vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
France–United Kingdom relations
From the 1650s , the New World increasingly became a battleground between the two powers . The Western Design of Oliver Cromwell intended to build up an increasing British presence in North America , beginning with the acquisition of Jamaica from the Spanish Empire in 1652 . The first British settlement on continental North America was founded in 1607 , and by the 1730s these had grown into thirteen separate colonies .
History of India
Founded by Dantidurga around 753 , the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at Manyakheta for almost two centuries . At its peak , the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south , a fruitful time of political expansion , architectural achievements and famous literary contributions .
British Empire
England 's first permanent settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown , led by Captain John Smith and managed by the Virginia Company . Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company 's flagship , and in 1615 was turned over to the newly formed Somers Isles Company . The Virginia Company 's charter was revoked in 1624 and direct control of Virginia was assumed by the crown , thereby founding the Colony of Virginia . The London and Bristol Company was created in 1610 with the aim of creating a permanent settlement on Newfoundland , but was largely unsuccessful . In 1620 , Plymouth was founded as a haven for Puritan religious separatists , later known as the Pilgrims . Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive of many English would - be colonists to risk the arduous trans - Atlantic voyage : Maryland was founded as a haven for Roman Catholics ( 1634 ) , Rhode Island ( 1636 ) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut ( 1639 ) for Congregationalists . The Province of Carolina was founded in 1663 . With the surrender of Fort Amsterdam in 1664 , England gained control of the Dutch colony of New Netherland , renaming it New York . This was formalised in negotiations following the Second Anglo - Dutch War , in exchange for Suriname . In 1681 , the colony of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn . The American colonies were less financially successful than those of the Caribbean , but had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far larger numbers of English emigrants who preferred their temperate climates . African
Horn of Africa
During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty ( more specifically , the Warasek ) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo , including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire . Founded by Ali I of Yejju several successive descendants of him and Abba Seru Gwangul ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan the Yejju Oromo tribe as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo . The
Gupta Empire
The Guptas were traditionally a baniya dynasty . They were orthodox Hindus , but did not force their beliefs on the rest of the population , as Buddhism and Jainism also were encouraged . Sanchi remained an important center of Buddhism . Kumaragupta I ( c. 414 -- c. 455 CE ) is said to have founded Nalanda .
French colonization of the Americas
The French colonization of the Americas began in the 16th century , and continued on into the following centuries as France established a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere . France founded colonies in much of eastern North America , on a number of Caribbean islands , and in South America . Most colonies were developed to export products such as fish , rice , sugar , and furs .
Vaishnavism
Beyond the four major sampradayas , the situation is more complicated , with the Vaikhanasas being much older than those four sampradayas , and a number of additional traditions and sects which originated later , or aligned themselves with one of those four sampradayas . Krishna sampradayas continued to be founded late into late medieval and during the Mughal Empire era , such as the Radhavallabha , Haridasi , Gaudiya and others .
Sociology
The first sociology department to be established in the United Kingdom was at the London School of Economics and Political Science ( home of the British Journal of Sociology ) in 1904 . Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse and Edvard Westermarck became the lecturers in the discipline at the University of London in 1907 . Harriet Martineau , an English translator of Comte , has been cited as the first female sociologist . In 1909 the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie ( German Sociological Association ) was founded by Ferdinand Tönnies and Max Weber , among others . Weber established the first department in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 1919 , having presented an influential new antipositivist sociology . In 1920 , Florian Znaniecki set up the first department in Poland . The Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt ( later to become the Frankfurt School of critical theory ) was founded in 1923 . International co-operation in sociology began in 1893 , when René Worms founded the Institut International de Sociologie , an institution later eclipsed by the much larger International Sociological Association ( ISA ) , founded in 1949 .
Venezuela
The literacy rate for the adult population was already 91.1 by 1998 . In 2008 , 95.2 % of the adult population was literate . Net primary school enrollment rate was at 91 % in 2005 . Net secondary enrollment rate was at 63 % in 2005 . Venezuela has a number of universities , of which the most prestigious are the Central University of Venezuela ( UCV ) , founded in Caracas in 1721 , the University of Zulia ( LUZ ) founded in 1891 , the University of the Andes ( ULA ) , founded in Mérida State in 1810 , the Simón Bolívar University ( USB ) , founded in Miranda State in 1967 and the University of the East ( UDO ) , founded in Sucre State in 1958 .
History of West Africa
Muhammad Ture ( 1493 -- 1528 ) founded the Askiya Dynasty , askiya being the title of the king . He consolidated the conquests of Sonni Ali . Islam was used to extend his authority by declaring jihad on the Mossi , reviving the trans - Saharan trade , and having the Abbasid `` shadow '' caliph in Cairo declare him as caliph of Sudan . He established Timbuktu as a great center of Islamic learning . Muhammad Ture expanded the empire by pushing the Tuareg north , capturing Aïr in the east , and capturing salt - producing Taghaza . He brought the Hausa states into the Songhay trading network . He further centralised the administration of the empire by selecting administrators from loyal servants and families and assigning them to conquered territories . They were responsible for raising local militias . Centralisation made Songhay very stable , even during dynastic disputes . Leo Africanus left vivid descriptions of the empire under Askiya Muhammad . Askiya Muhammad was deposed by his son in 1528 . After much rivalry , Muhammad Ture 's last son Askiya Daoud ( 1529 -- 1582 ) assumed the throne .
French colonization of the Americas
French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North , in what is today French Guiana , in 1626 , 1635 ( when the capital , Cayenne , was founded ) and 1643 . Twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded , in 1643 and 1645 , but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement . It was only after 1674 , when the colony came under the direct control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office , that France Équinoxiale became a reality . To this day , French Guiana is a department of France . French
History of India
The empire 's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India , the best known of which is the group at Hampi . The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style . The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction , first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite . South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala . The south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara , Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India . Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation . The empire 's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada , Telugu , Tamil and Sanskrit , while Carnatic music evolved into its current form .
Axis powers
However , strong German influence began to be asserted soon after the NDH was founded . When the King of Italy ousted Mussolini from power and Italy capitulated , the NDH became completely under German influence .
Bradford
The University of Bradford , which has over 10,000 students , received its Royal Charter in 1966 , but traces its history to the 1860s when it was founded as the Bradford Schools of Weaving , Design and Building . The university now covers a wide range of subjects including technology and management science , optometry , pharmacy , medical sciences , nursing studies , archaeology and modern languages . Its Peace Studies department , founded with Quaker support in 1973 , was for a long time the only such institution in the UK . University
Context effect
Context effects can have a wide range of impacts in daily life . In reading difficult handwriting context effects are used to determine what letters make up a word . This helps us analyze potentially ambiguous messages and decipher them correctly . It can also affect our perception of unknown sounds based on the noise in the environment . For example , we may fill in a word we can not make out in a sentence based on the other words we could understand . Context can prime our attitudes and beliefs about certain topics based on current environmental factors and our previous experiences with them .
The One with the Embryos
The writers decided to go through with the apartment switch to avoid creating fake stakes , which they called `` schmuck bait . '' `` The discussion was if we do it , we have to stick to it , '' Crane said . There was never discussion of changing the look of either apartment because `` the fun of it was that they were in spaces they ' should n't ' be in , '' according to Bright .
Context effect
A context effect is an aspect of cognitive psychology that describes the influence of environmental factors on one 's perception of a stimulus . The impact of context effects is considered to be part of top - down design . The concept is supported by the theoretical approach to perception known as constructive perception . Context effects can impact our daily lives in many ways such as word recognition , learning abilities , memory , and object recognition . It can have an extensive effect on marketing and consumer decisions . For example , research has shown that the comfort level of the floor that shoppers are standing on while reviewing products can affect their assessments of product 's quality , leading to higher assessments if the floor is comfortable and lower ratings if it is uncomfortable . Because of effects such as this , context effects are currently studied predominantly in marketing .
Observable universe
The limit of observability in our universe is set by a set of cosmological horizons which limit -- based on various physical constraints -- the extent to which we can obtain information about various events in the universe . The most famous horizon is the particle horizon which sets a limit on the precise distance that can be seen due to the finite age of the universe . Additional horizons are associated with the possible future extent of observations ( larger than the particle horizon owing to the expansion of space ) , an `` optical horizon '' at the surface of last scattering , and associated horizons with the surface of last scattering for neutrinos and gravitational waves . A
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
July 30 -- Gallup poll reported 52 % of Americans disapproved of Johnson 's handling of the war , 41 % thought the U.S. made a mistake in sending troops , and over 56 % thought the U.S. was losing the war or at an impasse . On August 28 , 1967 , U.S. representative Tim Lee Carter ( R - KY ) stated before congress : `` Let us now , while we are yet strong , bring our men home , every man jack of them . The Vietcong fight fiercely and tenaciously because it is their land and we are foreigners intervening in their civil war . If we must fight , let us fight in defense of our homeland and our own hemisphere . '' On September 20 , over one thousand members of WSP rallied at the White House . The police used brutal tactics to try to limit it to 100 people ( as per the law ) or stop the demonstration , and the event tarnished the wholesome and nonviolent reputation of the WSP . Demonstrations
Fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church
What are the implications for the Sundays in Lent ? Can we solve this with Math ? According to the modern General Norms for the Liturgical Year and the Calendar ( 2011 ) , `` The forty days of Lent run from Ash Wednesday up to but excluding the Mass of the Lord 's Supper exclusive . '' If you get a calendar out you would see that this year there are 20 days of Lent in February but only 24 days ( 23.5 ? ) of Lent in March for a total of 44 days . There are 6 Sundays in Lent . Using these numbers you would not achieve the ' biblical number ' forty by subtracting the six Sundays that occur within Lenten session . Does this prove that we should fast and abstain on Sunday 's ? Or perhaps two of the Sundays ?
Munich Agreement
My Government accept your Excellency 's note as a practical solution of the questions and difficulties of vital importance for Czecho - Slovakia which emerged between our two countries as the consequence of the Munich Agreement , maintaining , of course , our political and juridical position with regard to the Munich Agreement and the events which followed it as expressed in the note of the Czecho - Slovak Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the 16th December , 1941 . We consider your important note of the 5th August , 1942 , as a highly significant act of justice towards Czecho - Slovakia , and we assure you of our real satisfaction and of our profound gratitude to your great country and nation . Between our two countries the Munich Agreement can now be considered as dead .
Cross of Gold speech
It is the issue of 1776 over again . Our ancestors , when but three millions in number , had the courage to declare their political independence of every other nation ; shall we , their descendants , when we have grown to seventy millions , declare that we are less independent than our forefathers ? No , my friends , that will never be the verdict of our people . Therefore , we care not upon what lines the battle is fought . If they say bimetallism is good , but that we can not have it until other nations help us , we reply that , instead of having a gold standard because England has , we will restore bimetallism , and then let England have bimetallism because the United States has it . If they dare to come out in the open field and defend the gold standard as a good thing , we will fight them to the uttermost .
Flag of Argentina
En una palabra : ¿ prometéis lo que esté en las medidas de vuestras fuerzas que la Bandera Argentina flamee por siempre sobra nuestras murallas y fortalezas , en lo alto de los mástiles de nuestras naves ya la cabeza de nuestras legiones y para que el honor sea su aliento , la gloria su aureola , la justicia su empresa ? Response : ¡ Sí , prometo ! Summons : Children / Students , the white and sky - blue flag , God be praised , has never been carried in the triumphal carts of any victors of this Earth . Children / Students , this glorious Flag represents the Fatherland of the Argentines . I ask you all to promise to produce your most sincere and respectful homage , to love it and form it with immense love , from the dawn of the life a fervent and indelible cult in your hearts ; preparing yourselves from the school to practice to its time , with all purity and honesty , the noble virtues inherent in citizenship , studying with determination the history of our country and that of its big benefactors in order to continue its luminous traces and to end also of honoring the Flag and of which there should never get depressed in your souls the delicate and generous love feeling to the Fatherland . In a word : do you promise that what should be in the measurements of your forces that the Flag of Argentina flames forever exceeds our walls and fortitude , on top of the masts of our ships and at the head of our legions and so that the honor should be its breath , the glory its aurora , the justice its company ? Response : `` Yes , we promise ! '' ( either using the Bellamy salute or using the hand over the heart gesture , if not all stand at attention )
Overthrow of the Roman monarchy
Inasmuch as Tarquinius neither obtained the sovereignty in accordance with our ancestral customs and laws , nor , since he obtained it -- in whatever manner he got it -- has he been exercising it in an honourable or kingly manner , but has surpassed in insolence and lawlessness all the tyrants the world ever saw , we patricians met together and resolved to deprive him of his power , a thing we ought to have done long ago , but are doing now when a favourable opportunity has offered . And we have called you together , plebeians , in order to declare our own decision and then ask for your assistance in achieving liberty for our country ...
State of Origin series
Brisbane Courier - Mail reporter Hugh Lunn , Barry Maranta ( the future co-founder of the Brisbane Broncos ) and Maranta 's business partner Wayne Reid played a part in persuading QRL chairman Ron McAullife that the concept could be used in rugby league . Lunn told McAullife that `` you can take the Queenslander out of Queensland , Ron , but you ca n't take the Queensland out of the Queenslander . '' McAuliffe was initially sceptical . `` What if we recall our boys from Sydney to play , and we are beaten . Where would we go from there ? '' Reid spoke to NSWRFL president Kevin Humphreys and suggested that a one - off state of origin match could be used as a Test Match selection trial .
First Amendment to the United States Constitution
Those who won our independence ... believed that freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think are means indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth ; that without free speech and assembly discussion would be futile ; that with them , discussion affords ordinarily adequate protection against the dissemination of noxious doctrine ; that the greatest menace to freedom is an inert people ; that public discussion is a political duty ; and that this should be a fundamental principle of the American government .
Munich Agreement
Even if what he did were the right thing to do , this was not the way to do it . Any really great man who had felt forced to sacrifice a small nation that trusted in him would at least have returned full of anguish and of shame . But Mr. Chamberlain , though he had good intentions , has no finer sense of honour . He lent himself with complacency to the shrieking adulation of a London that had lost all dignity , without one thought for the agony of Prague . Leaders should have some touch of finer mettle . Mr. Chamberlain , canting of `` peace with honour , '' has debased the moral currency of England . And not for the first time ; and not , I fear , for the last . Meanwhile , the past is past , however shameful . What now ? If we have any respect we shall remedy at once that outrageous omission by which all Sudetens in Czech prisons are to be liberated , while no word is said of the Czechs dragged across the frontier into German captivity or arrested in Germany . Secondly , we shall compensate Czechoslovakia for the property we have forced her to leave to the invader -- the machinery in Czech - owned factories , the fortifications , and their artillery , -- which belonged to the Czech State as a whole , not to the Sudetens , as indefeasibly as the very streets of Prague . Thirdly , unless we propose to barricade ourselves behind pieces of paper kindly autographed by Herr Hitler , we shall look a little better to our defences , even if it means conscription in the near future . ( From a letter by F.L. Lucas of King 's College , Cambridge , British anti-appeasement campaigner , to the Manchester Guardian , 4 October 1938 ) German
Environmental policy of the United States
In addition to growing public support , structural changes such as Congressional reform and new access to the courts gave environmentalists new power to enact change . The movement that formed held three key values : ecology , health , and sustainability . These values - that we depend and are interconnected with the environment , that insults to the environment can affect our health , and that we should limit our dependence on non-renewable resources - along with a uniquely sympathetic president and Congress , led to great environmental policy change in the 1970s . In 1972 the Club of Rome report came out which was a scholarly effort to gauge the severity of the environmental problem . A team of researchers concluded with one of the most alarming appraisals of the time and set off widespread debates over the findings , it 's methods , and policy implications . The model was built mainly to investigate major trends of global concerns such as accelerating industrialization , rapid population growth , widespread malnutrition , depletion of nonrenewable resources and a deteriorating environment . They concluded that if the present growth trends in world population , industrialization , pollution , food production , and resource depletion remains unchanged than the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next one hundred years .
Planck's law
If we measure the energy relative to the ground state , the total energy in the box follows by summing ⟨ E ⟩ − ε / 2 over all allowed single photon states . This can be done exactly in the thermodynamic limit as L approaches infinity . In this limit , ε becomes continuous and we can then integrate ⟨ E ⟩ − ε / 2 over this parameter . To calculate the energy in the box in this way , we need to evaluate how many photon states there are in a given energy range . If we write the total number of single photon states with energies between ε and ε + dε as g ( ε ) dε , where g ( ε ) is the density of states ( which is evaluated below ) , then we can write :