vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Indian general election, 2014
The President tweeted , `` Called @ narendramodi a short while ago ; Congratulated on BJP victory & invited for a state visit to # SriLanka '' Tibet -- Tibetan Prime Minister - in - exile Lobsang Sangay thanked the UPA government `` or their unwavering support for the Tibetan people during its two full terms '' , and also congratulated the BJP - led NDA for their victory . United Kingdom -- Prime Minister David Cameron called Modi and congratulated him on the `` election success '' and stated that he was keen on working together , one of the first Western leaders to do . A spokesperson stated , `` The prime minister called Narendra Modi this morning to congratulate him on his victory in the Indian elections and the record turnout , making this the biggest democratic election in history . Modi said he would be delighted to accept the Prime Minister 's invitation to visit the UK . Both leaders agreed on the importance of the UK - India relationship and agreed to work together to strengthen it in the months ahead . '' Cameron also tweeted using his official account , `` Congratulations @ narendramodi on victory in India 's elections . Keen to work together to get the most from UK - India relationship '' . British Foreign Minister William Hague stated , `` I congratulate Narendra Modi and the BJP on their success and look forward to forging an even closer partnership with India in the months ahead . UK has strong ties with India and the British government looks forward to working with the new Indian government to build on this relationship and deliver security , growth and prosperity for both our nations . '' United States -- White House Press Secretary Jay Carney said , `` We congratulate Narendra Modi and the BJP on winning a majority of seats in this historic election . Once the government is formed , we look forward to working closely with the prime minister and the Cabinet to advance our strong bilateral relationship based on shared democratic values . The prime minister of India will be welcomed to the US . '' The White House National Security Council tweeted , `` US congratulates BJP on its victory in India 's historic election . We look forward to working with government once formed to advance our partnership '' .
Chartism
In 1837 , six Members of Parliament and six working men , including William Lovett ( from the London Working Men 's Association , set up in 1836 ) formed a committee , which in 1838 published the People 's Charter . This set out the six main aims of the movement . The achievement of these aims would give working men a say in law - making : they would be able to vote , and their vote would be protected by a secret ballot ; and they would be able to stand for election to the House of Commons as a result of the removal of property qualifications and the introduction of payment for MPs . None of these demands was new , but the People 's Charter was to become one of the most famous political manifestos of 19th century Britain .
Tax protester statutory arguments
Tax protesters in the United States have advanced a number of arguments asserting that the assessment and collection of the federal income tax violates statutes enacted by the United States Congress and signed into law by the President . Such arguments generally claim that certain statutes fail to create a duty to pay taxes , that such statutes do not impose the income tax on wages or other types of income claimed by the tax protesters , or that provisions within a given statute exempt the tax protesters from a duty to pay .
Economic history of Argentina
All the same , between 1853 and the 1930s , fiscal instability was a transitory phenomenon . The depressions of 1873 -- 77 and 1890 -- 91 played a crucial role in fostering the rise of industry : timidly in the 1870s and more decisively in the 1890s , industry grew with each crisis in response to the need of a damaged economy to improve its trade balance through import - substitution . By 1914 , about 15 % the Argentine labour force was involved in manufacturing , compared to 20 % involved in commercial activities . In 1913 , the country 's income per head was on a par with that of France and Germany , and far ahead of Italy 's or Spain 's . At the end of 1913 , Argentina had a gold stock of £ 59 million , or 3.7 % of the world 's monetary gold , while representing 1.2 % of the world 's economic output .
Chartism
After the passing of the Reform Act 1832 , which failed to extend the vote beyond those owning property , the political leaders of the working class made speeches claiming that there had been a great act of betrayal . This sense that the working class had been betrayed by the middle class was strengthened by the actions of the Whig governments of the 1830s . Notably , the hated new Poor Law Amendment was passed in 1834 , depriving working people of outdoor relief and driving the poor into workhouses , where families were separated . It was the massive wave of opposition to this measure in the north of England in the late 1830s that gave Chartism the numbers that made it a mass movement . It seemed that only securing the vote for working men would change things , and indeed Dorothy Thompson , the pre-eminent historian of Chartism , defined the movement as the time when `` thousands of working people considered that their problems could be solved by the political organization of the country . '' In 1836 the London Working Men 's Association was founded by William Lovett and Henry Hetherington , providing a platform for Chartists in the south east . The origins of Chartism in Wales can be traced to the foundation in the autumn of 1836 of Carmarthen Working Men 's Association .
Confederate States of America
Confederate conscription was not universal ; it was a selective service . The First Conscription Act of April 1862 exempted occupations related to transportation , communication , industry , ministers , teaching and physical fitness . The Second Conscription Act of October 1862 expanded exemptions in industry , agriculture and conscientious objection . Exemption fraud proliferated in medical examinations , army furloughs , churches , schools , apothecaries and newspapers .
Socioeconomic status
Education plays a major role in skill sets for acquiring jobs , as well as specific qualities that stratify people with higher SES from lower SES . Annette Lareau speaks on the idea of concerted cultivation , where middle class parents take an active role in their children 's education and development by using controlled organized activities and fostering a sense of entitlement through encouraged discussion . Laureau argues that families with lower income do not participate in this movement , causing their children to have a sense of constraint . An interesting observation that studies have noted is that parents from lower SES households are more likely to give orders to their children in their interactions while parents with a higher SES are more likely to interact and play with their children . A division in education attainment is thus born out of these two differences in child rearing . Research has shown how children who are born in lower SES households have weaker language skills compared to children raised in higher SES households . These language skills affect their abilities to learn and thus exacerbate the problem of education disparity between low and high SES neighborhoods . Lower income families can have children who do not succeed to the levels of the middle income children , who can have a greater sense of entitlement , be more argumentative , or be better prepared for adult life .
History of the United Kingdom
The postwar period also witnessed a dramatic rise in the average standard of living , as characterised by a 40 % rise in average real wages from 1950 to 1965 . Earnings for men in industry rose by 95 % between 1951 and 1964 , while during that same period the official workweek was reduced and five reductions in income tax were made . Those in traditionally poorly paid semi-skilled and unskilled occupations saw a particularly marked improvement in their wages and living standards . As summed up by R.J. Unstead :
Decline of Detroit
The leadership of Detroit was not passive in the face of the adverse trends that developments in the auto industry posed . Because the city had flourished in the heyday of the auto industry , the city made periodic attempts to stimulate a revival of the industry within the city . For example , in the 1980s the cities of Detroit and Hamtramck used the power of eminent domain to level part of what had been Poletown to make a parking lot for a new automobile factory . On that site , a new , low - rise suburban type Cadillac plant was built , with substantial government subsidies . The new Detroit / Hamtramck Assembly employs 1,600 workers . In the 1990s , the city subsidized the building of a new Chrysler plant on the city 's east side - Jefferson North Assembly - which employs 4,600 people . These efforts , however , were an uphill struggle against overall trends in the industry . In 2009 Chrysler filed a Chapter 11 bankruptcy case , and survives in a partnership with Fiat SpA of Italy . while GM filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on June 1 , 2009 , and survives as a much smaller company - smaller now than Japan 's Toyota Motor Company . A little over two years after these major blows to the U.S. auto industry , the city itself went into Chapter 9 bankruptcy .
Social class in the United States
`` The parade of income earners with height representing income suggest that the relationship between the distribution of income and the class structure is ... blurred in the middle ... we saw dual - income working class marchers looking down on single - income upper - middle class marchers . In sum , the class structure as we have defined it ... does not exactly match the distribution of household income . '' -- Dennis Gilbert , The American Class Structure , 1998
Telephone exchange
The scarce resources in a telephone switch are the connections between layers of subswitches . The control logic has to allocate these connections , and most switches do so in a way that is fault tolerant . See nonblocking minimal spanning switch for a discussion of the Charles Clos algorithm , used in many telephone switches , and a very important algorithm to the telephone industry .
American Idol
Some in the entertainment industry were critical of the star - making aspect of the show . Usher , a mentor on the show , bemoaning the loss of the `` true art form of music '' , thought that shows like American Idol made it seem `` so easy that everyone can do it , and that it can happen overnight '' , and that `` television is a lie '' . Musician Michael Feinstein , while acknowledging that the show had uncovered promising performers , said that American Idol `` is n't really about music . It 's about all the bad aspects of the music business -- the arrogance of commerce , this sense of ' I know what will make this person a star ; artists themselves do n't know . ' '' That American Idol is seen to be a fast track to success for its contestants has been a cause of resentment for some in the industry . LeAnn Rimes , commenting on Carrie Underwood winning Best Female Artist in Country Music Awards over Faith Hill in 2006 , said that `` Carrie has not paid her dues long enough to fully deserve that award '' . It is a common theme that has been echoed by many others . Elton John , who had appeared as a mentor in the show but turned down an offer to be a judge on American Idol , commenting on talent shows in general , said that `` there have been some good acts but the only way to sustain a career is to pay your dues in small clubs '' .
Wealth inequality in the United States
The economist Joseph Stiglitz argues that `` Strong unions have helped to reduce inequality , whereas weaker unions have made it easier for CEOs , sometimes working with market forces that they have helped shape , to increase it . '' The long fall in unionization in the U.S. since WWII has seen a corresponding rise in the inequality of wealth and income .
History of the United Kingdom
National wealth has grown considerably , and although the shareout of this among the social classes has remained substantially of the same proportions , it has meant a considerable rise in the standard of living of all classes . It is estimated that in Britain at the turn of the century average earnings in industry sufficed merely to meet the essential needs of a two - child family , today average earnings allow the industrial wage - earner to spend a third of his income on things other than basic needs . ''
Poverty in the United Kingdom
Campbell Robb of Shelter said `` It 's heart - breaking to think that so many people are having to make a choice between paying the rent and putting food on the table , or living in fear that any drop in income would leave them unable to cover their housing costs . The sad truth is that far too many people in Britain right now are living in homes that just are n't up to scratch - from the thousands of families forced to cope with poor conditions , to a generation of renters forking out most of their income on housing each month and unable to save for the future . ''
Confidence interval
Validity . This means that the nominal coverage probability ( confidence level ) of the confidence interval should hold , either exactly or to a good approximation . Optimality . This means that the rule for constructing the confidence interval should make as much use of the information in the data - set as possible . Recall that one could throw away half of a dataset and still be able to derive a valid confidence interval . One way of assessing optimality is by the length of the interval so that a rule for constructing a confidence interval is judged better than another if it leads to intervals whose lengths are typically shorter . Invariance . In many applications , the quantity being estimated might not be tightly defined as such . For example , a survey might result in an estimate of the median income in a population , but it might equally be considered as providing an estimate of the logarithm of the median income , given that this is a common scale for presenting graphical results . It would be desirable that the method used for constructing a confidence interval for the median income would give equivalent results when applied to constructing a confidence interval for the logarithm of the median income : specifically the values at the ends of the latter interval would be the logarithms of the values at the ends of former interval .
Education reform
Education reform has been pursued for a variety of specific reasons , but generally most reforms aim at redressing some societal ills , such as poverty - , gender - , or class - based inequities , or perceived ineffectiveness . Current education trends in the United States represent multiple achievement gaps across ethnicities , income levels , and geographies . As McKinsey and Company reported in a 2009 analysis , `` These educational gaps impose on the United States the economic equivalent of a permanent national recession . '' Reforms are usually proposed by thinkers who aim to redress societal ills or institute societal changes , most often through a change in the education of the members of a class of people -- the preparation of a ruling class to rule or a working class to work , the social hygiene of a lower or immigrant class , the preparation of citizens in a democracy or republic , etc . The idea that all children should be provided with a high level of education is a relatively recent idea , and has arisen largely in the context of Western democracy in the 20th century .
1960 Valdivia earthquake
The economy of the coastal town of Queule had during the 1950s developed significantly . Its economy based on fishing , agriculture and industry had grown . Queule was connected by road in 1957 to the rest of the country and the town had developed into a balneario . This era of prosperity ended with the 1960 earthquake .
Income inequality in the United States
A December 2011 Gallup poll found a decline in the number of Americans who felt reducing the gap in income and wealth between the rich and the poor was extremely or very important ( 21 percent of Republicans , 43 percent of independents , and 72 percent of Democrats ) . In 2012 , several surveys of voters attitudes toward growing income inequality found the issue ranked less important than other economic issues such as growth and equality of opportunity , and relatively low in affecting voters `` personally '' . In 1998 a Gallup poll had found 52 % of Americans agreeing that the gap between rich and the poor was a problem that needed to be fixed , while 45 % regarded it as `` an acceptable part of the economic system '' . In 2011 , those numbers are reversed : Only 45 % see the gap as in need of fixing , while 52 % do not . However , there was a large difference between Democrats and Republicans , with 71 % of Democrats calling for a fix .
Indian general election, 2014
Singapore -- Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong congratulated Modi and the BJP on Twitter and Facebook , and also stated that he was `` looking forward to working with the new Indian Government to strengthen India - Singapore relations '' . Modi replied to the tweet stating , `` @ leehsienloong Thank you very much . Singapore is a valued friend & I am sure we will make our ties stronger in the times to come '' . Former Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong wrote , `` I recall our meetings and frank exchange of views since 2006 when I visited Gujarat . You have always shown a strong resolve to bring economic prosperity to the Indian people ... I am confident that you will lead India to greater heights as Prime Minister , and further build on the excellent ties between our two countries . '' South Africa -- President Jacob Zuma said in a statement on 17 May , `` With India under the leadership of Mr Modi , the Government of South Africa looks forward to consolidating the strong bilateral political and economic relations that exist between our two sister Republics . '' Spain -- President Mariano Rajoy sent a letter congratulating Modi on his `` brilliant victory '' in the election . Rajoy expressed his admiration for the `` democratic spirit that reigned over such a complex election process '' . The President concluded his letter stating that he was looking forward to meeting Modi in person and offered his `` warmest regards and deepest personal respect '' . Sri Lanka -- President Mahinda Rajapaksa called Modi and congratulated him for a `` great '' victory . The President tweeted , `` Called @ narendramodi a short while ago ; Congratulated on BJP victory & invited for a state visit to # SriLanka '' Tibet -- Tibetan Prime Minister - in - exile Lobsang Sangay thanked the UPA government `` or their unwavering support for the Tibetan people during its two full terms '' , and also congratulated the BJP - led NDA for their victory . United Kingdom -- Prime Minister David Cameron called Modi and congratulated him on the `` election success '' and stated that he was keen on working together , one of the first Western leaders to do .
Lobbying in the United States
And it is not just staffers , but lawmakers as well , including high - profile ones such as congressperson Richard Gephardt . He represented a `` working - class '' district in Missouri for many years but after leaving Congress , he became a lobbyist . In 2007 , he began his own lobbying firm called `` Gephardt Government Affairs Group '' and in 2010 it was earning close to $7 million in revenues with clients including Goldman Sachs , Boeing , Visa Inc. , Ameren Corporation , and Waste Management Inc ... Senators Robert Bennett and Byron Dorgan became lobbyists too . Mississippi governor Haley Barbour became a lobbyist . In 2010 , former representative Billy Tauzin earned $11 million running the drug industry 's lobbying organization , called Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America ( PhRMA ) . His bill to provide prescription drug access to Medicare recipients gave major concessions to the pharmaceutical industry : ( 1 ) Medicare was prevented from negotiating lower costs for prescription drugs ( 2 ) the reimportation of drugs from first world countries was not allowed ( 3 ) Medicare D was undermined by a policy of Medigap D. After the bill passed a few months later , Tauzin retired from Congress and took an executive position at PhRMA to earn an annual salary of $2 million . Many former representatives earned over $1 million in one year , including James Greenwood and Daniel Glickman .
United Kingdom
The UK space industry was worth £ 9.1 bn in 2011 and employed 29,000 people . It is growing at a rate of 7.5 % annually , according to its umbrella organisation , the UK Space Agency . Government strategy is for the space industry to be a £ 40bn business for the UK by 2030 , capturing a 10 % share of the $250 bn world market for commercial space technology . On 16 July 2013 , the British Government pledged £ 60 m to the Skylon project : this investment will provide support at a `` crucial stage '' to allow a full - scale prototype of the SABRE engine to be built . On 2 November 2015 , BAE Systems announced they have bought a 20 % stake in Reaction Engines ltd . The working partnership will draw on BAE Systems ' extensive aerospace technology development and project management expertise and will provide Reaction Engines with access to critical industrial , technical and capital resources to help progress the development of the SABRE engine .
Poverty in the United Kingdom
People enter the world of poverty due to : problems at the individual / family level and problems with the economy as a whole . Problems at the individual level include : race ( human categorization ) , gender , sexual orientation , drug use , and level of education . Problems with the economy can include : low labor participation and high levels of unemployment . Welfare is financial support given by the government to people in need . There are pressures on the welfare state because welfare must be justified in terms of its contribution to economic success . Welfare must contribute positively to the economy otherwise there is a risk of damaging currency values . Damage to currency values will damage trading positions and investment which will , in turn , hurt the economy overall . The Department of Health and Social Security ( DHSS ) is responsible for the welfare services in the United Kingdom . Income maintenance is centrally administered through DHSS offices ( regional and local level ) . Those who earn 39 pounds a week ( except some married women ) or more must contribute to the National Insurance Scheme . The National Health Service ( NHS ) provides virtually free healthcare for all residents -- this is also centrally administered .
National identification number
Every citizen has an NIC number for activities such as paying taxes , opening a bank account , getting a utility connection ( phone , cell phone , gas , electricity ) . However , since a majority of births in the country are not registered , and a large number of Pakistanis do not conduct any of the activities described above , most do not have ID cards . Obtaining an NIC card costs 100 rupees ( US $1.66 - almost the average daily income ) , and this reduces the number of people who can afford it . In 2006 , NADRA announced that it had issued 50 million CNIC ( the C standing for Computerized ) numbers , which is approximately one - third of the population . In June 2008 , the federal government announced it would start issuing CNIC cards for free .
Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
The Socialist Labor Party advocated a graduated income tax in 1887 . The Populist Party `` demand ( ed ) a graduated income tax '' in its 1892 platform . The Democratic Party , led by William Jennings Bryan , advocated the income tax law passed in 1894 , and proposed an income tax in its 1908 platform .