vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Supply (economics)
Complexity of Production : Much depends on the complexity of the production process . Textile production is relatively simple . The labor is largely unskilled and production facilities are little more than buildings -- no special structures are needed . Thus the PES for textiles is elastic . On the other hand , the PES for specific types of motor vehicles is relatively inelastic . Auto manufacture is a multi-stage process that requires specialized equipment , skilled labor , a large suppliers network and large R&D costs . Time to respond : The more time a producer has to respond to price changes the more elastic the supply . For example , a cotton farmer can not immediately respond to an increase in the price of soybeans . Excess capacity : A producer who has unused capacity can quickly respond to price changes in his market assuming that variable factors are readily available . Inventories : A producer who has a supply of goods or available storage capacity can quickly respond to price changes .
St. Johns River
The first years following Florida 's annexation to the United States in 1821 were marked with violent conflicts between white settlers and Seminoles , whose bands often included runaway African slaves . The clashes between American and Seminole forces during the establishment of the Florida territory are reflected in the towns and landmarks along the St. Johns named for those who were directly involved . Even before Florida was under U.S. jurisdiction , Major General Andrew Jackson was responsible for removing the Alachua Seminoles west of the Suwannee River , either killing them or forcing them farther south towards Lake County , in 1818 . Jackson 's efforts became the First Seminole War , and were rewarded by the naming of a cattle crossing across a wide portion of the St. Johns near the Georgia border -- previously named Cowford -- to Jacksonville . The result of Jackson 's offensive was the transfer of Florida to the U.S. Following the Seminole Wars , a gradual increase in commerce and population occurred on the St. Johns , made possible by steamship travel . Steamboats heralded a heyday for the river , and before the advent of local railroads , they were the only way to reach interior portions of the state . They also afforded the citizens of Jacksonville a pastime to watch competing races . By the 1860s , weekly trips between Jacksonville , Charleston , and Savannah were made to transport tourists , lumber , cotton , and citrus . The soil along the St. Johns was considered especially successful for producing sweeter oranges .
History of Texas
Texans in 1909 marked an icon of progress with the construction of the first skyscraper west of the Mississippi . The 190 - foot steel - frame skyscraper was the 14 - story Praetorian Building , housing the Praetorian Insurance Company . Dallas became the regional headquarters of the Federal Reserve in 1914 , strengthening its dominance of Texas banking . The city had reached 260,000 population by 1929 when the effects of the Stock Market Crash hit Texas , causing a sharp drop in the prices of oil , cotton and cattle ; growth came to a standstill .
History of Texas
The coming of the railroads in the 1880s ended the famous cattle drives and allowed ranchers to market their cattle after a short drive , and farmers move their cotton to market cheaply . They made Dallas and other cities the centers of commercial activity . Ft . Worth became the gateway to the west , via the Fort Worth and Denver Railway . However the passenger trains were often the targets of armed gangs .
Labor history of the United States
Australian historian Peter Shergold confirms the findings of many scholars that the standard of living for US industrial workers was higher than in Europe . He compares wages and the standard of living in Pittsburgh with Birmingham , England . He finds that , after taking into account the cost of living ( which was 65 % higher in the U.S. ) , the standard of living of unskilled workers was about the same in the two cities , while skilled workers had about twice as high a standard of living . The American advantage grew over time from 1890 to 1914 , and there was a heavy steady flow of skilled workers from Britain to industrial America . Shergold revealed that skilled Americans did earn higher wages than the British , yet unskilled workers did not , while Americans worked longer hours , with a greater chance of injury , and had fewer social services .
Panic of 1837
Intangible factors like confidence and psychology played powerful roles , helping to explain the magnitude and depth of the panic . Central banks had only limited abilities to control prices and employment at the time , making runs on banks common . When a few banks collapsed , alarm quickly spread throughout the community , heightened by partisan newspapers . Anxious investors rushed to other banks , demanding to have their deposits withdrawn . When faced with such pressure , even healthy banks had to make further curtailments -- calling in loans and demanding payment from their borrowers . This only fed the hysteria even further , leading to a downward spiral or snowball effect . In other words , anxiety , fear , and a pervasive lack of confidence initiated devastating , self - sustaining feedback loops . Many economists today understand this phenomenon as an information asymmetry . Essentially , bank depositors reacted to imperfect information ; they did not know if their deposits were safe , and fearing further risk , they withdrew their deposits , even as this caused more damage . The same concept of downward spiral was true for many southern planters , who speculated in land , cotton , and slaves . Many planters took out loans from banks under the assumption that cotton prices would continue to rise . When cotton prices dropped , however , planters could not pay back their loans , which jeopardized the solvency of many banks . These factors were particularly crucial given the lack of deposit insurance in banks . When bank customers are not assured that their deposits are safe , they are more likely to make rash decisions that can imperil the rest of the economy . Economists today have concluded that suspension of convertibility , deposit insurance , and sufficient capital requirements in banks can limit the possibility of bank runs .
Great Depression
Ludwig von Mises wrote in the 1930s : `` Credit expansion can not increase the supply of real goods . It merely brings about a rearrangement . It diverts capital investment away from the course prescribed by the state of economic wealth and market conditions . It causes production to pursue paths which it would not follow unless the economy were to acquire an increase in material goods . As a result , the upswing lacks a solid base . It is not a real prosperity . It is illusory prosperity . It did not develop from an increase in economic wealth , i.e. the accumulation of savings made available for productive investment . Rather , it arose because the credit expansion created the illusion of such an increase . Sooner or later , it must become apparent that this economic situation is built on sand . '' Marxist
Agriculture in Sudan
As of 1990 , the country 's largest irrigation project had been developed on land between the Blue and White Nile rivers south of their confluence at Khartoum . This area is generally flat with a gentle slope to the north and west , permitting natural gravity irrigation , and its soils are fertile cracking clays well suited to irrigation . The project originated in 1911 , when a private British enterprise , Sudan Plantations Syndicate , found cotton suited to the area and embarked on what in the 1920s became the Gezira Scheme , intended principally to furnish cotton to the British textile industry . Backed by a loan from the British government , the syndicate began a dam on the Blue Nile at Sannar in 1913 . Work was interrupted by World War I , and the dam was not completed until 1925 . The project was limited by a 1929 agreement between Sudan and Egypt that restricted the amount of water Anglo - Egyptian Sudan could use during the dry season . By 1931 the project had expanded to 450,000 hectares ( 1,100,000 acres ) , the maximum that then could be irrigated by the available water , although an additional 10,000 hectares ( 25,000 acres ) were added in the 1950s . The project was nationalized in 1950 , and was operated by the Sudan Gezira Board as a government enterprise . In 1959 a new agreement with Egypt greatly increased the allotment of water to Sudan , as did the completion in the early 1960s of the Manaqil Extension on the western side of the Gezira Scheme . By 1990 the Manaqil Extension had an irrigated area of nearly 400,000 hectares ( 990,000 acres ) hectares , and with the 460,000 hectares ( 1,100,000 acres ) eventually attained by the original Gezira Scheme , the combined projects accounted for half the country 's total land under irrigation . A
Demand curve
The demand curve is often graphed as a straight line of the form Q = a − bP where a and b are parameters . The constant `` a '' embodies the effects of all factors other than price that affect demand . If income were to change , for example , the effect of the change would be represented by a change in the value of `` a '' and be reflected graphically as a shift of the demand curve . The constant `` b '' is the slope of the demand curve and shows how the price of the good affects the quantity demanded .
Baby boom
The issues of the baby boom time period are that it could hugely impact the population change and cause social and economic impacts . One economic impact of the baby boom is the concern that when baby boomers get older and retire , the dependency ratio will increase . The Census Bureau estimates that the dependency ratio in the United States will be 65 by 2020 and reach a record - breaking high of 75 , the highest it has been since the 1960s and 1970s when those baby boomers were children . The economics of an area or country could benefit from the baby boom : It could increase the demand of housing , transportation , facilities and more for the increasing population . With an increase in population , the demand for food also increased . If a country can not keep up with a rapidly increasing population , it could cause a food shortage and insufficient health care facilities . Without the sufficient supplies needed for the population , it could cause poor health that could lead to deaths in the population .
Slash-and-burn
Although a solution for overpopulated tropical countries where subsistence agriculture may be the traditional method of sustaining many families , the consequences of slash - and - burn techniques for ecosystems are almost always destructive . This happens particularly as population densities increase , and as a result farming becomes more intensively practiced . This is because as demand for more land increases , the fallow period by necessity declines . The principal vulnerability is the nutrient - poor soil , pervasive in most tropical forests . When biomass is extracted even for one harvest of wood or charcoal , the residual soil value is heavily diminished for further growth of any type of vegetation .
Christmas decoration
Cotton batting Christmas ornaments were popular during the years of the German Christmas toy and decoration boom at the turn of the century . They were exported in large numbers to the United States . These decorations suggested puffs of snow . Fruits and vegetables were popular subjects and often had a realistic appearance . African American and patriotic characters were fashioned for the American market . Some ornaments were used to hide boxes of candy .
Cotton-Eyed Joe
Over the years , many different versions of the song have been performed and / or recorded with many different versions of the lyrics ( and many without lyrics ) . `` Cotton - Eyed Joe '' , on occasion referred to as `` The South Texas National Anthem '' , was played for minstrel - type jigs , and it has long been popular as a square dance hoedown and a couple dance polka .
Wind turbine
A report by the United States Geological Survey estimated the projected materials requirement in order to fulfill the US commitment to supplying 20 % of its electricity from wind power by 2030 . They did not address requirements for small turbines or offshore turbines since those were not widely deployed in 2008 , when the study was created . They found that there are increases in common materials such as cast iron , steel and concrete that represent 2 -- 3 % of the material consumption in 2008 . Between 110,000 and 115,000 metric tons of fiber glass would be required annually , equivalent to 14 % of consumption in 2008 . They did not see a high increase in demand for rare metals compared to available supply , however rare metals that are also being used for other technologies such as batteries which are increasing its global demand need to be taken into account . Land , whbich might not be considered a material , is an important resource in deploying wind technologies . Reaching the 2030 goal would require 50,000 square kilometers of onshore land area and 11,000 square kilometers of offshore . This is not considered a problem in the US due to its vast area and the ability to use land for farming and grazing . A greater limitation for the technology would be the variability and transmission infrastructure to areas of higher demand .
Aggregate demand
Consequently , we can write it as , I ( Y , i ) ( \ displaystyle I ( Y , i ) ) , a function I which takes total income and interest rate as parameters . Investment has positive relationship with the output and negative relationship with the interest rate . Thus , an increase in the interest rate will cause aggregate demand to decline . Interest costs are part of the cost of borrowing and as they rise , both firms and households will cut back on spending . This shifts the aggregate demand curve to the left . This lowers equilibrium GDP below potential GDP . gross government investment and consumption expenditures ( G ( \ displaystyle G ) ) , also determined as G − T ( \ displaystyle G-T ) , the difference of government expenditures and taxes . An increase in government expenditures or decrease in taxes , therefore leads to an increase in GDP as government expenditures are a component of aggregate demand . net exports ( N X ( \ displaystyle NX ) and sometimes ( X − M ( \ displaystyle X-M ) ) ) , net demand by the rest of the world for the country 's output . This contributes to the current account .
Hotel rating
( \ displaystyle \ bigstar \ bigstar \ bigstar ) Comfort In addition to the standard star ( * * ) hotels : Reception opened 14 hours , accessible by phone 24 hours from inside and outside , bilingual staff ( e.g. German / English ) Three piece suite at the reception , luggage service Beverage offer in the room Telephone in the room Internet access in the room or in the public area Heating facility in the bathroom , hair - dryer , cleansing tissue Dressing mirror , place to put the luggage / suitcase Sewing kit , shoe polish utensils , laundry and ironing service Additional pillow and additional blanket on demand Systematic complaint management system S ( \ displaystyle \ bigstar \ bigstar \ bigstar \ mathbf ( S ) ) Superior Comfort The Superior flag is provided when the additional service and accommodation provisions are not sufficient for the next Hotelstar . The accommodation facilities for a superior hotel need to be on a modern level and fully renovated which is checked regularly . ( \ displaystyle \ bigstar \ bigstar \ bigstar \ bigstar ) First Class In addition to the comfort star ( * * * ) hotels : Reception opened 18 hours , accessible by phone 24 hours from inside and outside Lobby with seats and beverage service Breakfast buffet or breakfast menu card via room service Minibar or 24 hours beverages via room service Upholstered chair / couch with side table Bath robe and slippers on demand Cosmetic products ( e.g. shower cap , nail file , cotton swabs ) , vanity mirror , tray of a large scale in the bathroom Internet access and internet terminal `` À la carte '' - restaurant S ( \ displaystyle \ bigstar \ bigstar \ bigstar \ bigstar \ mathbf ( S ) ) First Class Superior The Superior flag is provided when the first class hotel has a proven high quality not only in the rooms . The superior hotels provide for additional facilities in the hotel like a sauna or a workout room . The quality is checked regularly by mystery guesting of an external inspection service .
Tariff
Peter Temin , an economist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , explained that a tariff is an expansionary policy , like a devaluation as it diverts demand from foreign to home producers . He noted that exports were 7 percent of GNP in 1929 , they fell by 1.5 percent of 1929 GNP in the next two years and the fall was offset by the increase in domestic demand from tariff . He concluded that contrary the popular argument , contractionary effect of the tariff was small .
Salem (TV series)
Casting announcements began in October 2013 , with Ashley Madekwe first cast in the role of Tituba . Seth Gabel was the next actor cast , in the regular role of Cotton Mather . Janet Montgomery and Xander Berkeley were cast in the lead role of Mary Sibley and the role of Magistrate Hale , respectively . Shane West later signed onto the series regular role of John Alden . Also cast was Tamzin Merchant as Anne Hale . Elise Eberle was later cast in the series regular role of Mercy Lewis . On the June 1 , 2014 episode , Stephen Lang joined the cast in the recurring role of Increase Mather .
Dutch East India Company
Before the Dutch Revolt , Antwerp had played an important role as a distribution centre in northern Europe . After 1591 , however , the Portuguese used an international syndicate of the German Fuggers and Welsers , and Spanish and Italian firms , that used Hamburg as the northern staple port to distribute their goods , thereby cutting Dutch merchants out of the trade . At the same time , the Portuguese trade system was unable to increase supply to satisfy growing demand , in particular the demand for pepper . Demand for spices was relatively inelastic , and therefore each lag in the supply of pepper caused a sharp rise in pepper prices .
Ho Chi Minh City
An etymology of Saigon ( or Sài Gòn in Vietnamese ) is that Sài is a Sino - Vietnamese word ( Hán tự : 柴 ) meaning `` firewood , lops , twigs ; palisade '' , while Gòn is another Sino - Vietnamese word ( Hán tự : 棍 ) meaning `` stick , pole , bole '' , and whose meaning evolved into `` cotton '' in Vietnamese ( bông gòn , literally `` cotton stick '' , i.e. , `` cotton plant '' , then shortened to gòn ) . This name may refer to the many kapok plants that the Khmer people had planted around Prey Nokor , and which can still be seen at Cây Mai temple and surrounding areas . It may also refer to the dense and tall forest that once existed around the city , a forest to which the Khmer name , Prey Nokor , already referred .
Hyperinflation
In the confidence model , some event , or series of events , such as defeats in battle , or a run on stocks of the specie that back a currency , removes the belief that the authority issuing the money will remain solvent -- whether a bank or a government . Because people do not want to hold notes that may become valueless , they want to spend them . Sellers , realizing that there is a higher risk for the currency , demand a greater and greater premium over the original value . Under this model , the method of ending hyperinflation is to change the backing of the currency , often by issuing a completely new one . War is one commonly cited cause of crisis of confidence , particularly losing in a war , as occurred during Napoleonic Vienna , and capital flight , sometimes because of `` contagion '' is another . In this view , the increase in the circulating medium is the result of the government attempting to buy time without coming to terms with the root cause of the lack of confidence itself .
Lithuania
The temporary capital Kaunas , which was nicknamed the Little Paris , and the country itself had a Western standard of living with sufficiently high salaries and low prices . At the time , qualified workers there were earning very similar real wages as workers in Germany , Italy , Switzerland and France , the country also had a surprisingly high natural increase in population of 9.7 and the industrial production of Lithuania increased by 160 % from 1913 to 1940 .
Marginal product of labor
There is a factory which produces toys . When there are no workers in the factory , no toys are produced . When there is one worker in the factory , six toys are produced per hour . When there are two workers in the factory , eleven toys are produced per hour . There is a marginal product of labor of five when there are two workers in the factory compared to one . When the marginal product of labor is increasing , this is called increasing marginal returns . However , as the number of workers increases , the marginal product of labor may not increase indefinitely . When not scaled properly , the marginal product of labor may go down when the number of employees goes up , creating a situation known as diminishing marginal returns . When the marginal product of labor becomes negative , it is known as negative marginal returns .
Demand curve
There is movement along a demand curve when a change in price causes the quantity demanded to change . It is important to distinguish between movement along a demand curve , and a shift in a demand curve . Movements along a demand curve happen only when the price of the good changes . When a non-price determinant of demand changes the curve shifts . These `` other variables '' are part of the demand function . They are `` merely lumped into intercept term of a simple linear demand function . '' Thus a change in a non-price determinant of demand is reflected in a change in the x-intercept causing the curve to shift along the x axis .
Labor history of the United States
The Great Railroad Strike of 1922 , a nationwide railroad shop workers strike , began on July 1 . The immediate cause of the strike was the Railroad Labor Board 's announcement that hourly wages for railway repair and maintenance workers would be cut by seven cents on July 1 . This cut , which represented an average 12 % wage decrease for the affected workers , prompted a shop workers vote on whether or not to strike . The operators ' union did not join in the strike , and the railroads employed strikebreakers to fill three - fourths of the roughly 400,000 vacated positions , increasing hostilities between the railroads and the striking workers .
Demand curve
The shift of a demand curve takes place when there is a change in any non-price determinant of demand , resulting in a new demand curve . Non-price determinants of demand are those things that will cause demand to change even if prices remain the same -- in other words , the things whose changes might cause a consumer to buy more or less of a good even if the good 's own price remained unchanged . Some of the more important factors are the prices of related goods ( both substitutes and complements ) , income , population , and expectations . However , demand is the willingness and ability of a consumer to purchase a good under the prevailing circumstances ; so , any circumstance that affects the consumer 's willingness or ability to buy the good or service in question can be a non-price determinant of demand . As an example , weather could be a factor in the demand for beer at a baseball game .
Cotton-Eyed Joe
Ray Benson of the Western Swing band Asleep at the Wheel talks about playing the Bob Wills version of `` Cotton - Eyed Joe '' in Texas in the 1970s when the dance was very much alive .