vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
History of Mexico
The Liberal Reform began with the overthrow of Santa Anna by Mexican liberals , ushering in La Reforma beginning in 1854 . The Mexican Constitution of 1857 codified the principles of liberalism in law , especially separation of church and state , equality before the law , that included stripping corporate entities ( the Catholic Church and indigenous communities ) of special status . The Reform sparked a civil war between liberals defending the constitution and conservatives , who opposed it . The War of the Reform saw the defeat of the conservatives on the battlefield , but conservatives remained strong and took the opportunity to invite foreign intervention against the liberals in order to forward their own cause .
American Revolutionary War
Three current branches of the United States Military trace their institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War ; the United States Army comes from the Continental Army , formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14 , 1775 . The United States Navy recognizes October 13 , 1775 as the date of its official establishment , the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy . And the United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the war , formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10 , 1775 , a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps . At the beginning of 1776 , Washington 's army had 20,000 men , with two - thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias . At the end of the American Revolution in 1783 , both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded . About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war , but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time . About 55,000 American sailors served aboard privateers during the war . The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships , and they captured 2,283 enemy ships . John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero , capturing HMS Drake on April 24 , 1778 , the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters .
Internal Revenue Service
The IRS originated with the Commissioner of Internal Revenue , a federal office created in 1862 to assess the nation 's first income tax , which was to raise funds for the American Civil War . The temporary measure provided over a fifth of the Union 's war expenses and was allowed to expire a decade later . In 1913 , the Sixteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified authorizing Congress to impose a tax on income , and the Bureau of Internal Revenue was established . In 1953 , the agency was renamed the Internal Revenue Service and significantly reorganized . The Tax Reform Act of 1986 modernized the IRS and restructured it along a private sector model .
Pennsylvania Turnpike
The highway was considered a yardstick by which limited - access highway construction would be measured . Commission chairman Jones called for more limited - access roads to be built across the country for defense purposes , and the turnpike was a model for a proposed national network of highways planned during World War II . The Pennsylvania Turnpike led to the construction of other toll roads , such as the New Jersey Turnpike and ( eventually ) the Interstate Highway System . It has been designated a National Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers .
World War I
In Russia , they were heavily involved in the Russian Civil War , siding with the Whites against the Bolsheviks , at times controlling most of the Trans - Siberian railway and conquering all the major cities of Siberia . The presence of the Czechoslovak Legion near Yekaterinburg appears to have been one of the motivations for the Bolshevik execution of the Tsar and his family in July 1918 . Legionaries arrived less than a week afterwards and captured the city . Because Russia 's European ports were not safe , the corps was evacuated by a long detour via the port of Vladivostok . The last transport was the American ship Heffron in September 1920 .
United States news media and the Vietnam War
In January 1963 , South Vietnamese forces engaged the communists at the Battle of Ap Bac . The reporting of what became a debacle for the South Vietnamese military and the condemnation heaped upon it by the Western press became a cause célèbre at the time . Both the US mission and Washington condemned the reports and questioned the motives of the correspondents involved . The Kennedy administration then went on the offensive , bombarding news editors in the US with complaints concerning the accuracy of the reporting of the Saigon press corporations . The chain of events led to the interesting conundrum of American periodicals attacking the accuracy of their own on - the - spot reporters . The correspondents , however , did not question the black - and - white assumptions of the time that the war was a part of the larger struggle between the free world and totalitarianism or whether the war was beyond America 's ability to win . They perceived their issues with the Saigon government as a conflict over tactics , not principles ; Diem 's government and military were hindering a positive solution to the problem . According to the reporters , the solution was for the US to get rid of Diem or take over direct control of the war itself .
John C. Calhoun
Calhoun is often held in high regard by the Southern Lost Cause historians , who hold a romanticized view of the old Southern way of life and its cause during the Civil War . Historians such as Charles M. Wiltse , Margaret Coit , and Clyde N. Wilson have , in their writings , portrayed Calhoun as a sympathetic or heroic figure .
Territorial evolution of the United States
Desires for expansion into Spanish territories like Cuba led to the Spanish -- American War in 1898 , in which the United States gained Guam , Puerto Rico , and the Philippines , and occupied Cuba for several years . American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the Second Samoan Civil War . The United States purchased the U.S. Virgin Islands from Denmark in 1917 . Guam and Puerto Rico remain territories ; the Philippines became independent in 1946 , after being a major theater of World War II . Following the war , many islands were entrusted to the U.S. by the United Nations , and while the Northern Mariana Islands remain a U.S. territory , the Marshall Islands , Federated States of Micronesia , and Palau emerged from the trust territory as independent nations . The last major international change was the acquisition in 1904 , and return to Panama in 1979 , of the Panama Canal Zone , a region of American sovereignty to build and run the Panama Canal . The final cession of power over the region was made to Panama in 1999 .
List of Game of Thrones characters
The characters from the American medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones are based on their respective counterparts from author George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels . Set in a fictional universe that has been referred to so far as `` The Known World , '' the series follows a civil war for the Iron Throne of the continent of Westeros , fought between the rival royal and noble families and their respective supporters .
American Indian Wars
The peaceful relationship between settlers and the Indians of the Colorado and Kansas plains was maintained faithfully by the tribes , but sentiment grew among the Colorado settlers for Indian removal . The savagery of the attacks on civilians during the Dakota War of 1862 contributed to these sentiments as did the few minor incidents which occurred in the Platte Valley and in areas east of Denver . Regular army troops had been withdrawn for service in the Civil War and were replaced with the Colorado Volunteers , rough men who often favored extermination of the Indians . They were commanded by John Chivington and George L. Shoup who followed the lead of John Evans , territorial governor of Colorado . They adopted a policy of shooting all Indians encountered on sight , a policy which in short time ignited a general war on the Colorado and Kansas plains , the Colorado War .
American Indian Wars
The Pike 's Peak Gold Rush of 1859 introduced a substantial white population into the Front Range of the Rockies supported by a trading lifeline that crossed the central Great Plains . Advancing settlement following the passage of the Homestead Act and the building of the transcontinental railways following the Civil War further destabilized the situation , placing white settlers into direct competition for the land and resources of the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountain West . Further factors included discovery of gold in the Black Hills , resulting in the gold rush of 1875 -- 1878 , and , earlier , in Montana during the Montana Gold Rush of 1862 -- 1863 and the opening of the Bozeman Trail , which led to Red Cloud 's War and later the Great Sioux War of 1876 -- 77 .
English Civil War
In the early decades of the 20th century the Whig school was the dominant theoretical view . They explained the Civil War as resulting from a centuries - long struggle between Parliament ( especially the House of Commons ) and the Monarchy , with Parliament defending the traditional rights of Englishmen , while the Stuart monarchy continually attempted to expand its right to arbitrarily dictate law . The most important Whig historian , S.R. Gardiner , popularised the idea that the English Civil War was a `` Puritan Revolution '' : challenging the repressive Stuart Church , and preparing the way for religious toleration in the Restoration . Thus , Puritanism was the natural ally of a people preserving their traditional rights against arbitrary monarchical power .
Canada–United States relations
Canada became a self - governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain controlled diplomacy and defense policy . Prior to Confederation , there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude . That issue was resolved by splitting the disputed territory ; the northern half became British Columbia , and the southern half the states of Washington and Oregon . Strained relations with America continued , however , due to a series of small - scale armed incursions named the Fenian raids by Irish - American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence . The American government , angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War , moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians . The British government , in charge of diplomatic relations , protested cautiously , as Anglo - American relations were tense . Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims , when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy .
Siege
The Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War and the Siege of Petersburg ( 1864 -- 1865 ) during the American Civil War showed that modern citadels , when improved by improvised defences , could still resist an enemy for many months . The Siege of Plevna during the Russo - Turkish War ( 1877 -- 78 ) proved that hastily constructed field defences could resist attacks prepared without proper resources , and were a portent of the trench warfare of World War I .
Atlanta
In 1837 , Atlanta was founded at the intersection of two railroad lines , and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce . In the decades following the Civil Rights Movement , the city earned a reputation as `` too busy to hate '' for the relatively progressive views of its citizens and leaders compared to other cities in the Deep South . Atlanta attained international prominence , and it became the primary transportation hub of the Southeastern United States , via highway , railroad , and air , with Hartsfield -- Jackson Atlanta International Airport being the world 's busiest airport since 1998 .
Presidency of Abraham Lincoln
In November 1863 , Lincoln was invited to Gettysburg to dedicate the first national cemetery and honor the soldiers who had fallen . His Gettysburg Address became a core statement of American political values . Defying Lincoln 's prediction that `` the world will little note , nor long remember what we say here '' , the Address became the most quoted speech in American history . In 272 words , and three minutes , Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789 , following ratification of the United States Constitution , but with the 1776 Declaration of Independence . He defined the war as an effort dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all . The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort . He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain , that slavery would end as a result of the losses , and the future of democracy in the world would be assured , that `` government of the people , by the people , for the people , shall not perish from the earth '' . Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective : a new birth of freedom in the nation .
Results of the War of 1812
Although all of the original objectives of the war had failed , the American people saw the War of 1812 as evidence of the success of the democratic experiment . The war ushered in a period of American history that has frequently been called `` the Era of Good Feelings , '' a time when , at least on the surface , most Americans felt unified behind a common purpose . The War of 1812 convinced the country that it could fend off any foreign threats and that its focus should be on expansion at home .
Border states (American Civil War)
After the secession of Southern states began , the newly elected governor of Missouri Claiborne F. Jackson called upon the legislature to authorize a state constitutional convention on secession . A special election approved of the convention , and delegates to it . This Missouri Constitutional Convention voted to remain within the Union , but rejected coercion of the Southern states by the United States .
War of 1812
Today , American popular memory includes the British capture and the burning of Washington in August 1814 , which necessitated its extensive renovation . The fact that before the war , many Americans wanted to annex British North America , was swiftly forgotten , and instead American popular memory focused on the victories at Baltimore , Plattsburg and New Orleans to present the war as a successful effort to assert American national honour , the `` second war of independence '' that saw the mighty British empire humbled and humiliated . In a speech before Congress on February 18 , 1815 , President Madison proclaimed the war a complete American victory . This interpretation of the war was and remains the dominant American view of the war The American newspaper the Niles Register in an editorial on September 14 , 1816 , announced that the Americans had crushed the British , declaring `` ... we did virtually dictate the treaty of Ghent to the British '' . A minority of Americans , mostly associated with the Federalists , saw the war as a defeat and an act of folly on Madison 's part , caustically asking if the Americans were `` dictating '' the terms of the treaty of Ghent , why the British Crown did not cede British North America to the United States ? However , the Federalist view of the war is not the mainstream American memory of the war . The view of Congressman George Troup , who stated in a speech in 1815 that the Treaty of Ghent was `` the glorious termination of the most glorious war ever waged by any people '' , is the way that most Americans remembered the war . Another memory is the successful American defence of Fort McHenry in September 1814 , which inspired the lyrics of the U.S. national anthem , `` The Star - Spangled Banner '' . The successful captains of the U.S. Navy became popular heroes with plates with the likeness of Decatur , Steward , Hull , and others becoming popular items . Ironically , many were made in England . The navy became a cherished institution , lauded for the victories that it won against all odds . After engagements during the final actions of the war , U.S. Marines had acquired a well - deserved reputation as excellent marksmen , especially in ship - to - ship actions .
Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben
Friedrich Wilhelm August Heinrich Ferdinand Steuben ( born Friedrich Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard Augustin von Steuben ; September 17 , 1730 -- November 28 , 1794 ) , also referred to as the Baron von Steuben , was a Prussian and later an American military officer . He served as inspector general and major general of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War . He is credited with being one of the fathers of the Continental Army in teaching them the essentials of military drills , tactics , and disciplines . He wrote Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States , the book that served as standard United States drill manual until the American Civil War . He served as General George Washington 's chief of staff in the final years of the war .
Conclusion of the American Civil War
The Confederates lost the city of Spanish Fort in Alabama at the Battle of Spanish Fort , which took place between March 27 and April 8 , 1865 in Baldwin County . After losing Spanish Fort , the Confederates went on to lose Fort Blakely to Union forces at the Battle of Fort Blakely , between April 2 and 9 , 1865 . This was the last battle of the American Civil War involving large numbers of United States Colored Troops .
Turning point of the American Civil War
Some contend that Sherman 's successful siege of Atlanta was the turning point , since the heavily fortified city was the most critical remaining stronghold in the South . The capture of Atlanta , following a tedious and frustrating campaign , lifted the spirits of Unionists and came just in time to build the popular support necessary to re-elect Lincoln , in addition to its military result of crippling transportation in the heart of the Confederacy and nearly destroying the city .
Extinction
Habitat degradation is currently the main anthropogenic cause of species extinctions . The main cause of habitat degradation worldwide is agriculture , with urban sprawl , logging , mining and some fishing practices close behind . The degradation of a species ' habitat may alter the fitness landscape to such an extent that the species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct . This may occur by direct effects , such as the environment becoming toxic , or indirectly , by limiting a species ' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species .
Abner Doubleday
However , there is considerable evidence to dispute this claim . Baseball historian George B. Kirsch has described the results of the Mills Commission as a `` myth '' . He wrote , `` Robert Henderson , Harold Seymour , and other scholars have since debunked the Doubleday - Cooperstown myth , which nonetheless remains powerful in the American imagination because of the efforts of Major League Baseball and the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown . '' At his death , Doubleday left many letters and papers , none of which describe baseball or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game , and his New York Times obituary did not mention the game at all . Chairman Mills himself , who had been a Civil War colleague of Doubleday and a member of the honor guard for Doubleday 's body as it lay in state in New York City , never recalled hearing Doubleday describe his role as the inventor . Doubleday was a cadet at West Point in the year of the alleged invention and his family had moved away from Cooperstown the prior year . Furthermore , the primary testimony to the commission that connected baseball to Doubleday was that of Abner Graves , whose credibility is questionable ; a few years later , he shot his wife to death and was committed to an institution for the criminally insane for the rest of his life . Part of the confusion could stem from there being another man by the same name in Cooperstown in 1839 .
List of Presidents of the United States who died in office
The assassination of Abraham Lincoln took place on Good Friday , on April 14 , 1865 , as the American Civil War was drawing to a close . The assassination occurred five days after the commanding General of the Army of Northern Virginia , Robert E. Lee , surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant and the Army of the Potomac . Lincoln was the first American president to be assassinated , though an unsuccessful attempt had been made on Andrew Jackson 30 years before in 1835 .
Spanish–American War
A speech delivered by Republican Senator Redfield Proctor of Vermont on March 17 , 1898 , thoroughly analyzed the situation and greatly strengthened the pro-war cause . Proctor concluded that war was the only answer . Many in the business and religious communities which had until then opposed war , switched sides , leaving McKinley and Speaker Reed almost alone in their resistance to a war . On April 11 , McKinley ended his resistance and asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba to end the civil war there , knowing that Congress would force a war . Spanish
Taxation in the United States
By 1796 , state and local governments in fourteen of the 15 states taxed land . Delaware taxed the income from property . The War of 1812 required a federal sales tax on specific luxury items due to its costs . However , internal taxes were dropped in 1817 in favor of import tariffs that went to the federal government . By the American Civil War , the principle of taxation of property at a uniform rate had developed , and many of the states relied on property taxes as a major source of revenue . However , the increasing importance of intangible property , such as corporate stock , caused the states to shift to other forms of taxation in the 1900s .
War of 1812
U.S. leaders assumed that Canada could be easily overrun . Former President Jefferson optimistically referred to the conquest of Canada as `` a matter of marching '' . Many Loyalist Americans had migrated to Upper Canada after the Revolutionary War . There was also significant non-Loyalist American immigration to the area due to the offer of land grants to immigrants , and the U.S. assumed the latter would favour the American cause , but they did not . In prewar Upper Canada , General Prévost was in the unusual position of having to purchase many provisions for his troops from the American side . This peculiar trade persisted throughout the war in spite of an abortive attempt by the U.S. government to curtail it . In Lower Canada , which was much more populous , support for Britain came from the English elite with strong loyalty to the Empire , and from the French - speaking Canadien elite , who feared American conquest would destroy the old order by introducing Protestantism , Anglicization , republican democracy , and commercial capitalism ; and weakening the Catholic Church . The Canadien inhabitants feared the loss of a shrinking area of good lands to potential American immigrants .
Gun laws in Florida
A person who uses force within the parameters of the law is immune from criminal prosecution or civil action and can not be arrested unless a law enforcement agency determines there is probable cause that the force used was unlawful . If a civil action is brought and the court finds the defendant to be immune under the law , the defendant will be awarded all costs of defense .
British Army during World War I
Finally , the Mark I tank -- a British invention -- was seen as the solution to the stalemate of trench warfare . The Mark I had a range of 23 mi ( 37 km ) without refuelling , and a speed of 3 mph ( 4.8 km / h ) ; it first saw service on the Somme in September 1916 .