vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of Pennsylvania
The best information we have detailing Pennsylvania 's prehistory comes from a mix of oral history & archaeology , which pushes the known record back another 500 years , or so . Before the Iroquois pushed out from the St. Lawrence River region , PA appears to have been populated primarily by Algonquians & Siouans . We know from archaeology that the Monongahela had a far more vast territory at the time & the Iroquois Book of Rites shows that there were Siouans along Lake Erie 's southern shores as well . The Iroquois collectively called them the Alligewi ( better written Adegowe ) , or Mound Builders . It is said that this is where the term Allegheny comes from ( Adegoweni ) . Two groups of migrating Iroquoians moved through the region -- an Iroquois related group who spread west along the Great Lakes & a Tuscarora related group who followed the coast straight south . The Eries were the next to split off from the Iroquois & may have once held northwestern PA . An offshoot of them crossed the Ohio & fought back the ancient Monongahela , but later merged with the Susquahannocks to form a single , expanded territory . ( Europeans later said that they used the terms White Minqua & Black Minqua to differentiate their ancestries from one another . ) A whole other Iroquoian tribe , the Petun , are believed to be Huron related and entered the region after , wedging in between the Eries & Iroquois .
Dutch colonization of the Americas
Not all inhabitants of New Netherlands , Manahattan 's first European colonizers , were ethnically Dutch , but in reality came from many European countries . Along with the large number of African native peoples -- originally brought over bound by the shackles of slavehood -- many New Netherlanders were Walloons , Huguenots , Germans , Scandinavian and English relocated from New England .
Trading post
The annexation an trading posts along ancient trade routes took place in the 16th and 17th century by European powers like the Dutch and English . It began with the capture of Ceuta ( a terminus of the trans - Saharan trade route ) by the Portuguese in 1415 . They went on to establish further enclaves as they explored the coasts of Africa , Arabia , India and South East Asia in search of the source of the lucrative spice trade . Trading posts were also very common in the early settlements of Canada and the United States for the trade of such things as fur . They were also used in many camps across the United States as places to buy snacks , items and souvenirs .
Elk
Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples . Pictograms and petroglyphs of elk were carved into cliffs thousands of years ago by the Anasazi of the southwestern U.S. More recent Native American tribes , including the Kootenai , Cree , Blackfeet , Ojibwa and Pawnee , produced blankets and robes from elk hides . The elk was of particular importance to the Lakota , and played a spiritual role in their society . At birth , Lakota males were given an elk 's tooth to promote a long life since that was seen as the last part of dead elk to rot away . The elk was seen as having strong sexual potency and young Lakota males who had dreamed of elk would have an image of the mythical representation of the elk on their `` courting coats '' as a sign of sexual prowess . The Lakota believed that the mythical or spiritual elk , not the physical one , was the teacher of men and the embodiment of strength , sexual prowess and courage .
History of India
They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China .
History of New Mexico
CULTURE OR GROUP TIME LOCATION FOUND IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENT Clovis 11,000 to 9200 BCE Eastern Plains Hunted big game Folsom 8200 BCE American Southwest Hunted big game Desert Culture I 6000 to 2000 BCE American Southwest Hunted small game ; gathered seeds . nuts , and berries Desert Culture II 2000 to 500 BCE American Southwest Developed early gardening skills , baskets , and milling stones Mogollon 300 BCE to CE 1150 West - central and southwestern New Mexico Farmed crops , made pottery , and lived in pit - house villages Anasazi : Basketmaker CE 1 to 500 Northwestern New Mexico Used the Atlatl , gathered food , and made fine baskets Modified Basketmaker CE 500 to 700 Northwestern New Mexico Lived in pit house villages , used the manos and metate , learned pottery - making , and used bows and arrows Developmental Pueblo CE 700 to 1050 Northwestern New Mexico Built Adobe houses , used cotton cloth and infant cradleboards Great Pueblo CE 1050 to 1300 Northwestern New Mexico ( Chaco Canyon , Aztec ) Built multistory pueblos , practiced irrigation , and laid out road systems Rio Grande Classic CE 1300 to 1600 West - central New Mexico , Rio Grande Valley , Pecos Abandoned northwestern New Mexico sites , migrated to new areas of settlement , and changed building and pottery style
History of Arkansas
Further warming led to the beginnings of agriculture in Arkansas around 650 BCE . Fields consisted of clearings , and Native Americans would begin to form villages around the plot of trees they had cleared . Shelters became more permanent and pottery became more complex . Burial mounds , surviving today in places such as Parkin Archeological State Park and Toltec Mounds Archaeological State Park , became common in northeast Arkansas . This reliance on agriculture marks an entrance into Mississippian culture around 950 CE . Wars began occurring between chieftains over land disputes . Platform mounds gain popularity in some cultures .
History of the Catholic Church
Popes have always highlighted the inner link between the Virgin Mary as Mother of God and the full acceptance of Jesus Christ as Son of God . Since the 19th century , they were highly important for the development of mariology to explain the veneration of Mary through their decisions not only in the area of Marian beliefs ( Mariology ) but also Marian practices and devotions . Before the 19th century , Popes promulgated Marian veneration by authorizing new Marian feast days , prayers , initiatives , the acceptance and support of Marian congregations . Since the 19th century , Popes begin to use encyclicals more frequently . Thus Leo XIII , the Rosary Pope issued eleven Marian encyclicals . Recent Popes promulgated the veneration of the Blessed Virgin with two dogmas , Pius IX the Immaculate Conception in 1854 and the Assumption of Mary in 1950 by Pope Pius XII . Pius XII also promulgated the new feast Queenship of Mary celebrating Mary as Queen of Heaven and he introduced the first ever Marian year in 1954 , a second one was proclaimed by John Paul II . Pius IX , Pius XI and Pius XII facilitated the veneration of Marian apparitions such as in Lourdes and Fátima . Later Popes such from John XXIII to Benedict XVI promoted the visit to Marian shrines ( Benedict XVI in 2007 and 2008 ) . The Second Vatican Council highlighted the importance of Marian veneration in Lumen gentium . During the Council , Paul VI proclaimed Mary to be the Mother of the Church .
Silk Road
The Chinese were also strongly attracted by the tall and powerful horses ( named `` Heavenly horses '' ) in the possession of the Dayuan ( literally the `` Great Ionians '' , the Greek kingdoms of Central Asia ) , which were of capital importance in fighting the nomadic Xiongnu . The Chinese subsequently sent numerous embassies , around ten every year , to these countries and as far as Seleucid Syria . `` Thus more embassies were dispatched to Anxi ( Parthia ) , Yancai ( who later joined the Alans ) , Lijian ( Syria under the Greek Seleucids ) , Tiaozhi ( Mesopotamia ) , and Tianzhu ( northwestern India ) ... As a rule , rather more than ten such missions went forward in the course of a year , and at the least five or six . '' ( Hou Hanshu , Later Han History ). These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire . The Chinese campaigned in Central Asia on several occasions , and direct encounters between Han troops and Roman legionaries ( probably captured or recruited as mercenaries by the Xiong Nu ) are recorded , particularly in the 36 BCE battle of Sogdiana ( Joseph Needham , Sidney Shapiro ) . It has been suggested that the Chinese crossbow was transmitted to the Roman world on such occasions , although the Greek gastraphetes provides an alternative origin . R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy suggest that in 36 BCE , a `` Han expedition into central Asia , west of Jaxartes River , apparently encountered and defeated a contingent of Roman legionaries . The Romans may have been part of Antony 's army invading Parthia . Sogdiana ( modern Bukhara ) , east of the Oxus River , on the Polytimetus River , was apparently the most easterly penetration ever made by Roman forces in Asia . The margin of Chinese victory appears to have been their crossbows , whose bolts and darts seem easily to have penetrated Roman shields and armour . '' The Roman historian Florus also describes the visit of numerous envoys , which included Seres ( China ) , to the first Roman Emperor Augustus , who reigned between 27 BCE and 14 CE :
Mount St. Helens
The mountain is also of sacred importance to the Cowlitz and Yakama tribes that also historically lived in the area . They find the area above its tree line to be of exceptional spiritual significance , and the mountain ( which they call `` Lawetlat'la '' , roughly translated as `` the smoker '' ) features prominently in their creation myth , and in some of their songs and rituals . In recognition of this cultural significance , over 12,000 acres ( 4,900 ha ) of the mountain ( roughly bounded by the Loowit Trail ) have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
Dance
Dance has played an important role in forging a collective identity among the many cultural and ethnic groups of Latin America . Dance served to unite the many African , European , and indigenous peoples of the region . Certain dance genres , such as capoeira , and body movements , especially the characteristic quebrada or pelvis swing , have been variously banned and celebrated throughout Latin American history .
Aztec religion
According to their own history , when the Mexicas arrived in the Anahuac Valley around Lake Texcoco , they were considered by the other groups as the least civilized of all . The Mexicas decided to learn , and they took all they could from other peoples , especially from the ancient Toltec ( whom they seem to have partially confused with the more ancient civilization of Teotihuacan ) . To the Mexicas , the Toltecs were the originators of all culture ; `` Toltecayotl '' was a synonym for culture . Mexica legends identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan , which they also identified with the more ancient Teotihuacan .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
The conquest of Mexico is not only a significant event in world history as the first successful conquest of a great pre-Columbian civilization , but is also particularly important because there are multiple accounts of the conquest from different points of view , Spanish and indigenous of diverse backgrounds . The Spanish conquerors could and did write accounts that narrated the conquest from the first landfalls in Mexico to the final victory over the Mexica in Tenochtitlan on August 13 , 1521 . Indigenous accounts are from particular native viewpoints ( either allies or opponents ) and as the events had a direct impact on their polity . All accounts of the conquest , Spanish and indigenous alike , have biases and exaggerations . Some , but not all , Spanish accounts downplay credit their indigenous allies ' support . Individual conquerors ' accounts exaggerate that individual 's contribution to the conquest , downplaying other conquerors ' . Indigenous allies ' accounts stress their loyalty to the Spanish and their particular aid as being key to the Spanish victory . Their accounts are similar to Spanish conquerors ' accounts contained in petitions for rewards , known as benemérito petitions .
Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)
Even more important in this respect was the staples market ( stapelmarkt ) itself that helped to manage the risk of price fluctuations . Related instruments were the provision of trade credit to suppliers in order to secure favored access to raw materials ( Dutch merchants routinely bought up grain harvests in the Baltic area and grape harvests in France , important in the wine trade , before they were harvested ) and the financing of commodity trade with bills of exchange , which helped bind customers to the merchant .
History of the Church of England
An important aspect in the practice of medieval Christianity was the veneration of saints , and the associated pilgrimages to places where the relics of a particular saint were interred and the saint 's tradition honoured . The possession of the relics of a popular saint was a source of funds to the individual church as the faithful made donations and benefactions in the hope that they might receive spiritual aid , a blessing or a healing from the presence of the physical remains of the holy person . Among those churches to benefit in particular were : St. Alban 's Abbey , which contained the relics of England 's first Christian martyr ; Ripon , with the shrine of its founder St. Wilfrid ; Durham , which was built to house the body of Saints Cuthbert of Lindisfarne and Aidan ; Ely , with the shrine of St. Etheldreda ; Westminster Abbey , with the magnificent shrine of its founder St. Edward the Confessor ; and Chichester , which held the honoured remains of St. Richard . All these saints brought pilgrims to their churches , but among them the most renowned was Thomas Becket , the late Archbishop of Canterbury , who was assassinated by henchmen of King Henry II in 1170 . As a place of pilgrimage Canterbury was , in the 13th century , second only to Santiago de Compostela .
History of childhood
Much of contemporary western perceptions of children and childhood still stems from the idea of the `` Nuclear family '' , which gained significance in the 1950s . In western culture and society it is important for children to be socialized into acceptable adults , and this means passing on social values that cater to a national narrative . One of the main ways that children are socialized is by gender . Children are expected to behave in particular ways and hold particular values based on their gender - male or female . Gender is assigned at birth based on sex , which is determined by genitalia . And with that , children are expected to take on gender roles in society , and the associated characteristics based on this determined sex . Today the gender roles are divided into two spaces , referred to as the ' separation of spheres ' ; the reproductive sphere is reserved for women and the productive sphere is reserved for men : This began in the 1950s with the rise and normalizing of the ' nuclear family ' . Kimmel and Hollar ( 2011 ) claim that `` family life was wrenched apart from the world of work ... men ( 's ) work shifted from home to farm to mill and factory , shop and office ... ( which ) became ... paid labour ... gradually ( becoming ) industrialized and eliminated as such tasks ... shifted to the external world ... libererat ( ing ) men to exit their homes and leave the rearing of their sons and daughters to their wives '' ( p. 144 ) . While family life has changed today the expectations of men and women , and thus boys and girls , remains and mimics that of the idealized nuclear family . And so girls are still socialized by society to enter the private sphere of home and family , while boys are still socialized to enter the public sphere of work .
Fur trade
The European discovery of North America , with its vast forests and wildlife , particularly the beaver , led to the continent becoming a major supplier in the 17th century of fur pelts for the fur felt hat and fur trimming and garment trades of Europe . Fur was relied on to make warm clothing , a critical consideration prior to the organization of coal distribution for heating . Portugal and Spain played major roles in fur trading after the 15th century with their business in fur hats .
History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
By 287 BC , the economic condition of the average Plebeian had become poor , and the result was the final Plebeian secession . The Plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill , and to end the secession , a Dictator named Quintus Hortensius was appointed . Hortensius , a Plebeian , passed a law called the `` Hortensian Law '' ( Lex Hortensia ) , which ended the requirement that an auctoritas patrum be passed before any bill could be considered by either the Plebeian Council or the Tribal Assembly . The requirement was not changed for the Centuriate Assembly . The importance of the Hortensian Law was in that it removed from the senate its final check over the Plebeian Council ( the principal popular assembly ) . It should therefore not be viewed as the final triumph of democracy over aristocracy , since , through the Tribunes , the senate could still control the Plebeian Council . Thus , the ultimate significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the Patricians of their final weapon over the Plebeians . The result was that the ultimate control over the state fell , not onto the shoulders of democracy , but onto the shoulders of the new Patricio - Plebeian aristocracy .
History of Native Americans in the United States
American Indians have played a central role in shaping the history of the nation , and they are deeply woven into the social fabric of much of American life ... During the last three decades of the 20th century , scholars of ethnohistory , of the `` new Indian history , '' and of Native American studies forcefully demonstrated that to understand American history and the American experience , one must include American Indians . --
Silk Road
During the 5th and 6th centuries CE , merchants played a large role in the spread of religion , in particular Buddhism . Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism to be an appealing alternative to previous religions . As a result , merchants supported Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road , and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere to stay as they traveled from city to city . As a result , merchants spread Buddhism to foreign encounters as they traveled . Merchants also helped to establish diaspora within the communities they encountered , and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism . As a result , these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well - organized marketplaces , lodging , and storage . The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese society . The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century with the rise of Islam in Central Asia .
History of democracy
The courts formed another important political institution in Athens ; they were composed of a large number of juries with no judges , and they were selected by lot on a daily basis from an annual pool , also chosen by lot . The courts had unlimited power to control the other bodies of the government and its political leaders . Participation by the citizens selected was mandatory , and a modest financial compensation was given to citizens whose livelihood was affected by being `` drafted '' to office . The only officials chosen by elections , one from each tribe , were the strategoi ( generals ) , where military knowledge was required , and the treasurers , who had to be wealthy , since any funds revealed to have been embezzled were recovered from a treasurer 's private fortune . Debate was open to all present and decisions in all matters of policy were taken by majority vote in the Ecclesia ( compare direct democracy ) , in which all male citizens could participate ( in some cases with a quorum of 6000 ) . The decisions taken in the Ecclesia were executed by the Boule of 500 , which had already approved the agenda for the Ecclesia . The Athenian Boule was elected by lot every year and no citizen could serve more than twice .
Olmec
The state of Guerrero , and in particular its early Mezcala culture , seem to have played an important role in the early history of Olmec culture . Olmec - style artifacts tend to appear earlier in some parts of Guerrero than in the Veracruz - Tabasco area . In particular , the relevant objects from the Amuco - Abelino site in Guerrero reveal dates as early as 1530 BCE . The city of Teopantecuanitlan in Guerrero is also relevant in this regard .
Execution of the Romanov family
His preliminary report was published in a book that same year in French and then Russian , and was the only accepted historical explanation about the murders for 65 years until 1989 . He wrongly concluded that the prisoners died instantly from the shooting with the exception of Alexei and Anastasia , who were shot and bayoneted to death , and that the bodies were destroyed in a massive bonfire . Publication and worldwide acceptance of the investigation prompted the Soviets to issue a government - approved textbook that largely plagiarized Sokolov 's work in 1926 , admitting that the empress and her children had been murdered with the Tsar . In 1938 , Josef Stalin issued a clampdown on all discussion of the Romanov murders . Sokolov 's report was also banned . The Ipatiev House was deemed to be not of `` sufficient historical significance '' by Leonid Brezhnev 's Politburo , and was demolished in September 1977 , less than a year before the sixtieth anniversary of the murders . Yeltsin wrote in his memoirs that `` sooner or later we will be ashamed of this piece of barbarism '' . The destruction of the house did not stop pilgrims or monarchists from visiting the site .
Horn of Africa
The strategic importance of Eritrea , due to its Red Sea coastline and mineral resources , was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia , which in turn led to Eritrea 's annexation as Ethiopia 's 14th province in 1952 . This was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities , a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of Amharic , the main language of Ethiopia , in all Eritrean schools . The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s ( 1961 ) , which erupted into a 30 - year war against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991 . Following a UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea ( dubbed UNOVER ) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence , Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993 . In 1998 , a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the Eritrean - Ethiopian War . Place
History of the Church of England
In the 16th century , religious life was an important part of the cement which held society together and formed an important basis for extending and consolidating political power . Differences in religion were likely to lead to civil unrest at the very least , with treason and foreign invasion acting as real threats . When Queen Elizabeth came to the throne in 1558 , a solution was thought to have been found . To minimise bloodshed over religion in her dominions , the religious settlement between the factions of Rome and Geneva was brought about . It was compellingly articulated in the development of the 1559 Book of Common Prayer , the Thirty - Nine Articles , the Ordinal , and the two Books of Homilies . These works , issued under Archbishop Matthew Parker , were to become the basis of all subsequent Anglican doctrine and identity .