vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Reflux
The apparatus shown in the diagram represents a batch distillation as opposed to a continuous distillation . The liquid feed mixture to be distilled is placed into the round - bottomed flask along with a few anti-bumping granules , and the fractionating column is fitted into the top . As the mixture is heated and boils , vapor rises up the column . The vapor condenses on the glass platforms ( known as plates or trays ) inside the column and runs back down into the liquid below , thereby refluxing the upflowing distillate vapor . The hottest tray is at the bottom of the column and the coolest tray is at the top . At steady state conditions , the vapor and liquid on each tray is at equilibrium . Only the most volatile of the vapors stays in gaseous form all the way to the top . The vapor at the top of the column then passes into the condenser , where it cools until it condenses into a liquid . The separation can be enhanced with the addition of more trays ( to a practical limitation of heat , flow , etc . ) . The process continues until all the most volatile components in the liquid feed boil out of the mixture . This point can be recognized by the rise in temperature shown on the thermometer . For continuous distillation , the feed mixture enters in the middle of the column .
Horn of Africa
It is estimated that about 5,000 species of vascular plants are found in the Horn , about half of which are endemic . Endemism is most developed in Socotra and northern Somalia . The region has two endemic plant families : the Barbeyaceae and the Dirachmaceae . Among the other remarkable species , there are the cucumber tree found only on Socotra ( Dendrosicyos socotrana ) , the Bankoualé palm , the yeheb nut , and the Somali cyclamen .
Spark plug
Spark plugs are specified by size , either thread or nut ( often referred to as Euro ) , sealing type ( taper or crush washer ) , and spark gap . Common thread ( nut ) sizes in Europe are 10 mm ( 16 mm ) , 14 mm ( 21 mm ; sometimes , 16 mm ) , and 18 mm ( 24 mm , sometimes , 21 mm ) . In the United States , common thread ( nut ) sizes are 10mm ( 16mm ) , 12mm ( 14mm , 16mm or 17.5 mm ) , 14mm ( 16mm , 20.63 mm ) and 18mm ( 20.63 mm ) .
Bottom bracket
Many current designs are now using an integrated bottom bracket with outboard bearings . This is an attempt to address several issues associated with weight and stiffness . Because of the relatively small 1.37 '' ( 36 mm for shells threaded to the Italian standard ) diameter shell , designs that place the bearings inside the shell can either have large bearings and a thinner spindle , which lacks stiffness , or smaller bearings and a thicker spindle ( such as the original Shimano Octalink ) , which lacks durability . External bearings allow for a large diameter ( hence stiff ) and hollow ( hence light ) spindle . They also offer more distance between the two bearing surfaces , which contributes to stiffness while allowing lighter components . A different approach would be to standardise on the larger BMX shell for all bicycles , or the BB30 standard originally introduced by Cannondale .
Command-line interface
The first Unix shell , the V6 shell , was developed by Ken Thompson in 1971 at Bell Labs and was modeled after Schroeder 's Multics shell . The Bourne shell was introduced in 1977 as a replacement for the V6 shell . Although it is used as an interactive command interpreter , it was also intended as a scripting language and contains most of the features that are commonly considered to produce structured programs . The Bourne shell led to the development of the Korn shell ( ksh ) , Almquist shell ( ash ) , and the popular Bourne - again shell ( or Bash ) .
State of matter
At temperatures below its critical temperature , a gas is also called a vapor , and can be liquefied by compression alone without cooling . A vapor can exist in equilibrium with a liquid ( or solid ) , in which case the gas pressure equals the vapor pressure of the liquid ( or solid ) .
Christina Aguilera
Lady Gaga cited Aguilera and her cover of All - 4 - One 's `` I Turn to You '' as an inspiration for Gaga 's vocal range , elaborating ; `` When I was 15 , I was singing `` I Turn to You '' at the top of my lungs . She was an inspiration to me to have a wider vocal range . '' Demi Lovato explained that she was inspired by Aguilera 's themes , `` I had a lot of respect for Whitney Houston , and Christina Aguilera , on some songs where she was really amazing and was n't trying to be sexy or anything like that . I just found that I had more respect for artists that did n't talk about that stuff , and those were the ones that were more successful . '' Aguilera 's works has also inspired some athletes , including American figure skater Johnny Weir and American swimmer Dana Vollmer .
Carbon dioxide
It is used in many consumer products that require pressurized gas because it is inexpensive and nonflammable , and because it undergoes a phase transition from gas to liquid at room temperature at an attainable pressure of approximately 60 bar ( 870 psi , 59 atm ) , allowing far more carbon dioxide to fit in a given container than otherwise would . Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation . Aluminium capsules of CO are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for air guns , paintball markers / guns , inflating bicycle tires , and for making carbonated water . Rapid vaporization of liquid carbon dioxide is used for blasting in coal mines . High concentrations of carbon dioxide can also be used to kill pests . Liquid carbon dioxide is used in supercritical drying of some food products and technological materials , in the preparation of specimens for scanning electron microscopy and in the decaffeination of coffee beans .
Phase (matter)
At room temperature and pressure , the water jar reaches equilibrium when the air over the water has a humidity of about 3 % . This percentage increases as the temperature goes up . At 100 ° C and atmospheric pressure , equilibrium is not reached until the air is 100 % water . If the liquid is heated a little over 100 ° C , the transition from liquid to gas will occur not only at the surface , but throughout the liquid volume : the water boils .
Pencil
Graphite pencils These are the most common types of pencil , and are encased in wood . They are made of a mixture of clay and graphite and their darkness varies from light grey to black . Their composition allows for the smoothest strokes . Solid graphite pencils These are solid sticks of graphite and clay composite ( as found in a ' graphite pencil ' ) , about the diameter of a common pencil , which have no casing other than a wrapper or label . They are often called `` woodless '' pencils . They are used primarily for art purposes as the lack of casing allows for covering larger spaces more easily , creating different effects , and providing greater economy as the entirety of the pencil is used . They are available in the same darkness range as wood - encased graphite pencils . Liquid graphite pencils These are pencils that write like pens . The technology was first invented in 1955 by Scripto and Parker Pens . Scripto 's liquid graphite formula came out about three months before Parker 's liquid lead formula . To avoid a lengthy patent fight the two companies agreed to share their formulas . Charcoal pencils Are made of charcoal and provide fuller blacks than graphite pencils , but tend to smudge easily and are more abrasive than graphite . Sepia - toned and white pencils are also available for duotone techniques . Carbon pencils They generally are made of a mixture of clay and lamp black , but are sometimes blended with charcoal or graphite depending on the darkness and manufacturer . They produce a fuller black than graphite pencils , but are smoother than charcoal . Coloured pencils , or pencil crayons These have wax - like cores with pigment and other fillers . Multiple colours are often blended together . Grease pencils They write on virtually any surface ( including glass , plastic , metal and photographs ) . The most commonly found grease pencils are encased in paper ( Berol and Sanford Peel - off ) , but they can also be encased in wood ( Staedtler Omnichrom ) . Watercolour pencils These are designed for use with watercolour techniques . The pencils can be used by themselves for sharp , bold lines . Strokes made by the pencil can also be saturated with water and spread with brushes .
File Explorer
In 1995 , Microsoft first released test versions of a shell refresh , named the Shell Technology Preview , and often referred to informally as `` NewShell '' . The update was designed to replace the Windows 3. x Program Manager / File Manager based shell with Windows Explorer . The release provided capabilities quite similar to that of the Windows `` Chicago '' ( codename for Windows 95 ) shell during its late beta phases , however was intended to be nothing more than a test release . There were two public releases of the Shell Technology Preview , made available to MSDN and CompuServe users : 26 May 1995 and 8 August 1995 . Both held Windows Explorer builds of 3.51. 1053.1 . The Shell Technology Preview program never saw a final release under NT 3.51 . The entire program was moved across to the Cairo development group who finally integrated the new shell design into the NT code with the release of NT 4.0 in July 1996 .
Measuring cup
A measuring cup or measuring jug is a kitchen utensil used primarily to measure the volume of liquid or bulk solid cooking ingredients such as flour and sugar , especially for volumes from about 50 mL ( 2 fl oz ) upwards . Measuring cups are also used to measure washing powder , liquid detergents and bleach for clothes washing . The cup will usually have a scale marked in cups and fractions of a cup , and often with fluid measure and weight of a selection of dry foodstuffs .
Spark plug
The heat range of a spark plug is affected by the construction of the spark plug : the types of materials used , the length of insulator and the surface area of the plug exposed within the combustion chamber . For normal use , the selection of a spark plug heat range is a balance between keeping the tip hot enough at idle to prevent fouling and cold enough at maximal power to prevent pre-ignition or engine knocking . By examining `` hotter '' and `` cooler '' spark plugs of the same manufacturer side by side , the principle involved can be very clearly seen ; the cooler plugs have a more substantial ceramic insulator filling the gap between the center electrode and the shell , effectively allowing more heat to be carried off by the shell , while the hotter plugs have less ceramic material , so that the tip is more isolated from the body of the plug and retains heat better .
Coffee
Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional situations where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time . It is described as having a flavor about as good as low - grade robusta coffee , and costs about 10 ¢ a cup to produce . The machines can process up to 500 cups an hour , or 1,000 if the water is preheated .
Natural gas
The advantages of liquid methane as a jet engine fuel are that it has more specific energy than the standard kerosene mixes do and that its low temperature can help cool the air which the engine compresses for greater volumetric efficiency , in effect replacing an intercooler . Alternatively , it can be used to lower the temperature of the exhaust .
Natural gas
Because natural gas is not a pure product , as the reservoir pressure drops when non-associated gas is extracted from a field under supercritical ( pressure / temperature ) conditions , the higher molecular weight components may partially condense upon isothermic depressurizing -- an effect called retrograde condensation . The liquid thus formed may get trapped as the pores of the gas reservoir get depleted . One method to deal with this problem is to re-inject dried gas free of condensate to maintain the underground pressure and to allow re-evaporation and extraction of condensates . More frequently , the liquid condenses at the surface , and one of the tasks of the gas plant is to collect this condensate . The resulting liquid is called natural gas liquid ( NGL ) and has commercial value .
Confidence interval
A machine fills cups with a liquid , and is supposed to be adjusted so that the content of the cups is 250 g of liquid . As the machine can not fill every cup with exactly 250.0 g , the content added to individual cups shows some variation , and is considered a random variable X . This variation is assumed to be normally distributed around the desired average of 250 g , with a standard deviation , σ , of 2.5 g . To determine if the machine is adequately calibrated , a sample of n = 25 cups of liquid is chosen at random and the cups are weighed . The resulting measured masses of liquid are X , ... , X , a random sample from X .
Spark plug
The top of the spark plug contains a terminal to connect to the ignition system . Over of the years variations in the terminal configuration have been introduced by manufacturers . The exact terminal construction varies depending on the use of the spark plug . Most passenger car spark plug wires snap onto the terminal of the plug , but some wires have eyelet connectors which are fastened onto the plug under a nut . The standard solid non-removable nut SAE configuration is common for many cars and trucks . Plugs which are used for these applications often have the end of the terminal serve a double purpose as the nut on a thin threaded shaft so that they can be used for either type of connection . This type of spark plug has a removable nut or knurl , which enables its users to attach them to two different kinds of spark plug boots . Some spark plugs have a bare thread , which is a common type for motorcycles and ATVs . Finally , in very recent years , a cup - style terminal has been introduced , which allows for a longer ceramic insulator in the same confined space . Insulator
The Raven
Ah , distinctly I remember it was in the bleak December ; And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor . Eagerly I wished the morrow ; -- vainly I had sought to borrow From my books surcease of sorrow -- sorrow for the lost Lenore -- For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels name Lenore -- Nameless here for evermore . And the silken , sad , uncertain rustling of each purple curtain Thrilled me -- filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before ; So that now , to still the beating of my heart , I stood repeating `` ' Tis some visiter entreating entrance at my chamber door -- Some late visiter entreating entrance at my chamber door ; -- This it is and nothing more . '' Presently my soul grew stronger ; hesitating then no longer , `` Sir , '' said I , `` or Madam , truly your forgiveness I implore ; But the fact is I was napping , and so gently you came rapping , And so faintly you came tapping , tapping at my chamber door , That I scarce was sure I heard you `` -- here I opened wide the door ; -- Darkness there and nothing more . Deep into that darkness peering , long I stood there wondering , fearing , Doubting , dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before ; But the silence was unbroken , and the stillness gave no token , And the only word there spoken was the whispered word , `` Lenore ? '' This I whispered , and an echo murmured back the word , `` Lenore ! '' -- Merely this and nothing more . Back into the chamber turning , all my soul within me burning , Soon again I heard a tapping somewhat louder than before . `` Surely , '' said I , `` surely that is something at my window lattice ; Let me see , then , what thereat is , and this mystery explore -- Let my heart be still a moment and this mystery explore ; -- ' Tis the wind and nothing more !
New Amsterdam
A fort and sawmill were soon erected at Nut Island . The latter was constructed by Franchoys Fezard and was taken apart for iron in 1648 .
Command-line interface
Early operating system CLIs were implemented as part of resident monitor programs , and could not easily be replaced . The first implementation of the shell as a replaceable component was part of the Multics time - sharing operating system . In 1964 , MIT Computation Center staff member Louis Pouzin developed the RUNCOM tool for executing command scripts while allowing argument substitution . Pouzin coined the term `` shell '' to describe the technique of using commands like a programming language , and wrote a paper about how to implement the idea in the Multics operating system . Pouzin returned to his native France in 1965 , and the first Multics shell was developed by Glenda Schroeder .
Brown bear
Among all living bears , brown bears are uniquely equipped to dig for tough foods such as roots and shoots . They use their long , strong claws to dig out earth to reach the roots and their powerful jaws to bite through them . For the most part , the consumed plant life in spring , predominantly roots immediately post-hibernation and grasses later in spring , is not highly nutritious for bears and mainly staves off hunger and starvation until more nutritious food is available . Brown bears have difficulty digesting large quantities of tough , fibrous foods . Hedysarum roots are among the most commonly eaten foods from throughout the range and can become important substitutes if stable foods such as fruits become unavailable . Corms and bulbs are important when available as they are one of the greater sources of protein in plant life as are hard masts such as acorns . Brown bears are restricted in their access to hard masts compared to black bears because of the limited climbing abilities of grown bears and therefore are confined largely to masts fallen to the ground , pirated from other creatures or within a reach of about 3 m ( 9 ft 10 in ) that the bears can stretch to with their paws extended and standing on their hindlegs . Hard masts can become the most important food ( although consumed mainly in late summer and fall ) where available in large quantities such as on Hokkaido , Italy and Spain . One of the most important foods in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States is the Whitebark pine nut ( Pinus albicaulis ) , which is attained perhaps a majority of the time by raiding the once abundant caches of American red squirrels ( Tamiasciurus hudsonicus ) rather than direct foraging . The decline of whitebark pine nut due to the inadvertent introduction by man of the invasive , virulent fungi Cronartium ribicola has in turn required grizzlies to seek alternate food sources , many of which are carnivorous . In a Greek food study , soft mast were found to outrank hard masts as a food source , with about a quarter of the year - around diet consisting of the legume Medicago . A
Tap and die
Die nut s , also known as rethreading dies , are dies made for cleaning up damaged threads , have no split for resizing and are made from a hexagonal bar so that a wrench may be used to turn them . The process of repairing damaged threads is referred to as `` chasing . '' Rethreading dies can not be used to cut new threads .
Bottom bracket
There are a few standard shell widths ( 68 , 70 , 73 , 83 or 100 mm ) . Road bikes usually use 68 mm ; Italian road bikes use 70 mm ; Early model mountain bikes use 73 mm . Later models ( 1995 and newer ) use 68 mm more commonly . Some downhill bikes even use an 83 mm bottom bracket shell . Snow bikes use a 100mm shell .
Operating system
Many computer operating systems allow the user to install or create any user interface they desire . The X Window System in conjunction with GNOME or KDE Plasma 5 is a commonly found setup on most Unix and Unix - like ( BSD , Linux , Solaris ) systems . A number of Windows shell replacements have been released for Microsoft Windows , which offer alternatives to the included Windows shell , but the shell itself can not be separated from Windows .
Xenon
When xenon atoms are in the ground energy state , they repel each other and will not form a bond . When xenon atoms becomes energized , however , they can form an excimer ( excited dimer ) until the electrons return to the ground state . This entity is formed because the xenon atom tends to complete the outermost electronic shell by adding an electron from a neighboring xenon atom . The typical lifetime of a xenon excimer is 1 -- 5 ns , and the decay releases photons with wavelengths of about 150 and 173 nm . Xenon can also form excimers with other elements , such as the halogens bromine , chlorine , and fluorine .
Compact Cassette
An exception to this standard were mechanical storytelling dolls from the 1980s ( e.g. Teddy Ruxpin ) which used the Type IV metal configuration cassette shell but had normal Type I voice grade tape inside . These toys used the Type IV notches to detect that a specially coded tape had been inserted , where the audio of the story is stored on the left channel and various cue tones to tell the doll 's servos how and when to move along with the story on the right channel .
Cell membrane
According to the fluid mosaic model of S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson ( 1972 ) , which replaced the earlier model of Davson and Danielli , biological membranes can be considered as a two - dimensional liquid in which lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less easily . Although the lipid bilayers that form the basis of the membranes do indeed form two - dimensional liquids by themselves , the plasma membrane also contains a large quantity of proteins , which provide more structure . Examples of such structures are protein - protein complexes , pickets and fences formed by the actin - based cytoskeleton , and potentially lipid rafts .
Spider
Silk is mainly composed of a protein very similar to that used in insect silk . It is initially a liquid , and hardens not by exposure to air but as a result of being drawn out , which changes the internal structure of the protein . It is similar in tensile strength to nylon and biological materials such as chitin , collagen and cellulose , but is much more elastic . In other words , it can stretch much further before breaking or losing shape .
Amniotic fluid
At first , amniotic fluid is mainly water with electrolytes , but by about the 12 - 14th week the liquid also contains proteins , carbohydrates , lipids and phospholipids , and urea , all of which aid in the growth of the fetus .
Cumulus cloud
Altocumulus clouds are a mid-level cloud that forms from 2,000 metres ( 6,600 ft ) high to 4,000 metres ( 13,000 ft ) in polar areas , 7,000 metres ( 23,000 ft ) in temperate areas , and 7,600 metres ( 24,900 ft ) in tropical areas . They can have precipitation and are commonly composed of a mixture of ice crystals , supercooled water droplets , and water droplets in temperate latitudes . However , the liquid water concentration was almost always significantly greater than the concentration of ice crystals , and the maximum concentration of liquid water tended to be at the top of the cloud while the ice concentrated itself at the bottom . The ice crystals in the base of the altocumulus clouds and in the virga were found to be dendrites or conglomerations of dendrites while needles and plates resided more towards the top . Altocumulus clouds can form via convection or via the forced uplift caused by a warm front . Because Altocumulus is a genus - type of limited convection , it is divided into the same four species as cirrocumulus .
Jupiter
Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen . At this depth , the pressure and temperature are above hydrogen 's critical pressure of 1.2858 MPa and critical temperature of only 32.938 K . In this state , there are no distinct liquid and gas phases -- hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state . It is convenient to treat hydrogen as gas in the upper layer extending downward from the cloud layer to a depth of about 1,000 km , and as liquid in deeper layers . Physically , there is no clear boundary -- the gas smoothly becomes hotter and denser as one descends .