vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Eastern Orthodox Church
Some latent discontent between different national churches exists also in part due to different approach towards ecumenism . While the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople , the Orthodox bishops in North America gathered into the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas ( SCOBA ) , Romanian bishops , and others are fairly open to dialog with the Roman Catholic Church , both conservative and moderate Old Calendarists , many of the monks of Mount Athos , several bishops of Russian , Serbian , and some of Greek and Bulgarian churches regard ecumenism as compromising essential doctrinal stands in order to accommodate other Christians , and object to the emphasis on dialogue leading to inter-communion ; believing instead that Orthodox must speak the truth with love , in the hope of leading to the eventual conversion to Orthodoxy of heterodox Christians .
Parthenon
The Parthenon survived as a temple dedicated to Athena for nearly one thousand years until Theodosius II decreed in 435 AD that all pagan temples in the Eastern Roman Empire be closed . At some point in the fifth century , Athena 's great cult image was looted by one of the emperors and taken to Constantinople , where it was later destroyed , possibly during the siege and sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 AD .
Byzantine law
It is a private collection , continuously enriched , and refers to specific cases relevant to rural property within the framework of the Byzantine rural `` community '' . As evident by the dispositions of the `` Law '' , peasants were organized in `` communities '' and collectively responsible for the payment of the total tax the `` community '' was liable for , being obliged to pay as well the amounts corresponding to indebted members of the community . As for the chronology of its writing , since the text itself bears no specific date , it is placed somewhere in between the second half of the 6th century and the middle of the 14th . Very early on , it was acknowledged as a legal handbook of great importance and greatly influenced much of the law of the Slavic countries and especially Serbia , Bulgaria and Russia .
Byzantine law
The Didache from the 2nd century The Apostolic Church - Ordinance , from the third century The Apostolic Constitutions , from the 375 to 380 AD The Canons of the Apostles
Byzantine law
Two of the world 's most widespread legal systems , Anglo - American common law and civil law are based on the Corpus ( in , for instance , most of Europe , Asia , South America , and Africa , Scotland , Quebec and Louisiana ) .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Both were Christians and confiscated the temple lands that Julian had restored , but were generally tolerant of other beliefs . Valentinian in the West refused to intervene in religious controversy ; in the East , Valens had to deal with Christians who did not conform to his ideas of orthodoxy , and persecution formed part of his response . The wealth of the church increased dramatically , immense resources both public and private being used for ecclesiastical construction and support of the religious life . Bishops in wealthy cities were thus able to offer vast patronage ; Ammianus described some as `` enriched from the offerings of matrons , ride seated in carriages , wearing clothing chosen with care , and serve banquets so lavish that their entertainments outdo the tables of kings '' . Edward Gibbon remarked that `` the soldiers ' pay was lavished on the useless multitudes of both sexes who could only plead the merits of abstinence and chastity '' , though there are no figures for the monks and nuns nor for their maintenance costs . Pagan rituals and buildings had not been cheap either ; the move to Christianity may not have had significant effects on the public finances . Some public disorder also followed competition for prestigious posts ; Pope Damasus I was installed in 366 after an election whose casualties included a hundred and thirty - seven corpses in the basilica of Sicininus .
Byzantine law
d ) The canons referring to the secular . The influence of these canons carried on in the future and they were extensively annotated by Balsamon , Zonaras and Aristenos , the three great ecclesiastic jurists of the 12th century . Editions
Byzantine law
Dating problems , similar to the ones of the `` Farmer 's Law '' , presents a code of equal character , the `` Rhodian Sea Law '' ( Nomos Rhodion Nautikos ) . Written probably between 600 and 800 , it is a collection of maritime law regulations divided into three parts . The first part refers to the ratification of the `` Naval Law '' by the Roman emperors . The second specifies the participation of the crew in maritime profits and the regulations valid on the ship , while the third and largest refers to maritime law , as for example to the apportionment of responsibility in case of theft or damage to the cargo or the ship . The `` Naval Law '' was included in the Basilika of Leo VI the Wise as a complement to book 53 .
Eastern Orthodox Church
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople ( Archbishop of Constantinople - New Rome and First Among Equals Patriarch ) Autonomous Orthodox Church of Finland ( Archbishop of Karelia and All Finland ) Self - governing Orthodox Church of Crete ( Archbishop of Crete ) Self - governing Monastic Community of Mount Athos Self - governing Orthodox Church of Korea ( Metropolitan of Seoul and all Korea ) Exarchate of Patmos ( Patriarchal Exarch of Patmos ) Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain ( Archbishop of Thyateira and Great Britain ) Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Italy and Malta ( Orthodox Archbishop of Italy and Malta and Exarch of Southern Europe ) Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America ( Archbishop of America ) Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia ( Archbishop of Australia ) Exarchate of the Philippines ( Exarch of Philippines ) Patriarchal Exarchate for Orthodox Parishes of Russian Tradition in Western Europe ( Archbishop of Komana ) Patriarchate of Alexandria ( His Most Divine Beatitude the Pope and Patriarch of the Great City of Alexandria , Libya , Pentapolis , Ethiopia , all the land of Egypt , and all Africa , Father of Fathers , Shepherd of Shepherds , Prelate of Prelates , Thirteenth of the Apostles , and Judge of the Œcumene ) Patriarchate of Antioch ( Patriarch of Antioch and all the East ) Self - governing Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America ( Archbishop of New York and Metropolitan of All North America ) Patriarchate of Jerusalem ( Patriarch of the Holy City of Jerusalem and all Holy Land , Syria ,
Gupta Empire
Samudragupta was not only a talented military leader but also a great patron of art and literature . He conquered what is now Kashmir and Afghanistan , enlarging the empire . The critical scholars present in his court were Harishena , Vasubandhu , and Asanga . He was a poet and musician himself . He was a firm believer in Hinduism and is known to have worshipped Lord Vishnu . He was considerate of other religions and allowed Sri Lanka 's Buddhist king Sirimeghvanna to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya . That monastery was called by Xuanzang as the Mahabodhi Sangharama . He provided a gold railing around the Bodhi Tree .
Gupta Empire
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the major religious groups . Although painting was evidently widespread , the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture . The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art , as well as the Buddha figure and Jain tirthankara figures , the latter often on a very large scale . The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara , the latter the centre of Greco - Buddhist art . Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India . Unlike the preceding Kushan Empire there was no artistic depiction of the monarchs , even in the very fine Guptan coinage , with the exception of some coins of the Western Satraps , or influenced by them . The
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
The Conquest of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 by Mehmed The Conqueror ( Fatih Sultan Mehmed Khan Ghazi ) Fatih Sultan Mehmed 's Land Transport of The Ottoman Navy from Galata into Golden Horn by Fausto Zonaro ( 1854 -- 1929 ) . Entry of Mehmed II into Constantinople by Jean - Joseph Benjamin - Constant ( 1845 -- 1902 ) . The Conquest of Constantinople by Fausto Zonaro ( 1854 -- 1929 ) . The Conqueror ( Fatih Sultan Mehmed ) by Gentile Bellini , 1479 ( 70 x 52 ; National Gallery , London ) .
Golden Horde
In the 1270s Nogai savagely raided Bulgaria and Lithuania . He blockaded Michael Asen II inside Drăstăr in 1279 , executed the rebel emperor Ivailo in 1280 , and forced George Terter I to seek refuge in the Byzantine Empire in 1292 . In 1284 Saqchi came under the Mongol rule during the major invasion of Bulgaria , and coins were struck in the Khan 's name . Smilec became emperor of Bulgaria according to the wishes of Nogai Khan , who helped his allies the Byzantines . Accordingly , the reign of Smilec has been considered the height of Mongol over-lordship in Bulgaria . When he was expelled by a local boyar c. 1295 , the Mongols launched another invasion of Bulgaria to protect their protege . Nogai compelled Stefan Uroš II Milutin of Serbia to accept the Mongol supremacy and received his son , Stefan Dečanski , as hostage in 1287 . Under his rule , the Vlachs , Slavs , Alans , and Turco - Mongols lived in modern - day Moldavia . After their failed but devastating invasion of Hungary in 1285 , Nogai , Talabuga , and other noyans overthrew Töde Möngke because he was not an active Khan surrounded by clerics and sheikhs . Talabuga was elected as Khan , and Töde Möngke was left to live in peace . In addition to his attack on Poland in 1287 , Talabuga 's army made unsuccessful attempts to invade the Ilkhanate in 1288 and 1290 . Regions
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
On 6 February 1790 , one week before banning monastic vows , the National Constituent Assembly asked its ecclesiastical committee to prepare the reorganization of the clergy . No doubt , those who hoped to reach a solution amenable to the papacy were discouraged by the consistorial address of March 22 in which Pius VI spoke out against measures already passed by the Assembly ; also , the election of the Protestant Jean - Paul Rabaut Saint - Étienne to the presidency of the Assembly brought about `` commotions '' at Toulouse and Nîmes , suggesting that at least some Catholics would accept nothing less than a return to the ancien régime practice under which only Catholics could hold office .
Cheka
After 1922 Cheka groups underwent the first of a series of reorganizations ; however the theme of a government dominated by `` the organs '' persisted indefinitely afterward , and Soviet citizens continued to refer to members of the various organs as Chekists .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Having dealt harshly and effectively with his disloyal Bulgarian vassals , Bayezid then turned his attention south to Thessaly and the Morea , whose Greek lords had accepted Ottoman vassalage in the 1380s . Their incessant bickering among themselves , especially those of the Greek Morean magnates , required Bayezid 's intervention . He summoned a meeting of all his Balkan vassals at Serres in 1394 to settle these and other outstanding matters . Among the sultan 's attending vassals were the Thessalian and Morean nobles , Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos ( 1391 -- 1425 ) , and Serbian Prince Lazarevic . At the meeting , Bayezid acquired possession of all disputed territories , and all of the attendees were required to reaffirm their vassal status .
Napoleon
After Austerlitz , Napoleon established the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806 . A collection of German states intended to serve as a buffer zone between France and Central Europe , the creation of the Confederation spelled the end of the Holy Roman Empire and significantly alarmed the Prussians . The brazen reorganization of German territory by the French risked threatening Prussian influence in the region , if not eliminating it outright . War fever in Berlin rose steadily throughout the summer of 1806 . At the insistence of his court , especially his wife Queen Louise , Frederick William III decided to challenge the French domination of Central Europe by going to war . Napoleon
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Interregnum brought a brief period of semi-independence to the vassal Christian Balkan states . Suleyman , one of the late sultan 's sons , held the Ottoman capital at Edirne and proclaimed himself ruler , but his brothers refused to recognize him . He then concluded alliances with Byzantium , to which Thessaloniki was returned , and with Venice in 1403 to bolster his position . Suleyman 's imperious character , however , turned his Balkan vassals against him . In 1410 he was defeated and killed by his brother Musa , who won the Ottoman Balkans with the support of Byzantine Emperor Manuel II , Serbian Despot Stefan Lazarevic , Wallachian Voievod Mircea , and the two last Bulgarian rulers ' sons . Musa then was confronted for sole control of the Ottoman throne by his younger brother Mehmed , who had freed himself of Mongol vassalage and held Ottoman Anatolia .
Lighthouse of Alexandria
The 10th - century writer al - Mas'udi reports a legendary tale on the lighthouse 's destruction , according to which at the time of Caliph Abd al - Malik ibn Marwan ( r . 705 -- 715 ) the Byzantines sent a eunuch agent , who adopted Islam , gained the Caliph 's confidence , and secured permission to search for hidden treasure at the base of the lighthouse . The search was cunningly made in such a manner that the foundations were undermined , and the Pharos collapsed . The agent managed to escape in a ship waiting for him .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Part of a series on the History of the Ottoman Empire Rise ( 1299 -- 1453 ) ( show ) Gaza Thesis Interregnum ( 1402 -- 1413 ) Fall of Constantinople Classical Age ( 1453 -- 1566 ) ( show ) Sultanate of Women Transformation ( 1566 -- 1703 ) ( show ) Köprülü Era ( 1656 -- 1703 ) Old Regime ( 1703 -- 1789 ) ( show ) Tulip Era ( 1718 -- 1730 ) Decline and modernization ( 1789 -- 1908 ) ( show ) Nizam - i Djedid Tanzimat Era ( 1839 -- 1876 ) 1st Constitutional Era ( 1876 -- 1878 ) Defeat and dissolution ( 1908 -- 1922 ) ( show ) 2nd Constitutional Era ( 1908 -- 1920 ) World War I ( 1914 -- 1918 ) Partitioning Historiography
Internal Revenue Service
The 1980s saw a reorganization of the IRS . A bipartisan commission was created with several mandates , among them to increase customer service and improve collections . Congress later enacted the Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998 .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
When the Moreans later reneged on their Serres agreement with Bayezid , the angered Ottoman ruler blockaded the Morean despot 's imperial brother Manuel II in Constantinople and then marched southward and annexed Thessaly . The Duchy of Athens accepted Ottoman overlordship when Turkish forces appeared on its border . Although a massive Ottoman punitive raid into the Peloponnese in 1395 netted much booty , events in the Balkans ' northeast saved Morea from further direct attack at the time .
New Year
1 March was the first day of the numbered year in the Republic of Venice until its destruction in 1797 , and in Russia from 988 until 1492 ( Anno Mundi 7000 in the Byzantine calendar ) . 1 September was used in Russia from 1492 ( A.M. 7000 ) until the adoption of the Christian era in 1700 via a December 1699 decree of Tsar Peter I .
Crusades
Sunni Islam now recognised the threat . The sultan of Baghdad raised a force to recapture the city led by the Iraqi general Kerbogha . The Byzantines provided no assistance to the Crusaders ' defence of the city because the deserting Stephen of Blois told them the cause was lost . Losing numbers through desertion and starvation in the besieged city , the Crusaders attempted to negotiate surrender , but this was rejected by Kerbogha , who wanted to destroy them permanently . Morale within the city was boosted when Peter Bartholomew claimed to have discovered the Holy Lance . Bohemond recognised that the only option now was for open combat , and he launched a counterattack against the besiegers . Despite superior numbers , Kerbogha 's army , which was divided into factions and surprised by the commitment and dedication of the Franks , retreated and abandoned the siege . The Crusaders then delayed for months while they argued over who would have the captured territory . This ended only when news arrived that the Fatimid Egyptians had taken Jerusalem from the Turks , and it became imperative to attack before the Egyptians could consolidate their position . Bohemond remained in Antioch , retaining the city despite his pledge that this would return to Byzantine control , while Raymond led the remaining Crusader army rapidly south along the coast to Jerusalem . An initial attack on the city failed and , due to the Crusaders ' lack of resources , the siege became a stalemate . However , the arrival of craftsman and supplies transported by the Genoese to Jaffa tilted the balance in their favour . Crusaders constructed two large siege engines ; the one commanded by Godfrey breached the walls on 15 July 1099 . For two days the Crusaders massacred the inhabitants and pillaged the city . Historians now believe the accounts of the numbers killed have been exaggerated , but this narrative of massacre did much to cement the Crusaders ' reputation for barbarism . Godfrey further secured the Frankish position by surprising the Egyptian relief force commanded by the vizier of the Fatimid Caliph , Al - Afdal Shahanshah , at Ascalon . This relief force retreated to Egypt , with the vizier fleeing by ship . At this point most of the Crusaders considered their pilgrimage complete and returned to Europe , leaving behind Godfrey with a mere 300 knights and 2,000 infantry to defend Palestine . Of the other princes , only Tancred remained with the ambition to gain his own princedom .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Official cruelty , supporting extortion and corruption , may also have become more commonplace . While the scale , complexity , and violence of government were unmatched , the emperors lost control over their whole realm insofar as that control came increasingly to be wielded by anyone who paid for it . Meanwhile , the richest senatorial families , immune from most taxation , engrossed more and more of the available wealth and income , while also becoming divorced from any tradition of military excellence . One scholar identifies a great increase in the purchasing power of gold , two and a half fold from 274 to the later fourth century , which may be an index of growing economic inequality between a gold - rich elite and a cash - poor peasantry .
Gupta Empire
Furthermore , Indian urban culture was left in decline , and Buddhism , gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks , started to collapse . Great centers of learning were destroyed , such as the city of Taxila , bringing cultural regression . During their rule of 60 years , the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indian cast system . For example , the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of the Rajputs .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
The brothers Valens ( r . 364 -- 378 ) and Valentinian I ( r . 364 -- 375 ) energetically tackled the threats of barbarian attacks on all the Western frontiers and tried to alleviate the burdens of taxation , which had risen continuously over the previous forty years ; Valens in the East reduced the tax demand by half in his fourth year .
Silk Road
Andronikos II had two half - sisters who were married to great - grandsons of Genghis Khan , which made him an in - law with the Yuan - dynasty Mongol ruler in Beijing , Kublai Khan . The History of Ming preserves an account where the Hongwu Emperor , after founding the Ming dynasty ( 1368 -- 1644 ) , had a supposed Byzantine merchant named Nieh - ku - lun ( 捏 古 倫 ) deliver his proclamation about the establishment of a new dynasty to the Byzantine court of John V Palaiologos in September 1371 . Friedrich Hirth ( 1885 ) , Emil Bretschneider ( 1888 ) , and more recently Edward Luttwak ( 2009 ) presumed that this was none other than Nicolaus de Bentra , a Roman Catholic bishop of Khanbilaq chosen by Pope John XXII to replace the previous archbishop John of Montecorvino .
Middle Ages
The crusades were intended to seize Jerusalem from Muslim control . The First Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Urban II ( pope 1088 -- 99 ) at the Council of Clermont in 1095 in response to a request from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 -- 1118 ) for aid against further Muslim advances . Urban promised indulgence to anyone who took part . Tens of thousands of people from all levels of society mobilised across Europe and captured Jerusalem in 1099 . One feature of the crusades was the pogroms against local Jews that often took place as the crusaders left their countries for the East . These were especially brutal during the First Crusade , when the Jewish communities in Cologne , Mainz , and Worms were destroyed , and other communities in cities between the rivers Seine and the Rhine suffered destruction . Another outgrowth of the crusades was the foundation of a new type of monastic order , the military orders of the Templars and Hospitallers , which fused monastic life with military service .
Old City (Jerusalem)
The northern part of the city was rebuilt by the Emperor Hadrian around 130 , under the name Aelia Capitolina . In the Byzantine period Jerusalem was extended southwards and again enclosed by city walls .
History of the Roman Empire
On August 4 , 367 , the eight - year - old Gratian was proclaimed as a third Augustus by his father Valentinian and uncle Valens , a nominal co-ruler and means to secure succession .
Colosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum ( / kɒləˈsiːəm / kol - ə - SEE - əm ) , also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre ( Latin : Amphitheatrum Flavium ; Italian : Anfiteatro Flavio ( aŋfiteˈaːtro ˈflaːvjo ) or Colosseo ( kolosˈsɛːo ) ) , is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome , Italy . Built of travertine , tuff , and brick - faced concrete , it is the largest amphitheatre ever built . The Colosseum is situated just east of the Roman Forum . Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in AD 72 , and was completed in AD 80 under his successor and heir Titus . Further modifications were made during the reign of Domitian ( 81 -- 96 ) . These three emperors are known as the Flavian dynasty , and the amphitheatre was named in Latin for its association with their family name ( Flavius ) .
Repatriation (cultural heritage)
The scale of plundering that took place under Napoleon 's French Empire was unprecedented in modern history with the only comparable looting expeditions taking place in ancient Roman history . In fact , the French revolutionaries justified the large - scale and systematic looting of Italy in 1796 by viewing themselves as the political successors of Rome , in the same way that ancient Romans saw themselves as the heirs of Greek civilization . They also supported their actions with the opinion that their sophisticated artistic taste would allow them to appreciate the plundered art . Napoleon 's soldiers crudely dismantled the art by tearing paintings out of their frames hung in churches and sometimes causing damage during the shipping process . Napoleon 's soldiers appropriated private collections and even the papal collection . Of the most famous artworks plundered included the Bronze Horses of Saint Mark in Venice and the Laocoön and His Sons in Rome ( both since returned ) , with the later being considered the most impressive sculpture from antiquity at the time . Laocoön
Western Roman Empire
Constans I 337 -- 350 ( Emperor of Italy and Africa : 337 - 340 , Western Emperor : 340 -- 350 ) .