 Territories occupied during World War II
Ancient Roman architecture
A Roman villa was a country house built for the upper class , while a domus was a wealthy family 's house in a town . The Empire contained many kinds of villas , not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors and frescoes . In the provinces , any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a `` villa '' by modern scholars . Some were pleasure palaces such as those -- like Hadrian 's Villa at Tivoli -- that were situated in the cool hills within easy reach of Rome or -- like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum -- on picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples . Some villas were more like the country houses of England or Poland , the visible seat of power of a local magnate , such as the famous palace rediscovered at Fishbourne in Sussex .
Italian Empire
In November 1942 , when the Germans occupied Vichy France during Case Anton , Italian - occupied France was expanded with the occupation of Corsica .
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
In 215 BC , at the height of the Second Punic War with the Carthaginian Empire , Roman authorities intercepted a ship off the Calabrian coast holding a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador in possession of a treaty composed by Hannibal Barca declaring an alliance with Philip V . The treaty stipulated that Carthage had the sole right to negotiate the terms of Rome 's hypothetical surrender and promised mutual aid in the event that a resurgent Rome should seek revenge against either Macedonia or Carthage . Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their newly conquered territories in Illyria , the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart whatever grand ambitions Philip V had for the Adriatic region during the First Macedonian War ( 214 -- 205 BC ) . In 214 BC , Rome positioned a naval fleet at Oricus , which was assaulted along with Apollonia by Macedonian forces . When the Macedonians captured Lissus in 212 BC , the Roman Senate responded by inciting the Aetolian League , Sparta , Elis , Messenia , and Attalus I ( r . 241 -- 197 BC ) of Pergamon to wage war against Philip V , keeping him occupied and away from Italy .
Italian Empire
The East African Campaign started with Italian advances into British - held Kenya , British Somaliland , and Sudan . In the summer of 1940 , Italian armed forces successfully invaded all of British Somaliland . But , in the Spring of 1941 , the British had counter-attacked and pushed deep into Italian East Africa . By 5 May , Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia had returned to Addis Ababa to reclaim his throne . In November , the last organised Italian resistance ended with the fall of Gondar . However , following the surrender of East Africa , some Italians conducted a guerrilla war which lasted for two more years .
Italian Empire
By the autumn of 1943 , the Italian Empire and all dreams of an Imperial Italy effectively came to an end . On 7 May , the surrender of Axis forces in Tunisia and other near continuous Italian reversals , led King Victor Emmanuel III to plan the removal of Mussolini . Following the Invasion of Sicily , all support for Mussolini evaporated . A meeting of the Grand Council of Fascism was held on 24 July , which managed to impose a vote of no confidence to Mussolini . The `` Duce '' was subsequently deposed and arrested by the King on the following afternoon . Afterwards , Mussolini remained a prisoner of the King until 12 September , when , on the orders of Hitler , he was rescued by German paratroops and became leader of the newly established Italian Social Republic .
Italian language
Italian is the main working language of the Holy See , serving as the lingua franca ( common language ) in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta . Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and opera . Its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market . Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world .
Italian Empire
Prior to direct intervention in World War I , Italy occupied the Albanian port of Vlorë in December 1914 . In the fall of 1916 , Italy started to occupy southern Albania . In 1916 , Italian forces recruited Albanian irregulars to serve alongside them . Italy , with permission of the Allied command , occupied Northern Epirus on 23 August 1916 , forcing the neutralist Greek Army to withdraw its occupation forces from there . In June 1917 , Italy proclaimed central and southern Albania as a protectorate of Italy while Northern Albania was allocated to the states of Serbia and Montenegro . By 31 October 1918 , French and Italian forces expelled the Austro - Hungarian Army from Albania . However , in 1920 , an Albanian rebellion led the Italians to agree to return the occupied regions to Albania , with the exception of Sarzan Island .
Triple Alliance (1882)
However , Italian public opinion remained unenthusiastic about their country 's alignment with Austria - Hungary , a past enemy of Italian unification , and whose Italian populated districts in the Trentino and Istria were seen as occupied territories by Italian irredentists . In the years before World War I , many distinguished military analysts predicted that Italy would attack its supposed ally in the event of a large scale conflict . Italy 's adherence to the Triple Alliance was doubted and from 1903 plans for a possible war against Rome were again maintained by the Austrian general staff . Mutual suspicions led to reinforcement of the frontier and speculation in the press about a war between the two countries into the first decade of the twentieth century . As late as 1911 Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf , chief of the Austrian general staff , was advocating a military preemptive strike against Austria 's supposed Italian ally . This prediction was strengthened by Italy 's invasion and annexation of Libya , bringing it into conflict with the German - backed Ottoman Empire .
Italian nationalism
The Risorgimento was an ideological movement that helped incite the feelings of brotherhood and nationalism in the imagined Italian community , which called for the unification of Italy and the pushing out of foreign powers . Literature , music , and other outlets of expression frequently alluded back to the glorious past of Rome and the miraculous feats their ancestors had accomplished in defending their homeland and kicking out the foreign occupants .
Ancient Roman architecture
In Europe the Italian Renaissance saw a conscious revival of correct classical styles , initially purely based on Roman examples . Vitruvius was respectfully reinterpreted by a series of architectural writers , and the Tuscan and Composite orders formalized for the first time , to give five rather than three orders . After the flamboyance of Baroque architecture , the Neoclassical architecture of the 18th century revived purer versions of classical style , and for the first time added direct influence from the Greek world .
Education in ancient Rome
At the height of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire , the Roman educational system gradually found its final form . Formal schools were established , which served paying students ; very little that could be described as free public education existed . Both boys and girls were educated , though not necessarily together .
Italian nationalism
Nationalist pride soared in Italy after the end of hostilities in November 1918 , with the victory of Italy and Allied forces over Austria - Hungary and the seizure by Italy of former Austro - Hungarian territories . Citizens in Rome celebrated the victory . The Italian population of newly liberated Trieste ( 140,000 of 240 , 00 inhabitants ) attended the arrival of General Carlo Petitti di Roreto , the newly proclaimed Governor - General of Trieste , who arrived at Trieste by warship and met cheering mass crowds .
Nation state
A few of the smaller states survived : the independent principalities of Liechtenstein , Andorra , Monaco , and the republic of San Marino . ( Vatican City is a special case . All of the larger Papal States save the Vatican itself were occupied and absorbed by Italy by 1870 . The resulting Roman Question was resolved with the rise of the modern state under the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Holy See . )
Military history of Italy during World War II
The Treaty of Peace with Italy , 1947 spelled the end of the Italian colonial empire , along with other border revisions . The Paris Peace Treaties , 1947 compelled Italy to pay $360,000,000 ( US dollars at 1938 prices ) in war reparations : $125,000,000 to Yugoslavia , $105,000,000 to Greece , $100,000,000 to the Soviet Union , $25,000,000 to Ethiopia and $5,000,000 to Albania . Italy also agreed to pay £ 1,765,000 to Greek nationals whose property in Italian territory had been destroyed or seized during the war . In the Italian constitutional referendum , 1946 the Italian monarchy was abolished , having been associated with the deprivations of the war and the Fascist rule . Unlike in Germany and Japan , no war crimes tribunals were held against Italian military and political leaders , though the Italian resistance summarily executed some of them ( such as Mussolini ) at the end of the war . Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on April 28 , 1945 .
Ancient Roman architecture
Marble is not found especially close to Rome , and was only rarely used there before Augustus , who famously boasted that he had found Rome made of brick and left it made of marble , though this was mainly as a facing for brick or concrete . The Temple of Hercules Victor of the late 2nd century BC is the earliest surviving exception in Rome . From Augustus ' reign the quarries at Carrara were extensively developed for the capital , and other sources around the empire exploited , especially the prestigious Greek marbles like Parian . Travertine limestone was found much closer , around Tivoli , and was used from the end of the Republic ; the Colosseum is mainly built of this stone , which has good load - bearing capacity , with a brick core . Other more or less local stones were used around the empire .
Pantheon, Rome
Church of St. Mary and the Martyrs Chiesa Santa Maria dei Martiri Sancta Maria ad Martyres Basic information Location Rome , Italy Geographic coordinates 41 ° 53 ′ 55 '' N 12 ° 28 ′ 36 '' E ﻿ / ﻿ 41.8986 ° N 12.4768 ° E ﻿ / 41.8986 ; 12.4768 Coordinates : 41 ° 53 ′ 55 '' N 12 ° 28 ′ 36 '' E ﻿ / ﻿ 41.8986 ° N 12.4768 ° E ﻿ / 41.8986 ; 12.4768 Affiliation Roman Catholic Year consecrated 13 May 609 Ecclesiastical or organizational status Minor basilica , Rectory church Leadership Msgr . Daniele Micheletti Website Official website Architectural description Architectural style Roman Completed 126 Specifications Direction of façade North Length 84 metres ( 276 ft ) Width 58 metres ( 190 ft ) Height ( max ) 58 metres ( 190 ft ) The