vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Boston African American National Historic Site
Robert Gould Shaw / 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Regiment Memorial -- commemorates the first African - American regiment of the United States Colored Troops during the Civil War and the officer who led the 54th Regiment until his death at the Battle of Fort Wagner in SC . African Meeting House -- built in 1806 , the oldest standing African - American church in the country is operated as part of the Museum of African American History Abiel Smith School -- built in 1834 , now adapted and operated as the Museum of African American History Charles Street Meeting House -- built in 1807 , the church had segregated seating . In the 1830s some of the members formed the First Baptist Free Church , which became Tremont Temple . It was considered to be one of the first integrated churches in America . John Coburn House -- home of John Coburn , an African - American abolitionist , soldier and recruiter , who aided people on the Underground Railroad . Lewis and Harriet Hayden House -- Lewis Hayden was an escaped slave , abolitionist leader , recruiter for the 54th regiment during the Civil War . Afterward , he became a Grand Master of the Prince Hall Masons and was elected as a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives . Active with the Underground Railroad , Hayden protected escaped slaves in his home , including Ellen and William Craft . George Middleton House -- One of the oldest standing homes in Beacon Hill . Middleton led the black militia , Bucks of America , during the Revolutionary War . He helped found the Free African Society and served as Grand Master of the Prince Hall African Masonic Lodge . Phillips School -- one Boston 's first integrated schools Smith Court Residences -- The five Smith Court homes typify those of black Bostonians in the 1800s . Two notable residents of 3 Smith Court are William Cooper Nell and James Scott , both involved in the abolitionist cause . Nell was an author and considered one of the nation 's first black historians . John J. Smith House -- Smith was an abolitionist leader who helped fugitive slaves on the Underground Railroad . He recruited for the all - black 5th Cavalry during the Civil War . Afterward he was elected as a three - term member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives . Smith lived in this house from 1878 -- 1893 .
Tennessee in the American Civil War
Tennessee has strong Confederate memories ( based in West Tennessee and Middle Tennessee ) , which focused on the Lost Cause theme of heroic defense of traditional liberties . To a lesser extent Tennesseans celebrate Unionist memories based in East Tennessee and among blacks .
Presidency of Abraham Lincoln
Although they remained out of the war , the European powers , especially France and Britain , factored into the American Civil War in various ways . European leaders saw the division of the United States as having the potential to eliminate , or at least greatly weaken , a growing rival . They looked for ways to exploit the inability of the U.S. to enforce the Monroe Doctrine . Spain invaded the Dominican Republic in 1861 , while France established a puppet regime in Mexico . However , many in Europe also hoped for a quick end to the civil war , for both humanitarian purposes and due to the economic disruption caused by the war .
Red River War
Prior to the arrival of English American settlers on the Great Plains , the southern Plains tribes had evolved into a nomadic pattern of existence . Beginning in the 1830s , significant numbers of permanent settlements were established in what had previously been the exclusive territory of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas . Attacks , raids , and counter-raids occurred frequently . Prior to the Civil War , the U.S. Army was only sporadically involved in these frontier conflicts , manning forts , but limited to a handful of larger expeditions due to manpower limitations . During the Civil War , the Regular Army withdrew almost completely , and Indian raids increased dramatically . Texas , as part of the Confederate States of America , lacked the military resources to fight both the Union and the tribes .
The Red Badge of Courage
The Red Badge of Courage is a war novel by American author Stephen Crane ( 1871 -- 1900 ) . Taking place during the American Civil War , the story is about a young private of the Union Army , Henry Fleming , who flees from the field of battle . Overcome with shame , he longs for a wound , a `` red badge of courage , '' to counteract his cowardice . When his regiment once again faces the enemy , Henry acts as standard - bearer , who carries a flag .
Tennessee in the American Civil War
A large number of important battles occurred in Tennessee , including the vicious fighting at the Battle of Shiloh , which at the time was the deadliest battle in American history ( it was later surpassed by a number of other engagements ) . Other large battles in Tennessee included Stones River , Chattanooga , Nashville , and Franklin .
California Gold Rush
When the Gold Rush began , the California goldfields were peculiarly lawless places . When gold was discovered at Sutter 's Mill , California was still technically part of Mexico , under American military occupation as the result of the Mexican -- American War . With the signing of the treaty ending the war on February 2 , 1848 , California became a possession of the United States , but it was not a formal `` territory '' and did not become a state until September 9 , 1850 . California existed in the unusual condition of a region under military control . There was no civil legislature , executive or judicial body for the entire region . Local residents operated under a confusing and changing mixture of Mexican rules , American principles , and personal dictates . Lax enforcement of federal laws , such as the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 , encouraged the arrival of free blacks and escaped slaves .
Gwen Stacy
In his book The Physics of Superheroes , physicist James Kakalios writes that , consistent with Newton 's laws of motion , the sudden stop would have killed Gwen Stacy . The comic book Civil War : Casualties of War : Captain America / Iron Man ( 2007 ) concurred that the proximate cause of death was the sudden stop during a high - speed fall . An issue of Peter Parker / Spider - Man revisits the issue , and further confirms Gwen died of a broken neck due to the use of the webbing . On the other hand , in the 1987 edition of The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe , Gwen 's death is attributed to the fall , not to Spider - Man 's webbing .
Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
During the American Civil War , the Duke assigned Ernst Raven to the position of consul in the state of Texas . Raven applied to the Confederate Government for a diplomatic exequatur on 30 July 1861 and was accepted .
Conclusion of the American Civil War
The CSS Shenandoah was commissioned as a commerce raider by the Confederacy to interfere with Union shipping and hinder their efforts in the American Civil War . A Scottish - built merchant ship originally called the Sea King , it was secretly purchased by Confederate agents in September 1864 . Captain James Waddell renamed the ship Shenandoah after she was converted to a warship off the coast of Spain on October 19 , shortly after leaving England . William Conway Whittle , Waddell 's right - hand man , was the ship 's executive officer .
Cherokee
The Cherokee freedmen , descendants of African American slaves owned by citizens of the Cherokee Nation during the Antebellum Period , were first guaranteed Cherokee citizenship under a treaty with the United States in 1866 . This was in the wake of the American Civil War , when the US emancipated slaves and passed US constitutional amendments granting freedmen citizenship in the United States .
Turning point of the American Civil War
Southern morale was seriously affected by the twin setbacks of Gettysburg and Vicksburg , as they perceived that `` the coil was tightening around us '' . Some economic historians have pointed to the fact that after the defeats at Gettysburg and Vicksburg , the market for Confederate war bonds dropped precipitously . `` ... European investors gave the Confederacy approximately a 42 percent chance of victory prior to the battle of Gettysburg / Vicksburg . News of the severity of the two rebel defeats led to a sell - off in Confederate bonds . By the end of 1863 , the probability of a Southern victory fell to about 15 percent . '' In
Georgia during Reconstruction
Part of a series on the History of the State of Georgia Pre-Columbian European Exploration Colonial Georgia American Revolution Antebellum Period American Civil War Reconstruction Postbellum Economic Growth Agrarian Unrest and Disfranchisement Progressive Era Civil Rights Movement Sun Belt growth and the New Right Georgia ( U.S. state ) portal
Conclusion of the American Civil War
Wittsburg , Arkansas ( the county seat of Cross County from 1868 through 1886 ) , would witness one of the final acts in the American Civil War . This happened after the collapse of Confederate forces east of the Mississippi . Major General Grenville M. Dodge sent Lieutenant Colonel Charles W. Davis of the 51st Illinois Infantry on April 30 , 1865 , to Arkansas to seek the surrender of Confederate Brigadier General `` Jeff '' Meriwether Thompson , commander of Confederate troops in the northeast portion of Arkansas . Davis , arriving at Chalk Bluff ( now non-extant ) in Clay County , Arkansas , on the St. Francis River , sent communications to Thompson asking that they have a conference . These two officers met on May 9 to negotiate a surrender .
Coat of arms of Ireland
The earliest - known record of the green flag is attributed to Eoghan Ruadh Ó Néill , a 17th - century exile and soldier in the Irish brigade of the Spanish army . His ship , the St. Francis , is recorded as flying from her mast top `` the Irish harp in a green field , in a flag '' as she lay at anchor at Dunkirk en route to Ireland . Ó Néill was returning to Ireland in order to participate in the Irish Confederate Wars ( 1641 -- 1653 ) , during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms ( a series of civil wars engulfing England , Ireland and Scotland ) , where he would contribute as a leading general . Variants of the green flag were flown by United Irishmen during the 1798 Rebellion and by the Irish émigré in foreign armys , such as the Irish Brigade of the Union Army during the American Civil War ( 1861 -- 1865 ) and Saint Patrick 's Battalion in the Mexican Army during the Mexican - American War ( 1846 -- 1848 ) .
Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area
Government first began to have a major impact on the area when the Confederate government built Fort Henry on the banks of the Tennessee , ostensibly to protect the upper reaches of that river from Union gunboats ; initially , Kentucky had declared its neutrality in the American Civil War . When Fort Henry fell in early 1862 , there was little more Civil War action in the area , which was judged to be too devoid of valuable war resources to deserve much attention from either side , and it went back to its somewhat isolated ways . The next major event in the area , other than calls for men to fight in the Spanish -- American War and World War I , was the formation of the Tennessee Valley Authority as part of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's New Deal . The site of the last dam downstream on the Tennessee was to be Gilbertsville , Kentucky . The resulting impoundment , completed in the early 1940s , Kentucky Lake , flooded some of the low - lying land on the western side of the area , resulting in the condemnation of land and the forced removal of some area farmers . This was very unpopular with some of those affected , while others seemed happy to get an opportunity to sell their land and start a new life in a less remote area .
Great Migration (African American)
The Great Depression of the 1930s resulted in reduced migration because of decreased opportunities . With the defense buildup for World War II , migration was revived , with larger numbers of blacks leaving the South through the 1960s . After the political and civil gains of the Civil Rights Movement , in the 1970s migration began to increase again . It moved in a different direction , as blacks traveled to new regions of the South for economic opportunity .
American Civil War
Grant finally found a commander , General Philip Sheridan , aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864 . Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge . The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy 's last major victory of the war . After redoubling his efforts , Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles , including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek . Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley , a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia .
Battle of Natural Bridge
The site is now called Natural Bridge Battlefield Historic State Park . The Civil War Trust , a division of the American Battlefield Trust , and its partners have acquired and preserved 110 acres of the battlefield that are now part of the state park .
American Civil War
In one of the first highly visible battles , a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces near Washington was repulsed . Left
Vietnam War
There are several competing views on the conflict , with some on the North Vietnamese and National Liberation Front side viewing the struggle against U.S. forces as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States , especially in light of the failed 1954 Geneva Conference calls for elections . Other interpretations of the North Vietnamese side include viewing it as a civil war especially in the early and later phases following the U.S. interlude between 1965 and 1970 as well as a war of liberation . The perspective of some Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam , the successor to the Việt Cộng were motivated in part by significant social changes in the post-World War II Vietnam , and had initially seen it as a revolutionary war supported by Hanoi . The pro-government side in South Vietnam viewed it as a civil war , a defensive war against communism or were motivated to fight to defend their homes and families . The U.S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam . This was part of the domino theory of a wider containment policy , with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism .
Civil–military relations
The solution to this problem throughout most of American history was to keep its standing army small , relying on augmentation from militias ( the predecessor of modern - day Reserve forces , to include the National Guard ) and volunteers . While armed forces were built up during wartime , the pattern after every war up to and including World War II was to demobilize quickly and return to something approaching pre-war force levels . However , with the advent of the Cold War in the 1950s , the need to create and maintain a sizable peacetime military force engendered new concerns of militarism and about how such a large force would affect civil - military relations in the United States . For the first time in American history , the problem of civil - military relations would have to be managed during peacetime .
Conclusion of the American Civil War
The documentation of the surrender of Lieutenant General Richard Taylor 's small force in Alabama was another stage in the process of concluding the American Civil War . The son of former U.S. President Zachary Taylor , Richard Taylor commanded the Confederate troops in the Department of Alabama , Mississippi and East Louisiana of about ten thousand troops . On May 4 Taylor 's subordinate Col. J.Q. Chenowith surrendered the Department to Union officer Col. John A. Hottenstein .
Internal Revenue Service
In July 1862 , during the American Civil War , President Abraham Lincoln and Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1862 , creating the office of Commissioner of Internal Revenue and enacting a temporary income tax to pay war expenses .
Technology during World War II
The invention of the atomic bomb meant that a single aircraft could carry a weapon so powerful it could burn down entire cities , making conventional warfare against a nation with an arsenal of them suicidal . Following the conclusion of the European Theater in May 1945 , two atomic bombs were then employed against the Empire of Japan in August during the Pacific Theater , effectively terminating the war , which averted the need for invading mainland Japan .
American Civil War
At the start of the civil war , a system of paroles operated . Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged . Meanwhile , they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties . The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners . After that , about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war , accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict 's fatalities .
American Civil War
Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico , which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths , including fewer than two thousand killed in battle , between 1846 and 1848 . One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century , such as charging . With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels , Minié balls and ( near the end of the war for the Union army ) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle , soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open . This led to the adoption of trench warfare , a style of fighting that defined much of World War I .
Orchestra
The invention of the piston and rotary valve by Heinrich Stölzel and Friedrich Blühmel , both Silesians , in 1815 , was the first in a series of innovations which impacted the orchestra , including the development of modern keywork for the flute by Theobald Boehm and the innovations of Adolphe Sax in the woodwinds , notably the invention of the saxophone . These advances would lead Hector Berlioz to write a landmark book on instrumentation , which was the first systematic treatise on the use of instrumental sound as an expressive element of music .
Trent Affair
Relations with the United States were often strained and even verged on war when Britain almost supported the Confederacy in the early part of the American Civil War . British leaders were constantly annoyed from the 1840s to the 1860s by what they saw as Washington 's pandering to the democratic mob , as in the Oregon boundary dispute in 1844 to 1846 . However , British middle - class public opinion sensed a common `` Special Relationship '' between the two peoples , based on language , migration , evangelical Protestantism , liberal traditions , and extensive trade . Also , the Civil War was viewed in Britain as a slavery issue , with the North opposing slavery and the South supporting it . Only 25 years earlier , William Wilberforce had made the abolition of slavery a major cause in Britain , which outlawed the institution via the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 . That constituency rejected both war and slavery , forcing London to appease the Americans .
Code talker
Philip Johnston , a civil engineer for the city of Los Angeles , proposed the use of Navajo to the United States Marine Corps at the beginning of World War II . Johnston , a World War I veteran , was raised on the Navajo reservation as the son of a missionary to the Navajo . He was one of the few non-Navajo who spoke the language fluently .
The War Prayer
The 1981 PBS filmed version of Twain 's `` A Private History of a Campaign That Failed '' contains `` The War Prayer '' as an epilogue , which takes place during the Philippine Insurrection . Edward Herrmann played the Stranger , as well as the innocent man who had been killed accidentally by the boys years before in the American Civil War , thus lending a supernatural air to the Stranger 's origins .
War of 1812
The Northwest Territory , which consisted of the modern states of Ohio , Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , and Wisconsin , was the battleground for conflict between the Native American Nations and the United States . The British Empire had ceded the area to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783 , both sides ignoring the fact that the land was already inhabited by various Native American nations . These included the Miami , Winnebago , Shawnee , Fox , Sauk , Kickapoo , Delaware and Wyandot . Some warriors , who had left their nations of origin , followed Tenskwatawa , the Shawnee Prophet and the brother of Tecumseh . Tenskwatawa had a vision of purifying his society by expelling the `` children of the Evil Spirit '' : the American settlers . The Indians wanted to create their own state in the Northwest to end the American threat forever as it became clear that the Americans wanted all of the land in the Old Northwest for themselves . Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh formed a confederation of numerous tribes to block American expansion . The British saw the Native American nations as valuable allies and a buffer to its Canadian colonies and provided arms . Attacks on American settlers in the Northwest further aggravated tensions between Britain and the United States . Raiding grew more common in 1810 and 1811 ; Westerners in Congress found the raids intolerable and wanted them permanently ended . British policy towards the Indians of the Northwest was torn between the desire to keep the Americans fighting in the Northwest , and to preserve a region that provided rich profits for Canadian fur traders , versus the fear that too much support for the Indians would cause a war with the United States . Through Tecumseh 's plans for an Indian state in the Northwest would benefit British North America by making it more defensible , at the same time , the defeats suffered by Tecumseh 's confederation had the British leery of going too far to support what was probably a losing cause . In the months running up to the war , British diplomats attempted to defuse tensions on the frontier .
American Civil War
The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment ... Anger swept the land . From every side came news of mass meetings , speeches , resolutions , tenders of business support , the muster of companies and regiments , the determined action of governors and legislatures . ''
Conclusion of the American Civil War
Cherokee Brigadier General Stand Watie commanded the Confederate Indians when he surrendered on June 23 . This was the last significant Confederate active force . Watie formed the Cherokee Mounted Rifles . He was a guerrilla fighter commanding Cherokee , Seminole , Creek , and Osage Indian soldiers . They earned a notorious reputation for their bold and brave fighting . Yearly , Federal troops all over the western United States hunted for Watie , but they never captured him . He surrendered on June 23 at Fort Towson , in the Choctaw Nations area at the village of Doaksville ( now a ghost town ) of the Indian Territory , being the last Confederate general to surrender in the American Civil War .