vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Skeletal muscle
Diseases of skeletal muscle are termed Myopathies , while diseases of nerves are called Neuropathies . Both can affect muscle function and / or cause muscle pain , and fall under the umbrella of Neuromuscular disease . Myopathies have been modeled with cell culture systems of muscle from healthy or diseased tissue biopsies . Another source of skeletal muscle and progenitors is provided by the directed differentiation of pluripotent stem cells .
Autophagy
Because autophagy decreases with age and age is a major risk factor for osteoarthritis , the role of autophagy in the development of this disease is suggested . Proteins involved in autophagy are reduced with age in both human and mouse articular cartilage . Mechanical injury to cartilage explants in culture also reduced autophagy proteins . Autophagy is constantly activated in normal cartilage but it is compromised with age and precedes cartilage cell death and structural damage . These results suggest autophagy is a normal protective process ( chondroprotection ) in the joint .
Danielle Spencer (American actress)
Spencer revealed on September 26 , 2014 that she was diagnosed with breast cancer . Speaking out for Breast Cancer Awareness month , Spencer told BlackAmericaWeb that her diagnosis took her by surprise . `` With everything that I 've been through with the spinal cord injury , I said I know God is not going to give me another affliction , '' she said , `` so I was completely shocked when the doctors told me . '' Though the news came as a surprise , Spencer said the disease runs in her family . `` I have a lot of help and support around me , '' she said . As of the interview 's publish date in October 2014 , Spencer stated she was considering her treatment options , with surgery at the top of the list . `` I 'm trying to get as many opinions as possible but it does look like that is what I 'm going to do , '' she said . `` Hopefully after that there wo n't be any chemotherapy or radiation involved . ''
Cell cycle
Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell , including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division . The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional ; that is , each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to `` reverse '' the cycle .
Sympathetic nervous system
To reach target organs and glands , the axons must travel long distances in the body , and , to accomplish this , many axons relay their message to a second cell through synaptic transmission . The ends of the axons link across a space , the synapse , to the dendrites of the second cell . The first cell ( the presynaptic cell ) sends a neurotransmitter across the synaptic cleft where it activates the second cell ( the postsynaptic cell ) . The message is then carried to the final destination .
Cell nucleus
The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered . What is most likely the oldest preserved drawing dates back to the early microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ( 1632 -- 1723 ) . He observed a `` lumen '' , the nucleus , in the red blood cells of salmon . Unlike mammalian red blood cells , those of other vertebrates still contain nuclei .
Water potential
Osmotic potential has important implications for many living organisms . If a living cell is surrounded by a more concentrated solution , the cell will tend to lose water to the more negative water potential ( Ψ w ( \ displaystyle \ Psi _ ( w ) ) ) of the surrounding environment . This can be the case for marine organisms living in sea water and halophytic plants growing in saline environments . In the case of a plant cell , the flow of water out of the cell may eventually cause the plasma membrane to pull away from the cell wall , leading to plasmolysis . Most plants , however , have the ability to increase solute inside the cell to drive the flow of water into the cell and maintain turgor .
Antigen-presenting cell
A dendritic cell that interacts with an already - activated helper T cell can become licensed . This occurs through the interaction of co-stimulatory molecules including B7 and CD40 on the dendritic cell , with CD28 and CD40 ligand on the T cell . Only licensed dendritic cells are able to activate cytotoxic T cells . T cell licensing of dendritic cells is key for activation of cytotoxic T cells for many pathogens , although the extent to which T cell help is needed may vary .
Insulin
The effects of insulin are initiated by its binding to a receptor present in the cell membrane . The receptor molecule contains an α - and β subunits . Two molecules are joined to form what is known as a homodimer . Insulin binds to the α - subunits of the homodimer , which faces the extracellular side of the cells . The β subunits have tyrosine kinase enzyme activity which is triggered by the insulin binding . This activity provokes the autophosphorylation of the β subunits and subsequently the phosphorylation of proteins inside the cell known as insulin receptor substrates ( IRS ) . The phosphorylation of the IRS activates a signal transduction cascade that leads to the activation of other kinases as well as transcription factors that mediate the intracellular effects of insulin .
Endomembrane system
In plant cells , vacuoles cover anywhere from 30 % to 90 % of the total cell volume . Most mature plant cells contain one large central vacuole encompassed by a membrane called the tonoplast . Vacuoles of plant cells act as storage compartments for the nutrients and waste of a cell . The solution that these molecules are stored in is called the cell sap . Pigments that color the cell are sometime located in the cell sap . Vacuoles can also increase the size of the cell , which elongates as water is added , and they control the turgor pressure ( the osmotic pressure that keeps the cell wall from caving in ) . Like lysosomes of animal cells , vacuoles have an acidic pH and contain hydrolytic enzymes . The pH of vacuoles enables them to perform homeostatic procedures in the cell . For example , when the pH in the cells environment drops , the H ions surging into the cytosol can be transferred to a vacuole in order to keep the cytosol 's pH constant .
Cell division
Anaphase is a very short stage of the cell cycle and occurs after the chromosomes align at the mitotic plate . After the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell , the spindle fibers will pull them apart . The chromosomes are split apart as the sister chromatids move to opposite sides of the cell .
Cell cycle
Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle . Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points , allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage . The cell can not proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met . Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle .
Cell cycle
State Phase Abbreviation Description Resting Gap 0 A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing . Interphase Gap 1 Cells increase in size in Gap 1 . The G checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis . Synthesis DNA replication occurs during this phase . Gap 2 During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis , the cell will continue to grow . The G checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the M ( mitosis ) phase and divide . Cell division Mitosis Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells . A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis ( Metaphase Checkpoint ) ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division .
Bacterial cell structure
The cell achieves its height in the water column by synthesising gas vesicles . As the cell rises up , it is able to increase its carbohydrate load through increased photosynthesis . Too high and the cell will suffer photobleaching and possible death , however , the carbohydrate produced during photosynthesis increases the cell 's density , causing it to sink . The daily cycle of carbohydrate build - up from photosynthesis and carbohydrate catabolism during dark hours is enough to fine - tune the cell 's position in the water column , bring it up toward the surface when its carbohydrate levels are low and it needs to photosynthesis , and allowing it to sink away from the harmful UV radiation when the cell 's carbohydrate levels have been replenished . An extreme excess of carbohydrate causes a significant change in the internal pressure of the cell , which causes the gas vesicles to buckle and collapse and the cell to sink out . Microcompartments
Bacterial cell structure
Perhaps the most recognizable extracellular bacterial cell structures are flagella . Flagella are whip - like structures protruding from the bacterial cell wall and are responsible for bacterial motility ( i.e. movement ) . The arrangement of flagella about the bacterial cell is unique to the species observed . Common forms include :
Health insurance in India
Direct Payment or Cashless Facility : Under this facility , the person does not need to pay the hospital as the insurer pays directly to the hospital . Under the cashless scheme , the policyholder and all those who are mentioned in the policy can undertake treatment from those hospitals approved by the insurer . Reimbursement at the end of the hospital stay : After staying for the duration of the treatment , the patient can take a reimbursement from the insurer for the treatment that is covered under the policy undertaken ...
Cell wall
In fungi , the cell wall is the outer-most layer , external to the plasma membrane . The fungal cell wall is a matrix of three main components :
Dutch elm disease
The largest concentrations of mature elms in Europe are now in Amsterdam and The Hague . In 2005 , Amsterdam was declared the `` Elm City of Europe '' : the city 's streets and canals are lined with at least 75,000 elms , including several generations of research - elms ( see below : Resistant trees ) . Some 30,000 of the 100,000 mature trees in The Hague are elms , planted because of their tolerance of salty sea - winds . Since the 1990s , a programme of antifungal injections of the most prominent 10,000 elms , and of sanitation felling , has reduced annual elm losses in The Hague from 7 % to less than 1 % ( see below : Preventive treatment ) . The losses are made up by the planting of disease - resistant cultivars . The largest concentration of mature elm trees remaining in England is in Brighton and Hove , East Sussex , where of the 30,000 elms in 1983 15,000 still stand ( 2005 figures ) , several of which are estimated to be over 400 years old . Their survival is owing to the isolation of the area , between the English Channel and the South Downs , and the assiduous efforts of local authorities to identify and remove infected sections of trees immediately when they show symptoms of the disease . Empowered by the Dutch Elm Disease ( Local Authorities ) ( Amendment ) Order 1988 , local authorities may order the destruction of any infected trees or timber , although in practice they usually do it themselves , successfully reducing the numbers of elm bark beetle Scolytus spp. , the vector of elm disease . Sanitary felling has also , to date , preserved most of the 250,000 elms on the Isle of Man , where average temperature and wind speed inhibit the activity of the beetles , which need a temperature of at least 20 degrees to fly and a wind speed of less than five metres per second . Felling
Solar cell
Protocrystalline silicon with a low volume fraction of nanocrystalline silicon is optimal for high open circuit voltage . Nc - Si has about the same bandgap as c - Si and nc - Si and a-Si can advantageously be combined in thin layers , creating a layered cell called a tandem cell . The top cell in a-Si absorbs the visible light and leaves the infrared part of the spectrum for the bottom cell in nc - Si . Gallium
Cell membrane
The cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to , as well as forming organelles that extend from the cell . Indeed , cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane . Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface -- for example , the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the vertebrate gut -- and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer . The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage - like organelles , such as cilia , which are microtubule - based extensions covered by the cell membrane , and filopodia , which are actin - based extensions . These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and / or make contact with the substrate or other cells . The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin - based finger - like projections known as microvilli , which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients . Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a bleb .
Eukaryotic DNA replication
The replisome is responsible for copying the entirety of genomic DNA in each proliferative cell . This process allows for the high - fidelity passage of hereditary / genetic information from parental cell to daughter cell and is thus essential to all organisms . Much of the cell cycle is built around ensuring that DNA replication occurs without errors .
Nutrition and cognition
The lingering symptoms of neuropathy associated with cerebral beriberi are known as Korsakoff 's syndrome , or the chronic phase of Wernicke - Korsakoff 's . Wernicke encephalopathy is characterized by ocular abnormalities , ataxia of gait , a global state of confusion , and neuropathy . The state of confusion associated with Wernicke 's may consist of apathy , inattention , spatial disorientation , inability to concentrate , and mental sluggishness or restlessness . Clinical diagnosis of Wernicke 's disease can not be made without evidence of ocular disturbance , yet these criteria may be too rigid . Korsakoff 's syndrome likely represents a variation in the clinical manifestation of Wernicke encephalophathy , as they both share similar pathological origin . It is often characterized by confabulation , disorientation , and profound amnesia . Characteristics of the neuropathology are varied , but generally consist of bilaterally symmetrical midline lesions of brainstem areas , including the mammillary bodies , thalamus , periaqueductal region , hypothalamus , and the cerebellar vermis . Immediate treatment of Wernicke encephalopathy involves the administration of intravenous thiamine , followed with long - term treatment and prevention of the disorder through oral thiamine supplements , alcohol abstinence , and a balanced diet . Improvements in brain functioning of chronic alcoholics may occur with abstinence - related treatment , involving the discontinuation of alcohol consumption and improved nutrition .
Cell cycle
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei . During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell .
Sensitivity and specificity
Sensitivity refers to the test 's ability to correctly detect patients who do have the condition . In the example of a medical test used to identify a disease , the sensitivity of the test is the proportion of people who test positive for the disease among those who have the disease . Mathematically , this can be expressed as :
Cell nucleus
Cell nuclei contain most of the cell 's genetic material , organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins , such as histones , to form chromosomes . The genes within these chromosomes are the cell 's nuclear genome and are structured in such a way to promote cell function . The nucleus maintains the integrity of genes and controls the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression -- the nucleus is , therefore , the control center of the cell . The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope , a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm , and the nuclear matrix ( which includes the nuclear lamina ) , a network within the nucleus that adds mechanical support , much like the cytoskeleton , which supports the cell as a whole .
DNA replication
Within eukaryotes , DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle . As the cell grows and divides , it progresses through stages in the cell cycle ; DNA replication takes place during the S phase ( synthesis phase ) . The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints . Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins , including cyclins and cyclin - dependent kinases . Unlike bacteria , eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus .
Cell cycle
After cell division , each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle . Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable , each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division .
Kidney
Kidney disease , is kidney disease or damage to a kidney . Nephrosis is non-inflammatory nephropathy and nephritis is inflammatory kidney disease . Nephrology is the speciality that deals with kidney function and disease . Medical terms related to the kidneys commonly use terms such as renal and the prefix nephro - . The adjective renal , meaning related to the kidney , is from the Latin rēnēs , meaning kidneys ; the prefix nephro - is from the Ancient Greek word for kidney , nephros ( νεφρός ) . For example , surgical removal of the kidney is a nephrectomy , while a reduction in kidney function is called renal dysfunction .
Oklahoma
The Cancer Treatment Centers of America at Southwestern Regional Medical Center in Tulsa is one of four such regional facilities nationwide , offering cancer treatment to the entire southwestern United States , and is one of the largest cancer treatment hospitals in the country . The largest osteopathic teaching facility in the nation , Oklahoma State University Medical Center at Tulsa , also rates as one of the largest facilities in the field of neuroscience .
Medical diagnosis
the manifestation of disease are not sufficiently noticeable a disease is omitted from consideration too much significance is given to some aspect of the diagnosis the condition is a rare disease with symptoms suggestive of many other conditions the condition has a rare presentation
Eating disorder
For children with anorexia , the only well - established treatment is the family treatment - behavior . For other eating disorders in children , however , there is no well - established treatments , though family treatment - behavior has been used in treating bulimia .
Biomass
In addition to combustion , biomass / biofuels can be directly converted to electrical energy via electrochemical ( electrocatalytic ) oxidation of the material . This can be performed directly in a direct carbon fuel cell , direct liquid fuel cells such as direct ethanol fuel cell , a direct methanol fuel cell , a direct formic acid fuel cell , a L - ascorbic Acid Fuel Cell ( vitamin C fuel cell ) , and a microbial fuel cell . The fuel can also be consumed indirectly via a fuel cell system containing a reformer which converts the biomass into a mixture of CO and H2 before it is consumed in the fuel cell .
Toxic shock syndrome
With proper treatment , people usually recover in two to three weeks . The condition can , however , be fatal within hours .
Gram-positive bacteria
In the classical sense , six Gram - positive genera are typically pathogenic in humans . Two of these , Streptococcus and Staphylococcus , are cocci ( sphere - shaped ) . The remaining organisms are bacilli ( rod - shaped ) and can be subdivided based on their ability to form spores . The non-spore formers are Corynebacterium and Listeria ( a coccobacillus ) , whereas Bacillus and Clostridium produce spores . The spore - forming bacteria can again be divided based on their respiration : Bacillus is a facultative anaerobe , while Clostridium is an obligate anaerobe . Also , Rathybacter , Leifsonia , and Clavibacter are three Gram - positive genera that cause plant disease . Gram - positive bacteria are capable of causing serious and sometimes fatal infections in newborn infants .
Fuel cell
To deliver the desired amount of energy , the fuel cells can be combined in series to yield higher voltage , and in parallel to allow a higher current to be supplied . Such a design is called a fuel cell stack . The cell surface area can also be increased , to allow higher current from each cell . Within the stack , reactant gases must be distributed uniformly over each of the cells to maximize the power output .
Lyme disease
Lyme disease can affect multiple body systems and produce a broad range of symptoms . Not all patients with Lyme disease have all symptoms , and many of the symptoms are not specific to Lyme disease , but can occur with other diseases , as well . The incubation period from infection to the onset of symptoms is usually one to two weeks , but can be much shorter ( days ) , or much longer ( months to years ) .
Anemia
Helicobacter pylori infection . Gluten - related disorders : untreated celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity . Anemia can be the only manifestation of celiac disease , in absence of gastrointestinal or any other symptoms . Inflammatory bowel disease .
Ring a Ring o' Roses
The invariable sneezing and falling down in modern English versions have given would - be origin finders the opportunity to say that the rhyme dates back to the Great Plague . A rosy rash , they allege , was a symptom of the plague , and posies of herbs were carried as protection and to ward off the smell of the disease . Sneezing or coughing was a final fatal symptom , and `` all fall down '' was exactly what happened .
Cell membrane
Cell membrane can form different types of `` supramembrane '' structures such as caveola , postsynaptic density , podosome , invadopodium , focal adhesion , and different types of cell junctions . These structures are usually responsible for cell adhesion , communication , endocytosis and exocytosis . They can be visualized by electron microscopy or fluorescence microscopy . They are composed of specific proteins , such as integrins and cadherins .
Fuel cell
Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum - powered forklifts , as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts . Fuel cell - powered forklifts can provide benefits over battery - powered forklifts as they can work for a full 8 - hour shift on a single tank of hydrogen and can be refueled in 3 minutes . Fuel cell - powered forklifts can be used in refrigerated warehouses , as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures . The FC units are often designed as drop - in replacements . Motorcycles
Antigen-presenting cell
B cells can internalize antigen that binds to their B cell receptor and present it to helper T cells . Unlike T cells , B cells can recognize soluble antigen for which their B cell receptor is specific . They can then process the antigen and present peptides using MHC class II molecules . When a T helper cell with a TCR specific for that peptide binds , the B cell marker CD40 binds to CD40L on the T cell surface . When activated by a T cell , a B cell can undergo antibody isotype switching , affinity maturation , as well as formation of memory cells .