vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Lead poisoning
Prevention measures also exist on national and municipal levels . Recommendations by health professionals for lowering childhood exposures include banning the use of lead where it is not essential and strengthening regulations that limit the amount of lead in soil , water , air , household dust , and products . Regulations exist to limit the amount of lead in paint ; for example , a 1978 law in the US restricted the lead in paint for residences , furniture , and toys to 0.06 % or less . In October 2008 , the US Environmental Protection Agency reduced the allowable lead level by a factor of ten to 0.15 micrograms per cubic meter of air , giving states five years to comply with the standards . The European Union 's Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive limits amounts of lead and other toxic substances in electronics and electrical equipment . In some places , remediation programs exist to reduce the presence of lead when it is found to be high , for example in drinking water . As a more radical solution , entire towns located near former lead mines have been `` closed '' by the government , and the population resettled elsewhere , as was the case with Picher , Oklahoma in 2009 .
Article Three of the United States Constitution
A significant omission is that although Clause 1 provides that federal judicial power shall extend to `` the laws of the United States , '' it does not also provide that it shall extend to the laws of the several or individual states . In turn , the Judiciary Act of 1789 and subsequent acts never granted the U.S. Supreme Court the power to review decisions of state supreme courts on pure issues of state law . It is this silence which tacitly made state supreme courts the final expositors of the common law in their respective states . They were free to diverge from English precedents and from each other on the vast majority of legal issues which had never been made part of federal law by the Constitution , and the U.S. Supreme Court could do nothing about that , as it would ultimately concede in Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins ( 1938 ) . By way of contrast , other English - speaking federations like Australia and Canada never adopted the Erie doctrine . That is , their highest courts have always possessed plenary power to impose a uniform nationwide common law upon all lower courts and never adopted the strong American distinction between federal and state common law .
Preamble to the United States Constitution
Domestically , the federal government 's sovereignty means that it may perform acts such as entering into contracts or accepting bonds , which are typical of governmental entities but not expressly provided for in the Constitution or laws . Similarly , the federal government , as an attribute of sovereignty , has the power to enforce those powers that are granted to it ( e.g. , the power to `` establish Post Offices and Post Roads '' includes the power to punish those who interfere with the postal system so established ) . The Court has recognized the federal government 's supreme power over those limited matters entrusted to it . Thus , no state may interfere with the federal government 's operations as though its sovereignty is superior to the federal government 's ( discussed more below ) ; for example , states may not interfere with the federal government 's near absolute discretion to sell its own real property , even when that real property is located in one or another state . The federal government exercises its supreme power not as a unitary entity , but instead via the three coordinate branches of the government ( legislative , executive , and judicial ) , each of which has its own prescribed powers and limitations under the Constitution . In addition , the doctrine of separation of powers functions as a limitation on each branch of the federal government 's exercise of sovereign power .
Two-party system
There are several reasons why , in some systems , two major parties dominate the political landscape . There has been speculation that a two - party system arose in the United States from early political battling between the federalists and anti-federalists in the first few decades after the ratification of the Constitution , according to several views . In addition , there has been more speculation that the winner - takes - all electoral system as well as particular state and federal laws regarding voting procedures helped to cause a two - party system . In
Overview of gun laws by nation
In the United States , gun laws are found in a number of federal statues , enforced by the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives ( ATF ) . The right to keep and bear arms is protected by the Second Amendment to the Constitution , and most state constitutions also guarantee this right . There is some variance across the country as both federal and state laws apply to firearm possession and ownership .
Antonin Scalia
Scalia maintained that every element of an offense that helps determine the sentence must be either admitted by the defendant or found by a jury under the Sixth Amendment 's jury guarantee . In the 2000 case of Apprendi v. New Jersey , Scalia wrote the Court 's majority opinion that struck down a state statute that allowed the trial judge to increase the sentence if the judge found the offense was a hate crime . Scalia found the procedure impermissible because whether it was a hate crime had not been decided by the jury . In 2004 , he wrote for the Court in Blakely v. Washington , striking down Washington state 's sentencing guidelines on similar grounds . The dissenters in Blakely foresaw that Scalia would use the case to attack the federal sentencing guidelines ( which he had failed to strike down in Mistretta ) , and they proved correct , as Scalia led a five - member majority in United States v. Booker , which made those guidelines no longer mandatory for federal judges to follow ( they remained advisory ) .
Philippines
Among the achievements of the government in the Philippines are a high access to an improved water source of 92 % in 2010 ; the creation of financially sustainable water service providers ( `` Water Districts '' ) in small and medium towns with the continuous long - term support of a national agency ( the `` Local Water Utilities Administration '' LWUA ) ; and the improvement of access , service quality and efficiency in Manila through two high - profle water concessions awarded in 1997 .
Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968
It also provided that the `` presence or absence of any of '' the factors `` need not be conclusive on the issue of voluntariness of the confession . '' ( As a federal statute , it applied only to criminal proceedings either under federal laws , or in the District of Columbia . )
Camel
The kidneys and intestines of a camel are very efficient at reabsorbing water . Camels ' kidneys have a 1 : 4 cortex to medulla ratio . Thus medullary part of camel 's kidneys occupy twice as much area as a cow 's kidney . Secondly , renal corpuscles have a smaller diameter , which reduces surface area for filtration . These two major anatomical characteristics enable camel to conserve water and limit the volume of urine in extreme desert conditions . Camel urine comes out as a thick syrup , and camel feces are so dry that they do not require drying when the Bedouins use them to fuel fires . The camels are able to live in difficult conditions without drinking water due to their ability to produce small and pretty dry droppings as well as they use the water to maintain their body 's temperature to fit with the region surrounding them ( Breulmann , et al. , 2007 ) .
Federal Reserve System
When these tools are used to drain reserves from the banking system , they do so by replacing bank reserves with other liabilities ; the asset side and the overall size of the Federal Reserve 's balance sheet remain unchanged . If necessary , as a means of applying monetary restraint , the Federal Reserve also has the option of redeeming or selling securities . The redemption or sale of securities would have the effect of reducing the size of the Federal Reserve 's balance sheet as well as further reducing the quantity of reserves in the banking system . Restoring the size and composition of the balance sheet to a more normal configuration is a longer - term objective of our policies . In any case , the sequencing of steps and the combination of tools that the Federal Reserve uses as it exits from its currently very accommodative policy stance will depend on economic and financial developments and on our best judgments about how to meet the Federal Reserve 's dual mandate of maximum employment and price stability .
Trail of Tears
In the years following the Act , the Cherokee filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts with the state of Georgia . Some of these cases reached the Supreme Court , the most influential being Worcester v. Georgia ( 1832 ) . Samuel Worcester and other non-Indians were convicted by Georgia law for residing in Cherokee territory in the state of Georgia without a license . Worcester was sentenced to prison for four years and appealed the ruling , arguing that this sentence violated treaties made between Indian nations and the United States federal government by imposing state laws on Cherokee lands . The Court ruled in Worcester 's favor , declaring that the Cherokee Nation was subject only to federal law and that the Supremacy Clause barred legislative interference by the state of Georgia . Chief Justice Marshall argued , `` The Cherokee nation , then , is a distinct community occupying its own territory in which the laws of Georgia can have no force . The whole intercourse between the United States and this Nation , is , by our constitution and laws , vested in the government of the United States . ''
Separation of church and state in the United States
Some legal scholars , such as John Baker of LSU , theorize that Madison 's initial proposed language -- that Congress should make no law regarding the establishment of a `` national religion '' -- was rejected by the House , in favor of the more general `` religion '' in an effort to appease the Anti-Federalists . To both the Anti-Federalists and the Federalists , the very word `` national '' was a cause for alarm because of the experience under the British crown . During the debate over the establishment clause , Rep. Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts took issue with Madison 's language regarding whether the government was a national or federal government ( in which the states retained their individual sovereignty ) , which Baker suggests compelled Madison to withdraw his language from the debate .
Woodrow Wilson
Wilson began pushing for legislation which culminated with the Federal Trade Commission Act signed in September 1914 . In doing so , Wilson broke with his predecessors ' practice of litigating the antitrust issue in the courts , known as trust - busting ; the new Federal Trade Commission provided a new regulatory approach , to encourage competition and reduce perceived unfair trade practices . In addition , he pushed through Congress the Clayton Antitrust Act making certain business practices illegal , such as price discrimination , agreements prohibiting retailers from handling other companies ' products , and directorates and agreements to control other companies . The power of this legislation was greater than that of previous anti-trust laws since it dictated accountability of individual corporate officers and clarified guidelines . This law was considered the `` Magna Carta '' of labor by Samuel Gompers because it ended union liability antitrust laws . In 1916 , under threat of a national railroad strike , Wilson approved legislation that increased wages and cut working hours of railroad employees ; there was no strike .
Water splitting
A variety of materials react with water or acids to release hydrogen . Such methods are non-sustainable . In terms of stoichiometry , these methods resemble the steam reforming process . The great difference between such chemical methods and steam reforming ( which is also a `` chemical method '' ) , is that the necessary reduced metals do not exist naturally and require considerable energy for their production . For example , in the laboratory strong acids react with zinc metal in Kipp 's apparatus .
Recycling
Some recycling advocates believe that laissez - faire individual - based recycling does not cover all of society 's recycling needs . Thus , it does not negate the need for an organized recycling program . Local government can consider the activities of the recycling poor as contributing to property blight .
Grand Canyon
The federal government administrators who manage park resources face many challenges . These include issues related to the recent reintroduction into the wild of the highly endangered California condor , air tour overflight noise levels , water rights disputes with various tribal reservations that border the park , and forest fire management . Federal officials started a flood in the Grand Canyon in hopes of restoring its ecosystem on March 5 , 2008 . The canyon 's ecosystem was permanently changed after the construction of the Glen Canyon Dam in 1963 .
Eyepiece
Eye relief typically ranges from about 2 mm to 20 mm , depending on the construction of the eyepiece . Long focal - length eyepieces usually have ample eye relief , but short focal - length eyepieces are more problematic . Until recently , and still quite commonly , eyepieces of a short - focal length have had a short eye relief . Good design guidelines suggest a minimum of 5 -- 6 mm to accommodate the eyelashes of the observer to avoid discomfort . Modern designs with many lens elements , however , can correct for this , and viewing at high power becomes more comfortable . This is especially the case for spectacle wearers , who may need up to 20 mm of eye relief to accommodate their glasses .
Great Salt Lake
The causeway running across the lake was built in the 1950s by the Morrison - Knudsen construction company for the Southern Pacific Railroad as a replacement to a previously built wooden trestle , and is now owned and operated by Union Pacific . About 15 trains cross the 20 - mile ( 30 km ) causeway each day . Previous to December 2 , 2016 , the causeway constrained the flow of water between northern and southern parts , which has a significant impact on various industries surrounding the lake . With the construction of a 180 - foot - long ( 55 m ) bridge and the opening of the causeway for water to flow between the arms of the lake , water levels have begun to equalize . The impact of the flow of water from the southern arm of the lake to the northern is yet to be seen .
Tax protester statutory arguments
On August 9 , 2007 , the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York issued an order including an injunction permanently barring Schulz and his We the People Foundation from ( 1 ) advising or instructing persons or entities that they are not required to file federal tax returns or pay federal taxes ; ( 2 ) selling or furnishing any materials purporting to enable individuals to discontinue or stop withholding or paying federal taxes ; ( 3 ) instructing , advising or assisting anyone to stop withholding or stop paying federal employment or income taxes ; and ( 4 ) obstructing or advising anyone to obstruct IRS examinations , collections , or other IRS proceedings .
Electric bicycle laws
The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Act states that electric bicycles and tricycles meeting the definition of low - speed electric bicycles will be considered consumer products . The Consumer Product Safety Commission ( CPSC ) has regulatory authority to assure , through guidelines and standards , that the public will be protected from unreasonable risks of injury or death associated with the use of electric bicycles . Defined
African French
In terms of vocabulary , there exist three phenomena in African French . First , the presence of words which do not exist in standard French . These words were either coined locally or borrowed from local African languages . As a consequence , each regional variety of African French has its own local words that are not the same as in other varieties of African French , although this local vocabulary only constitutes a small part of the overall vocabulary which for the most part is identical to standard French . When talking to people from other regions or countries , African French speakers often switch to a more standard form of French avoiding this local vocabulary . However , there also exist some African French words that are found across many African countries ( see for example chicotter in the Abidjan French vocabulary section below ) .
Lake of the Ozarks
Bagnell Dam is operated and maintained by Ameren Missouri , the successor of Union Electric , under the authority of a permit issued by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission . Ameren Missouri is also responsible for managing both the shoreline and water levels of the lake . All land surrounding the lake that is within the project boundary defined by the FERC is under the company 's jurisdiction . Any improvements to the shoreline including docks , seawalls , and other structures require permission from Ameren Missouri prior to construction .
Water splitting
Huge energy requirements , the expected shortage of petroleum in the future and quick rise in pollution are the problems that need to be addressed by putting more efforts into investigating clean and sustainable energy resources . In pursuit of such energy sources , efforts are being put in light driven splitting of water into O and H in an attempt to convert solar energy into fuel . Water oxidation ( 2H O → 4H + 4e + O ) is the first important step providing the necessary electrons and protons for the next step ( proton reduction ) in which hydrogen production takes place in a catalysis reaction by a proton reduction catalyst . 2H
Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States
Other challenges to the questions of the constitutionality of underage drinking laws have not been made , either in the Courts of the several other States , or in the Federal courts .
Sustainability
The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere ( tenere , to hold ; sub , under ) . Sustain can mean `` maintain '' , `` support '' , or `` endure '' . Since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability on planet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted definition of sustainability as a part of the concept sustainable development , that of the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20 , 1987 : `` sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs '' .
United States antitrust law
The Federal Trade Commission , the U.S. Department of Justice , state governments and private parties who are sufficiently affected may all bring actions in the courts to enforce the antitrust laws . The scope of antitrust laws , and the degree to which they should interfere in an enterprise 's freedom to conduct business , or to protect smaller businesses , communities and consumers , are strongly debated . One view , mostly closely associated with the `` Chicago School of economics '' suggests that antitrust laws should focus solely on the benefits to consumers and overall efficiency , while a broad range of legal and economic theory sees the role of antitrust laws as also controlling economic power in the public interest .
Waste minimisation
Waste minimisation is a process of elimination that involves reducing the amount of waste produced in society and helps to eliminate the generation of harmful and persistent wastes , supporting the efforts to promote a more sustainable society . Waste minimisation involves redesigning products and / or changing societal patterns , concerning consumption and production , of waste generation , to prevent the creation of waste .
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
The Program Beneficiaries Development is a support service delivery component of CARP . It aims to aid the agrarian reform beneficiaries by providing them necessary support services to make their lands more productive , and enable them to venture in income generating livelihood projects in accordance to Section 14 of RA 9700 ( Section 37 of RA 6657 as amended ) . Under the support service delivery programs , the Presidential Agrarian Reform Council ( PARC ) ensures that agrarian reform beneficiaries are provided with support services such as land surveys and tilting , construction of infrastructures , marketing and production assistance , credit and training .
Oyster
Similar laws were enacted in Connecticut before World War I and lasted until 1969 . The laws restricted the harvesting of oysters in state - owned beds to vessels under sail . These laws prompted the construction of the oyster sloop - style vessel to last well into the 20th century . Hope is believed to be the last - built Connecticut oyster sloop , completed in 1948 .
Recycling
Two years after New York City declared that implementing recycling programs would be `` a drain on the city , '' New York City leaders realized that an efficient recycling system could save the city over $20 million . Municipalities often see fiscal benefits from implementing recycling programs , largely due to the reduced landfill costs . A study conducted by the Technical University of Denmark according to the Economist found that in 83 percent of cases , recycling is the most efficient method to dispose of household waste . However , a 2004 assessment by the Danish Environmental Assessment Institute concluded that incineration was the most effective method for disposing of drink containers , even aluminium ones .
Hurricane Katrina
The destruction wrought by Hurricane Katrina raised other , more general public policy issues about emergency management , environmental policy , poverty , and unemployment . The discussion of both the immediate response and of the broader public policy issues may have affected elections and legislation enacted at various levels of government . The storm 's devastation also prompted a Congressional investigation , which found that FEMA and the Red Cross `` did not have a logistics capacity sophisticated enough to fully support the massive number of Gulf coast victims . '' Additionally , it placed responsibility for the disaster on all three levels of government . An ABC News poll conducted on September 2 , 2005 , showed more blame was being directed at state and local governments ( 75 % ) than at the Federal government ( 67 % ) , with 44 % blaming Bush 's leadership directly . A later CNN / USAToday / Gallup poll showed that respondents disagreed widely on who was to blame for the problems in the city following the hurricane -- 13 % said Bush , 18 % said federal agencies , 25 % blamed state or local officials and 38 % said no one was to blame . A 2013 pool of Louisiana Republicans found more ( 29 % ) blamed Barack Obama for the poor federal response to the hurricane than George W. Bush ( 28 % ) , despite the fact that Bush was actually president during the storm and Obama merely a junior senator .
Overview of gun laws by nation
European Directive No. 91 / 477 / EC sets minimum standards regarding civilian firearms acquisition and possession that EU Member States must implement into their national legal systems . The Member States are free to adopt more stringent rules , which leads to differences in the extent of legal access to firearms among EU countries .
Water in California
The Los Angeles Aqueduct carries water from the Eastern Sierra Nevada to Los Angeles . The construction of the aqueduct marked the first major water delivery project in California . The city purchased 300,000 acres ( 1,200 km ) of land in the Owens Valley in order to gain access to water rights . The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power transports 400,000 acre feet ( 0.49 km ) of Eastern Sierra Nevada water to the city each year . This growth clearly shows William Mulholland 's observation that `` Whoever brings the water , brings the people . ''