vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Marginal product of labor
The falling MP is due to the law of diminishing marginal returns . The law states , `` as units of one input are added ( with all other inputs held constant ) a point will be reached where the resulting additions to output will begin to decrease ; that is marginal product will decline . '' The law of diminishing marginal returns applies regardless of whether the production function exhibits increasing , decreasing or constant returns to scale . The key factor is that the variable input is being changed while all other factors of production are being held constant . Under such circumstances diminishing marginal returns are inevitable at some level of production .
Missouri Compromise
The 15th Congress debates , focusing on it did on constitutional questions , largely avoided the moral dimensions raised by the topic of slavery . That the unmentionable subject had been raised publicly was deeply offensive to Southern Congressmen , and violated the long - held sectional understanding between free and slave state legislators .
Minstrel show
This new minstrelsy maintained an emphasis on refined music . Most troupes added jubilees , or spirituals , to their repertoire in the 1870s . These were fairly authentic religious slave songs borrowed from traveling black singing groups . Other troupes drifted further from minstrelsy 's roots . When George Primrose and Billy West broke with Haverly 's Mastodons in 1877 , they did away with blackface for all but the endmen and dressed themselves in lavish finery and powdered wigs . They decorated the stage with elaborate backdrops and performed no slapstick whatsoever . Their brand of minstrelsy differed from other entertainments only in name .
Collectivization in the Soviet Union
Due to high government production quotas , peasants received , as a rule , less for their labor than they did before collectivization , and some refused to work . Merle Fainsod estimated that , in 1952 , collective farm earnings were only one fourth of the cash income from private plots on Soviet collective farms . In many cases , the immediate effect of collectivization was to reduce output and cut the number of livestock in half . The subsequent recovery of the agricultural production was also impeded by the losses suffered by the Soviet Union during World War II and the severe drought of 1946 . However the largest loss of livestock was caused by collectivization for all animals except pigs . The numbers of cows in the USSR fell from 33.2 million in 1928 to 27.8 million in 1941 and to 24.6 million in 1950 . The number of pigs fell from 27.7 million in 1928 to 27.5 million in 1941 and then to 22.2 million in 1950 . The number of sheep fell from 114.6 million in 1928 to 91.6 million in 1941 and to 93.6 million in 1950 . The number of horses fell from 36.1 million in 1928 to 21.0 million in 1941 and to 12.7 million in 1950 . Only by the late 1950s did Soviet farm animal stocks begin to approach 1928 levels .
Causes of the Great Depression
In the book Mechanization in Industry , whose publication was sponsored by the National Bureau of Economic Research , Jerome ( 1934 ) noted that whether mechanization tends to increase output or displace labor depends on the elasticity of demand for the product . In addition , reduced costs of production were not always passed on to consumers . It was further noted that agriculture was adversely affected by the reduced need for animal feed as horses and mules were displaced by inanimate sources of power following WW I. As a related point , Jerome also notes that the term `` technological unemployment '' was being used to describe the labor situation during the depression .
Columbian Exchange
Columbus had planned to inaugurate a regular slave trade between the Indies and Spain . With gold in short supply , the slave trade gradually took on greater urgency . Portugal and Genoa had their slave trade , why not Spain ? Columbus set about establishing a slave trade including both Caribs and Tainos .
Confederate States of America
Four of the Upper South states initially rejected secession until after the clash at Ft . Sumter ( Virginia , Arkansas , Tennessee , and North Carolina ) . Virginia 's ordinance stated a kinship with the slave - holding states of the Lower South , but did not name the institution itself as a primary reason for its course .
World State in Brave New World
An unspecified number of persons live as `` savages '' and non-citizens in reservations which figure in sections of the novel , since as noted the creation of the World State was accomplished peacefully as a consolidation of a post-apocalypse consumer society carried to the limit of conscious production of an irreversible division of labor .
Smith & Wesson
Smith & Wesson is a main manufacturer of high - quality restraints ( handcuffs , leg irons , belly chains , prisoner transport chains ) . At the beginning , Smith & Wesson manufactured handcuffs for the Peerless handcuff company which obtained the right to produce the first swinging - bow handcuffs patented by George A. Carney in 1912 . By that time , Peerless did not have the facilities necessary for production so they contracted Smith & Wesson to manufacture the handcuffs for them . When Peerless set up its own production plant , Smith & Wesson continiued to produce Peerless - type handcuffs under their own brand .
Atlantic slave trade
In 1999 , President Mathieu Kerekou of Benin ( formerly the Kingdom of Dahomey ) issued a national apology for the role Africans played in the Atlantic slave trade . Luc Gnacadja , minister of environment and housing for Benin , later said : `` The slave trade is a shame , and we do repent for it . '' Researchers estimate that 3 million slaves were exported out of the Slave Coast bordering the Bight of Benin . France
History of women in the United States
Most young urban women took jobs before marriage , then quit . Before the growth of high schools after 1900 , most women left school after the eighth grade aged around fifteen . Ciani ( 2005 ) shows that type of work they did reflected their ethnicity and marital status . African - American mothers often chose day labor , usually as domestic servants , because of the flexibility it afforded . Most mothers receiving pensions were white and sought work only when necessary .
Atlantic slave trade
The Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade from Africa , although it was the largest in volume and intensity . As Elikia M'bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique :
Atlantic slave trade
President Jerry Rawlings of Ghana also apologized for his country 's involvement in the slave trade . Nigeria
History of West Africa
The Dahomey Kingdom was founded in the early 17th century CE when the Aja people of the Allada kingdom moved northward and settled among the Fon . They began to assert their power a few years later . In so doing they established the Kingdom of Dahomey , with its capital at Agbome . King Houegbadja ( c. 1645 -- 1685 ) organised Dahomey into a powerful centralised state . He declared all lands to be owned of the king and subject to taxation . Primogeniture in the kingship was established , neutralising all input from village chiefs . A `` cult of kingship '' was established . A captive slave would be sacrificed annually to honour the royal ancestors . During the 1720s , the slave - trading states of Whydah and Allada were taken , giving Dahomey direct access to the slave coast and trade with Europeans . King Agadja ( 1708 -- 1740 ) attempted to end the slave trade by keeping the slaves on plantations producing palm oil , but the European profits on slaves and Dahomey 's dependency on firearms were too great . In 1730 , under king Agaja , Dahomey was conquered by the Oyo Empire , and Dahomey had to pay tribute . Taxes on slaves were mostly paid in cowrie shells . During the 19th century , palm oil was the main trading commodity . France conquered Dahomey during the Second Franco - Dahomean War ( 1892 -- 1894 ) and established a colonial government there . Most of the troops who fought against Dahomey were native Africans . Yoruba
Technological and industrial history of the United States
Slater 's Mill was established in the Blackstone Valley , which extended into neighboring Massachusetts , ( Daniel Day 's Woolen Mill , 1809 at Uxbridge ) , and became one of the earliest industrialized region in the United States , second to the North Shore of Massachusetts . Slater 's business model of independent mills and mill villages ( the `` Rhode Island System '' ) began to be replaced by the 1820s by a more efficient system ( the `` Waltham System '' ) based upon Francis Cabot Lowell 's replications of British power looms . Slater went on to build several more cotton and wool mills throughout New England , but when faced with a labor shortage , resorted to building housing , shops , and churches for the workers and their families adjacent to his factories . The first power looms for woolens were installed in 1820 , at Uxbridge , Massachusetts , by John Capron , of Cumberland , Rhode Island . These added automated weaving under the same roof , a step which Slater 's system outsourced to local farms . Lowell looms were managed by specialized employees , many of the employed were unmarried young women ( `` Lowell Mill Girls '' ) , and owned by a corporation . Unlike the previous forms of labor ( apprenticeship , family labor , slavery , and indenture ) , the Lowell system popularized the concept of wage laborer who sells his labor to an employer under contract -- a socio - economic system which persists in many modern countries and industries . The corporation also looked out for the health and well being of the young women , including their spiritual health , and the hundreds of women employed by it culturally established the pattern of a young woman going off to work a few years and saving monies before returning home to school and marriage . It created an independent breed of women uncommon in most of the world .
Wind turbine
While the material cost is significantly higher for all - glass fiber blades than for hybrid glass / carbon fiber blades , there is a potential for tremendous savings in manufacturing costs when labor price is considered . Utilizing carbon fiber enables for simpler designs that use less raw material . The chief manufacturing process in blade fabrication is the layering of plies . By reducing the number of layers of plies , as is enabled by thinner blade design , the cost of labor may be decreased , and in some cases , equate to the cost of labor for glass fiber blades .
Dear Evan Hansen
A West End production is expected to open at the Noël Coward Theatre from November 2019 .
Supply (economics)
Price of inputs : Inputs include land , labor , energy and raw materials . If the price of inputs increases the supply curve will shift left as sellers are less willing or able to sell goods at any given price . For example , if the price of electricity increased a seller may reduce his supply of his product because of the increased costs of production .
Wicked (musical)
The success of the Broadway production has spawned several other productions worldwide , including various North American productions , a long - running Laurence Olivier Award -- nominated West End production and a series of international productions . Since its 2003 debut , Wicked has broken box office records around the world , currently holding weekly - gross - takings records in Los Angeles , Chicago , St. Louis , and London . In the week ending January 2 , 2011 , the London , Broadway and both North American touring productions simultaneously broke their respective records for the highest weekly gross . In the final week of 2013 , the Broadway production broke this record again , earning $3.2 million . The West End production and the North American tour have each been seen by over two million patrons .
History of West Africa
Famine has been an occasional but serious problem in West Africa . In 1680s , famine extended across the entire Sahel , and in 1738 half the population of Timbuktu died of famine . Some colonial `` pacification '' efforts often caused severe famine . The introduction of cash crops such as cotton , and forcible measures to impel farmers to grow these crops , sometimes impoverished the peasantry in many areas , such as northern Nigeria , contributing to greater vulnerability to famine when severe drought struck in 1913 . For the middle part of the 20th century , agriculturalists , economists and geographers did not consider Africa to be famine prone -- most famines were localized and brief food shortages .
Scientific management
In the 21st century the tendency to overcome Taylorism is very great . The trend is moving away from assembly line work , since people are increasingly being replaced by machines in production plants and sub-processes are automated , so that human labor is not necessary in these cases . The desire for automated workflow in companies is intended to reduce costs and support the company at the operational level .
Race and ethnicity in the United States
While the colonies and southern states protected white fathers by making all children born to slave mothers be classified as slaves , regardless of paternity , they also banned miscegenation or interracial marriage , most notably between whites and blacks . This did little to stop interracial relationships , except as legal , consensual unions .
Atlantic slave trade
Both Thornton and Fage contend that while African political elite may have ultimately benefited from the slave trade , their decision to participate may have been influenced more by what they could lose by not participating . In Fage 's article `` Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History '' , he notes that for West Africans `` ... there were really few effective means of mobilizing labour for the economic and political needs of the state '' without the slave trade .
Pragmatism
Pragmatism sees no fundamental difference between practical and theoretical reason , nor any ontological difference between facts and values . Both facts and values have cognitive content : knowledge is what we should believe ; values are hypotheses about what is good in action . Pragmatist ethics is broadly humanist because it sees no ultimate test of morality beyond what matters for us as humans . Good values are those for which we have good reasons , viz . the Good Reasons approach . The pragmatist formulation pre-dates those of other philosophers who have stressed important similarities between values and facts such as Jerome Schneewind and John Searle . William
Sleep
Research suggests that sleep patterns vary significantly across cultures . The most striking differences are between societies that have plentiful sources of artificial light and ones that do not . The primary difference appears to be that pre-light cultures have more broken - up sleep patterns . For example , people without artificial light might go to sleep far sooner after the sun sets , but then wake up several times throughout the night , punctuating their sleep with periods of wakefulness , perhaps lasting several hours .
Talk:Mode (statistics)
The correct statement is that the difference between the mean and the MEDIAN is σ ( 3 / 5 ) 1 / 2 ( \ displaystyle \ sigma ( 3 / 5 ) ^ ( 1 / 2 ) ) and that the difference between the mean and the MODE is σ 3 1 / 2 ( \ displaystyle \ sigma 3 ^ ( 1 / 2 ) ) . This is what is written in the articles. DrMicro ( talk ) 13 : 31 , 7 July 2012 ( UTC )
Greco-Persian Wars
The military history of Greece between the end of the second Persian invasion of Greece and the Peloponnesian War ( 479 -- 431 BC ) is not well supported by surviving ancient sources . This period , sometimes referred to as the pentekontaetia ( πεντηκονταετία , the Fifty Years ) by ancient writers , was a period of relative peace and prosperity within Greece . The richest source for the period , and also the most contemporaneous , is Thucydides ' History of the Peloponnesian War , which is generally considered by modern historians to be a reliable primary account . Thucydides only mentions this period in a digression on the growth of Athenian power in the run up to the Peloponnesian War , and the account is brief , probably selective and lacks any dates . Nevertheless , Thucydides 's account can be , and is , used by historians to draw up a skeleton chronology for the period , on to which details from archaeological records and other writers can be superimposed .
Siberia
Chelyabinsk Khabarovsk Vladivostok Yekaterinburg - Some sources such as Encyclopædia Britannica include this city as it lies in the Ural Mountains . Inhabitants have distanced themselves though saying that there is a difference between Siberian and Urals culture .
If a tree falls in a forest
What is the difference between what something is , and how it appears ? -- e.g. , `` sound is the variation of pressure that propagates through matter as a wave '' Perhaps the most important topic the riddle offers is the division between perception of an object and how an object really is . If a tree exists outside of perception then there is no way for us to know that the tree exists . So then , what do we mean by ' existence ' , what is the difference between perception and reality ? Also , people may also say , if the tree exists outside of perception ( as common sense would dictate ) , then it will produce sound waves . However , these sound waves will not actually sound like anything . Sound as it is mechanically understood will occur , but sound as it is understood by sensation will not occur . So then , how is it known that ' sound as it is mechanically understood ' will occur if that sound is not perceived ?
pH
The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement . Primary pH standard values are determined using a concentration cell with transference , by measuring the potential difference between a hydrogen electrode and a standard electrode such as the silver chloride electrode . The pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter , or an indicator .
Toyota Tundra
The primary difference between IIHS and NHTSA frontal crash testing , is the IIHS conducts an offset test where a smaller portion of the vehicle 's structure absorbs the energy of the crash . This type of crash test is more demanding on the vehicle 's structure , while the full frontal crash test is more demanding on the vehicle 's restraint systems . Both IIHS and NHTSA frontal impact tests can only be compared among vehicles of similar weights .
Phase (waves)
Phase difference is the difference , expressed in degrees or time , between two waves having the same frequency and referenced to the same point in time . Two oscillators that have the same frequency and no phase difference are said to be in phase . Two oscillators that have the same frequency and different phases have a phase difference , and the oscillators are said to be out of phase with each other .
Phase (waves)
Time is sometimes used ( instead of angle ) to express position within the cycle of an oscillation . A phase difference is analogous to two athletes running around a race track at the same speed and direction but starting at different positions on the track . They pass a point at different instants in time . But the time difference ( phase difference ) between them is a constant - same for every pass since they are at the same speed and in the same direction . If they were at different speeds ( different frequencies ) , the phase difference is undefined and would only reflect different starting positions . Technically , phase difference between two entities at various frequencies is undefined and does not exist .
Major and minor
The hallmark that distinguishes major keys from minor is whether the third scale degree is major or minor . `` The crucial difference is that in the minor scale there is only a half step between `` 2nd and 3rd note '' and between `` 5th and 6th note '' as compared to the major scales where the difference between `` 3rd and 4th note '' and between `` 7th and 8th note '' is half . '' This alteration in the third degree `` greatly changes '' the mood of the music , and `` music based on minor scales tends to '' be considered to `` sound serious or melancholic '' .
John C. Calhoun
This is because he was a statesman -- that is , he was a thinker of permanent interest as well as an actor on the political stage . Calhoun himself often drew attention to the difference between a statesman and a politician . A statesman takes a long view of the future welfare of his people and says what he believes to be true , even if the citizens prefer not to hear it . A politician says what he thinks will make him popular and not offend the voters and the media . His span of attention is short - term : the next poll and the next suitcase full of cash .
Cold War
As soon as the term `` Cold War '' was popularized to refer to post-war tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union , interpreting the course and origins of the conflict has been a source of heated controversy among historians , political scientists , and journalists . In particular , historians have sharply disagreed as to who was responsible for the breakdown of Soviet -- US relations after the Second World War ; and whether the conflict between the two superpowers was inevitable , or could have been avoided . Historians have also disagreed on what exactly the Cold War was , what the sources of the conflict were , and how to disentangle patterns of action and reaction between the two sides .
Pendulum
The difference between this true period and the period for small swings ( 1 ) above is called the circular error . In the case of a typical grandfather clock whose pendulum has a swing of 6 ° and thus an amplitude of 3 ° ( 0.05 radians ) , the difference between the true period and the small angle approximation ( 1 ) amounts to about 15 seconds per day .
Vascular cambium
The cambium present between primary xylem and primary phloem is called intrafasicular cambium . During secondary growth , cells of meduallary rays , in a line with intrafasicular cambium , become meristematic and form interfascicular cambium . Therefore , the intrafascicular and interfascicular cambia form a ring which separates the primary xylem and primary phloem , and is known as cambium ring . The vascular cambium produces secondary xylem on the inside of the ring , and secondary phloem on the outside , pushing the primary xylem and phloem apart .
The Great Gatsby
Early drafts of the novel entitled Trimalchio : An Early Version of The Great Gatsby have been published . A notable difference between the Trimalchio draft and The Great Gatsby is a less complete failure of Gatsby 's dream in Trimalchio . Another difference is that the argument between Tom Buchanan and Jay Gatsby is more even , although Daisy still returns to Tom .
Nuclear fusion
In nuclear physics , nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei come close enough to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles ( neutrons or protons ) . The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as the release of large amounts of energy . This difference in mass arises due to the difference in atomic `` binding energy '' between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction . Fusion is the process that powers active or `` main sequence '' stars , or other high magnitude stars .
Roanoke Colony
The information from these two sources , John Smith and William Strachey , provides the basis for the traditional view that the Lost Colony was slaughtered by Chief Powhatan , and versions of the Powhatan - Lost Colony - slaughter scenario have persisted for more than 400 years . However , no bodies were found and no archaeological evidence has been found to support this claim .