vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Lobbying in the United States
While the number of lobbyists in Washington is estimated to be over twelve thousand , those with real clout number in the dozens , and a small group of firms handles much of lobbying in terms of expenditures . A report in The Nation in 2014 suggested that while the number of 12,281 registered lobbyists was a decrease since 2002 , lobbying activity was increasing and `` going underground '' as lobbyists use `` increasingly sophisticated strategies '' to obscure their activity . Analyst James A. Thurber estimated that the actual number of working lobbyists was close to 100,000 and that the industry brings in $9 billion annually .
Income inequality in the United States
It is claimed in a 2015 study by Princeton University researchers Angus Deaton and Anne Case that income inequality could be a driving factor in a marked increase in deaths among white males between the ages of 45 to 54 in the period 1999 to 2013 .
Amazon rainforest
For a long time , it was thought that the Amazon rainforest was only ever sparsely populated , as it was impossible to sustain a large population through agriculture given the poor soil . Archeologist Betty Meggers was a prominent proponent of this idea , as described in her book Amazonia : Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise . She claimed that a population density of 0.2 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 0.52 / sq mi ) is the maximum that can be sustained in the rainforest through hunting , with agriculture needed to host a larger population . However , recent anthropological findings have suggested that the region was actually densely populated . Some 5 million people may have lived in the Amazon region in AD 1500 , divided between dense coastal settlements , such as that at Marajó , and inland dwellers . By 1900 the population had fallen to 1 million and by the early 1980s it was less than 200,000 .
Apartheid
Until 1955 , Sophiatown had been one of the few urban areas where black people were allowed to own land , and was slowly developing into a multiracial slum . As industry in Johannesburg grew , Sophiatown became the home of a rapidly expanding black workforce , as it was convenient and close to town . It had the only swimming pool for black children in Johannesburg . As one of the oldest black settlements in Johannesburg , it held an almost symbolic importance for the 50,000 black people it contained . Despite a vigorous ANC protest campaign and worldwide publicity , the removal of Sophiatown began on 9 February 1955 under the Western Areas Removal Scheme . In the early hours , heavily armed police forced residents out of their homes and loaded their belongings onto government trucks . The residents were taken to a large tract of land 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the city centre , known as Meadowlands , which the government had purchased in 1953 . Meadowlands became part of a new planned black city called Soweto . Sophiatown was destroyed by bulldozers , and a new white suburb named Triomf ( Triumph ) was built in its place . This pattern of forced removal and destruction was to repeat itself over the next few years , and was not limited to black South Africans alone . Forced removals from areas like Cato Manor ( Mkhumbane ) in Durban , and District Six in Cape Town , where 55,000 Coloured and Indian people were forced to move to new townships on the Cape Flats , were carried out under the Group Areas Act of 1950 . Nearly 600,000 Coloured , Indian and Chinese people were moved under the Group Areas Act . Some 40,000 whites were also forced to move when land was transferred from `` white South Africa '' into the black homelands .
Victoria Cross
The original warrant stated that NCOs and private soldiers or seamen on the Victoria Cross Register were entitled to a £ 10 per annum annuity . In 1898 , Queen Victoria raised the pension to £ 50 for those that could not earn a livelihood , be it from old age or infirmity . Today holders of the Victoria Cross or George Cross are entitled to an annuity , the amount of which is determined by the awarding government . Since 2015 , the annuity paid by the British Government is £ 10,000 per year . This is exempted from tax for British taxpayers by Section 638 Income Tax ( Earnings and Pensions ) Act 2003 , along with pensions or annuities from other awards for bravery . In Canada under the Gallantry Awards Order , members of the Canadian Forces or people who joined the British forces before 31 March 1949 while domiciled in Canada or Newfoundland receive Can $ 3,000 per year . Under Subsection 103.4 of the Veterans ' Entitlements Act 1986 , the Australian Government provides a Victoria Cross Allowance . Until November 2005 the amount was A $ 3,230 per year . Since then this amount has been increased annually in line with the Australian Consumer Price Index .
Relative deprivation
A specific form of relative deprivation is relative poverty . A measure of relative poverty defines poverty as being below some relative poverty line , such as households who earn less than 20 % of the median income .
Household income in the United States
In 2010 , the median household income by state ranged from $35,693 in Mississippi to $66,334 in Maryland . Despite having the highest median home price in the nation and home prices that far outpaced incomes , California ranked only ninth in income , with a median household income of $61,021 . While California 's median income was not near enough to afford the average California home or even a starter home , West Virginia , which had one of the nation 's lowest median household incomes , also had the nation 's lowest median home price .
Wicked (musical)
Meanwhile , back at the castle , Fiyero ( now a scarecrow ) comes to the spot where Elphaba was melted . Making sure that no one is observing , he knocks on the floor and out from a trap door steps Elphaba , very much alive ; the entire thing was a ruse to convince her enemies of her death and to ensure her future with Fiyero , who was transformed into the scarecrow by her spell in the process . Before leaving , Elphaba regrets that she 'll never see Glinda again and tell her that she and Fiyero are alive . Simultaneously , returning to the musical 's starting point , Glinda reports to the people of Oz that the Wicked Witch of the West has been killed and promises to properly earn her title as Glinda the Good . As the people celebrate and Glinda mourns , Elphaba and Fiyero leave Oz behind . ( `` Finale '' )
Poverty in the United Kingdom
In 2014 / 5 , the median income in the UK was £ 473 per week ( £ 24,596 a year ) . Those earning 60 % of this figure ( £ 284 a week / £ 14,758 a year ) were considered to be in the low income bracket .
Income inequality in the United States
On the issue of whether most Americans do not stay put in any one income bracket , Krugman quotes from 2011 CBO distribution of income study
Origin of the domestic dog
AMY2B ( Alpha - Amylase 2B ) is a gene that codes a protein that assists with the first step in the digestion of dietary starch and glycogen . An expansion of this gene in dogs would enable early dogs to exploit a starch - rich diet as they fed on refuse from agriculture . In a study in 2014 , the data indicated that the wolves and dingo had just two copies of the gene and the Siberian Husky that is associated with hunter - gatherers had just three or four copies , whereas the Saluki that is associated with the Fertile Crescent where agriculture originated had 29 copies . The results show that on average , modern dogs have a high copy number of the gene , whereas wolves and dingoes do not . The high copy number of AMY2B variants likely already existed as a standing variation in early domestic dogs , but expanded more recently with the development of large agriculturally based civilizations . This suggests that at the beginning of the domestication process , dogs may have been characterized by a more carnivorous diet than their modern - day counterparts , a diet held in common with early hunter - gatherers . A later study indicated that because most dogs had a high copy number of the AMY2B gene but the arctic breeds and the dingo did not , that the dog 's dietary change may not have been caused by initial domestication but by the subsequent spread of agriculture to most - but not all - regions of the planet .
Lucille Ball
Ball signed with Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer in the 1940s , but never achieved major stardom from her appearance in the studio 's films . She was known in many Hollywood circles as `` Queen of the B 's '' -- a title previously held by Fay Wray -- starring in a number of B - movies , such as Five Came Back ( 1939 ) . Like many budding actresses , Ball picked up radio work to earn side income , as well as gain exposure . In 1937 , she appeared regularly on The Phil Baker Show . She once considered and auditioned for the role of Scarlett O'Hara for Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) , but Vivien Leigh got the part , winning an Academy Award for Best Actress for her role .
Auf Wiedersehen, Pet
Dennis Lawrence Patterson Dennis ( Tim Healy ) is the co-opted leader of the `` Magnificent Seven '' . When introduced , he is being divorced by his first wife Vera . He later has an affair with a German on - site secretary named Dagmar , played by Brigitte Kahn . In series two , he is working for a Newcastle upon Tyne gangster , Ally Fraser , to whom he is in debt . Fraser has a notorious reputation throughout the northeast . Dennis has two children and can sometimes be short - tempered , but is basically a man of high moral standards and has good people skills . At the opening of the third series , he is driving a mini-cab for a living and supplementing his income by working as a drug - dealer 's driver . Neville Hope Neville ( Kevin Whately ) is under the thumb of his wife Brenda . He constantly worries about the welfare of his wife and three children , and his heart is in Newcastle . He married young and has no regrets , although by the third series he is suffering from a mid-life crisis . In series four Neville comes of age working secretly for British Intelligence in Cuba . Leonard Jeffery `` Oz '' Osborne In the original series , Oz ( Jimmy Nail ) was a loud , belligerent , abrasive , drunken Geordie lout who showed no fidelity towards his wife or concern for his son . He had a xenophobic attitude to Germans , and later to Turks and Spaniards . His major passions in life were drinking and supporting Newcastle United . At the end of the second series , he wins the Spanish lottery and spends much of his new - found wealth on presents for his friends , but has squandered it by the beginning of the third series , in which he re-unites his five surviving pals at his own phoney funeral as a ruse to reunite the entire team . By this time the character has reformed , becoming more mature and less violent , and is prepared to lead his friends off on new adventures overseas . His son , Rod , has grown up , is a singer and is gay , which at first horrifies Oz . After going to see him perform on two occasions , Oz 's maturity and new - found reformed nature wins through .
Income inequality in the United States
Krueger estimates that `` the persistence in the advantages and disadvantages of income passed from parents to the children '' will `` rise by about a quarter for the next generation as a result of the rise in inequality that the U.S. has seen in the last 25 years . ''
Education in India
In the Indian education system , a teacher 's success is loosely defined . It is either based on a student 's success or based on the years of teaching experience , both of which do not necessarily correlate to a teacher 's skill set or competencies . The management of an institution could thereby be forced to promote teachers based on the grade level they teach or their seniority , both of which are often not an indicator of a good teacher . This means that either a primary school teacher is promoted to a higher grade , or a teacher is promoted to take up other roles within the institution such as Head of Department , coordinator , Vice Principal or Principal . However , the skills and competencies that are required for each of them vary and a great teacher may not be a great manager . Since teachers do not see their own growth and success in their own hands , they often do not take up any professional development . Thus , there is a need to identify a framework to help a teacher chart a career path based on his / her own competency and help him / her understand his / her own development .
Phase (matter)
Distinct phases may also exist within a given state of matter . As shown in the diagram for iron alloys , several phases exist for both the solid and liquid states . Phases may also be differentiated based on solubility as in polar ( hydrophilic ) or non-polar ( hydrophobic ) . A mixture of water ( a polar liquid ) and oil ( a non-polar liquid ) will spontaneously separate into two phases . Water has a very low solubility ( is insoluble ) in oil , and oil has a low solubility in water . Solubility is the maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a solvent before the solute ceases to dissolve and remains in a separate phase . A mixture can separate into more than two liquid phases and the concept of phase separation extends to solids , i.e. , solids can form solid solutions or crystallize into distinct crystal phases . Metal pairs that are mutually soluble can form alloys , whereas metal pairs that are mutually insoluble can not .
Crab
Once crabs have become juveniles , they will still have to keep moulting many more times to become adults . They are covered with a hard shell , which would otherwise prevent growth . The moult cycle is coordinated by hormones . When preparing for moult , the old shell is softened and partly eroded away , while the rudimentary beginnings of a new shell form under it . At the time of moulting , the crab takes in a lot of water to expand and crack open the old shell at a line of weakness along the back edge of the carapace . The crab must then extract all of itself -- including its legs , mouthparts , eyestalks , and even the lining of the front and back of the digestive tract -- from the old shell . This is a difficult process that takes many hours , and if a crab gets stuck , it will die . After freeing itself from the old shell ( now called an exuvia ) , the crab is extremely soft and hides until its new shell has hardened . While the new shell is still soft , the crab can expand it to make room for future growth .
Red giant
Very low mass stars are fully convective and may continue to fuse hydrogen into helium for up to a trillion years until only a small fraction of the entire star is hydrogen . Luminosity and temperature steadily increase during this time , just as for more - massive main - sequence stars , but the length of time involved means that the temperature eventually increases by about 50 % and the luminosity by around 10 times . Eventually the level of helium increases to the point where the star ceases to be fully convective and the remaining hydrogen locked in the core is consumed in only a few billion more years . Depending on mass , the temperature and luminosity continue to increase for a time during hydrogen shell burning , the star can become hotter than the Sun and tens of times more luminous than when it formed although still not as luminous as the Sun . After some billions more years , they start to become less luminous and cooler even though hydrogen shell burning continues . These become cool helium white dwarfs .
Incandescent light bulb
Many arrangements of electrical contacts are used . Large lamps may have a screw base ( one or more contacts at the tip , one at the shell ) or a bayonet base ( one or more contacts on the base , shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support ) . Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end . Miniature lamps may have a wedge base and wire contacts , and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires . Contacts in the lamp socket allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. Power ratings for incandescent light bulbs range from about 0.1 watt to about 10,000 watts .
Atom
Valency is the combining power of an element . It is equal to number of hydrogen atoms that atom can combine or displace in forming compounds . The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell , and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons . The number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms . Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that fills ( or empties ) their outer valence shells . For example , a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one - electron more than a filled shell , and others that are one - electron short of a full shell , such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts . However , many elements display multiple valences , or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds . Thus , chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electron - sharing that are more than simple electron transfers . Examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds .
Helium
Liquid helium - 4 can be cooled to about 1 kelvin using evaporative cooling in a 1 - K pot . Similar cooling of helium - 3 , which has a lower boiling point , can achieve about 6999200000000000000 ♠ 0.2 kelvin in a helium - 3 refrigerator . Equal mixtures of liquid He and He below 6999800000000000000 ♠ 0.8 K separate into two immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity ( they follow different quantum statistics : helium - 4 atoms are bosons while helium - 3 atoms are fermions ) . Dilution refrigerators use this immiscibility to achieve temperatures of a few millikelvins .
Helium
The safety issues for cryogenic helium are similar to those of liquid nitrogen ; its extremely low temperatures can result in cold burns , and the liquid - to - gas expansion ratio can cause explosions if no pressure - relief devices are installed . Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be handled as if they contain liquid helium due to the rapid and significant thermal expansion that occurs when helium gas at less than 10 K is warmed to room temperature .
Thanksgiving dinner
The White House Cook Book , 1887 , by Mrs. F.L. Gillette , et al. , had the following menu : oysters on half shell , cream of chicken soup , fried smelts , sauce tartare , roast turkey , cranberry sauce , mashed potatoes , baked squash , boiled onions , parsnip fritters , olives , chicken salad , venison pastry , pumpkin pie , mince pie , Charlotte russe , almond ice cream , lemon jelly , hickory nut cake , cheese , fruits and coffee .
Command-line interface
Implementations of the Unix shell are also available as part of the POSIX sub-system , Cygwin , MKS Toolkit , UWIN , Hamilton C shell and other software packages . Available shells for these interoperability tools include csh , ksh , sh , bash , rsh , tclsh and less commonly zsh , ysh , psh COMMAND.COM ( 4DOS ) , Windows NT cmd. exe ( 4NT , TCC ) , and OS / 2 cmd. exe ( 4OS2 ) and others based on them are enhanced shells which can be a replacement for the native shell or a means of enhancement of the default shell Implementations of PHP have a shell for interactive use called php - cli . Standard Tcl / Tk has two interactive shells , Tclsh and Wish , the latter being the GUI version . Python , Ruby , Lua , XLNT , and other interpreters also have command shells for interactive use . FreeBSD uses tcsh as its default interactive shell for the superuser . Apple macOS and many Linux distributions have the Bash implementation of the Unix shell . Early versions of macOS used tcsh as the default shell . Embedded Linux ( and other embedded Unix - like ) devices often use the Ash implementation of the Unix shell , as part of Busybox . Android uses the mksh shell , which replaces a shell derived from ash that was used in older Android versions , supplemented with commands from the separate toolbox binary . Routers with Cisco IOS , Junos and many others are commonly configured from the command line .
Phase (matter)
In the diagram , the blue line marking the boundary between liquid and gas does not continue indefinitely , but terminates at a point called the critical point . As the temperature and pressure approach the critical point , the properties of the liquid and gas become progressively more similar . At the critical point , the liquid and gas become indistinguishable . Above the critical point , there are no longer separate liquid and gas phases : there is only a generic fluid phase referred to as a supercritical fluid . In water , the critical point occurs at around 647 K ( 374 ° C or 705 ° F ) and 22.064 MPa .
Helium
Unlike any other element , helium will remain liquid down to absolute zero at normal pressures . This is a direct effect of quantum mechanics : specifically , the zero point energy of the system is too high to allow freezing . Solid helium requires a temperature of 1 -- 1.5 K ( about − 272 ° C or − 457 ° F ) at about 25 bar ( 2.5 MPa ) of pressure . It is often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the refractive index of the two phases are nearly the same . The solid has a sharp melting point and has a crystalline structure , but it is highly compressible ; applying pressure in a laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30 % . With a bulk modulus of about 27 MPa it is ~ 100 times more compressible than water . Solid helium has a density of 6999214000000000000 ♠ 0.214 ± 0.006 g / cm at 1.15 K and 66 atm ; the projected density at 0 K and 25 bar ( 2.5 MPa ) is 6999187000000000000 ♠ 0.187 ± 0.009 g / cm . At higher temperatures , helium will solidify with sufficient pressure . At room temperature , this requires about 114,000 atm . Helium
Drink can
Aluminium cans are coated internally to protect the aluminium from oxidizing . Despite this coating , trace amounts of aluminium can be degraded into the liquid , the amount depending on factors such as storage temperature and liquid composition . Chemical compounds used in the internal coating of the can include types of epoxy resin .
State of matter
Liquid crystal states have properties intermediate between mobile liquids and ordered solids . Generally , they are able to flow like a liquid , but exhibiting long - range order . For example , the nematic phase consists of long rod - like molecules such as para-azoxyanisole , which is nematic in the temperature range 118 -- 136 ° C. In this state the molecules flow as in a liquid , but they all point in the same direction ( within each domain ) and can not rotate freely . Like a crystalline solid , but unlike a liquid , liquid crystals react to polarized light .
Git
As Git is a distributed version control system , it can be used as a server out of the box . Dedicated Git server software helps , amongst other features , to add access control , display the contents of a Git repository via the web , and help managing multiple repositories . Remote file store and shell access : A Git repository can be cloned to a shared file system , and accessed by other persons . It can also be accessed via remote shell just by having the Git software installed and allowing a user to log in . See