vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Indigenous Australians
Genetically , while Indigenous Australians are most closely related to Melanesian and Papuan people , there is also a Eurasian component that could indicate South Asian admixture or more recent European influence . Research indicates a single founding Sahul group with subsequent isolation between regional populations which were relatively unaffected by later migrations from the Asian mainland , which may have introduced the dingo 4 - 5,000 years ago . The research also suggests a divergence from the Papuan people of New Guinea and Mamanwa people of the Philippines about 32,000 years ago with a rapid population expansion about 5,000 years ago . A 2011 genetic study found evidence that the Aboriginal , Papuan and Mamanwa peoples carry some of the genes associated with the Denisovan peoples of Asia , ( not found amongst populations in mainland Asia ) suggesting that modern and archaic humans interbred in Asia approximately 44,000 years ago , before Australia separated from Papua New Guinea and the migration to Australia . A 2012 paper reports that there is also evidence of a substantial genetic flow from India to northern Australia estimated at slightly over four thousand years ago , a time when changes in tool technology and food processing appear in the Australian archaeological record , suggesting that these may be related .
Constellation
The word `` constellation '' seems to come from the Late Latin term cōnstellātiō , which can be translated as `` set of stars '' , and came into use in English during the 14th century . The Ancient Greek word for constellation was ἄστρον . A more modern astronomical sense of the term `` constellation '' is simply as a recognisable pattern of stars whose appearance is associated with mythological characters or creatures , or earthbound animals , or objects . It may also specifically denote the officially recognised 88 named constellations used today .
Logan (film)
During an appearance on The Dr. Oz Show in May 2015 , Jackman clarified the confusion over the conflicting sentiments , by stating bluntly that the film would be his final portrayal as the character ; he said , `` This will be my last one , it is my last time . It just felt like it was the right time to do it , and let 's be honest , 17 years . I never thought in a million years it would last , so I 'm so grateful to the fans for the opportunity of playing it . I kind of have in my head what we 're going to do in this last one . It just feels like this is the perfect way to go out . '' Jackman has also explained that Jerry Seinfeld has convinced him to quit the role stating , `` He said to me , when you 're creating something it 's very important not to run yourself dry . It 's not about finishing on top , necessarily , but making sure you 're , creatively , still got something left , which propels you into the whatever 's next . ''
Philippines
Philippine mythology has been handed down primarily through the traditional oral folk literature of the Filipino people . While each unique ethnic group has its own stories and myths to tell , Hindu and Spanish influences can nonetheless be detected in many cases . Philippine mythology mostly consists of creation stories or stories about supernatural creatures , such as the aswang , the manananggal , the diwata / engkanto , and nature . Some popular figures from Philippine mythologies are Maria Makiling , Lam - Ang , and the Sarimanok .
Rainbow
When a rainbow appears above a body of water , two complementary mirror bows may be seen below and above the horizon , originating from different light paths . Their names are slightly different .
Joshua Tree National Park
There are over 250 species of bird in the park including resident desert birds such as the greater roadrunner and cactus wren as well as mockingbirds , Le Conte 's thrasher , verdin and Gambel 's quail . There are also many transient species that may spend only one or two seasons in the park . Noted birding spots in the park include : fan palm oases , Barker Dam and Smith Water Canyon . Queen Valley and Lost Horse Valley also provide good birding but with a different range of species because of the lack of water . These are often good places to see ladder - backed woodpecker and oak titmouse . A USGS Bird Checklist of `` what , when , and status '' has 239 species listed for the park .
Evidence of common descent
The Welsh groundsel is an allopolyploid , a plant that contains sets of chromosomes originating from two different species . Its ancestor was Senecio × baxteri , an infertile hybrid that can arise spontaneously when the closely related groundsel ( Senecio vulgaris ) and Oxford ragwort ( Senecio squalidus ) grow alongside each other . Sometime in the early 20th century , an accidental doubling of the number of chromosomes in an S. × baxteri plant led to the formation of a new fertile species .
Coffee
Several species of shrub of the genus Coffea produce the berries from which coffee is extracted . The two main species commercially cultivated are Coffea canephora ( predominantly a form known as ' robusta ' ) and C. arabica. C. arabica , the most highly regarded species , is native to the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan and possibly Mount Marsabit in northern Kenya. C. canephora is native to western and central Subsaharan Africa , from Guinea to Uganda and southern Sudan . Less popular species are C. liberica , C. stenophylla , C. mauritiana , and C. racemosa .
Niche differentiation
When species use different resources , this can help them to coexist . For example , some lizard species appear to coexist because they consume insects of differing sizes . Alternatively , species can coexist on the same resources if each species is limited by different resources , or differently able to capture resources . For example , different types of phytoplankton can coexist when different species are differently limited by nitrogen , phosphorus , silicon , and light . In the Galapagos Islands , finches with small beaks are more able to consume small seeds , and finches with large beaks are more able to consume large seeds . If a species ' density declines , then the food it most depends on will become more abundant ( since there are so few individuals to consume it ) . As a result , the remaining individuals will experience less competition for food .
Smart city
An alternative use of smart city technology can be found in Santa Cruz , California , where local authorities analyse historical crime data in order to predict police requirements and maximise police presence where it is required . The analytical tools generate a list of 10 places each day where property crimes are more likely to occur , and then placing police efforts on these regions when officers are not responding to any emergency . This use of ICT technology is different to the manner in which European cities utilise smart city technology , possibly highlighting the breadth of the smart city concept in different parts of the world .
Niche differentiation
Although `` resource '' generally refers to food , species can partition other non-consumable objects , such as parts of the habitat . For example , warblers are thought to coexist because they nest in different parts of trees . Species can also partition habitat in a way that gives them access to different types of resources . As stated in the introduction , anolis lizards appear to coexist because each uses different parts of the forests as perch locations . This likely gives them access to different species of insects .
Israel
Four different phytogeographic regions exist in Israel , due to the country 's location between the temperate and tropical zones , bordering the Mediterranean Sea in the west and the desert in the east . For this reason , the flora and fauna of Israel are extremely diverse . There are 2,867 known species of plants found in Israel . Of these , at least 253 species are introduced and nonnative . There are 380 Israeli nature reserves .
Maldives
The Maldives have a range of different habitats including deep sea , shallow coast , and reef ecosystems , fringing mangroves , wetlands and dry land . There are 187 species of coral forming the coral reefs . This area of the Indian Ocean , alone , houses 1100 species of fish , 5 species of sea turtle , 21 species of whale and dolphin , 400 species of mollusc , and 83 species of echinoderms . The area is also populated by a number of crustacean species : 120 copepod , 15 amphipod , as well as more than 145 crab and 48 shrimp species .
Transduction (physiology)
The basilar membrane is also an important part of the transduction process because it separates the scala media and the scala tympani : two tubes filled with liquid that run along the coil of the cochlea . When there is a transfer of pressure from one side to the other , the basilar membrane creates a traveling wave . The basilar membrane is important in the concept of tonotopy because the frequency distribution that the basilar membrane portrays through having a more flexible apex and a more stiff base . Depending on how far down the membrane you are from the base , a different frequency will result , so the different places in the membrane are sensitive to different frequencies which truly helps in the entire process of auditory transduction .
Niche differentiation
Predator partitioning occurs when species are attacked differently by different predators ( or natural enemies more generally ) . For example , trees could differentiate their niche if they are consumed by different species of specialist herbivores , such as herbivorous insects . If a species density declines , so too will the density of its natural enemies , giving it an advantage . Thus , if each species is constrained by different natural enemies , they will be able to coexist . Early work focused on specialist predators ; however , more recent studies have shown that predators do not need to be pure specialists , they simply need to affect each prey species differently . The Janzen -- Connell hypothesis represents a form of predator partitioning .
Species
Horizontal gene transfer between organisms in different species , either through hybridisation , antigenic shift , or reassortment , is sometimes an important source of genetic variation . Viruses can transfer genes between species . Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species , including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains , making analysis of their relationships difficult , and weakening the concept of a bacterial species .
Nephron
Because it has a different origin during the development of the urinary and reproductive organs than the rest of the nephron , the collecting duct is sometimes not considered a part of the nephron . Instead of originating from the metanephrogenic blastema , the collecting duct originates from the ureteric bud .
Natural selection
In 1859 , Charles Darwin set out his theory of evolution by natural selection as an explanation for adaptation and speciation . He defined natural selection as the `` principle by which each slight variation ( of a trait ) , if useful , is preserved '' . The concept was simple but powerful : individuals best adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce . As long as there is some variation between them and that variation is heritable , there will be an inevitable selection of individuals with the most advantageous variations . If the variations are heritable , then differential reproductive success leads to a progressive evolution of particular populations of a species , and populations that evolve to be sufficiently different eventually become different species . Part
Primate
Predators of primates include various species of carnivorans , birds of prey , reptiles and other primates . Even gorillas have been recorded as prey . Predators of primates have diverse hunting strategies and as such , primates have evolved several different antipredator adaptations including crypsis , alarm calls and mobbing . Several species have separate alarm calls for different predators such as air - borne or ground - dwelling predators . Predation may have shaped group size in primates as species exposed to higher predation pressures appear to live in larger groups . With their technology and increased intelligence , modern humans are nearly free of threats from non-human predators and are themselves apex predators .
Species
there is no easy way to tell whether related geographic or temporal forms belong to the same or different species . Species gaps can be verified only locally and at a point of time . One is forced to admit that Darwin 's insight is correct : any local reality or integrity of species is greatly reduced over large geographic ranges and time periods .
South Africa
With more than 22,000 different higher plants , or about 9 % of all the known species of plants on Earth , South Africa is particularly rich in plant diversity . The most prevalent biome in South Africa is the grassland , particularly on the Highveld , where the plant cover is dominated by different grasses , low shrubs , and acacia trees , mainly camel - thorn and whitethorn . Vegetation becomes even more sparse towards the northwest due to low rainfall . There are several species of water - storing succulents like aloes and euphorbias in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area . The grass and thorn savannah turns slowly into a bush savannah towards the north - east of the country , with denser growth . There are significant numbers of baobab trees in this area , near the northern end of Kruger National Park .
Vermont
The state contains 41 species of reptiles and amphibians , 89 species of fish , of which 12 are non native ; 193 species of breeding birds , 58 species of mammals , more than 15,000 insect species , and 2,000 higher plant species , plus fungi , algae , and 75 different types of natural communities . Vermont contains one species of venomous snake , the timber rattlesnake , which is confined to a few acres in western Rutland County .
Bacterial cell structure
Gas vacuoles are membrane - bound , spindle - shaped vesicles , found in some planktonic bacteria and Cyanobacteria , that provides buoyancy to these cells by decreasing their overall cell density . Positive buoyancy is needed to keep the cells in the upper reaches of the water column , so that they can continue to perform photosynthesis . They are made up of a shell of protein that has a highly hydrophobic inner surface , making it impermeable to water ( and stopping water vapour from condensing inside ) but permeable to most gases . Because the gas vesicle is a hollow cylinder , it is liable to collapse when the surrounding pressure increases . Natural selection has fine tuned the structure of the gas vesicle to maximise its resistance to buckling , including an external strengthening protein , GvpC , rather like the green thread in a braided hosepipe . There is a simple relationship between the diameter of the gas vesicle and pressure at which it will collapse - the wider the gas vesicle the weaker it becomes . However , wider gas vesicles are more efficient , providing more buoyancy per unit of protein than narrow gas vesicles . Different species produce gas vesicle of different diameter , allowing them to colonise different depths of the water column ( fast growing , highly competitive species with wide gas vesicles in the top most layers ; slow growing , dark - adapted , species with strong narrow gas vesicles in the deeper layers ) . The diameter of the gas vesicle will also help determine which species survive in different bodies of water . Deep lakes that experience winter mixing expose the cells to the hydrostatic pressure generated by the full water column . This will select for species with narrower , stronger gas vesicles .
Resting potential
Potassium equilibrium potentials of around − 80 millivolts ( inside negative ) are common . Differences are observed in different species , different tissues within the same animal , and the same tissues under different environmental conditions . Applying the Nernst Equation above , one may account for these differences by changes in relative K concentration or differences in temperature .
Legal drinking age
The legal drinking age is the age at which a person can legally consume or purchase alcoholic beverages . These laws cover a wide range of issues and behaviors , addressing when and where alcohol can be consumed . The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries . These laws vary among different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances . Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places , with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated ( an exception being the UK , which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places ) . Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcoholic drinks .
Gene
When multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species 's population it is called polymorphic . Most different alleles are functionally equivalent , however some alleles can give rise to different phenotypic traits . A gene 's most common allele is called the wild type , and rare alleles are called mutants . The genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population is due to both natural selection and genetic drift . The wild - type allele is not necessarily the ancestor of less common alleles , nor is it necessarily fitter .
Sympathetic nervous system
Presynaptic nerves ' axons terminate in either the paravertebral ganglia or prevertebral ganglia . There are four different paths an axon can take before reaching its terminal . In all cases , the axon enters the paravertebral ganglion at the level of its originating spinal nerve . After this , it can then either synapse in this ganglion , ascend to a more superior or descend to a more inferior paravertebral ganglion and synapse there , or it can descend to a prevertebral ganglion and synapse there with the postsynaptic cell .
Polar bear
There are several reasons for the apparent discordance between past and projected population trends : estimates from the 1950s and 1960s were based on stories from explorers and hunters rather than on scientific surveys . Second , controls of harvesting were introduced that allowed this previously overhunted species to recover . Third , the recent effects of climate change have affected sea ice abundance in different areas to varying degrees .
Evidence of common descent
Evidence for common descent comes from the existence of vestigial structures . These rudimentary structures are often homologous to structures that correspond in related or ancestral species . A wide range of structures exist such as mutated and non-functioning genes , parts of a flower , muscles , organs , and even behaviors . This variety can be found across many different groups of species . In many cases they are degenerated or underdeveloped . The existence of vestigial organs can be explained in terms of changes in the environment or modes of life of the species . Those organs are typically functional in the ancestral species but are now either semi-functional , nonfunctional , or re-purposed .
Malaysia
About two thirds of Malaysia was covered in forest as of 2007 , with some forests believed to be 130 million years old . The forests are dominated by dipterocarps . Lowland forest covers areas below 760 m ( 2,490 ft ) , and formerly East Malaysia was covered in such rainforest , which is supported by its hot wet climate . There are around 14,500 species of flowering plants and trees . Besides rainforests , there are over 1,425 km ( 550 sq mi ) of mangroves in Malaysia , and a large amount of peat forest . At higher altitudes , oaks , chestnuts , and rhododendrons replace dipterocarps . There are an estimated 8,500 species of vascular plants in Peninsular Malaysia , with another 15,000 in the East . The forests of East Malaysia are estimated to be the habitat of around 2,000 tree species , and are one of the most biodiverse areas in the world , with 240 different species of trees every hectare . These forests host many members of the Rafflesia genus , the largest flowers in the world , with a maximum diameter of 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) .
Petal
Petals can differ dramatically in different species . The number of petals in a flower may hold clues to a plant 's classification . For example , flowers on eudicots ( the largest group of dicots ) most frequently have four or five petals while flowers on monocots have three or six petals , although there are many exceptions to this rule .
Mato Grosso
Over 160 different species of birds have been observed in the Pantanal , and still many species in the area have not yet been identified .
Binomial nomenclature
Economy . Compared to the polynomial system which it replaced , a binomial name is shorter and easier to remember . It corresponds to the widespread system of family name plus given name ( s ) used to name people in many cultures . Widespread use . The binomial system of nomenclature is governed by international codes and is used by biologists worldwide . A few binomials have also entered common speech , such as Homo sapiens , E. coli , and Tyrannosaurus rex . Uniqueness . Provided that taxonomists agree as to the limits of a species , it can have only one name that is correct under the appropriate nomenclature code , generally the earliest published if two or more names are accidentally assigned to a species . However , establishing that two names actually refer to the same species and then determining which has priority can be difficult , particularly if the species was named by biologists from different countries . Therefore , a species may have more than one regularly used name ; all but one of these names are `` synonyms '' . Stability . Although stability is far from absolute , the procedures associated with establishing binomial names , such as the principle of priority , tend to favor stability . For example , when species are transferred between genera ( as not uncommonly happens as a result of new knowledge ) , if possible the second part of the binomial is kept the same . Thus there is disagreement among botanists as to whether the genera Chionodoxa and Scilla are sufficiently different for them to be kept separate . Those who keep them separate give the plant commonly grown in gardens in Europe the name Chionodoxa siehei ; those who do not give it the name Scilla siehei . The siehei element is constant . Similarly if what were previously thought to be two distinct species are demoted to a lower rank , such as subspecies , where possible the second part of the binomial name is retained as the third part of the new name . Thus the Tenerife robin may be treated as a different species from the European robin , in which case its name is Erithacus superbus , or as only a subspecies , in which case its name is Erithacus rubecula superbus . The superbus element of the name is constant .
Taxonomy (biology)
Later authors have used the term in a different sense , to mean the delimitation of species ( not subspecies or taxa of other ranks ) , using whatever investigative techniques are available , and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques . Thus , Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species .
Evidence of common descent
Many different species of insects have mouthparts derived from the same embryonic structures , indicating that the mouthparts are modifications of a common ancestor 's original features . These include a labrum ( upper lip ) , a pair of mandibles , a hypopharynx ( floor of mouth ) , a pair of maxillae , and a labium . ( Fig . 2c ) Evolution has caused enlargement and modification of these structures in some species , while it has caused the reduction and loss of them in other species . The modifications enable the insects to exploit a variety of food materials .