vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Causes of the Great Depression
In 1929 the Hoover administration responded to the economic crises by temporarily lowering income tax rates and the corporate tax rate . At the beginning of 1931 , tax returns showed a tremendous decline in income due to the economic downturn . Income tax receipts were 40 % less than in 1930 . At the same time government spending proved to be a lot greater than estimated . As a result , the budget deficit increased tremendously . While Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon urged to increase taxes , Hoover had no desire to do so since 1932 was an election year . In December 1931 , hopes that the economic downturn would come to an end vanished since all economic indicators pointed to a continuing downward trend . On January 7 , 1932 , Andrew Mellon announced that the Hoover administration would end a further increase in public debt by raising taxes . On June 6 , 1932 , the Revenue Act of 1932 was signed into law .
Recruitment in the British Army
Competition from civilian occupations was intense and highlighted in the disparity in pay ; where a private could earn 7s per week in 1806 , a dockworker could expect to earn 28s . However soldiers would expect to supplement this meagre income with promotion and loot on campaign . During the early phases of the war , joining the Army could still mean effectively joining for life , which was frequently brutally cut short . For instance , a posting to the Caribbean in 1790 was seen as a near death sentence , as thousands of men died or were disabled by disease there . The Army still struggled to raise the troops required to replace the discharged , wounded and dead as the war against France continued . As early as 1794 , 18,596 soldiers died on active service and another 40,639 men were discharged . This would remain a constant theme during the Napoleonic wars , and the British Army also used foreign volunteers , such as French Royalists , Germans , Greeks and Corsicans to supplement its forces . In 1813 one fifth of the army , 52,000 men , were such volunteers . The British Army in 1813 contained over 250,000 men , though this was much larger in comparison to the army at the beginning of the war , the all volunteer British army was still much smaller than that of France , which with conscription had an army over 2.6 million . Reform
Social class in the United States
In 2005 , 22 % of American households had two income earners . The vast majority ( 97 % ) of households in the top quintile had two or more income earners . This means that the majority of household income in the top quintile are the result of two income earners pooling their resources , establishing a close link between perceived affluence and the number of income earners in a given household . This raises the question of whether or not the combination of incomes results in higher social status . Of course , there is no definite answer as class is a vague sociological concept .
Caste system in India
The post-Vedic texts , particularly Manusmriti mentions outcastes and suggests that they be ostracised . Recent scholarship states that the discussion of outcastes in post-Vedic texts is different from the system widely discussed in colonial era Indian literature , and in Dumont 's structural theory on caste system in India . Patrick Olivelle , a professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions and credited with modern translations of Vedic literature , Dharma - sutras and Dharma - sastras , states that ancient and medieval Indian texts do not support the ritual pollution , purity - impurity premise implicit in the Dumont theory . According to Olivelle , purity - impurity is discussed in the Dharma - sastra texts , but only in the context of the individual 's moral , ritual and biological pollution ( eating certain kinds of food such as meat , going to bathroom ) . Olivelle writes in his review of post-Vedic Sutra and Shastra texts , `` we see no instance when a term of pure / impure is used with reference to a group of individuals or a varna or caste '' . The only mention of impurity in the Shastra texts from the 1st millennium is about people who commit grievous sins and thereby fall out of their varna . These , writes Olivelle , are called `` fallen people '' and considered impure in the medieval Indian texts . The texts declare that these sinful , fallen people be ostracised . Olivelle adds that the overwhelming focus in matters relating to purity / impurity in the Dharma - sastra texts concerns `` individuals irrespective of their varna affiliation '' and all four varnas could attain purity or impurity by the content of their character , ethical intent , actions , innocence or ignorance ( acts by children ) , stipulations , and ritualistic behaviors .
Income inequality in the United States
Gary Burtless of the Brookings Institution notes that many economists and analysts who use U.S. census data fail to recognize recent and significant lower - and middle - income gains , primarily because census data does not capture key information : `` A commonly used indicator of middle class income is the Census Bureau 's estimate of median household money income . The main problem with this income measure is that it only reflects households ' before - tax cash incomes . It fails to account for changing tax burdens and the impact of income sources that do not take the form of cash . This means , for example , that tax cuts in 2001 - 2003 and 2008 - 2012 are missed in the census statistics . Furthermore , the Census Bureau measure ignores income received as in - kind benefits and health insurance coverage from employers and the government . By ignoring such benefits as well as sizeable tax cuts in the recession , the Census Bureau 's money income measure seriously overstated the income losses that middle - income families suffered in the recession .
Caste system in India
Varna literally means colour , and was a framework for grouping people into classes , first used in Vedic Indian society . It is referred to frequently in the ancient Indian texts . The four classes were the Brahmins ( priestly people ) , the Kshatriyas ( also called Rajanyas , who were rulers , administrators and warriors ) , the Vaishyas ( artisans , merchants , tradesmen and farmers ) , and Shudras ( labouring classes ) . The varna categorisation implicitly had a fifth element , being those people deemed to be entirely outside its scope , such as tribal people and the untouchables . Jati
Kumari (goddess)
The power of the Kumari is perceived to be so strong that even a glimpse of her is believed to bring good fortune . Crowds of people wait below the Kumari 's window in the Kumari Chowk , or courtyard , of her palace , hoping that she will pass by the latticed windows on the third floor and glance down at them . Even though her irregular appearances last only a few seconds , the atmosphere in the courtyard is charged with devotion and awe when they do occur .
Santa Barbara, California
The median income for a household in the city was $47,498 , and for a family was $57,880 . Males had a median income of $37,116 versus $31,911 for females . The per capita income for the city was $26,466 . About 7.7 % of families and 13.4 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 16.8 % of those under age 18 and 7.4 % of those age 65 or over . If one compares the per capita income to the actual cost of living , the number of people living below the poverty line is considerably higher .
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
A ridge under the Atlantic Ocean was first inferred by Matthew Fontaine Maury in 1850 . The existence of the ridge was discovered during the expedition of HMS Challenger in 1872 . A team of scientists on board , led by Charles Wyville Thomson , discovered a large rise in the middle of the Atlantic while investigating the future location for a transatlantic telegraph cable . The existence of such a ridge was confirmed by sonar in 1925 and was found to extend around the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean by the German Meteor expedition .
Sahara
The Kiffian culture is a prehistoric industry , or domain , that existed between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago in the Sahara , during the Neolithic Subpluvial . Human remains from this culture were found in 2000 at a site known as Gobero , located in Niger in the Ténéré Desert . The site is known as the largest and earliest grave of Stone Age people in the Sahara desert . The Kiffians were skilled hunters . Bones of many large savannah animals that were discovered in the same area suggest that they lived on the shores of a lake that was present during the Holocene Wet Phase , a period when the Sahara was verdant and wet . The Kiffian people were tall , standing over six feet in height . Craniometric analysis indicates that this early Holocene population was closely related to the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians and early Holocene Capsians of the Maghreb , as well as mid-Holocene Mechta groups . Traces of the Kiffian culture do not exist after 8,000 years ago , as the Sahara went through a dry period for the next thousand years . After this time , the Tenerian culture colonized the area .
Economy of Mexico
In spite of being a staple in the Mexican diet , Mexico 's comparative advantage in agriculture is not in corn , but in horticulture , tropical fruits , and vegetables . Negotiators of NAFTA expected that through liberalization and mechanization of agriculture two - thirds of Mexican corn producers would naturally shift from corn production to horticultural and other labor - intensive crops such as fruits , nuts , vegetables , coffee and sugar cane . While horticultural trade has drastically increased due to NAFTA , it has not absorbed displaced workers from corn production ( estimated at around 600,000 ) . Corn production has remained stable ( at 20 million metric tons ) , arguably , as a result of income support to farmers , or a reluctance to abandon a millenarian tradition in Mexico : not only have peasants grown corn for millennia , corn originated in Mexico . Mexico is the seventh largest corn producer in the world . Potatoes
Culture of El Salvador
Most male children in El Salvador as young as five are raised and began working in a cowboy atmosphere , working on ranches along with their fathers and older members of the family learning about agriculture and livestock , herding animals throughout much of El Salvador tending cattle , in an all male environment which have also retain the machismo culture in El Salvador . Most men in El Salvador , particularly in the towns in the rural countryside including mayors wear elements of cowboy clothing . Cabalgadores in El Salvador dress in cowboy hats and carry machetes also known as Corbos in El Salvador , and they listen to nueva canción guitar type music .
Income inequality in the United States
The level of concentration of income in the United States has fluctuated throughout its history . The first era of inequality lasted roughly from the post-civil war era or `` the Gilded Age '' to sometime around 1937 . In 1915 , an era in which the Rockefellers and Carnegies dominated American industry , the richest 1 % of Americans earned roughly 18 % of all income . By 2007 , the top 1 percent accounted for 24 % of all income and in between , their share fell below 10 % for three decades .
Inventory turnover
Increasing inventory turns reduces holding cost . The organization spends less money on rent , utilities , insurance , theft and other costs of maintaining a stock of good to be sold . Reducing holding cost increases net income and profitability as long as the revenue from selling the item remains constant . Items that turn over more quickly increase responsiveness to changes in customer requirements while allowing the replacement of obsolete items . This is a major concern in fashion industries . When making comparison between firms , it 's important to take note of the industry , or the comparison will be distorted . Making comparison between a supermarket and a car dealer , will not be appropriate , as supermarket sells fast - moving goods such as sweets , chocolates , soft drinks so the stock turnover will be higher . However , a car dealer will have a low turnover due to the item being a slow moving item . As such only intra-industry comparison will be appropriate .
Lucky Spencer
`` I 'm coming with the strength of originating the character and working with Tony ( Geary ) and Genie ( Francis ) at a young age in sort of defining who Lucky was and is . I guess I 'm more focused on the connection I do have with the character than the transitions that people might have to undergo to see me as the character . ''
Decline of Detroit
In contrast , the auto industry also gave rise to a very large and well - compensated layer of managers and executives . There were also large numbers of attorneys , advertising executives , and other white - collar workers who supported the industry 's managerial force . These white - collar workers , already by the 1920s , had begun to move to neighborhoods well removed from the industry 's factories and the neighborhoods of their workers . This upper stratum moved to outlying neighborhoods , and further , to well - to - do suburbs such as Bloomfield Hills and Grosse Pointe . Oakland County , north of the city , became a popular place to live for executives in the industry . `` By the second half of the twentieth century it was one of the wealthiest counties in the United States , a place profoundly shaped by the concentration of auto industry derived wealth . ''
American Grit
John Burk , a US Army Infantry Drill Sergeant who served in Iraq and Afghanistan and also trained younger soldiers for battle , now an entrepreneur Riki Long , a US Marine who was in charge of the legal administration at the largest Marine Corps personnel center , now a fitness nutrition specialist and weightlifter Chloe Mondesir , a US Marine Ammunition Technician , now working with a non-profit organization to raise money for Veteran Affairs programs Grady Powell , a US Army Green Beret with the 10th Special Forces Group with tours in Iraq and Africa , now runs a firearms training facility . He also won NBC 's reality television program Stars Earn Stripes alongside former WWE Divas Champion Eve Torres .
History of agriculture
The Haber - Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints . It was first patented by German chemist Fritz Haber . In 1910 Carl Bosch , while working for German chemical company BASF , successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents . In the years after World War II , the use of synthetic fertilizer increased rapidly , in sync with the increasing world population .
Doctor (title)
Optometrists are not permitted to use the title `` Doctor '' based on their initial qualification ( BOptom or BSc ( Optom ) ) . Optometrists can earn PhDs or Doctor of Optometry degrees ( in the UK a PhD - level qualification for qualified optometrists with experience in practice ) . Ophthalmologists are fully qualified medical doctors . However , ophthalmology is considered a branch of surgery , thus ophthalmologists , like other surgeons in the UK , do not use the title `` Doctor '' .
Christmas decoration
Figural glass Christmas ornaments originated in the small town of Lauscha , Germany in the latter half of the 19th century . The town had long produced fine glassware . The production of Christmas ornaments became a family affair for many people . Some families invested 16 hours a day in production . For some , it was their sole source of income .
Virunga National Park
Trees are being cut down at a rate of 2.3 % . The country lost 14,331 square miles of forest between 2001 and 2010 . The primary cause has been the charcoal industry , which is worth almost two billion dollars . Virunga is the only source of charcoal for Rwanda , which passed a law banning the production of charcoal within its border . Trees are cut down , covered in mud , and set on fire in order to make charcoal . There is also a strong military presence near Virunga . Unpaid soldiers have turned to the charcoal trade and other illegal activities in order to support themselves . Many of the gorilla killings are fueled by the charcoal trade . There have been reported executions of gorillas as act of sabotage by people in the charcoal business who want to see the gorillas dead . Many park officials risk their lives to protect the park . However , some are in collaboration with the military and poachers . Poaching is a source of income for many people due to the economic instability in the country . Many of poachers are members of local militias . Most of money goes back to militias , and use the money to buy weapons .
History of coal mining
By the end of 1912 , there were nine working coal mines , in Newcastle , Drumheller , Midland , Rosedale , and Wayne . In years to follow more mines sprang up : Nacmine , Cambria , Willow Creek , Lehigh , and East Coulee . The timing of the Drumheller mine industry was `` lucky '' according to the Atlas National Historical Site , in that the United Mine Workers union had recently won the right for better working conditions . As a result of union action , child labour laws were passed to prevent boys under 14 years old working underground .
Halloween
From at least the 16th century , the festival included mumming and guising in Ireland , Scotland , the Isle of Man and Wales . This involved people going house - to - house in costume ( or in disguise ) , usually reciting verses or songs in exchange for food . It may have originally been a tradition whereby people impersonated the Aos Sí , or the souls of the dead , and received offerings on their behalf , similar to the custom of souling ( see below ) . Impersonating these beings , or wearing a disguise , was also believed to protect oneself from them . It is suggested that the mummers and guisers `` personify the old spirits of the winter , who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune '' . In parts of southern Ireland , the guisers included a hobby horse . A man dressed as a Láir Bhán ( white mare ) led youths house - to - house reciting verses -- some of which had pagan overtones -- in exchange for food . If the household donated food it could expect good fortune from the ' Muck Olla ' ; not doing so would bring misfortune . In Scotland , youths went house - to - house with masked , painted or blackened faces , often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed . F. Marian McNeill suggests the ancient festival included people in costume representing the spirits , and that faces were marked ( or blackened ) with ashes taken from the sacred bonfire . In parts of Wales , men went about dressed as fearsome beings called gwrachod . In the late 19th and early 20th century , young people in Glamorgan and Orkney cross-dressed .
International Financial Reporting Standards
total comprehensive income for the period , showing separately the total amounts attributable to owners of the parent and to non-controlling interests ; for each component of equity , the effects of retrospective application or retrospective restatement recognised in accordance with IAS 8 ; and for each component of equity , a reconciliation between the carrying amount at the beginning and the end of the period , separately disclosing changes resulting from : profit or loss ; other comprehensive income ; and transactions with owners in their capacity as owners , showing separately contributions by and distributions to owners and changes in ownership interests in subsidiaries that do not result in a loss of control .
Household income in the United States
Regionally , in 2010 , the Northeast reached a median income of $53,283 , the West , $53,142 , the South , $45,492 , and the Midwest , $48,445 . Each figure represents a decline from the previous year . Income
Child labour
In 2010 , a German news investigative report claimed that in silk weaving industry , non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) had found up to 10,000 children working in the 1,000 silk factories in 1998 . In other places , thousands of bonded child labour were present in 1994 . After UNICEF and NGOs got involved , after 2005 , child labour figure is drastically lower , with the total estimated to be fewer than a thousand child labourers . The released children were back in school , claims the report .
Mustang
Native American people readily integrated use of the horse into their cultures . They quickly adopted the horse as a primary means of transportation . Horses replaced the dog as a pack animal and changed Native cultures in terms of warfare , trade , and even diet -- the ability to run down bison allowed some people to abandon agriculture for hunting from horseback .
Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
In Brushaber , the Supreme Court validated the first post - 16th Amendment income tax . Chief Justice White , who as an associate justice had dissented articulately in Pollock , wrote for a unanimous Court . Upholding the income tax provisions of the tariff act of October 3 , 1913 , Chief Justice White observed that the 16th Amendment did not give Congress any new power to lay and collect an income tax ; rather , the 16th Amendment permitted Congress to do so without apportionment ...
Maldives
According to the Ministry of Tourism , the emergence of tourism in 1972 transformed the economy , moving rapidly from dependence on fisheries to tourism . In just three and a half decades , the industry became the main source of income . Tourism was also the country 's biggest foreign currency earner and the single largest contributor to the GDP . As of 2008 , 89 resorts in the Maldives offered over 17,000 beds and hosted over 600,000 tourists annually .
Women's March on Versailles
It is a source of great rejoicing for the good people of Paris to have their king in their midst once again . His presence will very quickly do much to change the outward appearance of things , and the poor will no longer die of starvation . But this happiness would soon vanish like a dream if we did not ensure that the sojourn of the Royal Family in our midst lasted until the Constitution was ratified in every aspect . L'Ami du Peuple shares the jubilation of its dear fellow citizens , but it will remain ever vigilant . --
History of Newfoundland and Labrador
In 1996 , the former federal minister of fisheries , Brian Tobin , was successful in winning the leadership of the provincial Liberal Party following the retirement of premier Clyde Wells . Tobin rode the waves of economic good fortune as the downtrodden provincial economy was undergoing a fundamental shift , largely as a result of the oil and gas industry 's financial stimulus , although the effects of this were mainly felt only in communities on the Avalon Peninsula .
British Hong Kong
In the 1920s , the working class Chinese of Hong Kong did not have a good reason to rally around the Hong Kong government , and they were more susceptible to appeals based on Chinese nationalism . Consequently , the call of the Communists was basically heeded by the working men , and their actions practically paralysed the colony for a year . By the ( end of the ) 1960s , however , the attempts by the Hong Kong government to maintain stability and good order which helped improve everyone 's living conditions , and ... the beginning of the emergence of a Hong Kong identity , changed the attitude of the local Chinese . They overwhelmingly rallied around the colonial British regime .
Indian rupee
`` If , therefore , the India Council in London should not step in to sell bills on India , the merchants and bankers would have to send silver to make good the ( trade ) balances . Thus a channel for the outflow of silver was stopped , in 1875 , by the India Council in London . ''