vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Period (periodic table)
Lithium ( Li ) is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element . In its non-ionized state it is one of the most reactive elements , and so is only ever found naturally in compounds . It is the heaviest primordial element forged in large quantities during the Big Bang . Beryllium ( Be ) has one of the highest melting points of all the light metals . Small amounts of beryllium were synthesised during the Big Bang , although most of it decayed or reacted further within stars to create larger nuclei , like carbon , nitrogen or oxygen . Beryllium is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as a group 1 carcinogen . Between 1 % and 15 % of people are sensitive to beryllium and may develop an inflammatory reaction in their respiratory system and skin , called chronic beryllium disease . Boron ( B ) does not occur naturally as a free element , but in compounds such as borates . It is an essential plant micronutrient , required for cell wall strength and development , cell division , seed and fruit development , sugar transport and hormone development , though high levels are toxic . Carbon ( C ) is the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium and oxygen and is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass after oxygen , the third most abundant by number of atoms . There are an almost infinite number of compounds that contain carbon due to carbon 's ability to form long stable chains of C -- C bonds . All organic compounds , those essential for life , contain at least one atom of carbon ; combined with hydrogen , oxygen , nitrogen , sulfur , and phosphorus , carbon is the basis of every important biological compound . Nitrogen ( N ) is found mainly as mostly inert diatomic gas , N , which makes up 78 % of the Earth 's atmosphere by volume . It is an essential component of proteins and therefore of life . Oxygen ( O ) comprising 21 % of the atmosphere by volume and is required for respiration by all ( or nearly all ) animals , as well as being the principal component of water . Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe , and oxygen compounds dominate the Earth 's crust . Fluorine ( F ) is the most reactive element in its non-ionized state , and so is never found that way in nature . Neon ( Ne ) is a noble gas used in neon lighting .
Protein folding
Fluorescence spectroscopy is a highly sensitive method for studying the folding state of proteins . Three amino acids , phenylalanine ( Phe ) , tyrosine ( Tyr ) and tryptophan ( Trp ) , have intrinsic fluorescence properties , but only Tyr and Trp are used experimentally because their quantum yields are high enough to give good fluorescence signals . Both Trp and Tyr are excited by a wavelength of 280 nm , whereas only Trp is excited by a wavelength of 295 nm . Because of their aromatic character , Trp and Tyr residues are often found fully or partially buried in the hydrophobic core of proteins , at the interface between two protein domains , or at the interface between subunits of oligomeric proteins . In this apolar environment , they have high quantum yields and therefore high fluorescence intensities . Upon disruption of the protein 's tertiary or quaternary structure , these side chains become more exposed to the hydrophilic environment of the solvent , and their quantum yields decrease , leading to low fluorescence intensities . For Trp residues , the wavelength of their maximal fluorescence emission also depend on their environment .
Citric acid cycle
The majority of the carbon atoms in the porphyrins come from the citric acid cycle intermediate , succinyl - CoA . These molecules are an important component of the hemoproteins , such as hemoglobin , myoglobin and various cytochromes .
Steam power during the Industrial Revolution
Trevithick was a man of versatile talents , and his activities were not confined to small applications . Trevithick developed his large Cornish boiler with an internal flue from about 1812 . These were also employed when upgrading a number of Watt pumping engines , greatly increasing power and productivity ; this led to the highly efficient large Cornish engines that continued to be built right up to the end of the 19th Century .
List of The Last Ship characters
The younger brother of Sean Ramsey and second - in - command of the Immunes . He previously served a Sub-Lieutenant aboard the Royal Navy Astute - class submarine HMS Achilles , with he and his brother being the only two to survive when the submarine became infected with the Red Flu . Valerie
Medieval music
Another important element of Medieval music theory was the system by which pitches were arranged and understood . During the Middle Ages , this systematic arrangement of a series of whole steps and half steps , what we now call a scale , was known as a mode . The modal system worked like the scales of today , insomuch that it provided the rules and material for melodic writing . The eight church modes are : Dorian , Hypodorian , Phrygian , Hypophrygian , Lydian , Hypolydian , Mixolydian , and Hypomixolydian . Much of the information concerning these modes , as well as the practical application of them , was codified in the 11th century by the theorist Johannes Afflighemensis . In his work he describes three defining elements to each mode : the final ( or finalis ) , the reciting tone ( tenor or confinalis ) , and the range ( or ambitus ) . The finalis is the tone that serves as the focal point for the mode and , as the name suggests , is almost always used as the final tone . The reciting tone is the tone that serves as the primary focal point in the melody ( particularly internally ) . It is generally also the tone most often repeated in the piece , and finally the range delimits the upper and lower tones for a given mode . The eight modes can be further divided into four categories based on their final ( finalis ) .
Positron emission tomography
Because the half - life of fluorine - 18 is about two hours , the prepared dose of a radiopharmaceutical bearing this radionuclide will undergo multiple half - lives of decay during the working day . This necessitates frequent recalibration of the remaining dose ( determination of activity per unit volume ) and careful planning with respect to patient scheduling .
Water fluoridation
The history of water fluoridation can be divided into three periods . The first ( c. 1801 -- 1933 ) was research into the cause of a form of mottled tooth enamel called the Colorado brown stain . The second ( c. 1933 -- 1945 ) focused on the relationship between fluoride concentrations , fluorosis , and tooth decay , and established that moderate levels of fluoride prevent cavities . The third period , from 1945 on , focused on adding fluoride to community water supplies .
One man, one vote
The Constitution includes the result of the Great Compromise resulting in representation for the US Senate . Each state was equally represented in the Senate with two representatives , without regard to population . The Founding Fathers considered this principle of such importance that they included a clause in the Constitution to prohibit any state from being deprived of equal representation in the Senate without its permission ; see Article V of the United States Constitution . For this reason , `` one person , one vote '' has never been implemented in the U.S. Senate , in terms of representation by states .
Cultural identity
Previous studies on cultural identities and diaspora communities affirm that individuals can fluctuate from one identity to another , or that new forms of collective consciousness permit migrants to develop new cultural strategies and integration practices . Others suggest that identity is continuously negotiable through social interaction , and that there are no limits to negotiability as a result of the fluidity of culture . However , as claimed by Simone Marino ( 2018 ) in a research on Italian - Australians in Adelaide , South Australia , the level of negotiation and integration can be fairly variable , subjective and involve different aspects of human behaviour . According to Marino ( 2018 ) , individuals in ethno minority groups can appear to have an elevate level of integration into the public sphere of the host society , whereas their private life might reveal different results . Furthermore , it is important to consider that cultural transformations as processes are not necessarily homogenous and continuous , rather they may be characterized by discontinuities , resistances and shifts Marino ( 2018 ) .
List of The Last Ship characters
President Jeffrey Allen `` Jeff '' Michener ( died 2016 ) was the former United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development . Immune to the Red Flu , Michener is the sole surviving member of the Cabinet of the United States , which makes him next in the Presidential line of succession . In `` A More Perfect Union '' , he was officially sworn in as President of the United States in St. Louis , Missouri , by a surviving judge . He is portrayed by Mark Moses .
Scientific method
Frequently the scientific method is employed not only by a single person , but also by several people cooperating directly or indirectly . Such cooperation can be regarded as an important element of a scientific community . Various standards of scientific methodology are used within such an environment .
Neuroscience of multilingualism
Functional neuroimaging research has shown that very early bilinguals display no difference in brain activation for L1 and L2 -- which is assumed to be due to high proficiency in both languages . Additionally , in highly proficient late bilinguals , there is a common neural network that plays an important role in language production tasks ; whereas , in late bilinguals , spatially separated regions are activated in Broca 's area for L1 and L2 . Finally , it has been found that larger cerebral activation is measured when a language is spoken less fluently than when languages are spoken fluently . Overall , in bilinguals / polyglots , achieved proficiency , and possibly language exposure , are more crucial than age of acquisition in the cerebral representation of languages . However , since age of acquisition has a strong effect on the likelihood of achieving high fluency , these variables are strongly intertwined .
List of The Last Ship characters
Tom Chandler 's Army veteran father who is seen in flashbacks and in the present . He and the family were holed up in the family cabin in Virginia and infected with the virus . He is later injected with the vaccine by his son , and now resides in the vaccinated city of Norfolk . In `` Safe Zone '' , CDR Chandler mentions that his father is 68 years old and that he has a heart condition . In `` Do n't Look Back '' , Jed is killed by Allison Shaw 's ( Elisabeth Röhm ) people during the kidnapping of his grandchildren in an effort to blackmail CAPT Chandler . He is portrayed by Bill Smitrovich . Darien
Social class in the United States
Yet another important feature of the upper class is that of inherited privilege . While most Americans , including those in the upper - middle class need to actively maintain their status , some upper class persons do not need to work in order to maintain their status . Status tends to be passed on from generation to generation without each generation having to re-certify its status . Overall , the upper class is financially the best compensated and one of the most influential socio - economic classes in American society . Corporate
List of awards and nominations received by Michael Jackson
Michael Jackson Award Belt - Versace black leather belt with gold hardware belt buckles adorned with colorful gemstones in the amount of 4 million with fluer de lis ornament pattern . belt inscribed `` Presented to Michael Jackson from Sony Music UK 1992 '' and is contained in custom wood and container plaxiglass .
Life in a Northern Town
The song was covered in 2007 by the country music duo Sugarland , along with Little Big Town and Jake Owen , on the Sugarland Change for Change Tour . A live performance from 2007 was made into a music video by Becky Fluke for the network Country Music Television . Although not officially released as a single , this rendition received airplay on country radio , debuting at 57 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart dated for 5 April 2008 and reaching a peak of 28 . It also peaked at 43 on the Billboard Hot 100 based on downloads .
Water fluoridation
Fluoridation does not affect the appearance , taste , or smell of drinking water . It is normally accomplished by adding one of three compounds to the water : sodium fluoride , fluorosilicic acid , or sodium fluorosilicate .
Caste system in India
In 2001 , the literacy rates in India 's lowest castes was 55 percent , compared to a national average of 63 percent . The childhood vaccination levels in India 's lowest castes was 40 percent in 2001 , compared to a national average of 44 percent . Access to drinking water within household or near the household in India 's lowest castes was 80 percent in 2001 , compared to a national average of 83 percent . The poverty level in India 's lowest castes dropped from 49 percent to 39 percent between 1995 and 2005 , compared to a national average change from 35 to 27 percent .
Water fluoridation
Pitcher or faucet - mounted water filters do not alter fluoride content ; the more - expensive reverse osmosis filters remove 65 -- 95 % of fluoride , and distillation removes all fluoride . Some bottled waters contain undeclared fluoride , which can be present naturally in source waters , or if water is sourced from a public supply which has been fluoridated . The FDA states that bottled water products labeled as de-ionized , purified , demineralized , or distilled have been treated in such a way that they contain no or only trace amounts of fluoride , unless they specifically list fluoride as an added ingredient .
United Nations
When the General Assembly votes on important questions , a two - thirds majority of those present and voting is required . Examples of important questions include recommendations on peace and security ; election of members to organs ; admission , suspension , and expulsion of members ; and budgetary matters . All other questions are decided by a majority vote . Each member country has one vote . Apart from approval of budgetary matters , resolutions are not binding on the members . The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN , except matters of peace and security that are under consideration by the Security Council .
Social class in the United States
Also , scholarships offered by universities and government do exist , and low - interest loans are available . Still , the average cost of education , by all accounts , is increasing . The attainment of post-secondary and graduate degrees is the perhaps most important feature of a middle and upper middle class person with the university being regarded as the most essential institution and gatekeeper of the professional middle class . Educational attainment is also directly linked to income .
Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Knowledge and learning contribute to moral development . Specifically important are the individual 's `` view of persons '' and their `` social perspective level '' , each of which becomes more complex and mature with each advancing stage . The `` view of persons '' can be understood as the individual 's grasp of the psychology of other persons ; it may be pictured as a spectrum , with stage one having no view of other persons at all , and stage six being entirely socio - centric . Similarly , the social perspective level involves the understanding of the social universe , differing from the view of persons in that it involves an appreciation of social norms .
Rhode Island
During World War I , Rhode Island furnished 28,817 soldiers , of whom 612 died . After the war , the state was hit hard by the Spanish Influenza .
List of The Last Ship characters
Tom 's son who is seen in flashbacks and in the present . He and the family were holed up in the family cabin and infected with the virus . He is later injected with the vaccine by his father , and now resides in the vaccinated city of Norfolk with his grandfather . He is portrayed by Aidan Sussman . Kelly
Carbon
, C Graphite ( left ) and diamond ( right ) , two allotropes of carbon General properties Allotropes graphite , diamond Appearance graphite : black diamond : clear Standard atomic weight ( A ) ( 7001120096000000000 ♠ 12.0096 , 7001120116000000000 ♠ 12.0116 ) conventional : 7001120110000000000 ♠ 12.011 Carbon in the periodic table Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury ( element ) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson -- ↑ ↓ Si boron ← carbon → nitrogen Atomic number ( Z ) 6 Group , period group 14 ( carbon group ) , period 2 Block p - block Element category polyatomic nonmetal , sometimes considered a metalloid Electron configuration ( He ) 2s 2p Electrons per shell 2 , 4 Physical properties Phase ( at STP ) solid Sublimation point 3915 K ​ ( 3642 ° C , ​ 6588 ° F ) Density ( near r.t.
Atlantic Ocean
In the Western Central Atlantic catches have been decreasing since 2000 and reached 1.3 million tons in 2013 . The most important species in the area , Gulf menhaden , reached a million tons in the mid-1980s but only half a million tons in 2013 and is now considered fully fished . Round sardinella was an important species in the 1990s but is now considered overfished . Groupers and snappers are overfished and northern brown shrimp and American cupped oyster are considered fully fished approaching overfished. 44 % of stocks are being fished at unsustainable levels . Agulhas
Water fluoridation
The foundation of water fluoridation in the U.S. was the research of the dentist Frederick McKay ( 1874 -- 1959 ) . McKay spent thirty years investigating the cause of what was then known as the Colorado brown stain , which produced mottled but also cavity - free teeth ; with the help of G.V. Black and other researchers , he established that the cause was fluoride . The first report of a statistical association between the stain and lack of tooth decay was made by UK dentist Norman Ainsworth in 1925 . In 1931 , an Alcoa chemist , H.V. Churchill , concerned about a possible link between aluminum and staining , analyzed water from several areas where the staining was common and found that fluoride was the common factor . H.
Paul Revere
Revere 's increased efficiency left financial and human resources available for the exploration of other products , which was essential to overcoming the fluctuating post-war economic climate . In addition to increasing production , the flatting mill enabled Revere to move towards a more managerial position .
Water fluoridation
The effect of water fluoridation on the natural environment has been investigated , and no adverse effects have been established . Issues studied have included fluoride concentrations in groundwater and downstream rivers ; lawns , gardens , and plants ; consumption of plants grown in fluoridated water ; air emissions ; and equipment noise .
Native Hawaiians
At the time of Captain Cook 's arrival in 1778 , the population is estimated to have been between 250,000 and 800,000 . Over the span of the first century after first contact , the native Hawaiians were nearly wiped out by diseases introduced to the islands . Native Hawaiians had no resistance to influenza , smallpox , measles , or whooping cough , among others . The 1900 U.S. Census identified 37,656 residents of full or partial native Hawaiian ancestry . The 2000 U.S. Census identified 283,430 residents of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry , showing a dramatic growth trend since annexation by the U.S. in 1898 .
pH
However , the advantage of considering this additional complexity is dependent upon the abundance of fluoride in the medium . In seawater , for instance , sulfate ions occur at much greater concentrations ( > 400 times ) than those of fluoride . As a consequence , for most practical purposes , the difference between the total and seawater scales is very small .
Acids in wine
The acids in wine are an important component in both winemaking and the finished product of wine . They are present in both grapes and wine , having direct influences on the color , balance and taste of the wine as well as the growth and vitality of yeast during fermentation and protecting the wine from bacteria . The measure of the amount of acidity in wine is known as the `` titratable acidity '' or `` total acidity '' , which refers to the test that yields the total of all acids present , while strength of acidity is measured according to pH , with most wines having a pH between 2.9 and 3.9 . Generally , the lower the pH , the higher the acidity in the wine . However , there is no direct connection between total acidity and pH ( it is possible to find wines with a high pH for wine and high acidity ) . In wine tasting , the term `` acidity '' refers to the fresh , tart and sour attributes of the wine which are evaluated in relation to how well the acidity balances out the sweetness and bitter components of the wine such as tannins . Three primary acids are found in wine grapes : tartaric , malic and citric acids . During the course of winemaking and in the finished wines , acetic , butyric , lactic and succinic acids can play significant roles . Most of the acids involved with wine are fixed acids with the notable exception of acetic acid , mostly found in vinegar , which is volatile and can contribute to the wine fault known as volatile acidity . Sometimes , additional acids , such as ascorbic , sorbic and sulfurous acids , are used in winemaking .
We Didn't Start the Fire
Dwight D. Eisenhower is first elected as President of the United States , winning by a landslide margin of 442 to 89 electoral votes . Vaccine for polio is privately tested by Jonas Salk . England 's got a new queen : Queen Elizabeth II succeeds to the throne upon the death of her father , George VI , and is crowned the next year . Rocky Marciano defeats Jersey Joe Walcott , becoming the world heavyweight boxing champion . Liberace has a popular 1950s television show for his musical entertainment . Santayana goodbye : George Santayana , philosopher , essayist , poet , and novelist , dies on September 26 . 1953