vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Health care in the United States
The U.S. government has taken the position ( through the Office of the United States Trade Representative ) that U.S. drug prices are rising because U.S. consumers are effectively subsidizing costs which drug companies can not recover from consumers in other countries ( because many other countries use their bulk - purchasing power to aggressively negotiate drug prices ) . The U.S. position ( consistent with the primary lobbying position of the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America ) is that the governments of such countries are free riding on the backs of U.S. consumers . Such governments should either deregulate their markets , or raise their domestic taxes in order to fairly compensate U.S. consumers by directly remitting the difference ( between what the companies would earn in an open market versus what they are earning now ) to drug companies or to the U.S. government . In turn , pharmaceutical companies would be able to continue to produce innovative pharmaceuticals while lowering prices for U.S. consumers . Currently , the U.S. , as a purchaser of pharmaceuticals , negotiates some drug prices but is forbidden by law from negotiating drug prices for the Medicare program due to the Medicare Prescription Drug , Improvement , and Modernization Act passed in 2003 . Democrats have charged that the purpose of this provision is merely to allow the pharmaceutical industry to profiteer off of the Medicare program . Impact
Copy editing
The biggest difference between monastic copyists and copyeditors is that copyeditors leave editions as suggestions that the original author can choose to reject . These printing houses established procedures for editing , preparing the text , and proofreading . Specialist correctors made sure texts were in accordance with the standards of the time .
Provinces and territories of Canada
The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act , 1867 ( formerly called the British North America Act , 1867 ) , whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada . The powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the Government of Canada ( the federal government ) and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively . A change to the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces requires a constitutional amendment , whereas a similar change affecting the territories can be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada or government .
Lithuania
The country 's main primary source of electrical power is Elektrėnai Power Plant . Other primary sources of Lithuania 's electrical power are Kruonis Pumped Storage Plant and Kaunas Hydroelectric Power Plant . Kruonis Pumped Storage Plant is the only in the Baltic states power plant to be used for regulation of the power system 's operation with generating capacity of 900 MW for at least 12 hours . As of 2015 , 66 % of electrical power was imported . Lithuania -- Sweden submarine electricity interconnection NordBalt and Lithuania -- Poland electricity interconnection LitPol Link were launched at the end of 2015 .
History of the Islamic Republic of Iran
the actual average age of marriage for women rose to 22 by 1996 . Thus the age difference between husbands and wives in Iran actually fell between 1980 and 2000 , from 7 to 2.1 years . ( The man 's average age at marriage has remained around 24.4 over the past 20 years , which means greater educational equality between spouses . )
Particle in a box
The difference between the ground state energy , n , and the first excited state , n + 1 , corresponds to the energy required to excite the system . This energy has a specific wavelength , and therefore color of light , related by :
Price controls
A classic example of how price controls cause shortages was during the Arab oil embargo between October 19 , 1973 and March 17 , 1974 . Long lines of cars and trucks quickly appeared at retail gas stations in the U.S. and some stations closed because of a shortage of fuel at the low price set by the U.S. Cost of Living Council . The fixed price was below what the market would otherwise bear and , as a result , the inventory disappeared . It made no difference whether prices were voluntarily or involuntarily posted below the market clearing price . Scarcity resulted in either case . Price controls fail to achieve their proximate aim , which is to reduce prices paid by retail consumers , but such controls do manage to reduce supply .
Primary color
The perception elicited by multiple light sources co-stimulating the same area of the retina is additive , i.e. , predicted via summing the spectral power distributions or tristimulus values of the individual light sources ( assuming a color matching context ) . For example , a purple spotlight on a dark background could be matched with coincident blue and red spotlights that are both dimmer than the purple spotlight . If the intensity of the purple spotlight was doubled it could be matched by doubling the intensities of both the red and blue spotlights that matched the original purple . The principles of additive color mixing are embodied in Grassmann 's laws .
Criticism of democracy
The real difference between ancient democracies and modern republics lies , according to Madison , in `` the total exclusion of the people in their collective capacity from any share in the latter , and not in the total exclusion of the representatives of the people from the administration of the former .
4K resolution
By comparison , the slight difference in aspect ratio between DCI and 3840 × 2160 pixel displays without overlap is insignificant relative to the amount of detail that can be seen .
Cherokee
Linguistic analysis shows a relatively large difference between Cherokee and the northern Iroquoian languages , suggesting they had migrated long ago . Scholars posit a split between the groups in the distant past , perhaps 3500 -- 3800 years ago . Glottochronology studies suggest the split occurred between about 1,500 and 1,800 BCE . The Cherokee have claimed the ancient settlement of Kituwa on the Tuckasegee River as the original Cherokee settlement in the Southeast . It was formerly adjacent to and is now part of Qualla Boundary ( the reserve of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians ) in North Carolina .
Heat
In contrast , the Carathéodory way recounted just above does not use calorimetry or temperature in its primary definition of quantity of energy transferred as heat . The Carathéodory way regards calorimetry only as a secondary or indirect way of measuring quantity of energy transferred as heat . As recounted in more detail just above , the Carathéodory way regards quantity of energy transferred as heat in a process as primarily or directly defined as a residual quantity . It is calculated from the difference of the internal energies of the initial and final states of the system , and from the actual work done by the system during the process . That internal energy difference is supposed to have been measured in advance through processes of purely adiabatic transfer of energy as work , processes that take the system between the initial and final states . By the Carathéodory way it is presupposed as known from experiment that there actually physically exist enough such adiabatic processes , so that there need be no recourse to calorimetry for measurement of quantity of energy transferred as heat . This presupposition is essential but is explicitly labeled neither as a law of thermodynamics nor as an axiom of the Carathéodory way . In fact , the actual physical existence of such adiabatic processes is indeed mostly supposition , and those supposed processes have in most cases not been actually verified empirically to exist .
Origin of language
Citing evolutionary geneticist Svante Pääbo they concur that a substantial difference must have occurred to differentiate Homo sapiens from Neanderthals to `` prompt the relentless spread of our species who had never crossed open water up and out of Africa and then on across the entire planet in just a few tens of thousands of years ... What we do not see is any kind of `` gradualism '' in new tool technologies or innovations like fire , shelters , or figurative art . '' Berwick and Chomsky therefore suggest language emerged approximately between 200,000 years ago and 60,000 years ago ( between the arrival of the first anatomically modern humans in southern Africa , and the last exodus from Africa , respectively ) . `` That leaves us with about 130,000 years , or approximately 5,000 -- 6,000 generations of time for evolutionary change . This is not ' overnight in one generation ' as some have ( incorrectly ) inferred -- but neither is it on the scale of geological eons . It 's time enough -- within the ballpark for what Nilsson and Pelger ( 1994 ) estimated as the time required for the full evolution of a vertebrate eye from a single cell , even without the invocation of any ' evo - devo ' effects . ''
Universal joint
NOTE : The reference for measuring angles of input and output shafts of universal joint are mutually perpendicular axes . So , in absolute sense the forks of the intermediate shaft are parallel to each other . ( Since , one fork is acting as input and the other fork is acting as output for shafts and above 90 degree phase difference is mentioned between the forks . )
Planet of the Apes
Critics consider race to be the Planet of the Apes series ' primary theme . Eric Greene , author of a book on the role of race in the original films and spinoff material , writes that `` when seen as one epic work , the Apes saga emerges as a liberal allegory of racial conflict . '' In Greene 's interpretation , the franchise 's plot arc is founded in the conflict between humans and apes , who alternately subjugate one another in a destructive cycle . Difference between human and ape manifests primarily in physical appearance , and dominance derives from social power rather than innate superiority . Each film shifts the power balance so that the audience identifies sometimes with the humans , and other times with the apes . According to Greene , this arc 's central message is that unresolved racial discord inevitably leads to cataclysm . Other critics have followed Greene 's interpretations . Producers Abrahams and Jacobs did not consciously intend the first film 's racial undertones , and did not appreciate them until Sammy Davis Jr. pointed them out in 1968 . Subsequently , the filmmakers incorporated the theme more overtly in later installments ; as a result , race moves from being a secondary theme in the first two films , to becoming the major concern of the last three .
Federal Reserve System
To smooth temporary or cyclical changes in the money supply , the desk engages in repurchase agreements ( repos ) with its primary dealers . Repos are essentially secured , short - term lending by the Fed . On the day of the transaction , the Fed deposits money in a primary dealer 's reserve account , and receives the promised securities as collateral . When the transaction matures , the process unwinds : the Fed returns the collateral and charges the primary dealer 's reserve account for the principal and accrued interest . The term of the repo ( the time between settlement and maturity ) can vary from 1 day ( called an overnight repo ) to 65 days . Discount
Economic history of Argentina
In the early 1970s , per capita income in Argentina was twice as high as in Mexico and more than three times as high as in Chile and Brazil . By 1990 , the difference in income between Argentina and the other Latin American countries was much smaller .
Parameter (computer programming)
Because of the difference between parameters and arguments , it is possible to supply inappropriate arguments to a procedure . The call may supply too many or too few arguments ; one or more of the arguments may be a wrong type ; or arguments may be supplied in the wrong order . Any of these situations causes a mismatch between the parameter and argument lists , and the procedure will often return an unintended answer or generate a runtime error .
Rainbow
Secondary rainbows are caused by a double reflection of sunlight inside the raindrops , and are centred on the sun itself . They are about 127 ° ( violet ) to 130 ° ( red ) wide . Since this is more than 90 ° , they are seen on the same side of the sky as the primary rainbow , about 10 ° above it at apparent angles of 50 -- 53 ° . As a result of the `` inside '' of the secondary bow being `` up '' to the observer , the colours appear reversed compared to the primary bow . The secondary rainbow is fainter than the primary because more light escapes from two reflections compared to one and because the rainbow itself is spread over a greater area of the sky . Each rainbow reflects white light inside its coloured bands , but that is `` down '' for the primary and `` up '' for the secondary . The dark area of unlit sky lying between the primary and secondary bows is called Alexander 's band , after Alexander of Aphrodisias who first described it .
Working memory
There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task - relevant information and to ignore distractions , and that practice - related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities . One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment . Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals , and to ignore goal - irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency ( such as an ambulance siren ) . The direction of attention according to one 's goals is assumed to rely on `` top - down '' signals from the pre-frontal cortex ( PFC ) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas . Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by `` bottom - up '' signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices . The ability to override `` bottom - up '' capture of attention differs between individuals , and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working - memory test for visual information . Another study , however , found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working - memory capacity .
Aye aye, sir
In other words , this may be the naval equivalent to the aeronautical difference between `` Roger '' and `` Wilco '' , but Merriam - Webster ( US ) and the Oxford English Dictionary ( UK ) are not in agreement .
Endoplasmic reticulum
The sarcoplasmic reticulum ( SR ) , from the Greek σάρξ sarx ( `` flesh '' ) , is smooth ER found in myocytes . The only structural difference between this organelle and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the medley of proteins they have , both bound to their membranes and drifting within the confines of their lumens . This fundamental difference is indicative of their functions : The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes molecules , while the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions and pumps them out into the sarcoplasm when the muscle fiber is stimulated . After their release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum , calcium ions interact with contractile proteins that utilize ATP to shorten the muscle fiber . The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a major role in excitation - contraction coupling .
Health care in the United States
A study by the National Institutes of Health reported that the lifetime per capita expenditure at birth , using year 2000 dollars , showed a large difference between health care costs of females ( $361,192 ) and males ( $268,679 ) . A large portion of this cost difference is in the shorter lifespan of men , but even after adjustment for age ( assume men live as long as women ) , there still is a 20 % difference in lifetime health care expenditures .
Federal Reserve System
In order to address problems related to the subprime mortgage crisis and United States housing bubble , several new tools have been created . The first new tool , called the Term Auction Facility , was added on December 12 , 2007 . It was first announced as a temporary tool but there have been suggestions that this new tool may remain in place for a prolonged period of time . Creation of the second new tool , called the Term Securities Lending Facility , was announced on March 11 , 2008 . The main difference between these two facilities is that the Term Auction Facility is used to inject cash into the banking system whereas the Term Securities Lending Facility is used to inject treasury securities into the banking system . Creation of the third tool , called the Primary Dealer Credit Facility ( PDCF ) , was announced on March 16 , 2008 . The PDCF was a fundamental change in Federal Reserve policy because now the Fed is able to lend directly to primary dealers , which was previously against Fed policy . The differences between these three new facilities is described by the Federal Reserve :
Economic history of Argentina
According to Di Tella and Zymelman ( 1967 ) , the main difference between Argentina and other settler societies such as Australia and Canada was its failure to seek adequate alternatives to compensate for the end of geographical expansion with the definitive closing of the frontier . Solberg ( 1985 ) noted the differences between the land distribution in Canada , which led to a rising number of small farmers , and the small number of landowners each with large areas of land in Argentina .
Hard disk drive
The difference between the decimal and binary prefix interpretation caused some consumer confusion and led to class action suits against HDD manufacturers . The plaintiffs argued that the use of decimal prefixes effectively misled consumers while the defendants denied any wrongdoing or liability , asserting that their marketing and advertising complied in all respects with the law and that no class member sustained any damages or injuries .
Cell wall
The primary cell wall , generally a thin , flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is growing . The secondary cell wall , a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is fully grown . It is not found in all cell types . Some cells , such as the conducting cells in xylem , possess a secondary wall containing lignin , which strengthens and waterproofs the wall . The middle lamella , a layer rich in pectins . This outermost layer forms the interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together .
PID controller
For example , a temperature - controlled circulating bath has two PID controllers in cascade , each with its own thermocouple temperature sensor . The outer controller controls the temperature of the water using a thermocouple located far from the heater where it accurately reads the temperature of the bulk of the water . The error term of this PID controller is the difference between the desired bath temperature and measured temperature . Instead of controlling the heater directly , the outer PID controller sets a heater temperature goal for the inner PID controller . The inner PID controller controls the temperature of the heater using a thermocouple attached to the heater . The inner controller 's error term is the difference between this heater temperature setpoint and the measured temperature of the heater . Its output controls the actual heater to stay near this setpoint .
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Tensions arose between active and passive citizens throughout the Revolution . This happened when passive citizens started to call for more rights , or when they openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active citizens . This cartoon clearly demonstrates the difference that existed between the active and passive citizens along with the tensions associated with such differences . In the cartoon , a passive citizen is holding a spade and a wealthy landowning active citizen is ordering the passive citizens to go to work . The act appears condescending to the passive citizen and it revisits the reasons why the French Revolution began in the first place .
Manner of articulation
Affricate , which begins like a stop , but this releases into a fricative rather than having a separate release of its own . The English letters `` ch '' ( t͡ʃ ) and `` j '' ( d͡ʒ ) represent affricates . Affricates are quite common around the world , though less common than fricatives . Flap , often called a tap , is a momentary closure of the oral cavity . The `` tt '' of `` utter '' and the `` dd '' of `` udder '' are pronounced as a flap ( ɾ ) in North American and Australian English . Many linguists distinguish taps from flaps , but there is no consensus on what the difference might be . No language relies on such a difference . There are also lateral flaps . Trill , in which the articulator ( usually the tip of the tongue ) is held in place , and the airstream causes it to vibrate . The double `` r '' of Spanish `` perro '' is a trill . Trills and flaps , where there are one or more brief occlusions , constitute a class of consonant called rhotics . Approximant , where there is very little obstruction . Examples include English / w / and / r / . In some languages , such as Spanish , there are sounds that seem to fall between fricative and approximant .
Châteauneuf-du-Pape
There are two state schools in the commune . The nursery school , École maternelle Jean Macé , is attended by around 87 children between the ages of three and six . The primary school , École primaire Albert Camus , is attended by 137 children between the ages of six and eleven . After the age of eleven most children attend the Collège Saint Exupéry in Bédarrides .
Siege
The late 9th - century BC siege system surrounding Tell es - Safi / Gath , Israel , consists of a 2.5 km long siege trench , towers , and other elements , and is the earliest evidence of a circumvallation system known in the world . It was apparently built by Hazael of Aram Damascus , as part of his siege and conquest of Philistine Gath in the late 9th century BC ( mentioned in II Kings 12 : 18 ) . The late 8th - century BC siege system surrounding the site of Lachish ( Tell el - Duweir ) in Israel , built by Sennacherib of Assyria in 701 BC , is not only evident in the archaeological remains , but is described in Assyrian and biblical sources and in the reliefs of Sennacherib 's palace in Nineveh . The siege of Alt - Paphos , Cyprus by the Persian army in the 4th century BC .
Crusades
Many historians argue that the interaction between the western Christian and Islamic cultures was a significant , ultimately positive , factor in the development of European civilisation and the Renaissance . The many interactions between Europeans and the Islamic world across the entire length of the Mediterranean Sea led to improved perceptions of Islamic culture , but also make it difficult for historians to identify the specific source of various instances of cultural cross-fertilisation . The art and architecture of the Outremer show clear evidence of cultural fusion but it is difficult to track illumination of manuscripts and castle design back to their sources . Textual sources are simpler , and translations made in Antioch are notable but considered secondary in importance to the works emanating from Muslim Spain and the hybrid culture of Sicily . In addition , Muslim libraries contained classical Greek and Roman texts that allowed Europe to rediscover pre-Christian philosophy , science and medicine .
Bias of an estimator
Fundamentally , the difference between the Bayesian approach and the sampling - theory approach above is that in the sampling - theory approach the parameter is taken as fixed , and then probability distributions of a statistic are considered , based on the predicted sampling distribution of the data . For a Bayesian , however , it is the data which are known , and fixed , and it is the unknown parameter for which an attempt is made to construct a probability distribution , using Bayes ' theorem :