vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Diamond
Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high - pressure experiments ( see diamond anvil cell ) , high - performance bearings , and limited use in specialized windows . With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamonds , future applications are becoming feasible . The high thermal conductivity of diamond makes it suitable as a heat sink for integrated circuits in electronics .
History of democracy
Under the influence of the theory of deliberative democracy , there have been several experiments since the start of the new millennium with what are called deliberative fora , places ( in real life or in cyber space ) where citizens and their representatives assemble to exchange reasons . One type of deliberative forum is called a minpublic : a body of randomly chosen or actively selected citizens that represents the whole population . The use of random selection to form a representative deliberative body is known as sortition . Examples of this are citizens ' assemblies and citizens ' juries . Citizens ' assemblies have been used in Canada ( 2004 , 2006 ) and the Netherlands ( 2006 ) to debate electoral reform , and in Iceland ( 2009 and 2010 ) for broader constitutional change .
Novel
Laurence Sterne 's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy , Gentleman ( 1759 -- 1767 ) is an experimental work which rejects continuous narration . In it the author not only addresses the reader in his preface but speaks directly to him or her in his fictional narrative . In addition to his narrative experiments , Sterne has visual experiments , such as a marbled page , a black page to express sorrow , and a page of lines to show the plot lines of the book . Jonathan Swift 's A Tale of a Tub ( 1704 ) was an early precursor in this field .
Lyme disease
Except for one study in Europe , much of the data implicating lizards is based on DNA detection of the spirochete and has not demonstrated lizards are able to infect ticks feeding upon them . As some experiments suggest lizards are refractory to infection with Borrelia , it appears likely their involvement in the enzootic cycle is more complex and species - specific .
Gene
Early work in molecular genetics suggested the concept that one gene makes one protein . This concept ( originally called the one gene - one enzyme hypothesis ) emerged from an influential 1941 paper by George Beadle and Edward Tatum on experiments with mutants of the fungus Neurospora crassa . Norman Horowitz , an early colleague on the Neurospora research , reminisced in 2004 that `` these experiments founded the science of what Beadle and Tatum called biochemical genetics . In actuality they proved to be the opening gun in what became molecular genetics and all the developments that have followed from that . '' The one gene - one protein concept has been refined since the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins by alternative splicing and coding sequences split in short section across the genome whose mRNAs are concatenated by trans - splicing .
Police dog
It was in Continental Europe that dogs were first used on a large scale . Police in Paris began using dogs against roaming criminal gangs at night , but it was the police department in Ghent , Belgium that introduced the first organized police dog service program in 1899 . These methods soon spread to Austria - Hungary and Germany ; in the latter the first scientific developments in the field took place with experiments in dog breeding and training . The German police selected the German Shepherd Dog as the ideal breed for police work and opened up the first dog training school in 1920 in Greenheide . The dogs were systematically trained in obedience to their officers and tracking and attacking criminals .
Collagen
Collagen has been widely used in cosmetic surgery , as a healing aid for burn patients for reconstruction of bone and a wide variety of dental , orthopedic , and surgical purposes . Both human and bovine collagen is widely used as dermal fillers for treatment of wrinkles and skin aging . Some points of interest are :
Brown bear
When bears come to associate human activity with a `` food reward '' , they are likely to continue to become emboldened ; the likelihood of human - bear encounters increases , as they may return to the same location despite relocation . Relocation of the bear has been used to separate the bear from the human environment , but it does not address the problem of the bear 's newly learned association of humans with food or the environmental situations which created the human - habituated bear . `` Placing a bear in habitat used by other bears may lead to competition and social conflict , and result in the injury or death of the less dominant bear . '' Yellowstone National Park , a reserve located in the western United States , contains prime habitat for the grizzly bear ( Ursus arctos horribilis ) , and due to the enormous number of visitors , human - bear encounters are common . The scenic beauty of the area has led to an influx of people moving into the area . In addition , because there are so many bear relocations to the same remote areas of Yellowstone , and because male bears tend to dominate the center of the relocation zone , female bears tend to be pushed to the boundaries of the region and beyond . As a result , a large proportion of repeat offenders , bears that are killed for public safety , are females . This creates a further depressive effect on an already endangered species . The grizzly bear is officially described as `` threatened '' in the U.S. Though the problem is most significant with regard to grizzlies , these issues affect the other types of brown bears as well .
Freedom of speech by country
The majority of African constitutions provide legal protection for freedom of speech . However , these rights are exercised inconsistently in practice . The replacement of authoritarian regimes in Kenya and Ghana has substantially improved the situation in those countries . On the other hand , Eritrea allows no independent media and uses draft evasion as a pretext to crack down on any dissent , spoken or otherwise . One of the poorest and smallest nations in Africa , Eritrea is now the largest prison for journalists ; since 2001 , fourteen journalists have been imprisoned in unknown places without a trial . Sudan , Libya , and Equatorial Guinea also have repressive laws and practices . In addition , many state radio stations ( which are the primary source of news for illiterate people ) are under tight control and programs , especially talk shows providing a forum to complain about the government , are often censored . Also countries like Somalia and Egypt provide legal protection for freedom of speech but it is not used publicly .
Glycolysis
While Pasteur 's experiments were groundbreaking , insight into the component steps of glycolysis were provided by the non-cellular fermentation experiments of Eduard Buchner during the 1890s . Buchner demonstrated that the conversion of glucose to ethanol was possible using a non-living extract of yeast ( due to the action of enzymes in the extract ) . This experiment not only revolutionized biochemistry , but also allowed later scientists to analyze this pathway in a more controlled lab setting . In a series of experiments ( 1905 - 1911 ) , scientists Arthur Harden and William Young discovered more pieces of glycolysis ... They discovered the regulatory effects of ATP on glucose consumption during alcohol fermentation . They also shed light on the role of one compound as a glycolysis intermediate : fructose 1 , 6 - bisphosphate .
Evidence of common descent
Scientists have observed and documented a multitude of events where natural selection is in action . The most well known examples are antibiotic resistance in the medical field along with better - known laboratory experiments documenting evolution 's occurrence . Natural selection is tantamount to common descent in that long - term occurrence and selection pressures can lead to the diversity of life on earth as found today . All adaptations -- documented and undocumented changes concerned -- are caused by natural selection ( and a few other minor processes ) . It is well established that , `` ... natural selection is a ubiquitous part of speciation ... '' , and is the primary driver of speciation ; therefore , the following examples of natural selection and speciation will often interdepend or correspond with one another . The examples below are only a small fraction of the actual experiments and observations .
History of chemistry
In 1983 Kary Mullis devised a method for the in - vitro amplification of DNA , known as the polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) , which revolutionized the chemical processes used in the laboratory to manipulate it . PCR could be used to synthesize specific pieces of DNA and made possible the sequencing of DNA of organisms , which culminated in the huge human genome project .
Cell-free fetal DNA
mRNA transcripts from genes expressed in the placenta are detectable in maternal plasma . In this procedure , plasma is centrifuged so an aqueous layer appears . This layer is transferred and from it RNA is extracted . RT - PCR is used to detect a selected expression of RNA . For example , Human placental lactogen ( hPL ) and beta - hCG mRNA are stable in maternal plasma and can be detected . ( Ng et al. 2002 ) . This can help to confirm the presence of cffDNA in maternal plasma .
Gene
In the early 1950s the prevailing view was that the genes in a chromosome acted like discrete entities , indivisible by recombination and arranged like beads on a string . The experiments of Benzer using mutants defective in the rII region of bacteriophage T4 ( 1955 - 1959 ) showed that individual genes have a simple linear structure and are likely to be equivalent to a linear section of DNA .
Long jump
A Yuliana Angulo 10 May 2015 Medellín Sri Lanka 6.43 m ( 21 ft 1 in ) Chamali Dilrukshi Priyadarshani 19 December 2015 Diyagama Papua New Guinea 6.39 m ( 20 ft 11 ​ ⁄ in ) Rellie Kaputin 23 April 2017 Amarillo Antigua and Barbuda 6.22 m ( 20 ft 4 ​ ⁄ in ) Amy Harris - Willock 6 July 2014 Basseterre Dominica 6.17 m ( 20 ft 2 ​ ⁄ in ) i Thea LaFond 27 February 2015 Geneva Papua New Guinea 6.10 m ( 20 ft 0 in ) Rellie Kaputin 26 May 2016 Bradenton Republic of the Congo 6.10 m ( 20 ft 0 in ) Marie Mbuya Mala 24 June 2017 Moulins Bolivia 6.09 m ( 19 ft 11 ​ ⁄ in ) A Valeria Quispe 4 June 2017 Tarija Laos 5.75 m ( 18 ft 10 ​ ⁄ in ) Laenly Phoutthavong 25 August 2017 Bukit Jalil Laos 5.69 m ( 18 ft 8 in ) Laenly Phoutthavong 4 April 2015 Kallang Guinea Bissau 5.69 m ( 18 ft 8 in ) Fatumata Baldé 3 June 2017 Braga Cape Verde 5.66 m ( 18 ft 6 ​ ⁄ in ) i Evelise Veiga 27 January 2012 Pombal Libya 5.12 m ( 16 ft 9 ​ ⁄ in ) Hedil Aboud Fethi 7 June 2015 Radès Kuwait 4.87 m ( 15 ft 11 ​ ⁄ in ) Nadia Al - Haqqan 15 March 2015 Muscat
William Beaumont
Beaumont published the account of his experiments in 1838 , as Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice , and the Physiology of Digestion . He and St. Martin parted ways , with Beaumont eventually going to St. Louis , Missouri , and St. Martin to his home in Quebec province , Canada . Off and on for the next twenty years , Beaumont tried to get St. Martin to move to St. Louis , but the move never occurred .
Types of volcanic eruptions
Sakurajima , Japan has been the site of Vulcanian activity near - continuously since 1955 . Tavurvur , Papua New Guinea , one of several volcanoes in the Rabaul Caldera . Irazú Volcano in Costa Rica exhibited Vulcanian activity in its 1965 eruption .
Pokhran-II
Pakistan 's leading nuclear physicist , Pervez Hoodbhoy , held India responsible for Pakistan 's nuclear test experiments in Chagai .
Tooth decay
Susceptibility to caries can be related to altered metabolism in the tooth , in particular to fluid flow in the dentin . Experiments on rats have shown that a high - sucrose , cariogenic diet `` significantly suppresses the rate of fluid motion '' in dentin .
Anti-lock braking system
In 1958 , a Royal Enfield Super Meteor motorcycle was used by the Road Research Laboratory to test the Maxaret anti-lock brake . The experiments demonstrated that anti-lock brakes can be of great value to motorcycles , for which skidding is involved in a high proportion of accidents . Stopping distances were reduced in most of the tests compared with locked wheel braking , particularly on slippery surfaces , in which the improvement could be as much as 30 percent . Enfield 's technical director at the time , Tony Wilson - Jones , saw little future in the system , however , and it was not put into production by the company .
Species
When organisms reproduce asexually , as in single - celled organisms and parthenogenetic or apomictic multi-celled organisms . When scientists do not know whether two morphologically similar groups of organisms are capable of interbreeding ; this is the case with all extinct life - forms in palaeontology , as breeding experiments are not possible . When hybridisation permits substantial gene flow between species . In ring species , when members of adjacent populations interbreed successfully but members of some non-adjacent populations do not .
Phenolphthalein
Phenolphthalein is slightly soluble in water and usually is dissolved in alcohols for use in experiments . It is a weak acid , which can lose H ions in solution . The phenolphthalein molecule is colorless , and the phenolphthalein ion is pink. When a base is added to the phenolphthalein , the molecule ⇌ ions equilibrium shifts to the right , leading to more ionization as H ions are removed . This is predicted by Le Chatelier 's principle .
The Left Hand of Darkness
The Left Hand of Darkness is set in the fictional Hainish universe , which Le Guin introduced in her first novel Rocannon 's World , published in 1966 . In this fictional history , human beings did not evolve on Earth , but on Hain . The people of Hain colonized many neighboring planetary systems , including Terra ( Earth ) and Gethen , possibly a million years before the setting of the novels . Some of the groups that `` seeded '' each planet were the subjects of genetic experiments , including on Gethen . The planets subsequently lost contact with each other , for reasons that Le Guin does not explain . Le Guin does not narrate the entire history of the Hainish universe at once , instead letting readers piece it together from various works .
Kent State shootings
Just before noon , the Guard returned and again ordered the crowd to disperse . When most of the crowd refused , the Guard used tear gas . Because of wind , the tear gas had little effect in dispersing the crowd , and some launched a second volley of rocks toward the Guard 's line and chanted `` Pigs off campus ! '' The students lobbed the tear gas canisters back at the National Guardsmen , who wore gas masks .
Time
Most countries use mean solar time . Australia , Canada ( Quebec only ) , Colombia , France , Germany , New Zealand , Papua New Guinea ( Bougainville only ) , Paraguay , Portugal , Switzerland , the United States and Venezuela use UTC . However , UTC is widely used by the scientific community in countries where mean solar time is official . UTC time is based on the SI second , which was first defined in 1967 , and is based on the use of atomic clocks . Some other less used but closely related time - standards include International Atomic Time ( TAI ) , Terrestrial Time , and Barycentric Dynamical Time .
Paterson, New Jersey
In 1835 Samuel Colt began producing firearms in Paterson , although within a few years he moved his business to Hartford , Connecticut . Later in the 19th century Paterson was the site of early experiments with submarines by Irish - American inventor John Philip Holland . Two of Holland 's early models -- one found at the bottom of the Passaic River -- are on display in the Paterson Museum , housed in the former Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works near the Passaic Falls .
Glycolysis
The first steps in understanding glycolysis began in the nineteenth century with the wine industry . For economic reasons , the French wine industry sought to investigate why wine sometime turned distasteful , instead of fermenting into alcohol . French scientist Louis Pasteur researched this issue during the 1850s , and the results of his experiments began the long road to elucidating the pathway of glycolysis . His experiments showed that fermentation occurs by the action of living microorganisms ; and that yeast 's glucose consumption decreased under aerobic conditions of fermentation , in comparison to anaerobic conditions ( the Pasteur Effect ) . Eduard
Dutch elm disease
In 2001 - 4 , English elm U. procera was genetically engineered to resist disease , in experiments at Abertay University , Dundee , Scotland , by transferring antifungal genes into the elm genome using minute DNA - coated ball bearings . However , owing to the hostility to GM developments , there are no plans to release the trees into the countryside .
Time dilation
Ives and Stilwell ( 1938 , 1941 ) stated purpose of these experiments was to verify the time dilation effect , predicted by Larmor -- Lorentz ether theory , due to motion through the ether using Einstein 's suggestion that Doppler effect in canal rays would provide a suitable experiment . These experiments measured the Doppler shift of the radiation emitted from cathode rays , when viewed from directly in front and from directly behind . The high and low frequencies detected were not the classically predicted values
Satellite
Space stations are artificial orbital structures that are designed for human beings to live on in outer space . A space station is distinguished from other crewed spacecraft by its lack of major propulsion or landing facilities . Space stations are designed for medium - term living in orbit , for periods of weeks , months , or even years . Tether satellites are satellites which are connected to another satellite by a thin cable called a tether . Weather satellites are primarily used to monitor Earth 's weather and climate .
Human rights and development
The right was first recognised in 1981 under Article 22 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples ' Rights and subsequently in the Arab Charter on Human Rights . It is now recognised in numerous international instruments , with the Rio Declaration asserting under principle 1 `` Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development , they are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature '' . Other instruments include the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action the United Nations Millennium Declaration , the 2002 Monterrey Consensus , the 2005 World Summit and the 2007 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples .
Resting potential
For common usage the Nernst equation is often given in a simplified form by assuming typical human body temperature ( 37 ° C ) , reducing the constants and switching to Log base 10 . ( The units used for concentration are unimportant as they will cancel out into a ratio ) . For Potassium at normal body temperature one may calculate the equilibrium potential in millivolts as :
Human rights and development
Around half of the wealthiest 100 entities in the world today are corporations not countries . with many organisations committing gross human rights violations from which they earn vast profits . Wars are inflamed through arms sales and corporations deal in conflict commodities like diamonds .
Metrication in the United States
In science education , students predominantly use metric measures in experiments and equations , allowing those interested in the sciences to become more familiar with the metric system . Science classes are requisites for an undergraduate degree in the U.S. which ensures most educated people have some familiarity with the metric system . Within higher education , the metric system is universal for classes in the sciences ( see below ) , except for exercises designed to illustrate complex conversions . Some non-science textbooks in the U.S. use only the metric system without giving conversions in order to promote metrication .
Space Race
Gagarin 's informal poyekhali ! became a historical phrase in the Eastern Bloc , used to refer to the beginning of the human space flight era .
Xenon
Liquid xenon is used in calorimeters to measure gamma rays , and as a detector of hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles , or WIMPs . When a WIMP collides with a xenon nucleus , theory predicts it will impart enough energy to cause ionization and scintillation . Liquid xenon is useful for these experiments because its density makes dark matter interaction more likely and it permits a quiet detector through self - shielding .
Collagen
From the Greek for glue , kolla , the word collagen means `` glue producer '' and refers to the early process of boiling the skin and sinews of horses and other animals to obtain glue . Collagen adhesive was used by Egyptians about 4,000 years ago , and Native Americans used it in bows about 1,500 years ago . The oldest glue in the world , carbon - dated as more than 8,000 years old , was found to be collagen -- used as a protective lining on rope baskets and embroidered fabrics , and to hold utensils together ; also in crisscross decorations on human skulls . Collagen normally converts to gelatin , but survived due to dry conditions . Animal glues are thermoplastic , softening again upon reheating , so they are still used in making musical instruments such as fine violins and guitars , which may have to be reopened for repairs -- an application incompatible with tough , synthetic plastic adhesives , which are permanent . Animal sinews and skins , including leather , have been used to make useful articles for millennia .
Economic history of World War I
Gross domestic product ( GDP ) increased for three Allies ( Britain , Italy , and U.S. ) , but decreased in France and Russia , in neutral Netherlands , and in the three main Central Powers . The shrinkage in GDP in Austria , Russia , France , and the Ottoman Empire reached 30 to 40 % . In Austria , for example , most pigs were slaughtered , so at war 's end there was no meat .
Quantum mechanics
Entanglement , as demonstrated in Bell - type experiments , does not , however , violate causality , since no transfer of information happens . Quantum entanglement forms the basis of quantum cryptography , which is proposed for use in high - security commercial applications in banking and government .
Telephone exchange
A telephone exchange is a telecommunications system used in the public switched telephone network or in large enterprises . An exchange consists of electronic components and in older systems also human operators that interconnect ( switch ) telephone subscriber lines or virtual circuits of digital systems to establish telephone calls between subscribers .
Phase (matter)
For a given composition , only certain phases are possible at a given temperature and pressure . The number and type of phases that will form is hard to predict and is usually determined by experiment . The results of such experiments can be plotted in phase diagrams .
Scientific method
The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena , acquiring new knowledge , or correcting and integrating previous knowledge . To be termed scientific , a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning . The Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the scientific method as `` a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century , consisting in systematic observation , measurement , and experiment , and the formulation , testing , and modification of hypotheses '' . Experiments are a procedure designed to test hypotheses . Experiments are an important tool of the scientific method .