vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Foreign trade of the United States
Though the US trade deficit has been stubborn , and tends to be the largest by dollar volume of any nation , even the most extreme months as measured by percent of GDP there are nations that are far more noteworthy . Case in point , post 2015 Nepal earthquake , Nepal 's trade gap ( in goods & services ) was a shocking 33.3 % of GDP although heavy remittances considerably offset that number . According to the US Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis ( BEA ) , January 27 , 2017 report , the GDP `` increased 4.0 percent , or $185.5 billion , in the fourth quarter of 2016 to a level of $18,860.8 billion . ''
Cahokia
Mill Creek chert , most notably , was used in the production of hoes , a high demand tool for farmers around Cahokia and other Mississippian centers . Cahokia 's control of the manufacture and distribution of these hand tools was an important economic activity that allowed the city to thrive . Mississippian culture pottery and stone tools in the Cahokian style were found at the Silvernale site near Red Wing , Minnesota , and materials and trade goods from Pennsylvania , the Gulf Coast and Lake Superior have been excavated at Cahokia . Bartering , not money was used in trade .
European colonization of the Americas
Economic advantage also prompted the Darien Scheme , an ill - fated venture by the Kingdom of Scotland to settle the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s . The Darien Scheme aimed to control trade through that part of the world and thereby promote Scotland into a world trading power . However , it was doomed by poor planning , short provisions , weak leadership , lack of demand for trade goods , and devastating disease . The failure of the Darien Scheme was one of the factors that led the Kingdom of Scotland into the Act of Union 1707 with the Kingdom of England creating the united Kingdom of Great Britain and giving Scotland commercial access to English , now British , colonies .
Flint water crisis
Robby Soave , writing in Reason magazine , said that administrative bloat in public - sector trade unions was to blame for the crisis : `` Let 's not forget the reason why local authorities felt the need to find a cheaper water source : Flint is broke and its desperately poor citizens ca n't afford higher taxes to pay the pensions of city government retirees . As recently as 2011 , it would have cost every person in Flint $10,000 each to cover the unfunded legacy costs of the city 's public employees . '' `` Flint was a government - made disaster from top to bottom . Private companies did n't run the system or profit from it , '' Shikha Dalmia wrote in Reason Magazine .
Causes of the Great Depression
Misfortunes ( of the 1930 's ) were due principally to the fact that the production of primary commodities after the war was somewhat in excess of demand . It was this which , by keeping the terms of trade unfavourable to primary producers , kept the trade in manufactures so low , to the detriment of some countries as the United Kingdom , even in the twenties , and it was this which pulled the world economy down in the early thirties .... If primary commodity markets had not been so insecure the crisis of 1929 would not have become a great depression ... It was the violent fall of prices that was deflationary .
Great Depression
As world trade slumped , demand for South African agricultural and mineral exports fell drastically . The Carnegie Commission on Poor Whites had concluded in 1931 that nearly one third of Afrikaners lived as paupers . The social discomfort caused by the depression was a contributing factor in the 1933 split between the `` gesuiwerde '' ( purified ) and `` smelter '' ( fusionist ) factions within the National Party and the National Party 's subsequent fusion with the South African Party .
Technological and industrial history of the United States
The earliest unions emerged before the Civil War as trade guilds composed of journeyman carpenters , masons , and other artisans who would engage in strikes to demand better hours and pay from their masters . All branches of government generally sought to stop labor from organizing into unions or from organizing strikes .
Mississippi River
In 1962 and 1963 , industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million US gallons ( 13,000,000 L ) of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers . The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin , creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution .
Tax protester statutory arguments
In a separate case , Schulz and his We the People Foundation organization argued unsuccessfully that , based on the First Amendment right of the people to petition the government for a redress of grievances , the government should have a duty to respond to a taxpayer 's demand for an explanation as to why taxpayers are subject to income tax . On May 8 , 2007 , the Schulz argument was rejected by the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in We the People Foundation , Inc. v. United States .
Demand curve
According to convention , the demand curve is drawn with price on the vertical ( y ) axis and quantity on the horizontal ( x ) axis . The function actually plotted is the inverse demand function .
Demand curve
Market or aggregate demand is the summation of individual demand curves . In addition to the factors which can affect individual demand there are three factors that can affect market demand ( cause the market demand curve to shift ) :
Recruitment in the British Army
`` The British Army is wasting manpower in this war almost as badly as it did in the last war . A man is posted to a Corps almost entirely on the demand of the moment and without any effort at personal selection by proper tests . ''
Aggregate demand
An aggregate demand curve is the sum of individual demand curves for different sectors of the economy . The aggregate demand is usually described as a linear sum of four separable demand sources :
Philippines
Some of these polities , particularly the coastal settlements at or near the mouths of large rivers , eventually developed substantial trade contacts with the early trading powers of Southeast Asia , most importantly the Indianized kingdoms of Malaysia and Java , the various dynasties of China , Thailand , and later , the Muslim Sultanate of Brunei . They also traded with Vietnam , Japan , and other Austronesian islands .
Law of demand
The above equation , when plotted with quantity demanded ( Q x ( \ displaystyle Q_ ( x ) ) ) on the x ( \ displaystyle x ) - axis and price ( P x ( \ displaystyle P_ ( x ) ) ) on the y ( \ displaystyle y ) - axis , gives the demand curve , which is also known as the demand schedule . The downward sloping nature of a typical demand curve illustrates the inverse relationship between quantity demanded and price . Therefore , a downward sloping demand curve embeds the law of demand .
Working memory
None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely . The resource hypothesis , for example , was meant to explain the trade - off between maintenance and processing : The more information must be maintained in working memory , the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become , and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers . This trade - off has been investigated by tasks like the reading - span task described above . It has been found that the amount of trade - off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed . For example , remembering numbers while processing spatial information , or remembering spatial information while processing numbers , impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed . Also , remembering words and processing digits , or remembering digits and processing words , is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category . These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis , because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall , not on the content of the processing task . A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed , either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace , or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter . Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy . The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other . More similar materials are more likely to be confused , leading to retrieval competition .
Economy of Mexico
President Zedillo ( 1994 -- 2000 ) and President Fox ( 2000 -- 06 ) , of the National Action Party ( Mexico ) , the first opposition party candidate to win a presidential election since the founding of the precursor of the Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1929 , continued with trade liberalization . During Fox 's administrations , several FTAs were signed with Latin American and European countries , Japan and Israel , and both strove to maintain macroeconomic stability . Thus , Mexico became one of the most open countries in the world to trade , and the economic base shifted accordingly . Total trade with the United States and Canada tripled , and total exports and imports almost quadrupled between 1991 and 2003 . The nature of foreign investment also changed with a greater share of foreign - direct investment ( FDI ) over portfolio investment .
Draft Day
Rumors spread about Callahan as other teams avoid him , wondering why Sonny did n't pick him . However , the Seahawks are still in contention to pick Callahan with their seventh pick , and Sonny senses an opportunity . Sonny convinces the rookie general manager of the Jacksonville Jaguars to trade him their next pick ( at sixth , just before the Seahawks ) in exchange for the Browns ' second - round draft picks for the next three years . Sonny then calls Tom , who intends to pick Bo Callahan at seventh , trying to prevent the Seahawks from having him . In return for passing on Callahan to let the Seahawks have him , Sonny demands his first - round picks back , along with punt returner David Putney . The Seahawks seal the deal and choose Callahan . With his pick , Sonny appeases Penn and Molina by selecting the skilled running back Ray Jennings of Florida State .
Tax protester statutory arguments
The taxpayer Robert L. Schulz filed motions in a federal court to quash administrative summonses issued by the IRS seeking testimony and documents in connection with an IRS investigation . The court in Schulz did not rule that a taxpayer has a right to have the IRS explain why he or she is subject to taxation , and that issue was not presented to the court . The Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit affirmed the dismissal of the taxpayer 's motions for a lack of subject matter jurisdiction because there was no actual case or controversy as required by Article III of the Constitution . The court reasoned that the summonses posed no threat of injury to the taxpayer , as the IRS had not yet initiated enforcement proceedings against him . In other words , the taxpayer was not entitled to a court order to quash the summonses until the IRS went to court to demand that he comply with the summons or otherwise face sanctions -- something the IRS had not yet done . Once the IRS took that action , the taxpayer would then have ample opportunity to challenge the validity of the summonses .
Ojibwe
Ojibwemowin is the fourth-most spoken Native language in North America ( US and Canada ) after Navajo , Cree , and Inuktitut . Many decades of fur trading with the French established the language as one of the key trade languages of the Great Lakes and the northern Great Plains .
History of West Africa
As the demand for slaves increased , some African rulers sought to supply the demand by constant war against their neighbours , resulting in fresh captives . States such as Dahomey ( in modern - day Benin ) and the Bambara Empire - based much of their economy on the exchange of slaves for European goods , particularly firearms that they then employed to capture more slaves . European and American governments passed legislation prohibiting the Atlantic slave trade in the 19th century , though slavery in the Americas persisted in some capacity through the century in the Americas ; the last country to abolish the institution was Brazil in 1888 . Descendants of West Africans make up large and important segments of the population in Brazil , the Caribbean , the United States , and throughout the New World .
Philippines
Based on archeological findings , trade with China is believed to have begun in the Tang dynasty , but grew more extensive during the Song dynasty . By the 2nd millennium CE , some ( but not all ) Philippine polities were known to have sent trade delegations which participated in the Tributary system enforced by the Chinese imperial court . These `` tributary states '' nominally acknowledged the Sinocentric system which saw China and the imperial court as the cultural center of the world . Among the early Philippine polities , this arrangement fulfilled the requirements for trade with China , but did not actually translate into political or military control . The
Tariff
Fundamentally , the country believed that free trade was optimal as a permanent policy and was satisfied with laissez faire absence of industrial policy . But contrary to British belief , free trade did not improve the economic situation and increased competition from foreign production eventually devastated Britain 's old rural economy . Britain finally abandoned free trade in 1932 until 1950 .
Aggregate demand
At low levels of Y ( \ displaystyle Y ) , the world is more complicated . First , most modern industrial economies experience few if any falls in prices . So the A S ( \ displaystyle AS ) curve is unlikely to shift down or to the right . Second , when they do suffer price cuts ( as in Japan ) , it can lead to disastrous deflation .
First they came ...
Then they came for the Trade Unionists , and I did not speak out -- Because I was not a Trade Unionist .
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
Nations all over the world provided over US $14 billion in aid for damaged regions , with the governments of Australia pledging US $819.9 million ( including a US $760.6 - million aid package for Indonesia ) , Germany offering US $660 million , Japan offering US $500 million , Canada offering US $343 million , Norway and the Netherlands offering both US $183 million , the United States offering US $35 million initially ( increased to US $350 million ) , and the World Bank offering US $250 million . Also Italy offered US $95 million , increased later to US $113 million of which US $42 million was donated by the population using the SMS system According to USAID , the US has pledged additional funds in long - term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild their lives . On 9 February 2005 , President Bush asked Congress to increase the U.S. commitment to a total of US $950 million . Officials estimated that billions of dollars would be needed . Bush also asked his father , former President George H.W. Bush , and former President Bill Clinton to lead a U.S. effort to provide private aid to the tsunami victims .
Canada–United States relations
The United States built large military bases in Newfoundland , at the time , a British dominion . The American involvement ended the depression and brought new prosperity ; Newfoundland 's business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic Union Party . Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada , which it did after hotly contested referenda . There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of Newfoundland , so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum .
Gold standard
Other factors in the prolongation of the Great Depression include trade wars and the reduction in international trade caused by barriers such as Smoot -- Hawley Tariff in the US and the Imperial Preference policies of Great Britain , the failure of central banks to act responsibly , government policies designed to prevent wages from falling , such as the Davis -- Bacon Act of 1931 , during the deflationary period resulting in production costs dropping slower than sales prices , thereby injuring business profits and increases in taxes to reduce budget deficits and to support new programs such as Social Security . The US top marginal income tax rate went from 25 % to 63 % in 1932 and to 79 % in 1936 , while the bottom rate increased over tenfold , from . 375 % in 1929 to 4 % in 1932 . The concurrent massive drought resulted in the US Dust Bowl .
Wind turbine
Due to increased technology and wide implementation , the global glass fiber market might reach US $17.4 billion by 2024 , compared to US $8.5 billion in 2014 . Since it is the most widely used material for reinforcement in composites around the globe , the expansion of end use applications such as construction , transportation and wind turbines has fueled its popularity . Asia Pacific held the major share of the global market in 2014 with more than 45 % volume share . However China is currently the largest producer . The industry receives subsidies from the Chinese government allowing them to export it cheaper to the US and Europe . However , due to the higher demand in the near future some price wars have started to developed to implement anti dumping strategies such as tariffs on Chinese glass fiber .
News of the World (album)
`` We Are the Champions '' was released as the first single from the album on 7 October 1977 in the UK , where it reached number 2 . In the US it reached number 4 . `` Spread Your Wings '' followed as the second single . Released in the UK on 10 February 1978 , it reached number 34 . `` It 's Late '' is the last single from the album ; it was released in 1978 , and only in the US , Canada , Japan and New Zealand . It only reached number 74 in the US , failing to chart everywhere else .
Demand curve
When income increases , the demand curve for normal goods shifts outward as more will be demanded at all prices , while the demand curve for inferior goods shifts inward due to the increased attainability of superior substitutes . With respect to related goods , when the price of a good ( e.g. a hamburger ) rises , the demand curve for substitute goods ( e.g. chicken ) shifts out , while the demand curve for complementary goods ( e.g. tomato sauce ) shifts in ( i.e. there is more demand for substitute goods as they become more attractive in terms of value for money , while demand for complementary goods contracts in response to the contraction of quantity demanded of the underlying good ) .
TRIPS Agreement
TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) in 1994 . Its inclusion was the culmination of a program of intense lobbying by the United States , supported by the European Union , Japan and other developed nations . Campaigns of unilateral economic encouragement under the Generalized System of Preferences and coercion under Section 301 of the Trade Act played an important role in defeating competing policy positions that were favored by developing countries like Brazil , but also including Thailand , India and Caribbean Basin states . In turn , the United States strategy of linking trade policy to intellectual property standards can be traced back to the entrepreneurship of senior management at Pfizer in the early 1980s , who mobilized corporations in the United States and made maximizing intellectual property privileges the number one priority of trade policy in the United States ( Braithwaite and Drahos , 2000 , Chapter 7 ) .
Tariff
A program within the US intelligence community , Project Socrates , that was tasked with addressing America 's declining economic competitiveness , determined that countries like China and India were using tariffs as an integral element of their respective technology strategies to rapidly build their countries into economic superpowers . However , the US intelligence community tends to have limited inputs into developing US trade policy . It was also determined that the US , in its early years , had also used tariffs as an integral part of what amounted to technology strategies to transform the country into a superpower .
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
Spain spent enormous amounts of this wealth hiring mercenaries to fight the Protestant Reformation and to halt the Turkish invasions of Europe . The silver was used to purchase commercial goods abroad , as European manufactured goods were not in demand in Asia and the Middle East . The Manila Galleon brought in far more silver direct from South American mines to China than the overland Silk Road , or even European trade routes in the Indian Ocean could .
Spanish–American War
Cuba attracted enormous American attention , but almost no discussion involved the other Spanish colonies of Philippines , Guam , or Puerto Rico . Historians note that there was no popular demand in the United States for an overseas colonial empire -- Americans did not admire the British Empire or the others .
Dutch East India Company
During the Dutch Golden Age , the Dutch -- using their expertise in doing business , cartography , shipbuilding , seafaring and navigation -- traveled to the far corners of the world , leaving their language embedded in the names of many places . Dutch exploratory voyages revealed largely unknown landmasses to the civilized world and put their names on the world map . The Dutch came to dominate the map - making and map printing industry by virtue of their own travels , trade ventures , and widespread commercial networks . As Dutch ships reached into the unknown corners of the globe , Dutch cartographers incorporated new geographical discoveries into their work . Instead of using the information themselves secretly , they published it , so the maps multiplied freely . For almost 200 years , the Dutch dominated world trade . Dutch ships carried goods , but they also opened up opportunities for the exchange of knowledge . The commercial networks of the Dutch transnational companies , i.e. the VOC and West India Company ( WIC / GWIC ) , provided an infrastructure which was accessible to people with a scholarly interest in the exotic world . The VOC 's bookkeeper Hendrick Hamel was the first known European / Westerner to experience first - hand and write about Joseon - era Korea . In his report ( published in the Dutch Republic ) in 1666 Hendrick Hamel described his adventures on the Korean Peninsula and gave the first accurate description of daily life of Koreans to the western world . The VOC trade post on Dejima , an artificial island off the coast of Nagasaki , was for more than two hundred years the only place where Europeans were permitted to trade with Japan . Rangaku ( literally ' Dutch Learning ' , and by extension ' Western Learning ' ) is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima , which allowed Japan to keep abreast of Western technology and medicine in the period when the country was closed to foreigners , 1641 -- 1853 , because of the Tokugawa shogunate 's policy of national isolation ( sakoku ) . Contributions
Demand curve
The elasticity of demand indicates how sensitive the demand for a good is to a price change . If the PED is between zero and 1 , demand is said to be inelastic ; if PED equals 1 , the demand is unitary elastic ; and if the Price elasticity of demand is greater than 1 , demand is elastic . A low coefficient implies that changes in price have little influence on demand . A high elasticity indicates that consumers will respond to a price rise by buying a lot less of the good and that consumers will respond to a price cut by buying a lot more ...