vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Julian calendar
Although most Eastern Orthodox countries ( most of them in eastern or southeastern Europe ) had adopted the Gregorian calendar by 1924 , their national churches had not . The `` Revised Julian calendar '' was endorsed by a synod in Constantinople in May 1923 , consisting of a solar part which was and will be identical to the Gregorian calendar until the year 2800 , and a lunar part which calculated Easter astronomically at Jerusalem . All Orthodox churches refused to accept the lunar part , so almost all Orthodox churches continue to celebrate Easter according to the Julian calendar ( with the exception of the Estonian Orthodox Church and the Finnish Orthodox Church ) .
Atmosphere of Venus
Surface level humidity is less than 0.1 % . Venus 's sulfuric acid rain never reaches the ground , but is evaporated by the heat before reaching the surface in a phenomenon known as virga . It is theorized that early volcanic activity released sulfur into the atmosphere and the high temperatures prevented it from being trapped into solid compounds on the surface as it was on the Earth .
European colonization of the Americas
During this time , the Portuguese gradually switched from an initial plan of establishing trading posts to extensive colonization of what is now Brazil . They imported millions of slaves to run their plantations . The Portuguese and Spanish royal governments expected to rule these settlements and collect at least 20 % of all treasure found ( the quinto real collected by the Casa de Contratación ) , in addition to collecting all the taxes they could . By the late 16th century American silver accounted for one - fifth of Spain 's total budget . In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports .
Internal Revenue Service
In the 2015 fiscal year , the IRS processed almost 240 million returns and collected approximately $3.3 trillion in revenue , spending 35 ¢ for every $100 it collected .
Eid al-Adha
In the Islamic lunar calendar , Eid al - Adha falls on the 10th day of Dhu al - Hijjah . In the international ( Gregorian ) calendar , the dates vary from year to year drifting approximately 11 days earlier each year .
Dead Sea
In prehistoric times , great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora . The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom ( on the southwest side of the lake ) . Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed , forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the bucket . When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces , the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs ( see salt dome ) .
La Niña
La Niña is the positive phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation and is associated with cooler - than - average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean . However , each country and island nation has a different threshold for what constitutes a La Niña event , which is tailored to their specific interests . For example , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology looks at the trade winds , SOI , weather models and sea surface temperatures in the Niño 3 and 3.4 regions before declaring that a La Niña event has started . However , the Japan Meteorological Agency declares that a La Niña event has started when the average five - month sea surface temperature deviation for the NINO. 3 region is more than 0.5 ° C ( 0.90 ° F ) cooler for 6 consecutive months or longer .
Natural gas
Most town `` gashouses '' located in the eastern US in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were simple by - product coke ovens that heated bituminous coal in air - tight chambers . The gas driven off from the coal was collected and distributed through networks of pipes to residences and other buildings where it was used for cooking and lighting . ( Gas heating did not come into widespread use until the last half of the 20th century . ) The coal tar ( or asphalt ) that collected in the bottoms of the gashouse ovens was often used for roofing and other waterproofing purposes , and when mixed with sand and gravel was used for paving streets .
Alan Shepard
Shepard and Slayton put Shepard down to command the next available moon mission , which was Apollo 13 in 1970 . Under normal circumstances , this assignment would have gone to Cooper , as the backup commander of Apollo 10 , but Cooper was swept aside . A rookie , Stuart Roosa , was designated the Command Module Pilot . Shepard asked for Jim McDivitt as his Lunar Module Pilot , but McDivitt , who had already commanded the Apollo 9 mission , balked at the prospect , arguing that Shepard did not have sufficient Apollo training to command a Moon mission . A rookie , Edgar Mitchell , was designated the Lunar Module Pilot instead . Shepard
Climate of the Arctic
The climate of the Arctic also depends on the amount of sunlight reaching the surface , and the amount that the surface absorbs are also important . Variations in the frequency of cloud cover can cause significant variations in the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface at locations with the same latitude . Changes in surface conditions , such as the appearance or disappearance of snow or sea ice , can cause large changes in the surface albedo , the fraction of the solar radiation reaching the surface that is reflected rather than absorbed .
Friction
Friction is not itself a fundamental force . Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface adhesion , surface roughness , surface deformation , and surface contamination . The complexity of these interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and necessitates the use of empirical methods for analysis and the development of theory .
Tyrannosaurus
Teeth from what is now documented as a Tyrannosaurus rex were found in 1874 by Arthur Lakes near Golden , Colorado . In the early 1890s , John Bell Hatcher collected postcranial elements in eastern Wyoming . The fossils were believed to be from a large species of Ornithomimus ( O. grandis ) but are now considered Tyrannosaurus rex remains . Vertebral fragments found by Edward Drinker Cope in western South Dakota in 1892 and assigned to Manospondylus gigas have also been recognized as belonging to Tyrannosaurus rex .
Xenon
Hyperpolarized xenon can be used by surface chemists . Normally , it is difficult to characterize surfaces with NMR because signals from a surface are overwhelmed by signals from the atomic nuclei in the bulk of the sample , which are much more numerous than surface nuclei . However , nuclear spins on solid surfaces can be selectively polarized by transferring spin polarization to them from hyperpolarized xenon gas . This makes the surface signals strong enough to measure and distinguish from bulk signals .
Saudi Arabia
Until 2016 , the kingdom used the lunar Islamic calendar , not the international Gregorian calendar , but in 2016 the kingdom announced its switch to the Gregorian calendar for civil purposes .
Watchman (law enforcement)
The act of 1663 confirmed that watch on its old foundations , and left its effective management to the ward authorities . The important matter to be arranged in the wards was who was going to serve and on what basis . How the money was to be collected to support a force of paid constables , and by whom , were crucial issues . The 1663 act left it to the ward beadle or a constable and it seems to have been increasingly the case that rather than individuals paying directly for a substitute , when their turn came to serve , the eligible householders were asked to contribute to a watch fund that supported hired man .
World War II
In Europe , occupation came under two forms . In Western , Northern , and Central Europe ( France , Norway , Denmark , the Low Countries , and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks ( 27.8 billion US dollars ) by the end of the war , this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products , military equipment , raw materials and other goods . Thus , the income from occupied nations was over 40 per cent of the income Germany collected from taxation , a figure which increased to nearly 40 per cent of total German income as the war went on . Russian
Internet privacy
Which information an ISP collects , what it does with that information , and whether it informs its consumers , pose significant privacy issues . Beyond the usage of collected information typical of third parties , ISPs sometimes state that they will make their information available to government authorities upon request . In the US and other countries , such a request does not necessarily require a warrant .
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles
Mirage also published a bimonthly companion book entitled Tales of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles , featuring art by Ryan Brown and Jim Lawson , which was designed to fill in the gaps of continuity in the TMNT universe . This put the original series and Tales in the same mainstream continuity , and the two are thus canon to each other . The title 's first volume was from 1987 -- 1989 , released in alternating months with the regular Eastman and Laird book . All seven issues of volume one have been collected in trade paperback form twice , and 25 issues of volume two have been collected in trades of five issues each .
Friction
The Coulomb friction F f ( \ displaystyle F_ ( \ mathrm ( f ) ) \ , ) may take any value from zero up to μ F n ( \ displaystyle \ mu F_ ( \ mathrm ( n ) ) \ , ) , and the direction of the frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence of friction . Thus , in the static case , the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to prevent motion between the surfaces ; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion . In this case , rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force , the Coulomb approximation provides a threshold value for this force , above which motion would commence . This maximum force is known as traction .
Respiratory system
The surface tension of a watery surface ( the water - air interface ) tends to make that surface shrink . When that surface is curved as it is in the alveoli of the lungs , the shrinkage of the surface decreases the diameter of the alveoli . The more acute the curvature of the water - air interface the greater the tendency for the alveolus to collapse . This has three effects . Firstly the surface tension inside the alveoli resists expansion of the alveoli during inhalation ( i.e. it makes the lung stiff , or non-compliant ) . Surfactant reduces the surface tension and therefore makes the lungs more compliant , or less stiff , than if it were not there . Secondly , the diameters of the alveoli increase and decrease during the breathing cycle . This means that the alveoli have a greater tendency to collapse ( i.e. cause atelectasis ) at the end of exhalation that at the end of inhalation . Since surfactant floats on the watery surface , its molecules are more tightly packed together when the alveoli shrink during exhalation . This causes them to have a greater surface tension - lowering effect when the alveoli are small than when they are large ( as at the end of inhalation , when the surfactant molecules are more widely spaced ) . The tendency for the alveoli to collapse is therefore almost the same at the end of exhalation as at the end of inhalation . Thirdly , the surface tension of the curved watery layer lining the alveoli tends to draw water from the lung tissues into the alveoli . Surfactant reduces this danger to negligible levels , and keeps the alveoli dry .
LASIK
`` A method and apparatus for modifying the curvature of a live cornea via use of an excimer laser . The live cornea has a thin layer removed therefrom , leaving an exposed internal surface thereon . Then , either the surface or thin layer is exposed to the laser beam along a predetermined pattern to ablate desired portions . The thin layer is then replaced onto the surface . Ablating a central area of the surface or thin layer makes the cornea less curved , while ablating an annular area spaced from the center of the surface or layer makes the cornea more curved . The desired predetermined pattern is formed by use of a variable diaphragm , a rotating orifice of variable size , a movable mirror or a movable fiber optic cable through which the laser beam is directed towards the exposed internal surface or removed thin layer . ''
Spark plug
By lengthening the surface between the high voltage terminal and the grounded metal case of the spark plug , the physical shape of the ribs functions to improve the electrical insulation and prevent electrical energy from leaking along the insulator surface from the terminal to the metal case . The disrupted and longer path makes the electricity encounter more resistance along the surface of the spark plug even in the presence of dirt and moisture . Some spark plugs are manufactured without ribs ; improvements in the dielectric strength of the insulator make them less important . Insulator
Sales taxes in the United States
Sales taxes are collected by vendors in most states . Use taxes are self assessed by purchasers . Many states require individuals and businesses who regularly make sales to register with the state . All states imposing sales tax require that taxes collected be paid to the state at least quarterly . Most states have thresholds at which more frequent payment is required . Some states provide a discount to vendors upon payment of collected tax .
Microphone
Laser microphones are often portrayed in movies as spy gadgets , because they can be used to pick up sound at a distance from the microphone equipment . A laser beam is aimed at the surface of a window or other plane surface that is affected by sound . The vibrations of this surface change the angle at which the beam is reflected , and the motion of the laser spot from the returning beam is detected and converted to an audio signal .
Tropical cyclone
A tropical cyclone may be viewed as a heat engine that converts input heat energy from the surface into mechanical energy that can be used to do mechanical work against surface friction . At equilibrium , the rate of net energy production in the system must equal the rate of energy loss due to frictional dissipation at the surface , i.e.
Moai
When first carved , the surface of the moai was polished smooth by rubbing with pumice . Unfortunately , the easily worked tuff from which most moai were carved is also easily eroded , and , today , the best place to see the surface detail is on the few moai carved from basalt or in photographs and other archaeological records of moai surfaces protected by burials .
Desert
Mars is the only planet in the Solar System on which deserts have been identified . Despite its low surface atmospheric pressure ( only 1 / 100 of that of the Earth ) , the patterns of atmospheric circulation on Mars have formed a sea of circumpolar sand more than 5 million km2 ( 1.9 million sq mi ) in area , much larger than deserts on Earth . The Martian deserts principally consist of dunes in the form of half - moons in flat areas near the permanent polar ice caps in the north of the planet . The smaller dune fields occupy the bottom of many of the craters situated in the Martian polar regions . Examination of the surface of rocks by laser beamed from the Mars Exploration Rover have shown a surface film that resembles the desert varnish found on Earth although it might just be surface dust . The surface of Titan , a moon of Saturn , also has a desert - like surface with dune seas .
Evidence of common descent
The shortfin molly ( Poecilia mexicana ) is a small fish that lives in the Sulfur Caves of Mexico . Years of study on the species have found that two distinct populations of mollies -- the dark interior fish and the bright surface water fish -- are becoming more genetically divergent . The populations have no obvious barrier separating the two ; however , it was found that the mollies are hunted by a large water bug ( Belostoma spp ) . Tobler collected the bug and both types of mollies , placed them in large plastic bottles , and put them back in the cave . After a day , it was found that , in the light , the cave - adapted fish endured the most damage , with four out of every five stab - wounds from the water bugs sharp mouthparts . In the dark , the situation was the opposite . The mollies ' senses can detect a predator 's threat in their own habitats , but not in the other ones . Moving from one habitat to the other significantly increases the risk of dying . Tobler plans on further experiments , but believes that it is a good example of the rise of a new species . Polar
Cell membrane
The apical membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that faces inward to the lumen . This is particularly evident in epithelial and endothelial cells , but also describes other polarized cells , such as neurons . The basolateral membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces . It faces outwards , towards the interstitium , and away from the lumen . Basolateral membrane is a compound phrase referring to the terms `` basal ( base ) membrane '' and `` lateral ( side ) membrane '' , which , especially in epithelial cells , are identical in composition and activity . Proteins ( such as ion channels and pumps ) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the fluid mosaic model . Tight junctions join epithelial cells near their apical surface to prevent the migration of proteins from the basolateral membrane to the apical membrane . The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent to one another , yet distinct from the apical surface .
Magnetic field
where the integral is a closed surface integral over the closed surface S and q is the ' magnetic charge ' ( in units of magnetic flux ) enclosed by S. ( A closed surface completely surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape . ) The negative sign occurs because the magnetization field moves from south to north .
St. Johns River
As distance between the mouth of the St. Johns and the middle and upper basins increases , the salinity in the river gradually decreases . Marine water measures at 35 parts per thousand ( ppt ) or more while fresh water measures below 2 ppt . What ranges in between is characterized as brackish water . Near the center of Jacksonville , average measures have been collected at 11.40 ppt . Farther south at the Buckman Bridge , joining the south side of Jacksonville to Orange Park , it decreases to 2.9 ppt and falls again to 0.81 ppt at the Shands Bridge near Green Cove Springs .
Watchman (law enforcement)
In October 1663 was promulgated an act of Common Council , known as ' Robinson 's Act ' from the name of the sitting lord mayor , that confirmed the duty of all householders in the City to take their turn at watching in order ' to keep the peace and apprehend night - walkers , malefactors and suspected persons ' . For the most part the Common Council Act of 1663 reiterated the rules and obligations that had long existed . The number of watchmen required for each ward , it declared , was to be the number ' established by custom ' -- in fact , by an act of 1621 . Even though it had been true before the civil war that the watch had already become a body of paid men , supported by what were in effect the fines collected from those with an obligation to serve , the Common Council did not acknowledge this in the confirming Act of 1663 .
Julian calendar
The Julian calendar was also used in some Muslim countries . The Rumi calendar , the Julian calendar used in the later years of the Ottoman Empire , adopted an era derived from the lunar AH year equivalent to AD 1840 , i.e. , the effective Rumi epoch was AD 585 . In recent years , some users of the Berber calendar have adopted an era starting in 950 BC , the approximate date that the Libyan pharaoh Sheshonq I came to power in Egypt .
Peter and Rosemary Grant
Barbara Rosemary Grant was born in Arnside , England in 1936 . She grew up enjoying the diversity of her surroundings ; she collected plant fossils and compared them to living look - alikes . At age 12 , she read Darwin 's On the Origin of Species . Despite what teachers told her at school , she was destined to go to university to obtain a degree . She graduated from the University of Edinburgh with a degree in Zoology in 1960 . For the next year , she studied genetics under Conrad Waddington and then devised a dissertation to study isolated populations of fish . This project was put on hold when she accepted a biology teaching job at the University of British Columbia , where she met Peter Grant .
Arctic Ocean
Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean , in 1896 . The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969 , in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard , with air support . The first nautical transit of the north pole was made in 1958 by the submarine USS Nautilus , and the first surface nautical transit occurred in 1977 by the icebreaker NS Arktika .
Friction
The origin of kinetic friction at nanoscale can be explained by thermodynamics . Upon sliding , new surface forms at the back of a sliding true contact , and existing surface disappears at the front of it . Since all surfaces involve the thermodynamic surface energy , work must be spent in creating the new surface , and energy is released as heat in removing the surface . Thus , a force is required to move the back of the contact , and frictional heat is released at the front . Angle
Social media
Privacy rights advocates warn users on social media about the collection of their personal data . Some information is captured without the user 's knowledge or consent through electronic tracking and third party applications . Data may also be collected for law enforcement and governmental purposes , by social media intelligence using data mining techniques . Data and information may also be collected for third party use . When information is shared on social media , that information is no longer private . There have been many cases in which young persons especially , share personal information , which can attract predators . It is very important to monitor what you share , and to be aware of who you could potentially be sharing that information with . Teens especially share significantly more information on the internet now than they have in the past . Teen are much more likely to share their personal information , such as email address , phone number , and school names . Studies suggest that teens are not aware of what they are posting and how much of that information can be accessed by third parties .
Cigarette
Blended leaf ( BL ) sheet : a thin , dry sheet cast from a paste made with tobacco dust collected from tobacco stemming , finely milled burley - leaf stem , and pectin . Reconstituted leaf ( RL ) sheet : a paper - like material made from recycled tobacco fines , tobacco stems and `` class tobacco '' , which consists of tobacco particles less than 30 mesh in size ( about 0.6 mm ) that are collected at any stage of tobacco processing : RL is made by extracting the soluble chemicals in the tobacco byproducts , processing the leftover tobacco fibers from the extraction into a paper , and then reapplying the extracted materials in concentrated form onto the paper in a fashion similar to what is done in paper sizing . At this stage , ammonium additives are applied to make reconstituted tobacco an effective nicotine delivery system . Expanded ( ES ) or improved stem ( IS ) : ES is rolled , flattened , and shredded leaf stems that are expanded by being soaked in water and rapidly heated . Improved stem follows the same process , but is simply steamed after shredding . Both products are then dried . These products look similar in appearance , but are different in taste .