vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of Manila
Having just won their independence from Spain , the Filipinos were fiercely opposed to once again being occupied . Emilio Aguinaldo proclaimed the First Philippine Republic at the Malolos Congress and had begun to build the foundations for an independent nation . Admiral Dewey , however , claimed he never recognized the Philippine Republic , as he did not have the authority to do so and did not consider it an organized government .
Brittany
At the same time , the Celtic Revival led to the foundation of the Breton Regionalist Union ( URB ) and later to independence movements linked to Irish , Welsh and Scottish independence parties in the UK and to pan-Celticism . However , the audience of these movements remained very low and their ideas did not reach a large public until the 20th century . The Seiz Breur movement , created in 1923 , permitted a Breton artistic revival but its ties with Nazism and the collaborationism of the Breton National Party during World War II weakened Breton nationalism in the post-war period .
Indian Rebellion of 1857
In terms of sheer numbers , the casualties were much higher on the Indian side . A letter published after the fall of Delhi in the `` Bombay Telegraph '' and reproduced in the British press testified to the scale of the Indian casualties :
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
William the Conqueror invaded England in 1066 , defeating the Anglo - Saxon King Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings and placing the country under Norman rule . This campaign was followed by fierce military operations known as the Harrying of the North in 1069 -- 70 , extending Norman authority across the north of England . William 's system of government was broadly feudal in that the right to possess land was linked to service to the king , but in many other ways the invasion did little to alter the nature of the English economy . Most of the damage done in the invasion was in the north and the west of England , some of it still recorded as `` wasteland '' in 1086 . Many of the key features of the English agricultural and financial system remained in place in the decades immediately after the conquest .
Ecuador
On October 9 , 1820 , Guayaquil became the first city in Ecuador to gain its independence from Spain . The people were very happy about the independence and celebrated , which is now Ecuador 's independence day , officially on May 24 , 1822 . The rest of Ecuador gained its independence after Antonio José de Sucre defeated the Spanish Royalist forces at the Battle of Pichincha , near Quito . Following the battle , Ecuador joined Simón Bolívar 's Republic of Gran Colombia , also including modern - day Colombia , Venezuela and Panama . In 1830 Ecuador separated from Gran Colombia and became an independent republic .
Atlantic slave trade
By far the most financially profitable West Indian colonies in 1800 belonged to the United Kingdom . After entering the sugar colony business late , British naval supremacy and control over key islands such as Jamaica , Trinidad , the Leeward Islands and Barbados and the territory of British Guiana gave it an important edge over all competitors ; while many British did not make gains , a handful of individuals made small fortunes . This advantage was reinforced when France lost its most important colony , St. Domingue ( western Hispaniola , now Haiti ) , to a slave revolt in 1791 and supported revolts against its rival Britain , after the 1793 French revolution in the name of liberty . Before 1791 , British sugar had to be protected to compete against cheaper French sugar .
War of 1812
The U.S. suppressed the Native American resistance on its western and southern borders . The nation also gained a psychological sense of complete independence as people celebrated their `` second war of independence '' . Nationalism soared after the victory at the Battle of New Orleans . The opposition Federalist Party collapsed , and the Era of Good Feelings ensued .
Siege of Sarajevo
When Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence from Yugoslavia after the Bosnian independence referendum , 1992 , the Bosnian Serbs -- whose strategic goal was to create a new Bosnian Serb state of Republika Srpska ( RS ) that would include Bosniak - majority areas -- encircled Sarajevo with a siege force of 13,000 stationed in the surrounding hills . From there they assaulted the city with artillery , tanks and small arms . From 2 May 1992 , the Serbs blockaded the city . The Bosnian government defence forces ( ARBiH ) inside the besieged city , 19 months since start of conflict , numbered some 70,000 troops , were poorly equipped and unable to break the siege .
Latin American wars of independence
The Spanish Empire in America was reduced to three Caribbean islands : Cuba and Puerto Rico . Santo Domingo was under Spanish rule for some years before definitive independence was achieved . After three independence wars in Cuba , the 1898 Spanish -- American War ended Spanish colonial rule .
History of Mexico
In much of Spanish America soon after its independence , military strongmen or caudillos dominated politics , and this period is often called `` The Age of Caudillismo '' . In Mexico , from the late 1820s to the mid-1850s the period is often called the `` Age of Santa Anna '' , named for the general turned politician , Antonio López de Santa Anna . The federalists asked Santa Anna to overthrow conservative President Anastasio Bustamante . After he did , he declared General Manuel Gómez Pedraza ( who won the election of 1828 ) president . Elections were held thereafter , and Santa Anna took office in 1832 . He served as president 11 times . Constantly changing his political beliefs , in 1834 Santa Anna abrogated the federal constitution , causing insurgencies in the southeastern state of Yucatán and the northernmost portion of the northern state of Coahuila y Tejas . Both areas sought independence from the central government . Negotiations and the presence of Santa Anna 's army caused Yucatán to recognize Mexican sovereignty . Then Santa Anna 's army turned to the northern rebellion .
Economy of England in the Middle Ages
Mining did not make up a large part of the English medieval economy , but the 12th and 13th centuries saw an increased demand for metals in the country , thanks to the considerable population growth and building construction , including the great cathedrals and churches . Four metals were mined commercially in England during the period , namely iron , tin , lead and silver ; coal was also mined from the 13th century onwards , using a variety of refining techniques .
Australian Army during World War II
Following the Japanese invasion on 8 December 1941 , the 8th Division and its attached Indian Army units was assigned responsibility for the defence of Johore in the south of Malaya . As a result , it did not see action until mid-January 1942 when Japanese spearheads first reached the state , having pushed back the British and Indian units defending the northern parts of the peninsula . By this time , the division 's two brigades had been split up , with the 22nd having been deployed around Mersing and Endau on the east coast and the 27th in the west . The division 's first engagement came on the west coast around Muar on 14 January , where the Japanese Twenty - Fifth Army was able to outflank the Commonwealth positions due to Bennett misdeploying the forces under his command so that the weak Indian 45th Brigade was assigned the crucial coastal sector and the stronger Australian brigades were deployed in less threatened areas . While the Commonwealth forces in Johore achieved a number of local tactical victories , most notably around Gemas , Bakri and Jemaluang , they were unable to do more than slow the Japanese advance and suffered heavy casualties in doing so . After being outmanoeuvred by the Japanese , the remaining Commonwealth units withdrew to Singapore on the night of 30 -- 31 January .
Economic history of World War I
The Czech region had a more advanced economy , but was reluctant to support the war effort . Czechs rejected any customs union with Germany , because it threatened their language and culture . Czech bankers had an eye to early independence ; they purchased many securities from the Czech lands , thus insuring their strong domestic position in what became Czechoslovakia in 1918 .
Flag of Argentina
Soldiers of the Fatherland , we have heretofore had the glory of wearing the national cockade ; there ( pointing to the Independence battery ) , on the Independence Battery , where our Government has recently had the honor of bestowing it upon , shall our weapons enlarge their glory . Let us swear to defeat our enemies , internal and external , and South America will become the temple of Independence and Freedom . In testament that you so swear it , say with me : LONG LIVE THE FATHERLAND ! ( after the oath ) `` Lord Captain and troops chosen for the first time for the Independence Battery : go , take possession of it and fulfill the oath you have just sworn today .
Colony of Virginia
After declaring independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1775 , before the Declaration of Independence was officially adopted , the Virginia colony became the Commonwealth of Virginia , one of the original thirteen states of the United States , adopting as its official slogan `` The Old Dominion '' . The entire modern states of West Virginia , Kentucky , Indiana and Illinois , and portions of Ohio and Western Pennsylvania were later created from the territory encompassed , or claimed by , the colony of Virginia at the time of further American independence in July 1776 .
Lithuania
On 11 March 1990 , the Supreme Council announced the restoration of Lithuania 's independence . Lithuania became the first Soviet republic to announce its secession from the USSR . But the process was not so simple . On 20 April 1990 , the USSR imposed an economic blockade by stopping to deliver supplies of raw materials ( primarily oil ) to Lithuania . Not only the domestic industry , but also the population started feeling the lack of fuel , essential goods , and even hot water . Although , the blockade lasted for 74 days , Lithuania did not renounce the declaration of independence . On
Indian Rebellion of 1857
There were also grievances over the issue of promotions , based on seniority . This , as well as the increasing number of European officers in the battalions , made promotion slow , and many Indian officers did not reach commissioned rank until they were too old to be effective .
Henry Clay
In foreign policy , Clay was the leading American supporter of independence movements and revolutions in Latin America after 1817 . Clay frequently called on the Monroe administration to recognize these republics , which Clay saw as similar to the United States , but Monroe wanted to avoid antagonizing Spain while he planned to acquire Spanish Florida . Between 1821 and 1826 , the U.S. recognized all the new countries , except Uruguay ( whose independence was debated and recognized only later ) . When in 1826 the U.S. was invited to attend the Columbia Conference of new nations , opposition emerged , and the American delegation never arrived . Clay supported the Monroe Doctrine , which called for the non-intervention of European powers in the Americas , though Clay was not as pleased with the part of the Monroe Doctrine that called for American non-intervention in European affairs . Clay supported the Greek independence revolutionaries in 1824 who wished to separate from the Ottoman Empire , an early move into European affairs .
Cherry blossom
Parc de Sceaux , located in a suburb of Paris , has two orchards of cherry trees , one for white cherry blossoms ( Prunus avium ) and one for pink cherry blossoms ( Prunus serrulata ) , the later with about 150 trees that attract many visitors when they bloom in early April .
History of the United States Constitution
On June 4 , 1776 , a resolution was introduced in the Second Continental Congress declaring the union with Great Britain to be dissolved , proposing the formation of foreign alliances , and suggesting the drafting of a plan of confederation to be submitted to the respective states . Independence was declared on July 4 , 1776 ; the preparation of a plan of confederation was postponed . Although the Declaration was a statement of principles , it did not create a government or even a framework for how politics would be carried out . It was the Articles of Confederation that provided the necessary structure to the new nation during and after the American Revolution . The Declaration , however , did set forth the ideas of natural rights and the social contract that would help form the foundation of constitutional government .
Catalonia
Since 2011 when the question started to be regularly surveyed by the governmental Center for Public Opinion Studies ( CEO ) , support for Catalan independence has been on the rise . According to the CEO opinion poll from July 2016 , 47.7 % of Catalans would vote for independence and 42.4 % against it while , about the question of preferences , according to the CEO opinion poll from March 2016 , a 57.2 claim to be `` absolutely '' or `` fairly '' in favour of independence .
History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
The Filipinos suspended their independence campaign during the First World War and supported the United States against Germany . After the war they resumed their independence drive with great vigor . On March 17 , 1919 , the Philippine Legislature passed a `` Declaration of Purposes '' , which stated the inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign . A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and means of attaining liberation ideal . This commission recommended the sending of an independence mission to the United States . The `` Declaration of Purposes '' referred to the Jones Law as a veritable pact , or covenant , between the American and Filipino peoples whereby the United States promised to recognize the independence of the Philippines as soon as a stable government should be established . U.S. Governor - General of the Philippines Francis Burton Harrison had concurred in the report of the Philippine legislature as to a stable government . With
Official bilingualism in Canada
This last statement is reinforced by the Honourable Jean Chrétien , Minister of Indian Affairs , in Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy ( the White Paper ) presented in 1969 when he states that `` the Indian culture can be preserved , perpetuated and developed only by the Indian people themselves '' .
Cranberry
Cranberries are susceptible to false blossom , a harmful but controllable phytoplasma disease common in the eastern production areas of Massachusetts and New Jersey .
Cinema of the Philippines
When the Americans took over after the Spanish -- American War in 1898 , a brief stint of Philippine cultural freedom after independence from Spain was halted . General Arthur MacArthur 's military censorship focused on repressing nationalism , along with the Flag Act of 1907 . Because film in itself was only beginning to form at the time , motion pictures brought to the Philippines were tame , and film was not yet seen as an avenue for social and cultural subversion .
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Shortly after independence the Force Publique mutinied , and on July 11 the province of Katanga ( led by Moïse Tshombe ) and South Kasai engaged in secessionist struggles against the new leadership . Most of the 100,000 Europeans who had remained behind after independence fled the country , opening the way for Congolese to replace the European military and administrative elite . On 5 September 1960 , Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba from office . Lumumba declared Kasavubu 's action unconstitutional and a crisis between the two leaders developed .
American Revolution
The British largely abandoned the Indian allies living in the new nation . They were not a party to this treaty and did not recognize it until they were defeated militarily by the United States . However , the British did promise to support the Indians . They sold them munitions and maintained forts in American territory until the Jay Treaty of 1795 .
Latin American wars of independence
After independence , the conflicts of interests that faced different sectors of Creole Peruvian society and the particular ambitions of the caudillos , made the organization of the country excessively difficult . Only three civilians -- Manuel Pardo , Nicolás de Piérola and Francisco García Calderón -- acceded to the presidency in the first seventy - five years of Peru 's independence . The Republic of Bolivia was created from Upper Peru . In 1837 a Peru - Bolivian Confederation was also created but was dissolved two years later due to Chilean military intervention .
Latin American wars of independence
Paraguay gained its independence on the night of May 14 and the morning of May 15 , 1811 , after a plan organized by various pro-independence nationalists including Fulgencio Yegros and José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia .
Indigenous Australians
In 2013 an Indigenous group describing itself as the Murrawarri Republic declared independence from Australia , claiming territory straddling the border between the states of New South Wales and Queensland . Australia 's Attorney General 's Department indicated it did not consider the declaration to have any meaning in law .
Latin American wars of independence
Brazil achieved its independence peacefully in 1822 , becoming a monarchy , the Empire of Brazil . It retained its territorial integrity following independence , as opposed to the fragmentation of Spanish America into separate republics . Brazil was an anomaly in Latin America as a large , successful and stable monarchy until 1889 , when the monarchy was overthrown following the abolition of slavery , and República Velha ( `` Old Republic '' ) was founded .
United States Declaration of Independence
Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself . The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders ( 1790 ) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration ; others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence ( 1811 ) , the Liberian Declaration of Independence ( 1847 ) , the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America ( 1860 -- 61 ) , and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence ( 1945 ) . These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state , without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original .
Famine
Devastating harvest failures afflicted the northern Italian economy from 1618 to 1621 , and it did not recover fully for centuries . There were serious famines in the late - 1640s and less severe ones in the 1670s throughout northern Italy .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Constantine settled Franks on the lower left bank of the Rhine ; their settlements required a line of fortifications to keep them in check , indicating that Rome had lost almost all local control . Under Constantius , bandits came to dominate areas such as Isauria well within the empire . The tribes of Germany also became more populous and more threatening . In Gaul , which did not really recover from the invasions of the third century , there was widespread insecurity and economic decline in the 300s , perhaps worst in Armorica . By 350 , after decades of pirate attacks , virtually all villas in Armorica were deserted , and local use of money ceased about 360 . Repeated attempts to economize on military expenditure included billeting troops in cities , where they could less easily be kept under military discipline and could more easily extort from civilians . Except in the rare case of a determined and incorruptible general , these troops proved ineffective in action and dangerous to civilians . Frontier troops were often given land rather than pay ; as they farmed for themselves , their direct costs diminished , but so did their effectiveness , and there was much less economic stimulus to the frontier economy . However , except for the provinces along the lower Rhine , the agricultural economy was generally doing well . The average nutritional state of the population in the West suffered a serious decline in the late second century ; the population of North - Western Europe did not recover , though the Mediterranean regions did .
Indian Rebellion of 1857
Essentially the old East India Company bureaucracy remained , though there was a major shift in attitudes . In looking for the causes of the Rebellion the authorities alighted on two things : religion and the economy . On religion it was felt that there had been too much interference with indigenous traditions , both Hindu and Muslim . On the economy it was now believed that the previous attempts by the Company to introduce free market competition had undermined traditional power structures and bonds of loyalty placing the peasantry at the mercy of merchants and money - lenders . In consequence the new British Raj was constructed in part around a conservative agenda , based on a preservation of tradition and hierarchy .
Home computer
January 1984 may be seen as the very beginning of a transition to the new generation of 16 - bit computers that would blossom in 1985 - 86 , for this was when Sinclair produced their Sinclair QL , which was the first home computer to use Motorola 's new 68000 - series CPU with an internal 32 - bit architecture and multitasking operating system . The Sinclair implementation used the 68008 version with an external 8 - bit bus . The QL was rushed to market and not much of a success as a product , however .
Cherry blossom
Cherry blossoms in Washington D.C. Cherry blossoms at the Pittock Mansion in Oregon Cherry blossoms in Newark , New Jersey Cherry blossoms in Owensboro , Kentucky
History of the motorcycle
By 1931 , Indian and Harley - Davidson were the only two American manufacturers producing commercial motorcycles . This two - company rivalry in the United States remained until 1953 , when the Indian Motorcycle factory in Springfield , Massachusetts closed and Royal Enfield took over the Indian name .
Economic history of Argentina
The ensuing economic and political crisis was arguably the worst since the country 's independence . By the end of 2002 , the economy had contracted by 20 % since 1998 . Over the course of two years , output fell by more than 15 % , the Argentine peso lost three - quarters of its value , and registered unemployment exceeded 25 % . Income poverty in Argentina grew from an already high 35.4 % in October 2001 to a peak of 54.3 % in October 2002 .
Foreign policy of the United States
The United States ruled the Philippines from 1898 to 1946 . The Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish -- American War . The United States finally recognized Philippine independence on July 4 , 1946 in the Treaty of Manila . July 4 was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until August 4 , 1964 when , upon the advice of historians and the urging of nationalists , President Diosdado Macapagal signed into law Republic Act No. 4166 designating June 12 as the country 's Independence Day . Since 2003 the U.S. has designated the Philippines as a Major Non-NATO Ally . Thailand
French and Indian War
France returned to North America in 1778 with the establishment of a Franco - American alliance against Great Britain in the American War of Independence . This time , France succeeded in prevailing over Great Britain in what historian Alfred A. Cave describes as `` French ... revenge for Montcalm 's death '' .