vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Roman calendar
These Pythagorean - based changes to the Roman calendar were generally credited by the Romans to Numa Pompilius , Romulus 's successor and the second of Rome 's seven kings , as were the two new months of the calendar . Most sources thought he had established intercalation with the rest of his calendar . Although Livy 's Numa instituted a lunar calendar , the author claimed the king had instituted a 19 - year system of intercalation equivalent to the Metonic cycle centuries before its development by Babylonian and Greek astronomers . Plutarch 's account claims he ended the former chaos of the calendar by employing 12 months totaling 354 days -- the length of the lunar and Greek years -- and biennial intercalary months of 22 days .
Sales taxes in the United States
Springfield charges 8.00 % total ( including state tax ) . A complementary Use Tax is imposed upon the privilege of using or consuming property purchased anywhere at retail from a retailer . Illinois registered retailers are authorized to collect the Use Tax from their customers and use it to offset their obligations under the Retailers ' Occupation Tax Act . Since the Use Tax rate is equivalent to the corresponding Retailers ' Occupation Tax rate , the amount collected by the retailer matches the amount the retailer must submit to the Illinois Department of Revenue . The combination of these two taxes is what is commonly referred to as `` sales tax '' . If the purchaser does not pay the Use Tax directly to a retailer ( for instance , on an item purchased from an Internet seller ) , they must remit it directly to the Illinois Department of Revenue .
Fingerprint
Fingerprints collected at a crime scene , or on items of evidence from a crime , have been used in forensic science to identify suspects , victims and other persons who touched a surface . Fingerprint identification emerged as an important system within police agencies in the late 19th century , when it replaced anthropometric measurements as a more reliable method for identifying persons having a prior record , often under a false name , in a criminal record repository . In modern times , researchers can find traces of addictive drugs on just a fingerprint .
Great Barrier Reef
There are at least 330 species of ascidians on the reef system with the diameter of 1 -- 10 cm ( 0.4 -- 4 in ) . Between 300 -- 500 species of bryozoans live on the reef . Four hundred coral species , both hard corals and soft corals inhabit the reef . The majority of these spawn gametes , breeding in mass spawning events that are triggered by the rising sea temperatures of spring and summer , the lunar cycle , and the diurnal cycle . Reefs in the inner Great Barrier Reef spawn during the week after the full moon in October , while the outer reefs spawn in November and December . Its common soft corals belong to 36 genera . Five hundred species of marine algae or seaweed live on the reef , including thirteen species of genus Halimeda , which deposit calcareous mounds up to 100 metres ( 110 yd ) wide , creating mini-ecosystems on their surface which have been compared to rainforest cover .
Economy of Scotland
The majority of public sector revenue payable by Scottish residents and enterprises is collected at the UK level . Generally it is not possible to identify separately the proportion of revenue receivable from Scotland . GERS therefore uses a number of different methodologies to apportion revenue to Scotland . Following the implementation of the Scotland Act 2012 and Scotland Act 2016 , an increasing amount of revenue is set to be devolved to the Scottish Parliament , whereby direct Scottish measures of these revenues will be available . The first revenues which have been devolved are landfill tax and property transaction taxes , with Scottish revenue collected for these taxes from 2015 ‐ 16 onwards .
Kīlauea
Kīlauea has been active throughout its history . Since 1918 , Kīlauea 's only prolonged period of rest was an 18 - year pause between 1934 and 1952 . The bulk of Kīlauea consists of solidified lava flows , intermittent with scattered volcanic ash and tephra sourced from relatively lower - volume explosive eruptions . Much of the volcano is covered in historical flows , and 90 percent of its surface dates from the last 1,100 years . Kīlauea built itself up from the seafloor over time , and thus much of its bulk remains underwater ; its subaerial surface is in the form of a gently sloping , elongate , decentralized shield with a surface area of approximately 1,500 km ( 579 sq mi ) , making up 13.7 percent of the island 's total surface area .
Exploration of Mars
Phoenix landed on the north polar region of Mars on May 25 , 2008 . Its robotic arm dug into the Martian soil and the presence of water ice was confirmed on June 20 , 2008 . The mission concluded on November 10 , 2008 after contact was lost . In 2008 , the price of transporting material from the surface of Earth to the surface of Mars was approximately US $ 309,000 per kilogram .
Friction
Friction is used to heat and ignite matchsticks ( friction between the head of a matchstick and the rubbing surface of the match box ) . Sticky pads are used to prevent object from slipping off smooth surfaces by effectively increasing the friction coefficient between the surface and the object .
Fingerprint
When friction ridges come into contact with a surface that will take a print , material that is on the friction ridges such as perspiration , oil , grease , ink or blood , will be transferred to the surface . Factors which affect the quality of friction ridge impressions are numerous . Pliability of the skin , deposition pressure , slippage , the material from which the surface is made , the roughness of the surface and the substance deposited are just some of the various factors which can cause a latent print to appear differently from any known recording of the same friction ridges . Indeed , the conditions surrounding every instance of friction ridge deposition are unique and never duplicated . For these reasons , fingerprint examiners are required to undergo extensive training . The scientific study of fingerprints is called dermatoglyphics .
Hajj
The pilgrimage occurs from the 8th to 12th ( or in some cases 13th ) of Dhu al - Hijjah , the last month of the Islamic calendar . Because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year , the Gregorian date of Hajj changes from year to year . Ihram is the name given to the special spiritual state in which pilgrims wear two white sheets of seamless cloth and abstain from certain actions .
Anticyclone
High - pressure systems are frequently associated with light winds at the surface and subsidence of air from higher portions of the troposphere . Subsidence will generally warm an air mass by adiabatic ( compressional ) heating . Thus , high pressure typically brings clear skies . Because no clouds are present to reflect sunlight during the day , there is more incoming solar radiation and temperatures rise rapidly near the surface . At night , the absence of clouds means that outgoing longwave radiation ( i.e. heat energy from the surface ) is not blocked , giving cooler diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . When surface winds become light , the subsidence produced directly under a high - pressure system can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the high pressure , leading to widespread haze . If the surface level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight , fog can form .
Russian culture
Other technologies , where Russia historically leads , include nuclear technology , aircraft production and arms industry . The creation of the first nuclear power plant along with the first nuclear reactors for submarines and surface ships was directed by Igor Kurchatov . NS Lenin was the world 's first nuclear - powered surface ship as well as the first nuclear - powered civilian vessel , and NS Arktika became the first surface ship to reach the North Pole .
Fingerprint
Exemplar prints , or known prints , is the name given to fingerprints deliberately collected from a subject , whether for purposes of enrollment in a system or when under arrest for a suspected criminal offense . During criminal arrests , a set of exemplar prints will normally include one print taken from each finger that has been rolled from one edge of the nail to the other , plain ( or slap ) impressions of each of the four fingers of each hand , and plain impressions of each thumb . Exemplar prints can be collected using live scan or by using ink on paper cards .
Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
Congress may impose taxes on income from any source without having to apportion the total dollar amount of tax collected from each state according to each state 's population in relation to the total national population .
Sales taxes in the United States
Brown County collected a 0.5 % tax for all purchases which funded the remaining cost of a $295 million renovation of Lambeau Field , as well as a payment to the Green Bay Packers to cover part of the cost of operating and maintaining the stadium through the year 2031 . The tax ended as of 30 September 2015 but since 1 January 2018 , a new 0.5 % county sales tax is collected for county projects in the city of Green Bay .
Oyster
Oysters have been cultured for well over a century . The Pacific oyster ( Magallana gigas ) is presently the most widely grown bivalve around the world . Two methods are commonly used , release and bagging . In both cases , oysters are cultivated onshore to the size of spat , when they can attach themselves to a substrate . They may be allowed to mature further to form ' seed oysters ' . In either case , they are then placed in the water to mature . The release technique involves distributing the spat throughout existing oyster beds , allowing them to mature naturally to be collected like wild oysters . Bagging has the cultivator putting spat in racks or bags and keeping them above the bottom . Harvesting involves simply lifting the bags or rack to the surface and removing the mature oysters . The latter method prevents losses to some predators , but is more expensive .
Atmosphere of Venus
The troposphere on Venus contains 99 % of the atmosphere by mass . Ninety percent of the atmosphere of Venus is within 28 km of the surface ; by comparison , 90 % of the atmosphere of Earth is within 10 km of the surface . At a height of 50 km the atmospheric pressure is approximately equal to that at the surface of Earth . On the night side of Venus clouds can still be found at 80 km above the surface .
Ultraviolet
UV radiation is useful in preparing low - surface - energy polymers for adhesives . Polymers exposed to UV will oxidize , thus raising the surface energy of the polymer . Once the surface energy of the polymer has been raised , the bond between the adhesive and the polymer is stronger .
List of awards and nominations received by Michael Jackson
The 1984 Summer Olympics saw the Jackson family be honoured with the Medal of Friendship Award which was collected by Michael and his brothers .
Sales taxes in the United States
California , from 1991 to 2012 and since 2017 , has a base sales tax of 7.25 % ( composed of a 6 % state tax and a 1.25 % uniform local tax ) -- the highest statewide sales tax rate in the nation . The tax can total up to 10.25 % with local sales tax included , depending on the city in which the purchase is made . Sales and use taxes in the state of California are collected by the publicly elected Board of Equalization , whereas income and franchise taxes are collected by the Franchise Tax Board . Many cities have a combined total sales tax of at least 8.75 % .
Ancient Egypt
The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers , plumb bobs , and small figurines . Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai . Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in alluvial deposits , or by the more labor - intensive process of grinding and washing gold - bearing quartzite . Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late Period . High - quality building stones were abundant in Egypt ; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley , granite from Aswan , and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the eastern desert . Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry , greywacke , alabaster , and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty . In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods , miners worked deposits of emeralds in Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el - Hudi .
Golden Gate Bridge
The last of the construction bonds were retired in 1971 , with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest raised entirely from bridge tolls . Tolls continued to be collected and subsequently incrementally raised ; by 1991 , the toll was $3 .
Earth
The amount of solar energy reaching Earth 's surface decreases with increasing latitude . At higher latitudes , the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles , and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere . As a result , the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about 0.4 ° C ( 0.7 ° F ) per degree of latitude from the equator . Earth 's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate . Ranging from the equator to the polar regions , these are the tropical ( or equatorial ) , subtropical , temperate and polar climates .
Waltzing Matilda
A number of alternative theories for the origins or meaning of Waltzing Matilda have been proposed since the time it was written ; however , most experts now essentially agree on the details outlined above . Some oral stories collected during the twentieth century claimed that Paterson had merely modified a preexisting bush song , but there is no evidence for this . In 1905 Paterson himself published a book of bush ballads he had collected from around Australia entitled Old Bush Songs , with nothing resembling Waltzing Matilda in it . Nor do any other publications or recordings of bush ballads include anything to suggest it predated Paterson . Meanwhile , handwritten manuscripts from the time the song originated indicate the song 's origins with Paterson and Christina Macpherson , as do their own recollections and other pieces of evidence .
Ramayana
A critical edition of the text was compiled in India in the 1960s and 1970s , by the Oriental Institute at Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda , India , utilizing dozens of manuscripts collected from across India and the surrounding region . An English language translation of the critical edition was completed in November 2016 by Sanskrit scholar Robert P. Goldman of the University of California , Berkeley .
Planck's law
This is expressed by saying that radiation from the surface of a black body in thermodynamic equilibrium obeys Lambert 's cosine law . This means that the spectral flux dΦ ( dA , θ , dΩ , dν ) from a given infinitesimal element of area dA of the actual emitting surface of the black body , detected from a given direction that makes an angle θ with the normal to the actual emitting surface at dA , into an element of solid angle of detection dΩ centred on the direction indicated by θ , in an element of frequency bandwidth dν , can be represented as
Planck's law
The total power emitted per unit area at the surface of a black body ( P ) may be found by integrating the black body spectral flux found from Lambert 's law over all frequencies , and over the solid angles corresponding to a hemisphere ( h ) above the surface .
Exhalation
One of the reasons we can breathe is because of the elasticity of the lungs . The internal surface of the lungs on average in a non-emphysemic person is normally 63m2 and can hold about 5lts of air volume . Both lungs together have the same amount of surface area as half of a tennis court . Disease such as , emphysema , tuberculosis , can reduce the amount of surface area and elasticity of the lungs . Another big factor in the elasticity of the lungs is smoking because of the residue left behind in the lungs from the smoking . The elasticity of the lungs can be trained to expand further .
Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository
The volcanic tuff at Yucca Mountain is appreciably fractured and movement of water through an aquifer below the waste repository is primarily through fractures . While the fractures are usually confined to individual layers of tuff , the faults extend from the planned storage area all the way to the water table 600 to 1,500 ft ( 180 to 460 m ) below the surface . Future water transport from the surface to waste containers is likely to be dominated by fractures . There is evidence that surface water has been transported down through the 700 ft ( 210 m ) of overburden to the exploratory tunnel at Yucca Mountain in less than 50 years .
Santa Claus
The remains of Saint Nicholas are in Italy . In 1087 , the Italian city of Bari mounted an expedition to locate the tomb of the Saint . The reliquary of St. Nicholas was conquered by Italian sailors and his relics were taken to Bari where they are kept to this day . A basilica was constructed the same year to store the loot and the area became a pilgrimage site for the devout . Sailors from Bari collected just half of Nicholas ' skeleton , leaving all the minor fragments in the grave . These were collected by Venetian sailors during the First Crusade and taken to Venice , where a church to St. Nicholas , the patron of sailors , was built on the San Nicolò al Lido . This tradition was confirmed in two important scientific investigations of the relics in Bari and Venice , which revealed that the relics in the two Italian cities belong to the same skeleton . Saint Nicholas was later claimed as a patron saint of many diverse groups , from archers , sailors , and children to pawnbrokers . He is also the patron saint of both Amsterdam and Moscow .
Atmosphere of Venus
Through studies of the present cloud structure and geology of the surface , combined with the fact that the luminosity of the Sun has increased by 25 % since around 3.8 billion years ago , it is thought that the early environmtne of Venus was more like that of Earth with liquid water on the surface . At some point in the evolution of Venus , a runaway greenhouse effect occurred , leading to the current greenhouse - dominated atmosphere . The timing of this transition from Earthlike to Venuslike is not known , but is estimated to have occurred around 4 billion years ago . The runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and the rise of the levels of greenhouse gases that followed . Venus 's atmosphere has therefore received a great deal of attention from those studying climate change on Earth .
Hajj
The date of Hajj is determined by the Islamic calendar ( known as Hijri calendar or AH ) , which is based on the lunar year . Every year , the events of Hajj take place in a five - day period , starting on 8 and ending on 12 Dhu al - Hijjah , the twelfth and last month of the Islamic calendar . Among these five days , the 9th Dhul - Hijjah is known as Day of Arafah , and this day is called the day of Hajj . Because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year , the Gregorian date for Hajj changes from year to year . Thus , each year in the Gregorian calendar , the pilgrimage starts eleven days ( sometimes ten days ) earlier than the preceding year . This makes it possible for the Hajj season to fall twice in one Gregorian year , and it does so every 33 years . The last time this phenomenon occurred was 2006 . The table below shows the Gregorian dates of Hajj of recent years ( the dates correspond to 9 Dhul - Hijjah of Hijri calendar ) :
Rocky Mountains
The Lewis and Clark Expedition ( 1804 -- 1806 ) was the first scientific reconnaissance of the Rocky Mountains . Specimens were collected for contemporary botanists , zoologists , and geologists . The expedition was said to have paved the way to ( and through ) the Rocky Mountains for European - Americans from the East , although Lewis and Clark met at least 11 European - American mountain men during their travels .
Elgin Marbles
The marbles generally were very dirty ... from a deposit of dust and soot ... I found the body of the marble beneath the surface white ... The application of water , applied by a sponge or soft cloth , removed the coarsest dirt ... The use of fine , gritty powder , with the water and rubbing , though it more quickly removed the upper dirt , left much embedded in the cellular surface of the marble . I then applied alkalies , both carbonated and caustic ; these quickened the loosening of the surface dirt ... but they fell far short of restoring the marble surface to its proper hue and state of cleanliness . I finally used dilute nitric acid , and even this failed ... The examination has made me despair of the possibility of presenting the marbles in the British Museum in that state of purity and whiteness which they originally possessed .
Sales taxes in the United States
If merchants file and pay their sales and use tax on time , they may subtract 1 / 2 percent of the tax collected as a discount , to encourage prompt payment and to compensate the merchant for collecting the tax from consumers for the state .
Vascular tissue
In leaves , the vascular bundles are located among the spongy mesophyll . The xylem is oriented toward the adaxial surface of the leaf ( usually the upper side ) , and phloem is oriented toward the abaxial surface of the leaf . This is why aphids are typically found on the underside of the leaves rather than on the top , since the phloem transports sugars manufactured by the plant and they are closer to the lower surface .
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world 's oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometers ( 41,100,000 square miles ) . It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earth 's surface and about 29 percent of its water surface area . It separates the `` Old World '' from the `` New World '' .
California State Lottery
For each prize of less than $600 , players may collect from either a Lottery retailer or the Lottery itself . Prizes of $600 or more must be collected from the Lottery , via claim form .
Factory Acts
The Act failed to specify whether lunar or calendar months were intended where the word ' monthly ' was used , and one clause limited hours of work per week where a daily limit had been intended . A short amending Act was therefore passed in February 1834
Golden Gate Bridge
When the Golden Gate Bridge opened in 1937 , the toll was 50 cents per car , collected in each direction . It was reduced to 40 cents each way in 1950 , then lowered to 25 cents in 1955 . In 1968 , the bridge was converted to only collect tolls from southbound traffic , with the toll amount reset back to 50 cents .
Roman calendar
As mentioned above , Rome 's legendary 10 - month calendar notionally lasted for 304 days but was usually thought to make up the rest of the solar year during an unorganized winter period . The unattested but almost certain lunar year and the pre-Julian civil year were 354 or 355 days long , with the difference from the solar year more or less corrected by an irregular intercalary month . The Julian year was 365 days long , with a leap day doubled in length every fourth year , almost equivalent to the present Gregorian system .
Mars
Because Mars has no oceans and hence no `` sea level '' , a zero - elevation surface had to be selected as a reference level ; this is called the areoid of Mars , analogous to the terrestrial geoid . Zero altitude was defined by the height at which there is 610.5 Pa ( 6.105 mbar ) of atmospheric pressure . This pressure corresponds to the triple point of water , and it is about 0.6 % of the sea level surface pressure on Earth ( 0.006 atm ) . In practice , today this surface is defined directly from satellite gravity measurements . Map