vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Causes of the Great Depression
After the Depression , the primary explanations of it tended to ignore the importance of the money supply . However , in the monetarist view , the Depression was `` in fact a tragic testimonial to the importance of monetary forces . '' In their view , the failure of the Federal Reserve to deal with the Depression was not a sign that monetary policy was impotent , but that the Federal Reserve implemented the wrong policies . They did not claim the Fed caused the depression , only that it failed to use policies that might have stopped a recession from turning into a depression .
History of insurance
At the same time , the first insurance schemes for the underwriting of business ventures became available . By the end of the seventeenth century , London 's growing importance as a centre for trade was increasing demand for marine insurance . In the late 1680s , Edward Lloyd opened a coffee house on Tower Street in London . It soon became a popular haunt for ship owners , merchants , and ships ' captains , and thereby a reliable source of the latest shipping news .
History of chemistry
Instead , Dalton inferred proportions of elements in compounds by taking ratios of the weights of reactants , setting the atomic weight of hydrogen to be identically one . Following Jeremias Benjamin Richter ( known for introducing the term stoichiometry ) , he proposed that chemical elements combine in integral ratios . This is known as the law of multiple proportions or Dalton 's law , and Dalton included a clear description of the law in his New System of Chemical Philosophy . The law of multiple proportions is one of the basic laws of stoichiometry used to establish the atomic theory . Despite the importance of the work as the first view of atoms as physically real entities and introduction of a system of chemical symbols , New System of Chemical Philosophy devoted almost as much space to the caloric theory as to atomism .
Jacques-Louis David
These revolutionary ideals are also apparent in the Distribution of Eagles . While Oath of the Horatii and The Tennis Court Oath stress the importance of masculine self - sacrifice for one 's country and patriotism , the Distribution of Eagles would ask for self - sacrifice for one 's Emperor ( Napoleon ) and the importance of battlefield glory . The
Income inequality in the United States
New CBO income statistics are beginning to show the growing importance of these items . In 1980 , in - kind benefits and employer and government spending on health insurance accounted for just 6 % of the after - tax incomes of households in the middle one - fifth of the distribution . By 2010 these in - kind income sources represented 17 % of middle class households ' after - tax income . The income items missed by the Census Bureau are increasing faster than the income items included in its money income measure . What many observers miss , however , is the success of the nation 's tax and transfer systems in protecting low - and middle - income Americans against the full effects of a depressed economy . As a result of these programs , the spendable incomes of poor and middle - class families have been better insulated against recession - driven losses than the incomes of Americans in the top 1 % . As the CBO statistics demonstrate , incomes in the middle and at the bottom of the distribution have fared better since 2000 than incomes at the very top . ''
History of Native Americans in the United States
In the Spanish colonization of the Americas , the policy of Indian Reductions resulted in the forced conversions to Catholicism of the indigenous people in northern Nueva España . They had long - established spiritual and religious traditions and theological beliefs . What developed during the colonial years and since has been a syncretic Catholicism that absorbed and reflected indigenous beliefs ; the religion changed in New Spain .
Paterson, New Jersey
Paterson is considered by many as the capital of the Peruvian Diaspora in the U.S. Importance of the Peruvian community is recognized by city officials . Paterson renamed a section bordered by Mill , Market , Main , and Cianci streets as Peru Square . Paterson 's rapidly growing Peruvian community celebrates what is known as Señor de los Milagros ( `` Our Lord of Miracles '' in English ) on October 18 through 28th each year and every July participates in the annual Passaic County Peruvian Day Parade , which passes through Market Street and Main Street in the Little Lima neighborhood of Downtown Paterson . In the 2000 Census , 4.72 % of residents listed themselves as being of Peruvian American ancestry , the third - highest percentage of the population of any municipality in New Jersey and the United States , behind East Newark with 10.1 % and Harrison with 7.01 % . The community includes both Quechua and Spanish speakers .
Priesthood in the Catholic Church
The ministerial priesthood of Catholic priests and bishops -- what most people think of as `` the Catholic priesthood '' -- has a distinct history . This ministerial priesthood is at the service of the priesthood of all believers and involves the direct consecration of a man to Christ through the sacrament of orders , so that he can act in the person of Christ for the sake of the Christian faithful , above all in dispensing the sacraments . It is understood to have begun at the Last Supper , when Jesus Christ instituted the Eucharist in the presence of the Twelve Apostles , commanding them to `` do this in memory of me . ''
Individualism
Liberalism ( from the Latin liberalis , `` of freedom ; worthy of a free man , gentlemanlike , courteous , generous '' ) is the belief in the importance of individual freedom . This belief is widely accepted in the United States , Europe , Australia and other Western nations , and was recognized as an important value by many Western philosophers throughout history , in particular since the Enlightenment . It is often rejected by collectivist , Islamic , or confucian societies in Asia or the Middle East ( though Taoists were and are known to be individualists ) . The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote praising `` the idea of a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech , and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed '' .
Balkans
The Balkan region today is a very diverse ethno - linguistic region , being home to multiple Slavic , and Romance languages , as well as Albanian , Greek , Turkish , and others . Romani is spoken by a large portion of the Romanis living throughout the Balkan countries . Throughout history many other ethnic groups with their own languages lived in the area , among them Thracians , Illyrians , Romans , Celts and various Germanic tribes . All of the aforementioned languages from the present and from the past belong to the wider Indo - European language family , with the exception of the Turkic languages ( e.g. , Turkish and Gagauz ) .
Pony Express
National Pony Express Association ( NPEA ) is a non-profit , volunteer - led historical organization . Its purpose is to preserve the original Pony Express trail and to continue the memory and importance of Pony Express in American history in partnership with the National Park Service , Pony Express Trail Association , and the Oregon - California Trails Association .
History of Puerto Rico
Coffee was a major industry before the 1940s . Arabica beans were introduced to the island in 1736 . Production soared in the central mountainous area after 1855 because of cheap land , a low - paid and plentiful workforce , good credit facilities , and a growing market in the U.S. , Spain and Europe . Decline set in after 1897 , and the end came with a major hurricane in 1928 and the 1930s depression . While coffee declined , sugar and tobacco grew in importance , thanks to the large mainland market .
History of the Jews in Egypt
For the Roman period there is evidence that at Oxyrynchus ( modern Behneseh ) , on the west side of the Nile , there was a Jewish community of some importance . Many of the Jews there may have become Christians , though they retained their Biblical names ( e.g. , `` David '' and `` Elisabeth , '' occurring in a litigation concerning an inheritance ) . There is even found a certain Jacob , son of Achilles ( c. 300 CE ) , as beadle of an Egyptian temple .
Foreign policy of the United States
The Persian Gulf region continued to be regarded as an area of vital importance to the United States during the Cold War . Three Cold War United States Presidential doctrines -- the Truman Doctrine , the Eisenhower Doctrine , and the Nixon Doctrine -- played roles in the formulation of the Carter Doctrine , which stated that the United States would use military force if necessary to defend its `` national interests '' in the Persian Gulf region . Carter 's successor , President Ronald Reagan , extended the policy in October 1981 with what is sometimes called the `` Reagan Corollary to the Carter Doctrine '' , which proclaimed that the United States would intervene to protect Saudi Arabia , whose security was threatened after the outbreak of the Iran -- Iraq War . Some analysts have argued that the implementation of the Carter Doctrine and the Reagan Corollary also played a role in the outbreak of the 2003 Iraq War .
New Spain
Even before the establishment of the viceroyalty of New Spain , conquerors in central Mexico founded new Spanish cities and embarked on further conquests , a pattern that had been established in the Caribbean . In central Mexico , the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was transformed into the main settlement of the territory ; thus , the history of Mexico City is of huge importance to the whole colonial enterprise . Spaniards founded new settlements in Puebla de los Angeles ( founded 1531 ) at the midway point between the Mexico City ( founded 1521 - 24 ) and the Caribbean port of Veracruz ( 1519 ) . Colima ( 1524 ) , Antequera ( 1526 , now Oaxaca City ) , and Guadalajara ( 1532 ) were all new Spanish settlements . North of Mexico City , the city of Querétaro was founded ( ca . 1531 ) in what was called the Bajío , a major zone of commercial agriculture . Guadalajara was founded northwest of Mexico City ( 1531 -- 42 ) and became the dominant Spanish settlement in the region . West of Mexico City the settlement of Valladolid ( Michoacan ) was founded ( 1529 -- 41 ) . In the densely indigenous South , as noted , Antequera ( 1526 ) became the center of Spanish settlement in Oaxaca ; Santiago de Guatemala was founded in 1524 ; and in Yucatán , Mérida ( 1542 ) was founded inland , with Campeche founded as a small , Caribbean port in 1541 . There was sea trade between Campeche and Veracruz . During the first twenty years , before the establishment of the viceroyalty , some of the important cities of the colonial era that remain important today were founded . The discovery of silver in Zacatecas in the far north was a transformative event . The settlement of Zacatecas was founded in 1547 deep in the territory of the nomadic and fierce Chichimeca , whose resistance to Spanish presence was the protracted conflict of the Chichimeca War .
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows
In a 2006 interview , J.K. Rowling said that the main theme of the series is Harry dealing with death , which was influenced by her mother 's death in 1990 , from multiple sclerosis . Lev Grossman of Time stated that the main theme of the series was the overwhelming importance of continuing to love in the face of death .
History of Wells Fargo
September 1983 marked the date of the White Eagle Robbery when the Wells Fargo depot in West Hartford , Connecticut was robbed by members of the pro-Puerto Rican independence guerilla group Boricua Popular Army ( Los Macheteros ) in what was then the `` largest cash heist in U.S. history '' . The perpetrators were apprehended by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and two were sentenced to jail terms of 55 and 65 years while another suspect has been on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list since 1984 .
Cold War
The Sino - Soviet split was one of the key events of the Cold War , equal in importance to the construction of the Berlin Wall , the Cuban Missile Crisis , the Second Vietnam War , and Sino - American rapprochement . The split helped to determine the framework of the Second Cold War in general , and influenced the course of the Second Vietnam War in particular .
History of Calvinism
In 1642 , the English Civil War broke out between the Parliamentarians and the supporters of King Charles I. In 1643 , Parliament , in exchange for the military support from Scottish Covenanters , convened the Westminster Assembly . What resulted from the assembly , which met between 1643 and 1649 were the Westminster Confession of Faith , the Larger & Shorter Catechisms , the Directory for the Publick Worship of God and The Form of Presbyterian Church Government .
Oral storytelling
In the 1900s the importance of oral storytelling was recognised by storytellers such as Marie Shedlock , a retired English schoolteacher . She made several tours to the United States to lecture on the art of storytelling emphasising the importance of storytelling as a natural way to introduce literature to children .
Chernobyl disaster
As the increase in radiation in Denmark was so low ... the public debate and anxiety among the pregnant women and their husbands `` caused '' more fetal deaths in Denmark than the accident . This underlines the importance of public debate , the role of the mass media and of the way in which National Health authorities participate in this debate .
Dow Jones Industrial Average
When it was first published in the mid-1880s , the index stood at a level of 62.76 . It reached a peak of 78.38 during the summer of 1890 , but ended up hitting its all - time low of 28.48 in the summer of 1896 during the depths of what later became known as the Panic of 1896 . Many of the biggest percentage price moves in the Dow occurred early in its history , as the nascent industrial economy matured . A brief war in 1898 between the United States and the Spanish Empire had only a minor impact in the Dow 's direction .
Çatalhöyük
In an article in the Turkish Daily News , Hodder is reported as denying that Çatalhöyük was a matriarchal society and quoted as saying `` When we look at what they eat and drink and at their social statues , we see that men and women had the same social status . There was a balance of power . Another example is the skulls found . If one 's social status was of high importance in Çatalhöyük , the body and head were separated after death . The number of female and male skulls found during the excavations is almost equal . '' In another article in the Hurriyet Daily News Hodder is reported to say `` We have learned that men and women were equally approached '' .
Human rights in the Philippines
`` Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge . ''
God the Father
The concept of fatherhood of God does appear in the Old Testament , but is not a major theme . While the view of God as the Father is used in the Old Testament , it only became a focus in the New Testament , as Jesus frequently referred to it . This is manifested in the Lord 's prayer which combines the earthly needs of daily bread with the reciprocal concept of forgiveness . And Jesus ' emphasis on his special relationship with the Father highlights the importance of the distinct yet unified natures of Jesus and the Father , building to the unity of Father and Son in the Trinity .
Pony Express
The foundation of accountable Pony Express history rests in the few tangible areas where records , papers , letters and mailings have yielded the most historical evidence . Until the 1950s most of what was known about the short - lived Pony Express was the product of a few accounts , hearsay and folklore , generally true in their overall aspects , but lacking in verification in many areas for those who wanted to explore the history surrounding the founders , the various riders and station keepers or who were interested in stations or Forts along the Pony Express route .
Descriptive psychology
`` It is vitally important that psychotherapists bring a strong understanding of the nature of love to their work with the many clients who are struggling , in one way or another , with love relationships . With this in mind , the present paper is designed to accomplish two purposes . The first of these is to provide an adequate answer to an old and perplexing question : `` What is romantic love ? '' , and to do so in a way that illuminates why this one relationship possesses the extraordinary importance and centrality in human existence that it so clearly does . The second is to identify and discuss the most common barriers to persons being able to love that are encountered in clinical practice . ''
Indian general election, 2014
In regards to foreign relations of India , Modi in a rally in Arunachal Pradesh , a state which borders China with a history of border disputes , swore to protect the country and criticised `` Chinese expansionism '' . He also highlighted the importance of diplomats discussing issues like trade facilitation and promoting Indian business abroad . Others
PageRank
A Web crawler may use PageRank as one of a number of importance metrics it uses to determine which URL to visit during a crawl of the web . One of the early working papers that were used in the creation of Google is Efficient crawling through URL ordering , which discusses the use of a number of different importance metrics to determine how deeply , and how much of a site Google will crawl . PageRank is presented as one of a number of these importance metrics , though there are others listed such as the number of inbound and outbound links for a URL , and the distance from the root directory on a site to the URL .
Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)
The territory of the northern maritime provinces that would later constitute the Dutch Republic ( previously disparate fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire ) were gathered together under the suzerainty of the Duchy of Burgundy in the late 15th century . In the late Middle Ages these territories already formed part of a premodern economic system with its own measure of integration , brought about by intensive trade relations . That economic system formed the matrix in which the later economic development took place . The territory that would become the Southern Netherlands held a central position in this trade network at the time , while the provinces formed a periphery . Flanders and the Duchy of Brabant were further advanced industrially than Holland and Zeeland , and the metropolitan port city of Antwerp held the position of main entrepôt in northwestern Europe , as the hub in a far - flung trade web that spanned the whole known world . The ports in the northern provinces had only a regional importance , though Amsterdam had already built up a preponderant position in the Baltic trade , after making inroads on the monopoly of the Hanseatic League in the late 15th century .
History of wolves in Yellowstone
Starting in the 1940s , park managers , biologists , conservationists and environmentalists began what would ultimately turn into a campaign to reintroduce the gray wolf into Yellowstone National Park . When the Endangered Species Act of 1973 was passed , the road to legal reintroduction was clear . In 1995 , gray wolves were first reintroduced into Yellowstone in the Lamar Valley . The history of wolves in Yellowstone chronicles the extirpation , absence and reintroduction of gray wolves to Yellowstone , and how the reintroduction was not without controversy or surprises for scientists , governments or park managers .
Apothecaries' system
Due in part to the political conditions in what would become a united Kingdom of Italy only in 1861 , the variation of apothecaries ' systems and standard weights in this region was enormous . ( For background information , see History of Italy during foreign domination and the unification . ) The libbra ( pound ) generally consisted of the standard twelve ounces , however .
United States Navy Reserve
Reflecting the importance of Reservists in the naval history of the United States , the first citizen Sailors put to sea even before the Continental Congress created the Continental Navy , forerunner of today 's U.S. Navy . On 12 June 1775 , inspired to act after hearing the news of Minutemen and British regulars battling on the fields of Lexington and Concord , citizens of the seaside town of Machias , Maine , commandeered the schooner Unity and engaged the British warship HMS Margaretta , boarding her and forcing her surrender after bitter close quarters combat . In the ensuing years of the American Revolution , the small size of the Continental Navy necessitated the service of citizen sailors , who put to sea manning privateers , their far - flung raids against the British merchant fleet as important as the sea battles of John Paul Jones in establishing the American naval tradition .
History of Colombia
The history of Colombia includes the settlements and society by indigenous peoples , most notably , the Muisca Confederation , Quimbaya Civilization , and Tairona Chiefdoms ; the Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization , most noteworthy being Spanish conquest of the Muisca ; ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada , with its capital at Bogotá . Independence from Spain was won in 1819 , but by 1830 the `` Gran Colombia '' Federation was dissolved . What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada . The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation ( 1858 ) , and then the United States of Colombia ( 1863 ) , before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886 . Panama seceded in 1903 . Since the 1960s , the country has suffered from an asymmetric low - intensity armed conflict , which escalated in the 1990s , but then decreased from 2005 onward . The legacy of Colombia 's history has resulted in one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world giving rise to a rich cultural heritage ; while varied geography , and the imposing landscape of the country has resulted in the development of very strong regional identities .
Modern history
Around the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century , the Meiji era was marked by the reign of the Meiji Emperor . During this time , Japan started its modernization and rose to world power status . This era name means `` Enlightened Rule '' . In Japan , the Meiji Restoration started in the 1860s , marking the rapid modernization by the Japanese themselves along European lines . Much research has focused on the issues of discontinuity versus continuity with the previous Tokugawa Period . In the 1960s younger Japanese scholars led by Irokawa Daikichi , reacted against the bureaucratic superstate , and began searching for the historic role of the common people . They avoided the elite , and focused not on political events but on social forces and attitudes . They rejected both Marxism and modernization theory as alien and confining . They stressed the importance of popular energies in the development of modern Japan . They enlarged history by using the methods of social history . It was not until the beginning of the Meiji Era that the Japanese government began taking modernization seriously . Japan expanded its military production base by opening arsenals in various locations . The hyobusho ( war office ) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department . The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years .
History of Vietnam
During the Chinese domination of North Vietnam , several civilizations flourished in what is today central and south Vietnam , particularly the Funanese and Cham . The founders and rulers of these governments , however , were not native to Vietnam . From the 10th century onwards , the Vietnamese , emerging in their heartland of the Red River Delta , began to conquer these civilizations .