vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Parameter (computer programming)
The primary use of output parameters is to return multiple values from a function , while the use of input / output parameters is to modify state using parameter passing ( rather than by shared environment , as in global variables ) . An important use of returning multiple values is to solve the semipredicate problem of returning both a value and an error status -- see Semipredicate problem : Multivalued return .
Star formation
When the surrounding gas and dust envelope disperses and accretion process stops , the star is considered a pre -- main sequence star ( PMS star ) . The energy source of these objects is gravitational contraction , as opposed to hydrogen burning in main sequence stars . The PMS star follows a Hayashi track on the Hertzsprung -- Russell ( H -- R ) diagram . The contraction will proceed until the Hayashi limit is reached , and thereafter contraction will continue on a Kelvin -- Helmholtz timescale with the temperature remaining stable . Stars with less than 0.5 M thereafter join the main sequence . For more massive PMS stars , at the end of the Hayashi track they will slowly collapse in near hydrostatic equilibrium , following the Henyey track .
United States presidential primary
In such a primary season , however , many primaries will fall on the same day , forcing candidates to choose where to spend their time and resources . Indeed , Super Tuesday was created deliberately to increase the influence of the South . When states can not agree to coordinate primaries , however , attention flows to larger states with large numbers of delegates at the expense of smaller ones . Because the candidate 's time is limited , paid advertising may play a greater role . Moreover , a compressed calendar limits the ability of lesser - known candidates to corral resources and raise their visibility among voters , especially when a better - known candidate enjoys the financial and institutional backing of the party establishment .
Political campaign
The fundamentals matter less in the outcome of presidential primaries . One prominent theory holds that the outcome of presidential primaries is largely determined by the preferences of party elites . Presidential primaries are therefore less predictive , as all kinds of events may impact elites ' perception of the viability of candidates . Gaffes , debates and media narratives play a greater role in primaries than in presidential elections .
Free clinic
Some free clinics specialize in providing primary care ( acute care ) , while others focus on long - term chronic health issues , and many do both . Most free clinics start out seeing patients only one or two days per week , and then expand as they find additional volunteers . Because they rely on volunteers , most are only open a few hours per day ; primarily in the late afternoon and early evening . Many free clinics are faith - based , meaning they are sponsored by and affiliated with a specific church or religious denomination , or they are interfaith and draw support from several different denominations or religions .
Rainbow
In a primary rainbow , the arc shows red on the outer part and violet on the inner side . This rainbow is caused by light being refracted when entering a droplet of water , then reflected inside on the back of the droplet and refracted again when leaving it .
Elections in the United States
A state 's presidential primary election or caucus usually is an indirect election : instead of voters directly selecting a particular person running for President , it determines how many delegates each party 's national political convention will receive from their respective state . These delegates then in turn select their party 's presidential nominee . Held in the summer , a political convention 's purpose is also to adopt a statement of the party 's principles and goals known as the platform and adopt the rules for the party 's activities .
Economic history of Italy
Macro-economic activity GDP activity Primary ( agriculture , farming , fishing ) € 27,193.33 Secondary ( industry , manufacturing , petrochemicals , processing ) € 270,000.59 Constructions € 79,775.99 Tertiary ( commerce , restoration , hotels and restaurants , tourism , transport , communications ) € 303,091.10 Financial activities and real estate € 356,600.45 Other activities ( e.g. R&D ) € 279,924.50 VAT and other forms of taxes € 158,817.00 GDP ( PPP ) of Italy € 1,475,402.97
History of Texas
When the Supreme Court ruled in 1923 that white primaries established by political parties were unconstitutional , in 1927 the Texas state legislature passed a bill that authorized political parties to establish their internal practices . The Democratic Party reinstated the white primary . That law survived until 1944 before another Supreme Court case ruled that it was unconstitutional . After 1944 , the NAACP and other organizations worked to register black voters and participation increased . But the major disenfranchisement continued until passage in the mid-1960s of civil rights legislation , including the Voting Rights Act of 1965 , to provide for federal oversight in areas in which historically minorities did not vote in expected numbers based on population .
History of tennis
In 1978 the ILTF Grand Prix and WCT circuits merged . However , In 1982 , the WCT circuit separated again and created a more complex WCT ranking , similar to the ATP ranking . The WCT was n't as successful in the 1980s , and the Grand Prix circuit became the primary circuit . The Grand Prix 's governance was led by the ' Men 's International Professional Tennis Council ( MIPTC ) ' ( also called the Men 's Tennis Council ( MTC ) ) . The WCT Finals in Dallas continued being held until the end of the 1980s , and then disbanded with the creation of the ATP Tour for 1990 .
History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901 , using English as the medium of instruction . This created a heavy shortage of teachers , and the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.A. -- the so - called Thomasites . Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President McKinley . Also , the Catholic Church was disestablished , and a considerable amount of church land was purchased and redistributed .
The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down
Fadiman 's sources for information about the history of the Hmong include Hmong : History of a People by Keith Quincy . She stated `` Were I citing the source of each detail , Quincy 's name would attach itself to nearly every sentence in the pages on the Hmong in China . '' Fadiman 's book cited the Quincy theory that the Hmong people originated from Siberia . Entenmann wrote that because of the reliance on Quincy 's book , Fadiman 's book propagates the idea that Sonom was a Hmong king , a concept that Entenmann says is inaccurate .
History of immigration to the United States
The New English colonists were the most urban and educated of all their contemporaries , and they had many skilled farmers , tradesmen and craftsmen among them . They started the first university , Harvard , in 1635 in order to train their ministers . They mostly settled in small villages for mutual support ( nearly all of them had their own militias ) and common religious activities . Shipbuilding , commerce , agriculture , and fishing were their main sources of income . New England 's healthy climate ( the cold winters killed the mosquitoes and other disease - bearing insects ) , small widespread villages ( minimizing the spread of disease ) , and an abundant food supply resulted in the lowest death rate and the highest birth rate of any of the colonies . The Eastern and Northern frontier around the initial New England settlements was mainly settled by the descendants of the original New Englanders . Immigration to the New England colonies after 1640 and the start of the English Civil War decreased to less than 1 % ( about equal to the death rate ) in nearly all of the years prior to 1845 . The rapid growth of the New England colonies ( approximately 900,000 by 1790 ) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate ( > 3 % ) and the low death rate ( < 1 % ) per year .
History of United States prison systems
The source of convicts also changed in the post-war South . Before the American Civil War , rural counties sent few defendants to the state penitentiaries , but after the war rural courts became steady suppliers to their states ' leasing systems ( though cities remained the largest supplier of convict lessees during this period ) . Savannah , Georgia , for example , sent convicts to leasing operations at approximately three times the number that its population would suggest , a pattern amplified by the reality that 76 percent of all blacks convicted in its courts received a prison sentence .
Rainbow
Descartes ' 1637 treatise , Discourse on Method , further advanced this explanation . Knowing that the size of raindrops did not appear to affect the observed rainbow , he experimented with passing rays of light through a large glass sphere filled with water . By measuring the angles that the rays emerged , he concluded that the primary bow was caused by a single internal reflection inside the raindrop and that a secondary bow could be caused by two internal reflections . He supported this conclusion with a derivation of the law of refraction ( subsequently to , but independently of , Snell ) and correctly calculated the angles for both bows . His explanation of the colours , however , was based on a mechanical version of the traditional theory that colours were produced by a modification of white light .
History of electric power transmission
By allowing multiple generating plants to be interconnected over a wide area , electricity production cost was reduced . The most efficient available plants could be used to supply the varying loads during the day . Reliability was improved and capital investment cost was reduced , since stand - by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider geographic area . Remote and low - cost sources of energy , such as hydroelectric power or mine - mouth coal , could be exploited to lower energy production cost . The
Modern history
The Age of Enlightenment is a time in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the 18th century in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority . Enlightenment gained momentum more or less simultaneously in many parts of Europe and America . Developing during the Enlightenment era , Renaissance humanism as an intellectual movement spread across Europe . The basic training of the humanist was to speak well and write ( typically , in the form of a letter ) . The term umanista comes from the latter part of the 15th century . The people were associated with the studia humanitatis , a novel curriculum that was competing with the quadrivium and scholastic logic .
History of Texas
Prior to the mid-20th century Texas was essentially a one - party state , and the Democratic primary was viewed as `` the real election '' . The Democratic Party had conservative and liberal factions , which became more pronounced after the New Deal . Additionally , several factions of the party briefly split during the 1930s and 40s .
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
Historically , the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English Sovereign until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall . Whitehall was destroyed by fire in 1698 , leading to a shift to St James 's Palace . Although replaced as the monarch 's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837 , St James 's is still the senior palace and remains the ceremonial Royal residence . For example , foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St James 's , and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council . It is also used by other members of the Royal Family .
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
By the 1850s new formed local banks became a source of credit , replacing the haphazard system of credit from local merchants . Prosperity brought immigration , especially Catholics from Ireland who soon comprised 40 % of the residents .
Gynaecology
The Hippocratic Corpus contains several gynaecological treatises dating to the 5th / 4th centuries BC . Aristotle is another strong source for medical texts from the 4th century BC with his descriptions of biology primarily found in History of Animals , Parts of Animals , Generation of Animals . The gynaecological treatise Gynaikeia by Soranus of Ephesus ( 1st / 2nd century AD ) is extant ( together with a 6th - century Latin paraphrase by Muscio , a physician of the same school ) . He was the chief representative of the school of physicians known as the `` Methodists '' .
History of United States prison systems
The colonial jail 's primary criminal law function was as a pre-trial and pre-sentence detention facility . Generally , only the poorest or most despised defendants found their way into the jails of colonial North America , since colonial judges rarely denied requests for bail . The only penal function of significance that colonial jails served was for contempt -- but this was a coercive technique designed to protect the power of the courts , not a penal sanction in its own right .
French Revolution
Also the tithe ( a 10 % tax for the Church , gathered by the First Estate ( clergy ) ) was abolished which had been the main source of income for many clergymen . During the course of a few hours nobles , clergy , towns , provinces , companies and cities lost their special privileges .
Military history of the United States during World War II
The primary objective at Omaha was to secure a beachhead of some five miles ( eight kilometres ) depth , between Port - en - Bessin and the Vire River , linking with the British landings at Gold Beach to the east , and reaching the area of Isigny to the west to link up with VII Corps landing at Utah Beach . Opposing the landings was the German 352nd Infantry Division , a large portion of whom were teenagers , though they were supplemented by veterans who had fought on the Eastern Front . The 352nd had never had any battalion or regimental training . Of the 12,020 men of the division , only 6,800 were experienced combat troops , detailed to defend a 53 - kilometre - long ( 33 - mile ) front . The Germans were largely deployed in strongpoints along the coast -- the German strategy was based on defeating any seaborne assault at the water line . Nevertheless , Allied calculations indicated that Omaha 's defenses were three times as strong as those they had encountered during the Battle of Kwajalein , and its defenders were four times as many. ( 1 ) Very little went as planned during the landing at Omaha Beach . Difficulties in navigation caused the majority of landing craft to miss their targets throughout the day . The defenses were unexpectedly strong , and inflicted heavy casualties on landing US troops . Under heavy fire , the engineers struggled to clear the beach obstacles ; later landings bunched up around the few channels that were cleared . Weakened by the casualties taken just in landing , the surviving assault troops could not clear the heavily defended exits off the beach . This caused further problems and consequent delays for later landings . Small penetrations were eventually achieved by groups of survivors making improvised assaults , scaling the bluffs between the most heavily defended points . By the end of the day , two small isolated footholds had been won , which were subsequently exploited against weaker defenses further inland , thus achieving the original D - Day objectives over the following days .
New Spain
The Viceroyalty of New Spain was the principal source of income for Spain in the eighteenth century , with the revival of mining under the Bourbon Reforms . Important mining centers like Zacatecas , Guanajuato , San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo had been established in the sixteenth century and suffered decline for a variety of reasons in the seventeenth century , but silver mining in Mexico out performed all other Spanish overseas territories in revenues for the royal coffers .
Chola dynasty
Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income . The Chola rulers issued their coins in gold , silver and copper . The Chola economy was based on three tiers -- at the local level , agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram , which acted as redistribution centres for externally produced items bound for consumption in the local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for the international trade . At the top of this economic pyramid were the elite merchant groups ( samayam ) who organised and dominated the regions international maritime trade .
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
In the 1960s some 2 billion pounds of cod were harvested annually from the Grand Bank off Newfoundland , the world 's largest source of fish . Then disaster hit . The northern cod practically vanished -- they were reduced to 1 % of their historic spawning biomass . In 1992 , the cod fishery was shut down by the Canadian government ; cod fishing as a way of life came to an end for 19,000 workers after a 500 - year history as a main industry .
English contract law
Sources for impossibility Paradine v Jane ( 1647 ) EWHC KB J5 Courturier v Hastie ( 1856 ) UKHL J3 Taylor v Caldwell ( 1863 ) EWHC QB J1 Krell v Henry ( 1903 ) 2 KB 740 Bell v Lever Brothers Ltd ( 1931 ) UKHL 2 Maritime Fish Ltd v Ocean Trawlers Ltd ( 1935 ) UKPC 1 Fibrosa Spolka v Fairbairn Lawson Ltd ( 1942 ) UKHL 4 Law Reform ( Frustrated Contracts ) Act 1943 ( c 40 ) Fraser & Co v Denny Mott & Dickson Ltd ( 1944 ) UKHL 3 Solle v Butcher ( 1950 ) 1 KB 671 McRae v Commonwealth Disposals ( 1951 ) HCA 79 Davis Contractors Ltd v Fareham UDC ( 1956 ) UKHL 3 John Walker & Sons Ltd ( 1977 ) 1 WLR 164 National Carriers Ltd v Panalpina ( Northern ) Ltd ( 1980 ) UKHL 8 BP Exploration Co ( Libya ) v Hunt ( No 2 ) ( 1983 ) 2 AC 352 The Superservant Two ( 1989 ) EWCA Civ 6 Gamerco SA v ICM Fair Warning Ltd ( 1995 ) EWHC QB 1 The Great Peace ( 2002 ) EWCA Civ 1407 See common mistake and frustration in English law Main
History of United States prison systems
Other rationalists , like Jeremy Bentham , believed that deterrence alone could not end criminality and looked instead to the social environment as the ultimate source of crime . Bentham 's conception of criminality led him to concur with philanthropist reformers on the need for rehabilitation of offenders . But , unlike the philanthropists , Bentham and like - minded rationalists believed the true goal of rehabilitation was to show convicts the logical `` inexpedience '' of crime , not their estrangement from religion . For these rationalists , society was the source of and the solution to crime .
United States presidential primary
The first national convention was called by the Anti-Masonic Party in 1831 , as they could not use the caucus system because they had no Congressmen . The party leaders instead called for a national meeting of supporters to set the party 's candidate . This convention was held in Baltimore , Maryland on September 26 , 1831 which selected William Wirt as their Presidential candidate .
Geologic time scale
The first serious attempts to formulate a geologic time scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth were made in the late 18th century . The most influential of those early attempts ( championed by Werner , among others ) divided the rocks of Earth 's crust into four types : Primary , Secondary , Tertiary , and Quaternary . Each type of rock , according to the theory , formed during a specific period in Earth history . It was thus possible to speak of a `` Tertiary Period '' as well as of `` Tertiary Rocks . '' Indeed , `` Tertiary '' ( now Paleogene and Neogene ) remained in use as the name of a geological period well into the 20th century and `` Quaternary '' remains in formal use as the name of the current period .
United States presidential primary
Starting with the 1796 election , Congressional party or a state legislature party caucus selected the party 's presidential candidates . Before 1820 , Democratic - Republican members of Congress would nominate a single candidate from their party . That system collapsed in 1824 , and since 1832 the preferred mechanism for nomination has been a national convention .
History of the telescope
X-rays from space do not reach the Earth 's surface so X-ray astronomy has to be conducted above the Earth 's atmosphere . The first X-ray experiments were conducted on sub-orbital rocket flights which enabled the first detection of X-rays from the Sun ( 1948 ) and the first galactic X-ray sources : Scorpius X-1 ( June 1962 ) and the Crab Nebula ( October 1962 ) . Since then , X-ray telescopes ( Wolter telescopes ) have been built using nested grazing - incidence mirrors which deflect X-rays to a detector . Some of the OAO satellites conducted X-ray astronomy in the late 1960s , but the first dedicated X-ray satellite was the Uhuru ( 1970 ) which discovered 300 sources . More recent X-ray satellites include : the EXOSAT ( 1983 ) , ROSAT ( 1990 ) , Chandra ( 1999 ) , and Newton ( 1999 ) .
History of the telescope
The 1980s saw the introduction of two new technologies for building larger telescopes and improving image quality , known as active optics and adaptive optics . In active optics , an image analyser senses the aberrations of a star image a few times per minute , and a computer adjusts many support forces on the primary mirror and the location of the secondary mirror to maintain the optics in optimal shape and alignment . This is too slow to correct for atmospheric blurring effects , but enables the use of thin single mirrors up to 8 m diameter , or even larger segmented mirrors . This method was pioneered by the ESO New Technology Telescope in the late 1980s .
Covering: The Hidden Assault on Our Civil Rights
Yoshino 's main source of activism concerns gay rights , and argues that the idea and need for assimilation is inherently damaging , using the gay concepts of assimilation and closeted behavior as ways to frame the conversation on civil rights .
History of Texas
Tens of thousands of new migrants streamed in from rural areas , straining the city 's housing supply and the city 's ability to provide local transit and schools . For the first time , high - paying jobs went to large numbers of women , blacks and Mexican Americans . The city 's African - American community , emboldened by their newfound prosperity , increased its agitation for civil rights ; they backed and funded the legal case of Smith v. Allwright ( 1944 ) , in which the Supreme Court ruled against the latest version of the white primary in support of voting rights .
History of the telescope
Since speculum metal mirror secondaries or diagonal mirrors greatly reduced the light that reached the eyepiece , several reflecting telescope designers tried to do away with them . In 1762 Mikhail Lomonosov presented a reflecting telescope before the Russian Academy of Sciences forum . It had its primary mirror tilted at four degrees to telescope 's axis so the image could be viewed via an eyepiece mounted at the front of the telescope tube without the observer 's head blocking the incoming light . This innovation was not published until 1827 , so this type came to be called the Herschelian telescope after a similar design by William Herschel . William