vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of United States prison systems
Although `` vagrants '' were the first inhabitants of the workhouse -- not felons or other criminals -- expansion of its use to criminals was discussed . Sir Thomas More described in Utopia ( 1516 ) how an ideal government should punish citizens with slavery , not death , and expressly recommended use of penal enslavement in England . Thomas Starkey , chaplain to Henry VIII , suggested that convicted felons `` be put in some commyn work ... so by theyr life yet the commyn welth schold take some profit . '' Edward Hext , justice of the peace in Somersetshire in the 1500s , recommended that criminals be put to labor in the workhouse after receiving the traditional punishments of the day . Former
Southern United States
The Great Migration began during World War I , hitting its high point during World War II . During this migration , blacks left the South to find work in Northern factories and other sectors of the economy .
Hawaiian crow
Avian malaria is a parasitic disease of birds , caused by Plasmodium relictum , a protist affecting birds in all parts of the world . Usually this disease does not kill birds , however in an isolated habitat such as Hawaii , birds have lost evolutionary resistance and are unable to defend against the novel protist . Its main vector is the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus , introduced to the Hawaiian islands in 1826 . This introduction can be attributed to birds club that brought nonnative species to replace birds that fell victim to the Avipoxvirus . At least 100 introductions have been documented in this manner .
Sociology
How can the sociologist effect in practice this radical doubting which is indispensable for bracketing all the presuppositions inherent in the fact that she is a social being , that she is therefore socialised and led to feel `` like a fish in water '' within that social world whose structures she has internalised ? How can she prevent the social world itself from carrying out the construction of the object , in a sense , through her , through these unself - conscious operations or operations unaware of themselves of which she is the apparent subject --
Cape Hatteras Light
Completed in just under two years under the direction of brevet Brigadier General J.H. Simpson of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , the new Cape Hatteras lighthouse cost $167,000 . The new tower , from which the first - order light was first exhibited December 16 , 1871 , was the tallest brick lighthouse tower in the world . It was 200 feet ( 61 m ) above ground and the focal height of the light was 208 feet ( 63 m ) above water . The old tower `` being no longer of any use and in danger of falling during some heavy storm '' was demolished in February 1872 .
British Empire in World War II
Britain borrowed everywhere it could and made heavy purchases of munitions and supplies in India and Canada during the war , as well as other parts of the Empire and neutral countries . Canada also made gifts . Britain 's sterling balances around the world amounted to ₤ 3.4 billion in 1945 or the equivalent of about $ US 200 billion in 2016 dollars . However , Britain treated this as a long - term loan with no interest and no specified repayment date . Just when the money would be made available by London was an issue , for the British treasury was nearly empty by 1945 .
Desert
In some parts of the world , deserts are created by a rain shadow effect . Orographic lift occurs as air masses rise to pass over high ground . In the process they cool and lose much of their moisture by precipitation on the windward slope of the mountain range . When they descend on the leeward side , they warm and their capacity to hold moisture increases so an area with relatively little precipitation occurs . The Taklamakan Desert is an example , lying in the rain shadow of the Himalayas and receiving less than 38 mm ( 1.5 in ) precipitation annually . Other areas are arid by virtue of being a very long way from the nearest available sources of moisture .
Tropical cyclone
The most intense storm on record was Typhoon Tip in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979 , which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hectopascals ( 25.69 inHg ) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 knots ( 85 m / s ) or 190 miles per hour ( 310 km / h ) . The highest maximum sustained wind speed ever recorded was 185 knots ( 95 m / s ) or 215 miles per hour ( 345 km / h ) in Hurricane Patricia in 2015 , which is the most intense cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere . Typhoon Nancy in 1961 also had recorded wind speeds of 185 knots ( 95 m / s ) or 215 miles per hour ( 346 km / h ) , but recent research indicates that wind speeds from the 1940s to the 1960s were gauged too high , and this is no longer considered the storm with the highest wind speeds on record . Likewise , a surface - level gust caused by Typhoon Paka on Guam in late 1997 was recorded at 205 knots ( 105 m / s ) or 235 miles per hour ( 378 km / h ) . Had it been confirmed , it would be the strongest non-tornadic wind ever recorded on the Earth 's surface , but the reading had to be discarded since the anemometer was damaged by the storm . The World Meteorological Organization established Barrow Island as the location of the highest non-tornado related wind gust at 408 km / h ( 253 mph ) . The gust occurred on 10 April 1996 , during Severe Tropical Cyclone Olivia and is documented in the Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Journal . In addition to being the most intense tropical cyclone on record based on pressure , Tip was the largest cyclone on record , with tropical storm - force winds 2,170 kilometres ( 1,350 mi ) in diameter . The smallest storm on record , Tropical Storm Marco , formed during October 2008 , and made landfall in Veracruz . Marco generated tropical storm - force winds only 37 kilometres ( 23 mi ) in diameter .
How Far I'll Go
In many versions of Moana , Alessia Cara 's version of the song played during the end credits . However , several localized adaptations of Cara 's version of the song were recorded for the end credits of the film as released in certain markets around the world .
Quantum mechanics
Unsolved problem in physics : In the correspondence limit of quantum mechanics : Is there a preferred interpretation of quantum mechanics ? How does the quantum description of reality , which includes elements such as the `` superposition of states '' and `` wave function collapse '' , give rise to the reality we perceive ? ( more unsolved problems in physics )
Sociological theory
How can the sociologist effect in practice this radical doubting which is indispensable for bracketing all the presuppositions inherent in the fact that she is a social being , that she is therefore socialized and led to feel `` like a fish in water '' within that social world whose structures she has internalized ? How can she prevent the social world itself from carrying out the construction of the object , in a sense , through her , through these unself - conscious operations or operations unaware of themselves of which she is the apparent subject --
Great Lakes
List of shipwrecks in the Great Lakes Index : Shipwrecks in the Great Lakes Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes Great Lakes Storm of 1913
Birth control in the United States
Zubik v. Burwell was a case before the United States Supreme Court on whether religious institutions other than churches should be exempt from the contraceptive mandate . Churches were already exempt . On May 16 , 2016 , the U.S. Supreme Court issued a per curiam ruling in Zubik v. Burwell that vacated the decisions of the Circuit Courts of Appeals and remanded the case `` to the respective United States Courts of Appeals for the Third , Fifth , Tenth , and D.C. Circuits '' for reconsideration in light of the `` positions asserted by the parties in their supplemental briefs '' . Because the Petitioners agreed that `` their religious exercise is not infringed where they ' need to do nothing more than contract for a plan that does not include coverage for some or all forms of contraception ' '' , the Court held that the parties should be given an opportunity to clarify and refine how this approach would work in practice and to `` resolve any outstanding issues '' . The Supreme Court expressed `` no view on the merits of the cases . '' In a concurring opinion , Justice Sotomeyer , joined by Justice Ginsburg noted that in earlier cases `` some lower courts have ignored those instructions '' and cautioned lower courts not to read any signals in the Supreme Court 's actions in this case .
Ecuador
During the course of the Ecuadorian -- Peruvian War , Peru gained control over part of the disputed territory and some parts of the province of El Oro , and some parts of the province of Loja , demanding that the Ecuadorian government give up its territorial claims . The Peruvian Navy blocked the port of Guayaquil , almost cutting all supplies to the Ecuadorian troops . After a few weeks of war and under pressure by the United States and several Latin American nations , all fighting came to a stop . Ecuador and Peru came to an accord formalized in the Rio Protocol , signed on January 29 , 1942 , in favor of hemispheric unity against the Axis Powers in World War II favouring Peru with the territory they occupied at the time the war came to an end .
Dental anesthesia
The Inferior alveolar nerve anaesthesia or block or IANB ( sometimes termed `` inferior dental block '' , or wrongly referred to as the `` mandibular block '' ) probably is anesthetized more often than any other nerve in the body . An injection blocks sensation in the inferior alveolar nerve , which runs from the angle of the mandible down the medial aspect of the mandible , innervating the mandibular teeth , lower lip , chin , and parts of the tongue , which is effective for dental work in the mandibular arch . To anesthetize this nerve , the needle is inserted somewhat posterior to the most distal mandibular molar on one side of the mouth . The lingual nerve is also anesthetized through diffusion of the agent to produce a numb tongue as well as anesthetizing the floor of the mouth tissue , including that around the tongue side or lingual of the teeth .
History of Native Americans in the United States
After 1492 European exploration and colonization of the Americas revolutionized how the Old and New Worlds perceived themselves . One of the first major contacts , in what would be called the American Deep South , occurred when the conquistador Juan Ponce de León landed in La Florida in April 1513 . He was later followed by other Spanish explorers , such as Pánfilo de Narváez in 1528 and Hernando de Soto in 1539 . The subsequent European colonists in North America often rationalized their expansion of empire with the assumption that they were saving a barbaric , pagan world by spreading Christian civilization .
Geography of West Bengal
The Sundarbans delta is the largest mangrove forest in the world . It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and is spread across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal , India . The Bangladeshi and Indian portions of the jungle are listed in the UNESCO world heritage list separately as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park respectively , though they are parts of the same forest . The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways , mudflats and small islands of salt - tolerant mangrove forests , and presents an excellent example of ongoing ecological processes .
History of tennis
In 1437 at the Blackfriars , Perth , the playing of tennis indirectly led to the death of King James I of Scotland , when the drain outlet , through which he hoped to escape assassins , had been blocked to prevent the loss of tennis balls . James was trapped and killed .
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is a transverse wave , meaning that its oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer and travel . The electric and magnetic parts of the field stand in a fixed ratio of strengths in order to satisfy the two Maxwell equations that specify how one is produced from the other . These E and B fields are also in phase , with both reaching maxima and minima at the same points in space ( see illustrations ) . A common misconception is that the E and B fields in electromagnetic radiation are out of phase because a change in one produces the other , and this would produce a phase difference between them as sinusoidal functions ( as indeed happens in electromagnetic induction , and in the near - field close to antennas ) . However , in the far - field EM radiation which is described by the two source - free Maxwell curl operator equations , a more correct description is that a time - change in one type of field is proportional to a space - change in the other . These derivatives require that the E and B fields in EMR are in - phase ( see math section below ) .
Acts of the Apostles
Acts and the Gospel of Luke make up a two - part work , Luke -- Acts , by the same anonymous author , usually dated to around 80 -- 90 AD . The first part , the Gospel of Luke , tells how God fulfilled his plan for the world 's salvation through the life , death , and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth , the promised Messiah . Acts continues the story of Christianity in the 1st century , beginning with Jesus 's ascension to Heaven . The early chapters , set in Jerusalem , describe the Day of Pentecost ( the coming of the Holy Spirit ) and the growth of the church in Jerusalem . Initially , the Jews are receptive to the Christian message , but soon they turn against the followers of Jesus . Rejected by the Jews , under the guidance of the Apostle Peter the message is taken to the Gentiles . The later chapters tell of Paul 's conversion , his mission in Asia Minor and the Aegean , and finally his imprisonment in Rome , where , as the book ends , he awaits trial .
Human skin color
According to classical scholar Frank Snowden , skin color did not determine social status in ancient Egypt , Greece or Rome . These ancient civilizations viewed relations between the major power and the subordinate state as more significant in a person 's status than their skin colors .
Rule of law
Although credit for popularizing the expression `` the rule of law '' in modern times is usually given to A.V. Dicey , development of the legal concept can be traced through history to many ancient civilizations , including ancient Greece , China , Mesopotamia , India , and Rome .
Saudi Arabia
In ancient times the Arabian peninsula served as a corridor for trade and exhibited several civilizations . The history before the foundation of Saudi Arabia divided into two phases : pre-Islam and after Islam . Pre-islamic
History of chemistry
In other words , the Iron Age refers to the advent of ferrous metallurgy . Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations . This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East , ancient Iran , ancient Egypt , ancient Nubia , and Anatolia ( Turkey ) , Ancient Nok , Carthage , the Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe , medieval Europe , ancient and medieval China , ancient and medieval India , ancient and medieval Japan , amongst others . Many applications , practices , and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were established in ancient China , such as the innovation of the blast furnace , cast iron , hydraulic - powered trip hammers , and double acting piston bellows .
Mars
The fashionable idea that Mars was populated by intelligent Martians exploded in the late 19th century . Schiaparelli 's `` canali '' observations combined with Percival Lowell 's books on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying , cooling , dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works . An
Pottery of ancient Greece
Ancient Greek pottery , due to its relative durability , comprises a large part of the archaeological record of ancient Greece , and since there is so much of it ( over 100,000 painted vases are recorded in the Corpus vasorum antiquorum ) , it has exerted a disproportionately large influence on our understanding of Greek society . The shards of pots discarded or buried in the 1st millennium BC are still the best guide available to understand the customary life and mind of the ancient Greeks . There were several vessels produced locally for everyday and kitchen use , yet finer pottery from regions such as Attica was imported by other civilizations throughout the Mediterranean , such as the Etruscans in Italy . There were various specific regional varieties , such as the South Italian ancient Greek pottery .
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Part of a series on the History of Peru By chronology Timeline Pre-Columbian Peru Ancient civilizations Inca Empire Spanish conquest Viceroyalty Independence Peru -- Bolivian Confederation Guano era War of the Pacific Ecuadorian -- Peruvian War Internal conflict By political entity History of the Incas History of the Viceroyalty of Peru History of the Republic of Peru By topic Demographic history Economic history Peru portal
Afghanistan
The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and often fought . It has been home to various peoples through the ages , among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo - Iranian languages in the region . At multiple points , the land has been incorporated within large regional empires , among them the Achaemenid Empire , the Macedonian Empire , the Indian Maurya Empire , and the Islamic Empire .
Nation state
It is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic . The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural . Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs , but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations . The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics . The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future .
How to Train Your Dragon
In the epilogue , Hiccup tells us that in a secret compartment in the handle of the sword that he used to fight Alvin , he found the last will and testament of Grimbeard the Ghastly . It turns out that the sword was Grimbeard 's second - best sword . It is revealed in How to Steal a Dragon 's Sword that the sword 's name is the Dragonsword , but Old Wrinkly names it the Endeavor .
Mars
After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as it really is , an apparently lifeless and canal-less world , these ideas about Mars had to be abandoned , and a vogue for accurate , realist depictions of human colonies on Mars developed , the best known of which may be Kim Stanley Robinson 's Mars trilogy . Pseudo-scientific speculations about the Face on Mars and other enigmatic landmarks spotted by space probes have meant that ancient civilizations continue to be a popular theme in science fiction , especially in film .
Venus
Venus was known to ancient civilizations both as the `` morning star '' and as the `` evening star '' , names that reflect the early assumption that these were two separate objects . The ancient Sumerians , who recognized Venus as a single object , believed that it was their goddess Inanna . Inanna 's movements in several of her myths , including Inanna and Shukaletuda and Inanna 's Descent into the Underworld appear to parallel the motion of the planet Venus . The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa , believed to have been compiled around the mid-seventeenth century BCE , shows the Babylonians understood the two were a single object , referred to in the tablet as the `` bright queen of the sky '' , and could support this view with detailed observations .
Saudi Arabia
Dilmun is one of the most ancient civilizations in the Middle East and in the world . It was a major trading centre , and , at the height of its power , controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes . The Dilmun encompassed the east large side of the Arabian Peninsula , particularly in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia . One of the earliest inscriptions naming Dilmun is that of King Ur - Nanshe of Lagash ( c. 2300 BC ) discovered in a door - socket : `` The ships of Dilmun brought him wood as tribute from foreign lands Thamud
Ancient Egyptian deities
Through contact with neighboring civilizations , the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . Dedun , who is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom , may have come from Nubia , and Baal , Anat , and Astarte , among others , were adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom ( c. 1550 -- 1070 BC ) . In Greek and Roman times , from 332 BC to the early centuries AD , deities from across the Mediterranean world were revered in Egypt , but the native deities remained , and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship .
Twelve Tables
Featured within the Twelve Tables are five rules about how to handle debtors and creditors . These rules show how the ancient Romans maintained peace with financial policy . In his article Development of the Roman Law of Debt Security , Donald E. Phillipson states the Twelve Tables were , `` A set of statues known as the Twelve Tables that was passed by an early assembly served as the foundation of the Roman private law . The Twelve Tables were enacted in the mid-fifth century B.C. as the result of a conflict among social classes in ancient Rome . '' ( page 1231 - 1232 ) . Phillipson also describes the leniency of the relationship between debtor and creditor on how it was changed and arranged in the 5th century B.C. and how Roman law surrounding it was tweaked within the Twelve Tables that initially drew out the legal boundaries surrounding debt . Specially discussing the influence of creditors rights , Phillipson states , `` In the fifth century B.C. only movables were pledged under pignus , although any res in which bonitary ownership was held was capable of being pledged . However , by the late Republic , land and buildings were increasingly pledged in pignus arrangements . This increased usage paralleled the expansion of creditors ' rights with respect to the pledged property . The right of possession and seizure ( jus possidendi ) and the right of foreclosure and sale ( jus distrahendi ) were probably the most important of the developing creditors ' rights . These increased creditors ' rights also encouraged and contributed to the expansion of the types of res in which bonitary ownership , and thus pignus arrangements , were possible . For example , the use of pignus expanded to include usufructs , rustic servitudes , rights of way , and even pledges themselves by the second century A.D. '' ( page 1239 ) .
Islamic Golden Age
During this period , the Muslims showed a strong interest in assimilating the scientific knowledge of the civilizations that had been conquered . Many classic works of antiquity that might otherwise have been lost were translated from Greek , Persian , Indian , Chinese , Egyptian , and Phoenician civilizations into Arabic and Persian , and later in turn translated into Turkish , Hebrew , and Latin .
The Dukes of Hazzard
The Duke boys ' CB handle was ( jointly ) `` Lost Sheep '' . Originally when the show was conceived , their handle was to be `` General Lee '' to match their vehicle , but this was only ever used on - screen on one occasion , in the second episode , `` Daisy 's Song '' , when Cooter calls Bo and Luke over the CB by this handle , although they were actually driving Daisy 's Plymouth Roadrunner ( see below ) at the time . As it became obvious that the `` General Lee '' handle would be out of place when the Duke boys were in another vehicle , the `` Lost Sheep '' handle was devised ( with Uncle Jesse being `` Shepherd '' and Daisy being `` Bo Peep '' ) .