vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Indo-Roman trade relations
Trade declined from the mid-3rd century during a crisis period in the Roman Empire but recovered in the 4th century until the early 7th century when Khosrow II Shah of Persian occupied the Roman parts of the Fertile Crescent and Egypt beginning in 614 until defeated by the Eastern Roman emperor Heraclius at the end of 627 after which the lost territories were returned to the Romans .
Silk Road
Soon after the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE , regular communications and trade between China , Southeast Asia , India , the Middle East , Africa , and Europe blossomed on an unprecedented scale . The eastern trade routes from the earlier Hellenistic powers and the Arabs that were part of the Silk Road were inherited by the Roman Empire . With control of these trade routes , citizens of the Roman Empire would receive new luxuries and greater prosperity for the Empire as a whole . The Roman - style glassware discovered in the archeological sites of Gyeongju , capital of the Silla kingdom ( Korea ) showed that Roman artifacts were traded as far as the Korean peninsula . The Greco - Roman trade with India started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE continued to increase , and according to Strabo ( II. 5.12 ) , by the time of Augustus , up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India . The Roman Empire connected with the Central Asian Silk Road through their ports in Barygaza ( known today as Bharuch ) and Barbaricum ( known today as the cities of Karachi , Sindh , and Pakistan ) and continued along the western coast of India . An ancient `` travel guide '' to this Indian Ocean trade route was the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written in 60 CE .
Gupta Empire
A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom . The empire was called by various names such as Rajya , Rashtra , Desha , Mandala , Prithvi and Avani . It was divided into 26 provinces , which were styled as Bhukti , Pradesha and Bhoga . Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis . A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana ( council of representatives ) , which comprised four representatives : Nagarasreshesthi , Sarthavaha , Prathamakulike and Prathama Kayastha . A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi . There were also trade links of Gupta business with the Roman empire .
Medieval household
The medieval world was a much less urban society than either the Roman Empire or the modern world . The fall of the Roman Empire had caused a catastrophic de-population of the towns and cities that had existed within the Empire . Between the 10th and 12th centuries , however , a revival of the European city occurred , with an increase in the urbanisation of society .
Roman calendar
The Roman calendar was the calendar used by the Roman kingdom and republic . It is often inclusive of the Julian calendar established by the reforms of the dictator Julius Caesar and emperor Augustus in the late 1st century BC and sometimes inclusive of any system dated by inclusive counting towards months ' kalends , nones , and ides in the Roman manner . It is usually exclusive of the Alexandrian calendar of Roman Egypt , which continued the unique months of that land 's former calendar ; the Byzantine calendar of the later Roman Empire , which usually dated the Roman months in the simple count of the ancient Greek calendars ; and the Gregorian calendar , which refined the Julian system to bring it into still closer alignment with the solar year and is the basis of the current international standard .
Senate
The modern word Senate is derived from the ( Latin ) word senātus ( senate ) , which comes from senex , `` old man '' . The members or legislators of a senate are called senators . The Latin word senator was adopted into English with no change in spelling . Its meaning is derived from a very ancient form of social organization , in which advisory or decision - making powers are reserved for the eldest men . For the same reason , the word senate is correctly used when referring to any powerful authority characteristically composed by the eldest members of a community , as a deliberative body of a faculty in an institution of higher learning is often called a senate . This form adaptation was used to show the power of those in body and for the decision - making process to be thorough , which could take a long period of time . The original senate was the Roman Senate , which lasted until at least AD 603 , although various efforts to revive it were made in Medieval Rome ) . In the Eastern Roman Empire , the Byzantine Senate continued until the Fourth Crusade , circa 1202 -- 1204 .
War of the Austrian Succession
The only recent combat experience of the Prussian Army was their participation in the War of the Polish Succession ( Rhine campaign of 1733 -- 1735 ) , in which the Prussians had largely been kept out of combat . Nobody in the court of the Holy Roman Empire trusted the motives of the new rising power of Prussia and , therefore , the Holy Roman Emperor did not call on the Prussians , who were vassals of the Holy Roman Empire , for military support of the Empire . Accordingly , the Prussian Army had an uninspiring reputation and was counted as one of the many minor armies of the Holy Roman Empire . This reputation misrepresented the fact of a standing army of 80,000 soldiers , representing 4 % of the 2.2 million population of Prussia . Thus the Prussian Army was disproportionate to the size of the state it protected . By comparison , the Austrian Empire had 16 million citizens but had an army only half its authorised size because of financial restraints . Thus , in defending the vast territory of the Austrian Empire this small army was more of `` a sieve '' than a shield against foreign invasion . Lands
Gupta Empire
During the reign of Chandragupta II , Gupta Empire maintained a large army consisting of 500,000 infantry , 50,000 cavalry , 20,000 charioteers and 10,000 elephants along with a powerful navy with more than 1200 ships . Chandragupta II controlled the whole of the Indian subcontinent ; the Gupta empire was the most powerful empire in the world during his reign , at a time when the Roman Empire in the West was in decline .
History of the Latin script
In addition to the aforementioned square capitals used in architecture , in the Roman empire and in the Middle Ages for rapidly written vernacular documents roman cursive or even a form of shorthand , called tironian notes , were used .
Spice trade
The Republic of Venice had become a formidable power , and a key player in the Eastern spice trade . Other powers , in an attempt to break the Venetian hold on spice trade , began to build up maritime capability . Until the mid-15th century , trade with the east was achieved through the Silk Road , with the Byzantine Empire and the Italian city - states of Venice and Genoa acting as a middle man .
Republic
Over time , the classical republics were either conquered by empires or became ones themselves . Most of the Greek republics were annexed to the Macedonian Empire of Alexander . The Roman Republic expanded dramatically conquering the other states of the Mediterranean that could be considered republics , such as Carthage . The Roman Republic itself then became the Roman Empire .
History of the Roman Empire
The battle had far - reaching consequences . Veteran soldiers and valuable administrators were among the heavy casualties . There were few available replacements at the time , leaving the Empire with the problem of finding suitable leadership . The Roman army also started to face recruiting problems . In the following century much of the Roman army would consist of Germanic mercenaries .
Law
Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today . In civil law the sources recognised as authoritative are , primarily , legislation -- especially codifications in constitutions or statutes passed by government -- and custom . Codifications date back millennia , with one early example being the Babylonian Codex Hammurabi . Modern civil law systems essentially derive from the legal practice of the 6th - century Eastern Roman Empire whose texts were rediscovered by late medieval Western Europe . Roman law in the days of the Roman Republic and Empire was heavily procedural , and lacked a professional legal class . Instead a lay magistrate , iudex , was chosen to adjudicate . Decisions were not published in any systematic way , so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised . Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the State , which mirrors the ( theoretical ) unimportance of judges ' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today . From 529 -- 534 AD the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I codified and consolidated Roman law up until that point , so that what remained was one - twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before . This became known as the Corpus Juris Civilis . As one legal historian wrote , `` Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before . '' The Justinian Code remained in force in the East until the fall of the Byzantine Empire . Western Europe , meanwhile , relied on a mix of the Theodosian Code and Germanic customary law until the Justinian Code was rediscovered in the 11th century , and scholars at the University of Bologna used it to interpret their own laws . Civil law codifications based closely on Roman law , alongside some influences from religious laws such as canon law , continued to spread throughout Europe until the Enlightenment ; then , in the 19th century , both France , with the Code Civil , and Germany , with the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch , modernised their legal codes . Both these codes influenced heavily not only the law systems of the countries in continental Europe ( e.g. Greece ) , but also the Japanese and Korean legal traditions . Today , countries that have civil law systems range from Russia and China to most of Central and Latin America . With the exception of Louisiana 's Civil Code , the United States follows the common law system described below .
History of the Roman Empire
Trajan marched first on Armenia . He deposed the king and annexed it to the Roman Empire . Then he turned south into Parthia itself , taking the cities of Babylon , Seleucia and finally the capital of Ctesiphon in 116 , while supressing a Jewish uprising across the region . He continued southward to the Persian Gulf , whence he declared Mesopotamia a new province of the empire and lamented that he was too old to follow in the steps of Alexander the Great and continue his march eastward .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
In 444 , the Huns were united under Attila . His subjects included Huns , outnumbered several times over by other groups , predominantly Germanic . His power rested partly on his continued ability to reward his favoured followers with precious metals , and he continued to attack the Eastern Empire until 450 , by when he had extracted vast sums of money and many other concessions .
Red Sea
The Red Sea was favored for Roman trade with India starting with the reign of Augustus , when the Roman Empire gained control over the Mediterranean , Egypt , and the northern Red Sea . The route had been used by previous states but grew in the volume of traffic under the Romans . From Indian ports goods from China were introduced to the Roman world . Contact between Rome and China depended on the Red Sea , but the route was broken by the Aksumite Empire around the 3rd century AD .
History of the Roman Empire
In 14 AD Augustus died at the age of seventy - five , having ruled the empire for forty years , and was succeeded as emperor by Tiberius .
History of the Roman Empire
The period of the `` Five Good Emperors '' was brought to an end by the reign of Commodus from 180 to 192 . Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius , making him the first direct successor in a century , breaking the scheme of adoptive successors that had worked so well . He was co-emperor with his father from 177 . When he became sole emperor upon the death of his father in 180 , it was at first seen as a hopeful sign by the people of the Roman Empire . Nevertheless , as generous and magnanimous as his father was , Commodus was just the opposite . In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon , it is noted that Commodus at first ruled the empire well . However , after an assassination attempt , involving a conspiracy by certain members of his family , Commodus became paranoid and slipped into insanity . The Pax Romana , or `` Roman Peace '' , ended with the reign of Commodus . One could argue that the assassination attempt began the long decline of the Roman Empire . When Commodus ' behaviour became increasingly erratic throughout the early 190s , Pertinax is thought to have been implicated in the conspiracy that led to Commodus ' assassination on 31 December 192 . The plot was carried out by the Praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus , Commodus ' mistress Marcia , and his chamberlain Eclectus .
Twelve Tables
Ancient Rome This article is part of a series on the politics and government of ancient Rome Periods Roman Kingdom 753 -- 509 BC Roman Republic 509 -- 27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC -- AD 1453 Empire of Trebizond 1204 -- 1461 Principate Dominate Timeline Roman Constitution Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire Senate Legislative Assemblies Executive Magistrates Ordinary magistrates Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor Extraordinary magistrates Dictator Magister equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri Titles and honours Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Precedent and law Roman law Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Auctoritas Roman citizenship Cursus honorum Senatus consultum Senatus consultum ultimum Assemblies Centuriate Curiate Plebeian Tribal Other countries Atlas
Roman calendar
The calendar era before and under the Roman kings is uncertain but dating by regnal years was common in antiquity . Under the Roman Republic , from 509 BC , years were most commonly described in terms of their reigning ordinary consuls . ( Temporary and honorary consuls were sometimes elected or appointed but were not used in dating . ) Consular lists were displayed on the public calendars . After the institution of the Roman Empire , regnal dates based on the emperors ' terms in office became more common . Some historians of the later republic and early imperial eras dated from the legendary founding of the city of Rome ( ab urbe condita or AVC ) . Varro 's date for this was 753 BC but other writers used different dates , varying by several decades . Such dating was , however , never widespread . After the consuls waned in importance , most Roman dating was regnal or followed Diocletian 's 15 - year Indiction tax cycle . These cycles were not distinguished , however , so that `` year 2 of the indiction '' may refer to any of 298 , 313 , 328 , &c . The Orthodox subjects of the Byzantine Empire used various Christian eras , including those based on Diocletian 's persecutions , Christ 's incarnation , and the supposed age of the world .
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
According to Edward Bishop Elliott 's interpretation of the Four Horsemen as symbolic prophecy of the history of the Roman Empire , the second seal is opened and the Roman nation that experienced joy , prosperity and triumph is made subject to the red horse which depicts war and bloodshed -- civil war . Peace left the Roman Earth resulting in the killing of one another as insurrection crept into and permeated the Empire beginning shortly into the reign of the Emperor Commodus .
Comparison of Star Trek and Star Wars
Much of Star Wars ' story plots and character developments are based on ancient history , including classical Greece and Rome , such as the fall of the Old Republic in Star Wars , followed by the rise of the Galactic Empire , which parallels the fall of the ancient Roman Republic followed by the rise of the Roman Empire .
Ancient Egypt
Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom , during the Ramesside period , where it rivalled the Hittite Empire , Assyrian Empire and Mitanni Empire , after which it entered a period of slow decline . Egypt was invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers , such as the Canaanites / Hyksos , Libyans , the Nubians , the Assyrians , Babylonians , the Achaemenid Persians , and the Macedonians in the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period of Egypt . In the aftermath of Alexander the Great 's death , one of his generals , Ptolemy Soter , established himself as the new ruler of Egypt . This Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC , when , under Cleopatra , it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province .
Aztec religion
The Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan was the head of the cult of Huitzilopochtli and thus of the state religion of the Aztec empire . He had special priestly duties in different rituals on the state level .
Macedonia (terminology)
The interior of Macedonia remained in Slavic and later Bulgarian hands until the campaigns of Basil II , which ended the existence of the Bulgarian state and extended Byzantine authority across the central and northern Balkans . Thereafter Macedonia remained under Byzantine control until the Fourth Crusade ( 1204 ) . A short - lived Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica was established which survived until 1224 , when it was captured by Epirus . Most of Macedonia then came under the control of the Empire of Nicaea in 1246 , although its northern regions remained disputed with the Serbs and the Bulgarians . Most of the region was conquered by the Serbs under Stephen Dushan during the Byzantine civil war of 1341 -- 1347 . Only Thessalonica and its environs remained in Byzantine hands . By the late 14th century , the Ottoman Turks in turn had conquered the region , although Thessalonica held out under Byzantine and later Venetian control until 1430 . Ottoman
History of India
The Sikh Empire , ruled by members of the Sikh religion , was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian Subcontinent . The empire , based around the Punjab region , existed from 1799 to 1849 . It was forged , on the foundations of the Khalsa , under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh ( 1780 -- 1839 ) from an array of autonomous Punjabi Misls .
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Likewise , nothing is known about how Osman first established his principality ( beylik ) as the sources , none of them contemporary , provide many different and conflicting origin stories . What is certain is that at some point in the late thirteenth century Osman emerged as the leader of a small principality centered on the town of Söğüt in the north - western Anatolian region of Bithynia . Osman 's principality was initially supported by the tribal manpower of nomadic Turkish groups , whom he led in predatory raids against the Byzantine territories of the region . This Ottoman tribe was based not on blood - ties , but on political expedience . Thus it was inclusive of all who wished to join , including people of Byzantine origin . The Ottoman enterprise came to be led by several great warrior families , at least one of which was of Greek Christian origin , that of Köse Mihal . Nevertheless , Islam played a role in Ottoman self - identity from the very start , as evidenced by a land grant issued by Osman 's son Orhan in 1324 , describing him as `` Champion of the Faith '' .
Sociology
The sociology of religion concerns the practices , historical backgrounds , developments , universal themes and roles of religion in society . There is particular emphasis on the recurring role of religion in all societies and throughout recorded history . The sociology of religion is distinguished from the philosophy of religion in that sociologists do not set out to assess the validity of religious truth - claims , instead assuming what Peter L. Berger has described as a position of `` methodological atheism '' . It may be said that the modern formal discipline of sociology began with the analysis of religion in Durkheim 's 1897 study of suicide rates among Roman Catholic and Protestant populations . Max Weber published four major texts on religion in a context of economic sociology and social stratification : The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism ( 1905 ) , The Religion of China : Confucianism and Taoism ( 1915 ) , The Religion of India : The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism ( 1915 ) , and Ancient Judaism ( 1920 ) . Contemporary debates often centre on topics such as secularization , civil religion , the intersection of religion and economics and the role of religion in a context of globalization and multiculturalism .
Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Another significant effect on the people in South America was the spread of Christianity . As Pizarro and the Spanish subdued the continent and brought it under their control , they forcefully converted many to Christianity , claiming to have educated them in the ways of the `` one true religion . '' With the depopulation of the local populations along with the capitulation of the Inca Empire , the Spanish missionary work after colonization began was able to continue unimpeded . It took just a generation for the entire continent to be under Christian influence .
Golden Horde
When the former Seljuk Sultan Kaykaus II was arrested in the Byzantine Empire , his younger brother Kayqubad II appealed to Berke . An Egyptian envoy was also detained there . With the assistance of the Kingdom of Bulgaria ( Berke 's vassal ) , Nogai invaded the Empire in 1264 . He forced Michael VIII Palaiologos to release Kaykaus , pay tribute to the Horde , and marry one of his daughters , Euphrosyne Palaiologina , to Nogai . Berke gave Kaykaus Crimea as an appanage and had him marry a Mongol woman .
Medieval music
The bowed lyra of the Byzantine Empire was the first recorded European bowed string instrument . Like the modern violin , a performer produced sound by moving a bow with tensioned hair over tensioned strings . The Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih of the 9th century ( d . 911 ) cited the Byzantine lyra , in his lexicographical discussion of instruments as a bowed instrument equivalent to the Arab rabāb and typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun ( organ ) , shilyani ( probably a type of harp or lyre ) and the salandj ( probably a bagpipe ) . The hurdy - gurdy was ( and still is ) a mechanical violin using a rosined wooden wheel attached to a crank to `` bow '' its strings . Instruments without sound boxes like the jaw harp were also popular . Early versions of the pipe organ , fiddle ( or vielle ) , and a precursor to the modern trombone ( called the sackbut ) were used .
Nation state
In Europe , during the 18th century , the classic non-national states were the multiethnic empires , the Austrian Empire , Kingdom of France , Kingdom of Hungary , the Russian Empire , the Ottoman Empire , the British Empire and smaller nations at what would now be called sub-state level . The multi-ethnic empire was an Absolute monarchy ruled by a king , emperor or sultan . The population belonged to many ethnic groups , and they spoke many languages . The empire was dominated by one ethnic group , and their language was usually the language of public administration . The ruling dynasty was usually , but not always , from that group .
Third Rome
Shortly before Joseph II inherited the States of the House of Austria , he traveled to Russia in 1780 . In her conversations with him Catherine II made it clear that she would renew the Byzantine empire and to use her one - year - old grandson Konstantin as Emperor of Constantinople . The guest tried to suggest to the guest that he could be held harmless in the Papal States .