vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
False Claims Act
Qui tam laws have history dating back to the Middle Ages in England . In 1318 , King Edward II offered one third of the penalty to the relator when the relator successfully sued government officials who moonlighted as wine merchants . The Maintenance and Embracery Act 1540 of Henry VIII provided that common informers could sue for certain forms of interference with the course of justice in legal proceedings that were concerned with the title to land . This act is still in force today in the Republic of Ireland , although in 1967 it was extinguished in England . The idea of a common informer bringing suit for damages to the Commonwealth was later brought to Massachusetts , where `` penalties for fraud in the sale of bread ( are ) to be distributed one third to inspector who discovered the fraud and the remainder for the benefit of the town where the offense occurred . '' Other statutes can be found on the colonial law books of Connecticut , New York , Virginia and South Carolina .
Where the Red Fern Grows
Although sales of the novel began slowly , by 1974 over 90,000 copies had been sold . In 2001 , Publishers Weekly estimated that it had sold 6,754,308 copies . Today Where the Red Fern Grows is required reading in many American schools . One critic said it will please adults as well as children .
National identification number
In Italy , the fiscal code ( Italian : Codice fiscale ) is issued to Italians at birth . It is in the format `` SSSNNNYYMDDZZZZX '' , where : SSS are the first three consonants in the family name ( the first vowel and then an X are used if there are not enough consonants ) ; NNN is the first name , of which the first , third and fourth consonants are used -- exceptions are handled as in family names ; YY are the last digits of the birth year ; M is the letter for the month of birth -- letters are used in alphabetical order , but only the letters A to E , H , L , M , P , R to T are used ( thus , January is A and October is R ) ; DD is the day of the month of birth -- in order to differentiate between genders , 40 is added to the day of birth for women ( thus a woman born on May 3 has ... E43 ... ) ; ZZZZ is an area code specific to the municipality where the person was born -- country - wide codes are used for foreign countries ; X is a parity character as calculated by adding together characters in the even and odd positions , and dividing them by 26 . Numerical values are used for letters in even positions according to their alphabetical order . Characters in odd positions have different values .
Jim Crow laws
Those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices . They effectively disappeared from political life , as they could not influence the state legislatures , and their interests were overlooked . While public schools had been established by Reconstruction legislatures for the first time in most Southern states , those for black children were consistently underfunded compared to schools for white children , even when considered within the strained finances of the postwar South where the decreasing price of cotton kept the agricultural economy at a low .
Romance languages
Owing to sound changes which made it homophonous with the preterite , the Latin future indicative tense was dropped , and replaced with a periphrasis of the form infinitive + present tense of habēre ( to have ) . Eventually , this structure was reanalysed as a new future tense . In a similar process , an entirely new conditional form was created . While the synthetic passive voice of classical Latin was abandoned in favour of periphrastic constructions , most of the active voice remained in use . However , several tenses have changed meaning , especially subjunctives . For example : The Latin pluperfect indicative became a conditional in Sicilian , and an imperfect subjunctive in Spanish . The Latin pluperfect subjunctive developed into an imperfect subjunctive in all languages except Romansh , where it became a conditional , and Romanian , where it became a pluperfect indicative . The Latin preterite subjunctive , together with the future perfect indicative , became a future subjunctive in Old Spanish , Portuguese , and Galician . The Latin imperfect subjunctive became a personal infinitive in Portuguese and Galician . Many Romance languages have two verbs `` to be '' . One is derived from Vulgar Latin * essere < Latin esse `` to be '' with an admixture of forms derived from sedēre `` to sit '' , and is used mostly for essential attributes ; the other is derived from stāre `` to stand '' , and mostly used for temporary states . This development is most notable in Spanish , Portuguese and Catalan . In French , Italian and Romanian , the derivative of stāre largely preserved an earlier meaning of `` to stand / to stay '' , although in modern Italian , stare is used in a few constructions where English would use `` to be '' , as in sto bene `` I am well '' . In Old French , the derivatives of * essere and stāre were estre and ester , respectively .
Romance languages
The Romance languages for the most part have kept the writing system of Latin , adapting it to their evolution . One exception was Romanian before the nineteenth century , where , after the Roman retreat , literacy was reintroduced through the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet , a Slavic influence . A Cyrillic alphabet was also used for Romanian ( Moldovan ) in the USSR . The non-Christian populations of Spain also used the scripts of their religions ( Arabic and Hebrew ) to write Romance languages such as Ladino and Mozarabic in aljamiado .
History of the Latin script
The oldest Latin inscriptions do not distinguish between / ɡ / and / k / , representing both by C , K and Q according to position . K was used before A ; Q was used ( if at all ) before O or V ; C was used elsewhere . This is explained by the fact that the Etruscan language did not make this distinction . C originated as a turned form of Greek Gamma ( Γ ) and Q from Greek Koppa ( Ϙ ) . In later Latin , K survived only in a few forms such as Kalendae ; Q survived only before V ( representing / kw / ) , and C was used everywhere else . G was later invented to distinguish between / ɡ / and / k / ; it was originally simply a C with an additional diacritic .
Industrial Revolution
Oliver Evans invented an automated flour mill in the mid 1780s that used control mechanisms and conveyors so that no labour was needed from the time grain was loaded into the elevator buckets until flour was discharged into a wagon . This is considered to be the first modern materials handling system an important advance in the progress toward mass production .
Apothecaries' system
The apothecaries ' system often used the same ounces as the precious metals system , although even then the number of ounces in a pound could be different . The apothecaries ' pound was divided into its own special units , which were inherited ( via influential treatises of Greek physicians such as Dioscorides and Galen , 1st and 2nd century ) from the general - purpose weight system of the Romans . Where the apothecaries ' weights and the normal commercial weights were different , it was not always clear which of the two systems was used in trade between merchants and apothecaries , or by which system apothecaries weighed medicine when they actually sold it . In old merchants ' handbooks the former system is sometimes referred to as the pharmaceutical system , and distinguished from the apothecaries ' system .
Central Intelligence Agency
... what we have today with the intelligence business is something far more systemic : senior officials leaving their national security and counterterrorism jobs for positions where they are basically doing the same jobs they once held at the CIA , the NSA and other agencies -- but for double or triple the salary , and for profit . It 's a privatization of the highest order , in which our collective memory and experience in intelligence -- our crown jewels of spying , so to speak -- are owned by corporate America . Yet , there is essentially no government oversight of this private sector at the heart of our intelligence empire . And the lines between public and private have become so blurred as to be nonexistent .
Female reproductive system
The cervix is the neck of the uterus , the lower , narrow portion where it joins with the upper part of the vagina . It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall . Approximately half its length is visible , the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view . The vagina has a thick layer outside and it is the opening where the fetus emerges during delivery .
Computer
The tide - predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters . It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location .
Minicomputer
Minicomputers were also known as midrange computers . They grew to have relatively high processing power and capacity . They were used in manufacturing process control , telephone switching and to control laboratory equipment . In the 1970s , they were the hardware that was used to launch the computer - aided design ( CAD ) industry and other similar industries where a smaller dedicated system was needed .
Hindu temple
The appropriate site for a temple , suggest ancient Sanskrit texts , is near water and gardens , where lotus and flowers bloom , where swans , ducks and other birds are heard , where animals rest without fear of injury or harm . These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the explanation that such are the places where gods play , and thus the best site for Hindu temples . Hindu
Arabic numerals
The term Arabic numerals is ambiguous . It most commonly refers to the numerals widely used in Europe and the Americas ; to avoid confusion , Unicode calls these European digits . Arabic numerals is also the European name for the entire family of related numerals of Arabic and Indian numerals . It may also be intended to mean the numerals used by Arabs , in which case it generally refers to the Eastern Arabic numerals . It would be more appropriate to refer to the Arabic numeral system , where the value of a digit in a number depends on its position .
Field-effect transistor
The first type of JFET was the static induction transistor ( SIT ) , invented by Japanese engineers Jun - ichi Nishizawa and Y . Watanabe in 1950 . The SIT is a type of JFET with a short channel length . The metal -- oxide -- semiconductor field - effect transistor ( MOSFET ) , which largely superseded the JFET and had a profound effect on digital electronic development , was invented by Dawon Kahng and Martin Atalla in 1959 .
Grand Trunk Road
Over the centuries , the road acted as one of the major trade routes in the region and facilitated both travel and postal communication . The Grand Trunk Road is still used for transportation in present - day India , where parts of the road have been widened and included in the national highway system , retaining the old name .
Standardized test
The earliest evidence of standardized testing was in China , during the Han Dynasty , where the imperial examinations covered the Six Arts which included music , archery , horsemanship , arithmetic , writing , and knowledge of the rituals and ceremonies of both public and private parts . These exams were used to select employees for the state bureaucracy .
Hijab
It has become tradition that Muslims in general , and Salafis in particular , believe the Qur'an demands women wear the garments known today as jilbāb and khumūr ( the khumūr must be worn underneath the jilbāb ) . However , Qur'an translators and commentators translate the Arabic into English words with a general meaning , such as veils , head - coverings and shawls . Ghamidi argues that verses teach etiquette for male and female interactions , where khumūr is mentioned in reference to the clothing of Arab women in the 7th century , but there is no command to actually wear them in any specific way . Hence he considers head - covering a preferable practice but not a directive of the sharia ( law ) .
Plate tectonics
The location where two plates meet is called a plate boundary . Plate boundaries are commonly associated with geological events such as earthquakes and the creation of topographic features such as mountains , volcanoes , mid-ocean ridges , and oceanic trenches . The majority of the world 's active volcanoes occur along plate boundaries , with the Pacific Plate 's Ring of Fire being the most active and widely known today . These boundaries are discussed in further detail below . Some volcanoes occur in the interiors of plates , and these have been variously attributed to internal plate deformation and to mantle plumes .
Japanese honorifics
In the National Diet ( Legislature ) , the Speaker of the House uses kun when addressing Diet members and ministers . An exception was when Takako Doi was the Speaker of the lower house , where she used the title san .
Tennis court
A tennis court is the venue where the sport of tennis is played . It is a firm rectangular surface with a low net stretched across the center . The same surface can be used to play both doubles and singles matches . A variety of surfaces can be used to create a tennis court , each with its own characteristics which affect the playing style of the game .
Attack on Pearl Harbor
Intensive salvage operations continued for another year , a total of some 20,000 man - hours under water . Oklahoma , while successfully raised , was never repaired , and capsized while under tow to the mainland in 1947 . Arizona and the target ship Utah were too heavily damaged for salvage , though much of their armament and equipment was removed and put to use aboard other vessels . Today , the two hulks remain where they were sunk , with Arizona becoming a war memorial .
Buckingham Palace
Adjacent to the palace is the Royal Mews , also designed by Nash , where the royal carriages , including the Gold State Coach , are housed . This rococo gilt coach , designed by Sir William Chambers in 1760 , has painted panels by G.B. Cipriani . It was first used for the State Opening of Parliament by George III in 1762 and has been used by the monarch for every coronation since George IV . It was last used for the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II . Also housed in the mews are the coach horses used at royal ceremonial processions .
Education reform
Mainstream media continues to be both very influential and the medium where Crowd - Accelerated Innovation gains its leverage . Media is in direct competition with formal educational institutions in shaping the minds of today and those of tomorrow . ( Buchanan , Rachel footnote ) The media has been instrumental in pushing formal educational institutions to become savvier in their methods . Additionally , advertising has been ( and continues to be ) a vital force in shaping students and parents thought patterns .
Copper in architecture
Soft tempered copper is extremely malleable and offers far less resistance than cold rolled copper to the stresses induced by expansion and contraction . It is used for intricate ornamental work and where extreme forming is required , such as in complicated thru - wall flashing conditions .
Hungary in World War I
The so - called `` common '' army and `` common '' navy , where the language was German , and was 87 % of the total army The Landwehr of the Austrian army The Royal Hungarian `` honvédség '' , where the language was Hungarian and Croatian .
A Cure for Wellness
The directors used a rubber drill in the scene where Dr. Brennan , the facility 's dentist , drills through Mr. Lockhart 's healthy tooth without anesthesia . According to DeHaan , he was genuinely nervous and his reaction was used in the filming . He stated that the scene had compositing but no outright CGI . DeHaan filmed the scene while wearing a dental gag and strapped to the chair .
Fortress of Solitude
The Fortress also appears in the Legion of Super Heroes animated series . It appears in the episode called `` Message in a Bottle '' . In that episode , the Legion chase Imperiex to the Fortress , where he shrinks himself to enter Kandor , to steal highly advanced ancient Kryptonian technology invented by Jor - El . Young
Maritime lien
`` Proper law '' is the decision as to which territorial law is to govern the contract , defines the obligations of the contractual parties and determines whether the contract is valid and legal . It also determinates the effects and conditions of discharge . Selection of the `` proper law '' to adjudicate the marine contract is a difficult task in Admiralty Jurisdiction because the issue of whether enforcement of the maritime lien is allowed by international law may turn on interpretation of the law of the country where the litigation is . So , the question is over the priority of the law where the lien was created ( lex loci ) , as opposed to the law of where the court exercising jurisdiction ( lex fori ) .
Doctor (title)
Similarly , conventions regarding the punctuation of degree abbreviations vary . In the United Kingdom , it is normal also to omit stops from postnominal letters , thus the usual abbreviation of `` Esquire '' in postnominals is `` Esq '' , and the usual abbreviation for `` Doctor of Philosophy '' is `` PhD '' ( or `` DPhil '' , where this is used ) . The fully punctuated `` Ph. D . '' or `` D. Phil . '' is anachronistic and , where the abbreviated form of the degree is defined by regulation rather than custom ( e.g. Oxford ) , may be technically incorrect .
Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull
Producer Frank Marshall stated in 2003 that the film would use traditional stunt work so as to be consistent with the previous films . CGI was used to remove the visible safety wires on the actors when they did their stunts ( such as when Indy swings on a lamp with his whip ) . Timed explosives were used for a scene where Indiana drives a truck through crates . During the take , an explosive failed to detonate and landed in the seat beside Ford . It did not go off and he was not injured .
Computer
The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks . The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC . Since then , many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented . In a medieval European counting house , a checkered cloth would be placed on a table , and markers moved around on it according to certain rules , as an aid to calculating sums of money . The
Eyepiece
A Monocentric is an achromatic triplet lens with two pieces of crown glass cemented on both sides of a flint glass element . The elements are thick , strongly curved , and their surfaces have a common center giving it the name `` monocentric '' . It was invented by Hugo Adolf Steinheil around 1883 . This design , like the solid eyepiece designs of Robert Tolles , Charles S. Hastings , and E. Wilfred Taylor , is free from ghost reflections and gives a bright contrasty image , a desirable feature when it was invented ( before anti-reflective coatings ) . It has a narrow field of view of around 25 ° and is a favorite amongst planetary observers .
Alternative energy
Hydroelectricity provided 75 % of the worlds renewable electricity in 2013 . Much of the electricity used today is a result of the heyday of conventional hydroelectric development between 1960 and 1980 , which has virtually ceased in Europe and North America due to environmental concerns . Globally there is a trend towards more hydroelectricity . From 2004 to 2014 the installed capacity rose from 715 to 1,055 GW . A popular alternative to the large dams of the past is run - of - the - river where there is no water stored behind a dam and generation usually varies with seasonal rainfall . Using run - of - the - river in wet seasons and solar in dry seasons can balance seasonal variations for both . Another move away from large dams is small hydro , these tend to be situated high up on tributaries , rather than on main rivers in valley bottoms .
Wedding cake
Wedding cake toppers are models or art pieces that sit atop the cake . The most common type of cake topper features a representation of a bride and groom in wedding attire . This custom was dominant in US weddings in the 1950s , where it represented togetherness . Wedding toppers today are often figures that indicate shared hobbies or other passions , if they are used at all . Some are humorous , or may represent the couple 's hobby or occupation . Some couples use a piece of art which will be displayed in their home later , such as a statuette or Christmas ornament . Some couples skip the topper altogether or decorate the top tier with flowers .
Ancient Roman architecture
The Roman basilica was a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted . They were normally where the magistrates held court , and used for other official ceremonies , having many of the functions of the modern town hall . The first basilicas had no religious function at all . As early as the time of Augustus , a public basilica for transacting business had been part of any settlement that considered itself a city , used in the same way as the late medieval covered market houses of northern Europe , where the meeting room , for lack of urban space , was set above the arcades , however . Although their form was variable , basilicas often contained interior colonnades that divided the space , giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides , with an apse at one end ( or less often at each end ) , where the magistrates sat , often on a slightly raised dais . The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles , so that light could penetrate through the clerestory windows .
Great Depression in the United States
The unregulated growth of small rural banking institutions can be partially attributed to the rising cost of agriculture especially in the Corn Belt and Cotton Belt . Throughout the corn and cotton belts real estate increases drove the demand for more local funding to continue to supply rising agricultural economics . The rural banking structures would supply the needed capital to meet the farm commodity market , however , this came with a price of reliability and low risk lending . Economic growth was promising during the period of 1887 - 1920 with an on average of 6 percent growth in ( GDP ) . In particular the participation in World War I ( 1917 - 1918 ) drove a booming agricultural market that drove optimism at the consumer and lending level , which in turn , resulted in a laxer approach in the lending process . Overbanked conditions existed which pressured struggling banking locations to increase their services ( specifically to the agricultural customers ) without any additional regulatory oversight or qualifications . This dilemma introduced several high risk and marginal business returns to the banking market . Banking growth would continue through the first two decades well outside of previous trends disregarding the current economic and population standards . Banking profitability and loan standards begin to deteriorate as early as 1900 as a result ; adding to the agriculture shock and Great Depression to follow . Approaching