vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Centipede
Some species of centipedes can be hazardous to humans because of their bite . Although a bite to an adult human is usually very painful and may cause severe swelling , chills , fever , and weakness , it is unlikely to be fatal . Bites can be dangerous to small children and those with allergies to bee stings . The venomous bite of larger centipedes can induce anaphylactic shock in such people . Smaller centipedes are generally incapable of piercing human skin .
Solar cell
A solar cell , or photovoltaic cell , is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect , which is a physical and chemical phenomenon . It is a form of photoelectric cell , defined as a device whose electrical characteristics , such as current , voltage , or resistance , vary when exposed to light . Individual solar cell devices can be combined to form modules , otherwise known as solar panels . In basic terms a single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open - circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts .
T cell
T - cell exhaustion is mediated by several inhibitory receptors including programmed cell death protein 1 ( PD1 ) , TIM3 , and lymphocyte activation gene 3 protein ( LAG3 ) . CD8+ T cell exhaustion occurs in some tumours , and can be partly reversed by blocking the inhibitory receptors ( eg PD1 ) .
Stem cell
Properties of stem cells can be illustrated in vitro , using methods such as clonogenic assays , in which single cells are assessed for their ability to differentiate and self - renew . Stem cells can also be isolated by their possession of a distinctive set of cell surface markers . However , in vitro culture conditions can alter the behavior of cells , making it unclear whether the cells shall behave in a similar manner in vivo . There is considerable debate as to whether some proposed adult cell populations are truly stem cells .
Antigen-presenting cell
Macrophages can be stimulated by T cell secretion of interferon gamma . After this activation , macrophages are able to express MHC class II and co-stimulatory molecules , including the B7 complex and can present phagocytosed peptide fragments to helper T cells . Activation can assist pathogen - infected macrophages in clearing the infection . B
Cell nucleus
The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell 's genetic material in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes . Each human cell contains roughly two meters of DNA . During most of the cell cycle these are organized in a DNA - protein complex known as chromatin , and during cell division the chromatin can be seen to form the well - defined chromosomes familiar from a karyotype . A small fraction of the cell 's genes are located instead in the mitochondria .
Resting potential
The resting potential of a cell can be most thoroughly understood by thinking of it in terms of equilibrium potentials . In the example diagram here , the model cell was given only one permeant ion ( potassium ) . In this case , the resting potential of this cell would be the same as the equilibrium potential for potassium .
Statin
The FDA notified healthcare professionals of updates to the prescribing information concerning interactions between protease inhibitors and certain statin drugs . Protease inhibitors and statins taken together may increase the blood levels of statins and increase the risk for muscle injury ( myopathy ) . The most serious form of myopathy , rhabdomyolysis , can damage the kidneys and lead to kidney failure , which can be fatal .
Antigen-presenting cell
Dendritic cells have the broadest range of antigen presentation and are necessary for activation of naive T cells . DCs present antigen to both helper and cytotoxic T cells . They can also perform cross-presentation , a process by which they present exogenous antigen on MHC class I molecules to cytotoxic T cells . Cross-presentation allows for the activation of these T cells . Dendritic cells also play a role in peripheral tolerance , which contributes to prevention of auto - immune disease .
Synapse
By altering the release of neurotransmitters , the plasticity of synapses can be controlled in the presynaptic cell . The postsynaptic cell can be regulated by altering the function and number of its receptors . Changes in postsynaptic signaling are most commonly associated with a N - methyl - d - aspartic acid receptor ( NMDAR ) - dependent long - term potentiation ( LTP ) and long - term depression ( LTD ) due to the influx of calcium into the post-synaptic cell , which are the most analyzed forms of plasticity at excitatory synapses .
Lyme disease
Diagnosis of late - stage Lyme disease is often complicated by a multifaceted appearance and nonspecific symptoms , prompting one reviewer to call Lyme the new `` great imitator '' . Lyme disease may be misdiagnosed as multiple sclerosis , rheumatoid arthritis , fibromyalgia , chronic fatigue syndrome , lupus , Crohn 's disease , HIV , or other autoimmune and neurodegenerative diseases . As all people with later - stage infection will have a positive antibody test , simple blood tests can exclude Lyme disease as a possible cause of a person 's symptoms .
Cell wall
A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells , situated outside the cell membrane . It can be tough , flexible , and sometimes rigid . It provides the cell with both structural support and protection , and also acts as a filtering mechanism . Cell walls are present in most prokaryotes ( except mycoplasma bacteria ) , in algae , plants and fungi but rarely in other eukaryotes including animals . A major function is to act as pressure vessels , preventing over-expansion of the cell when water enters .
Antigen-presenting cell
T cells must be activated by interacting with a professional APC presenting an antigen which their T cell receptor recognizes before they can divide and perform their function . The APC involved in activating T cells is usually a dendritic cell . T cells can not recognize and therefore can not respond to , ' free ' or soluble antigens . They can only recognize and respond to antigen that has been processed and presented by cells via carrier molecules like MHC molecules . Helper T cells can recognize exogenous antigen presented on MHC class II ; cytotoxic T cells can recognize endogenous antigen presented on MHC class I. Most cells in the body can present antigen to CD8+ cytotoxic T cells via MHC class I ; however , the term `` antigen - presenting cell '' is often used specifically to describe professional APCs . Such cells express MHC class I and MHC class II molecules and can stimulate CD4+ helper T cells as well as cytotoxic T cells .
Stem cell
Totipotent ( a.k.a. omnipotent ) stem cells can differentiate into embryonic and extraembryonic cell types . Such cells can construct a complete , viable organism . These cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell . Cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg are also totipotent . Pluripotent stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells , i.e. cells derived from any of the three germ layers . Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a number of cell types , but only those of a closely related family of cells . Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into only a few cell types , such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells . Unipotent cells can produce only one cell type , their own , but have the property of self - renewal , which distinguishes them from non-stem cells ( e.g. progenitor cells , which can not self - renew ) .
Germ theory of disease
The second postulate may also be suspended for certain microorganisms or entities that can not ( at the present time ) be grown in pure culture , such as prions responsible for Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease . In summary , a body of evidence that satisfies Koch 's postulates is sufficient but not necessary to establish causation .
Fuel cell
A related technology is flow batteries , in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging .
Solar cell
Dye - sensitized solar cells ( DSSCs ) are made of low - cost materials and do not need elaborate manufacturing equipment , so they can be made in a DIY fashion . In bulk it should be significantly less expensive than older solid - state cell designs . DSSC 's can be engineered into flexible sheets and although its conversion efficiency is less than the best thin film cells , its price / performance ratio may be high enough to allow them to compete with fossil fuel electrical generation .
Bacterial cell structure
Perhaps the most obvious structural characteristic of bacteria is ( with some exceptions ) their small size . For example , Escherichia coli cells , an `` average '' sized bacterium , are about 2 μm ( micrometres ) long and 0.5 μm in diameter , with a cell volume of 0.6 -- 0.7 μm . This corresponds to a wet mass of about 1 picogram ( pg ) , assuming that the cell consists mostly of water . The dry mass of a single cell can be estimated as 23 % of the wet mass , amounting to 0.2 pg . About half of the dry mass of a bacterial cell consists of carbon , and also about half of it can be attributed to proteins . Therefore , a typical fully grown 1 - liter culture of Escherichia coli ( at an optical density of 1.0 , corresponding to c. 10 cells / ml ) yields about 1 g wet cell mass . Small size is extremely important because it allows for a large surface area - to - volume ratio which allows for rapid uptake and intracellular distribution of nutrients and excretion of wastes . At low surface area - to - volume ratios the diffusion of nutrients and waste products across the bacterial cell membrane limits the rate at which microbial metabolism can occur , making the cell less evolutionarily fit . The reason for the existence of large cells is unknown , although it is speculated that the increased cell volume is used primarily for storage of excess nutrients .
White blood cell
All white blood cells are nucleated , which distinguishes them from the anucleated red blood cells and platelets . Types of leukocytes can be classified in standard ways . Two pairs of broadest categories classify them either by structure ( granulocytes or agranulocytes ) or by cell lineage ( myeloid cells or lymphoid cells ) . These broadest categories can be further divided into the five main types : neutrophils , eosinophils , basophils , lymphocytes , and monocytes . These types are distinguished by their physical and functional characteristics . Monocytes and neutrophils are phagocytic . Further subtypes can be classified .
Endoplasmic reticulum
The general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes called cisternae . These sac - like structures are held together by the cytoskeleton . The phospholipid membrane encloses the cisternal space ( or lumen ) , which is continuous with the perinuclear space but separate from the cytosol . The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum can be summarized as the synthesis and export of proteins and membrane lipids , but varies between ER and cell type and cell function . The quantity of both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum in a cell can slowly interchange from one type to the other , depending on the changing metabolic activities of the cell . Transformation can include embedding of new proteins in membrane as well as structural changes . Changes in protein content may occur without noticeable structural changes .
Anti-lock braking system
The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety ( IIHS ) conducted a study on the effectiveness of ABS for motorcycles and came to the conclusion that motorcycles above 250 cm without ABS are 37 percent more likely to be involved in fatal crashes and a study of the Swedish Road Administration came to the conclusion that 48 percent of all severe and fatal motorcycle accidents above 125 cm could be avoided due to motorcycle ABS
Dutch elm disease
Lignasan BLP ( carbendazim phosphate ) , introduced in the 1970s , was the first fungicide used to control Dutch elm disease . This had to be injected into the base of the tree using specialized equipment , and was never especially effective . It is still sold under the name `` Elm Fungicide '' . Arbotect ( thiabendazole hypophosphite ) became available some years later , and it has been proven effective . Arbotect must be injected every two to three years to provide ongoing control ; the disease generally can not be eradicated once a tree is infected .
Eukaryotic DNA replication
During the G phase of the cell cycle there are low levels of CDK activity . This low level of CDK activity allows for the formation of new pre-RC complexes but is not sufficient for DNA replication to be initiated by the newly formed pre-RCs . During the remaining phases of the cell cycle there are elevated levels of CDK activity . This high level of CDK activity is responsible for initiating DNA replication as well as inhibiting new pre-RC complex formation . Once DNA replication has been initiated the pre-RC complex is broken down . Due to the fact that CDK levels remain high during the S phase , G , and M phases of the cell cycle no new pre-RC complexes can be formed . This all helps to ensure that no initiation can occur until the cell division is complete .
Lyme disease
Because of the difficulty in culturing Borrelia bacteria in the laboratory , diagnosis of Lyme disease is typically based on the clinical exam findings and a history of exposure to endemic Lyme areas . The EM rash , which does not occur in all cases , is considered sufficient to establish a diagnosis of Lyme disease even when serologic blood tests are negative . Serological testing can be used to support a clinically suspected case , but is not diagnostic by itself .
Lyme disease
Urbanization and other anthropogenic factors can be implicated in the spread of Lyme disease to humans . In many areas , expansion of suburban neighborhoods has led to gradual deforestation of surrounding wooded areas and increased border contact between humans and tick - dense areas . Human expansion has also resulted in a reduction of predators that hunt deer as well as mice , chipmunks and other small rodents -- the primary reservoirs for Lyme disease . As a consequence of increased human contact with host and vector , the likelihood of transmission of the disease has greatly increased . Researchers are investigating possible links between global warming and the spread of vector - borne diseases , including Lyme disease .
Fuel cell
MCFCs hold several advantages over other fuel cell technologies , including their resistance to impurities . They are not prone to `` carbon coking '' , which refers to carbon build - up on the anode that results in reduced performance by slowing down the internal fuel reforming process . Therefore , carbon - rich fuels like gases made from coal are compatible with the system . The Department of Energy claims that coal , itself , might even be a fuel option in the future , assuming the system can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal into hydrogen . MCFCs also have relatively high efficiencies . They can reach a fuel - to - electricity efficiency of 50 % , considerably higher than the 37 -- 42 % efficiency of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant . Efficiencies can be as high as 65 % when the fuel cell is paired with a turbine , and 85 % if heat is captured and used in a Combined Heat and Power ( CHP ) system .
Cell wall
Cell walls in some plant tissues also function as storage deposits for carbohydrates that can be broken down and resorbed to supply the metabolic and growth needs of the plant . For example , endosperm cell walls in the seeds of cereal grasses , nasturtium and other species , are rich in glucans and other polysaccharides that are readily digested by enzymes during seed germination to form simple sugars that nourish the growing embryo .
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Laparoscopy can visualize `` violin - string '' adhesions , characteristic of Fitz - Hugh -- Curtis perihepatitis and other abscesses that may be present .
Ribosome
Free ribosomes can move about anywhere in the cytosol , but are excluded from the cell nucleus and other organelles . Proteins that are formed from free ribosomes are released into the cytosol and used within the cell . Since the cytosol contains high concentrations of glutathione and is , therefore , a reducing environment , proteins containing disulfide bonds , which are formed from oxidized cysteine residues , can not be produced within it .
Dutch elm disease
In Europe , while S. multistriatus still acts as a vector for infection , it is much less effective than the large elm bark beetle , S. scolytus . H. rufipes can be a vector for the disease , but is inefficient compared to the other vectors . S. schevyrewi was found in 2003 in Colorado and Utah .
Sensitivity and specificity
Specificity relates to the test 's ability to correctly detect patients without a condition . Consider the example of a medical test for diagnosing a disease . Specificity of a test is the proportion of healthy patients known not to have the disease , who will test negative for it . Mathematically , this can also be written as :
Glycolysis
All cells contain the enzyme hexokinase , which catalyzes the conversion of glucose that has entered the cell into glucose - 6 - phosphate ( G6P ) . Since the cell membrane is impervious to G6P , hexokinase essentially acts to transport glucose into the cells from which it can then no longer escape . Hexokinase is inhibited by high levels of G6P in the cell . Thus the rate of entry of glucose into cells partially depends on how fast G6P can be disposed of by glycolysis , and by glycogen synthesis ( in the cells which store glycogen , namely liver and muscles ) .
Fuel cell
The waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during the summer directly into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building . The University of Minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system
Black-eyed pea
The crop is relatively free of pests and disease . Root - knot nematodes can be a problem , especially if crops are not rotated . As a nitrogen - fixing legume , fertilization can exclude nitrogen three weeks after germination .
Cell nucleus
The compartmentalization allows the cell to prevent translation of unspliced mRNA . Eukaryotic mRNA contains introns that must be removed before being translated to produce functional proteins . The splicing is done inside the nucleus before the mRNA can be accessed by ribosomes for translation . Without the nucleus , ribosomes would translate newly transcribed ( unprocessed ) mRNA , resulting in malformed and nonfunctional proteins .
Cell membrane
The cell membrane , being exposed to the outside environment , is an important site of cell -- cell communication . As such , a large variety of protein receptors and identification proteins , such as antigens , are present on the surface of the membrane . Functions of membrane proteins can also include cell -- cell contact , surface recognition , cytoskeleton contact , signaling , enzymatic activity , or transporting substances across the membrane .
Solar cell
They can be processed from liquid solution , offering the possibility of a simple roll - to - roll printing process , potentially leading to inexpensive , large - scale production . In addition , these cells could be beneficial for some applications where mechanical flexibility and disposability are important . Current cell efficiencies are , however , very low , and practical devices are essentially non-existent .
Antigen-presenting cell
Almost all cell types can serve as some form of APC . They are found in a variety of tissue types . Professional antigen - presenting cells , including macrophages , B cells and dendritic cells , present foreign antigens to helper T cells , while other cell types can present antigens originating inside the cell to cytotoxic T cells . In addition to the MHC family of proteins , antigen presentation relies on other specialized signaling molecules on the surfaces of both APCs and T cells .
T cell
The T - cell receptor exists as a complex of several proteins . The actual T - cell receptor is composed of two separate peptide chains , which are produced from the independent T cell receptor alpha and beta ( TCRα and TCRβ ) genes . The other proteins in the complex are the CD3 proteins : CD3εγ and CD3εδ heterodimers and , most important , a CD3ζ homodimer , which has a total of six ITAM motifs . The ITAM motifs on the CD3ζ can be phosphorylated by Lck and in turn recruit ZAP - 70 . Lck and / or ZAP - 70 can also phosphorylate the tyrosines on many other molecules , not least CD28 , LAT and SLP - 76 , which allows the aggregation of signalling complexes around these proteins .
Antigen-presenting cell
In MHC class I and class II molecules , only certain epitopes of an internalized peptide can be presented . These epitopes are termed immunodominant .
Stem cell
To ensure self - renewal , stem cells undergo two types of cell division ( see Stem cell division and differentiation diagram ) . Symmetric division gives rise to two identical daughter cells both endowed with stem cell properties . Asymmetric division , on the other hand , produces only one stem cell and a progenitor cell with limited self - renewal potential . Progenitors can go through several rounds of cell division before terminally differentiating into a mature cell . It is possible that the molecular distinction between symmetric and asymmetric divisions lies in differential segregation of cell membrane proteins ( such as receptors ) between the daughter cells .
Dutch elm disease
Ten resistant American elm U. americana cultivars are now in commerce in North America , but only two ( ' Princeton ' and ' Valley Forge ' ) are currently available in Europe . No cultivar is `` immune '' to DED ; even highly resistant cultivars can become infected , particularly if already stressed by drought or other environmental conditions where the disease prevalence is high . With the exception of ' Princeton ' , no trees have yet been grown to maturity . Trees can not be said to be mature until they have reached an age of 60 years .
Lyme disease
Chronic encephalomyelitis , which may be progressive , can involve cognitive impairment , brain fog , migraines , balance issues , weakness in the legs , awkward gait , facial palsy , bladder problems , vertigo , and back pain . In rare cases , untreated Lyme disease may cause frank psychosis , which has been misdiagnosed as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder . Panic attacks and anxiety can occur ; also , delusional behavior may be seen , including somatoform delusions , sometimes accompanied by a depersonalization or derealization syndrome , where the patients begin to feel detached from themselves or from reality .
Medical diagnosis
The resultant diagnostic opinion by this method can be regarded more or less as a diagnosis of exclusion . Even if it does not result in a single probable disease or condition , it can at least rule out any imminently life - threatening conditions .
Cell nucleus
Most eukaryotic cell types usually have a single nucleus , but some have no nuclei , while others have several . This can result from normal development , as in the maturation of mammalian red blood cells , or from faulty cell division .
Enzyme
Enzyme production ( transcription and translation of enzyme genes ) can be enhanced or diminished by a cell in response to changes in the cell 's environment . This form of gene regulation is called enzyme induction . For example , bacteria may become resistant to antibiotics such as penicillin because enzymes called beta - lactamases are induced that hydrolyse the crucial beta - lactam ring within the penicillin molecule . Another example comes from enzymes in the liver called cytochrome P450 oxidases , which are important in drug metabolism . Induction or inhibition of these enzymes can cause drug interactions . Enzyme levels can also be regulated by changing the rate of enzyme degradation . Subcellular