vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Recycling
A considerable investment in recycling occurred in the 1970s , due to rising energy costs . Recycling aluminum uses only 5 % of the energy required by virgin production ; glass , paper and other metals have less dramatic but very significant energy savings when recycled feedstock is used .
Sea of Galilee
The warm waters of the Sea of Galilee support various flora and fauna , which have supported a significant commercial fishery for more than two millennia . Local flora include various reeds along most of the shoreline as well as phytoplankton . Fauna include zooplankton , benthos and a number of fish species such as Acanthobrama terraesanctae . Fish caught commercially include Tristramella simonis and Sarotherodon galilaeus , locally called `` St. Peter 's Fish '' . In 2005 , 300 short tons ( 270 t ) of tilapia were caught by local fishermen . This dropped to 8 short tons ( 7.3 t ) in 2009 due to overfishing .
Band gap
In almost all inorganic semiconductors , such as silicon , gallium arsenide , etc. , there is very little interaction between electrons and holes ( very small exciton binding energy ) , and therefore the optical and electronic bandgap are essentially identical , and the distinction between them is ignored . However , in some systems , including organic semiconductors and single - walled carbon nanotubes , the distinction may be significant .
Cornwallis in India
Prior to the earl 's arrival , judicial and police powers in territories controlled by the company were a confusion of differing standards that were also either inconsistently or arbitrarily applied . Part of Cornwallis 's work was the introduction of criminal and judicial regulations that to a significant degree still underpin the Indian judicial system .
Join, or Die
The Confidence of the French in this Undertaking seems well - grounded on the present disunited State of the British Colonies , and the extreme Difficulty of bringing so many different Governments and Assemblies to agree in any speedy and effectual Measures for our common defense and Security ; while our Enemies have the very great Advantage of being under one . Direction , with one Council , and one Purse ...
Caste system in India
Scholars have questioned the varna verse in Rigveda , noting that the varna therein is mentioned only once . The Purusha Sukta verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Rigveda , probably as a charter myth . Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton , professors of Sanskrit and Religious studies , state , `` there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate , much - subdivided and overarching caste system '' , and `` the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and , both then and later , a social ideal rather than a social reality '' . In contrast to the lack of details about varna system in the Rigveda , the Manusmriti includes an extensive and highly schematic commentary on the varna system , but it too provides `` models rather than descriptions '' . Susan Bayly summarises that Manusmriti and other scriptures helped elevate Brahmins in the social hierarchy and these were a factor in the making of the varna system , but the ancient texts did not in some way `` create the phenomenon of caste '' in India .
Caste system in India
The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste . It has origins in ancient India , and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval , early - modern , and modern India , especially the Mughal Empire and the British Raj . It is today the basis of educational and job reservations in India . It consists of two different concepts , varna and jati , which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system .
Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
Britain and France both had significant colonial possessions in India and had been battling for supremacy for a number of years . The British were represented by the British East India Company ( EIC ) who were permitted to raise troops . The collapse of the long - standing Mughal Empire brought the clash between the two states to a head , as each tried to gain sufficient power and territory to dominate the other . The 1754 Treaty of Pondicherry which ended the Second Carnatic War had brought a temporary truce to India , but it was soon under threat . A number of smaller Indian Princely States aligned with either Britain or France . One of the most assertive of these Princes was the pro-French Nawab of Bengal , Siraj ud - Daulah , who resented the British presence in Calcutta . In 1756 he had succeeded his grandfather Alivardi Khan who had been a staunch British ally . By contrast he regarded the British East India Company as an encroaching threat .
Phase (matter)
Between two phases in equilibrium there is a narrow region where the properties are not that of either phase . Although this region may be very thin , it can have significant and easily observable effects , such as causing a liquid to exhibit surface tension . In mixtures , some components may preferentially move toward the interface . In terms of modeling , describing , or understanding the behavior of a particular system , it may be efficacious to treat the interfacial region as a separate phase .
History of photography
Davy seems not to have continued the experiments . Although the journal of the small , infant Royal Institution probably reached its very small group of members , the article eventually must have been read by many more people . It was reviewed by David Brewster in the Edinburgh Magazine in December 1802 , appeared in chemistry textbooks as early as 1803 , was translated into French , and published in German in 1811 . Readers of the article may have been discouraged to find a fixer , because the highly acclaimed scientist Davy had already tried and failed . Apparently the article was n't noted by Niépce nor Daguerre , and by Talbot only after he had developed his own processes .
Climate of India
Altitude affects the temperature to a large extent , with higher parts of the Deccan Plateau and other areas being relatively cooler . Hill stations , such as Ootacamund ( `` Ooty '' ) in the Western Ghats and Kalimpong in the eastern Himalayas , with average maximum temperatures of around 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) , offer some respite from the heat . At lower elevations , in parts of northern and western India , a strong , hot , and dry wind known as the loo blows in from the west during the daytime ; with very high temperatures , in some cases up to around 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) ; it can cause fatal cases of sunstroke . Tornadoes may also occur , concentrated in a corridor stretching from northeastern India towards Pakistan . They are rare , however ; only several dozen have been reported since 1835 .
Official bilingualism in Canada
According to Turcotte and Parkin , other poll data reveal that `` in contrast to Francophones , Anglophones , in general , have resisted putting more government effort and resources into promoting bilingualism ... What is revealing , however , is that only 11 % of those outside Quebec said they disagreed with bilingualism in any form . Opposition seems to be directed to the actions of the federal government , rather than to bilingualism itself ... ( T ) his distinction is key to understanding public opinion on the issue . '' This helps to explain results that would otherwise seem contradictory , such as a 1994 poll in which 56 % of Canadians outside Quebec indicated that they either strongly or moderately supported official bilingualism , but 50 % agreed with a statement that `` the current official bilingualism policy should be scrapped because it 's expensive and inefficient . ''
Sea of Galilee
Other economic activities include fishing in the lake and agriculture , particularly bananas , dates , mangoes , grapes and olives in the fertile belt of land surrounding it .
Hellenistic period
The Greek kingdom of Bactria began as a breakaway satrapy of the Seleucid empire , which , because of the size of the empire , had significant freedom from central control . Between 255 - 246 BC , the governor of Bactria , Sogdiana and Margiana ( most of present - day Afghanistan ) , one Diodotus , took this process to its logical extreme and declared himself king . Diodotus II , son of Diodotus , was overthrown in about 230 BC by Euthydemus , possibly the satrap of Sogdiana , who then started his own dynasty . In c. 210 BC , the Greco - Bactrian kingdom was invaded by a resurgent Seleucid empire under Antiochus III . While victorious in the field , it seems Antiochus came to realise that there were advantages in the status quo ( perhaps sensing that Bactria could not be governed from Syria ) , and married one of his daughters to Euthydemus 's son , thus legitimising the Greco - Bactrian dynasty . Soon afterwards the Greco - Bactrian kingdom seems to have expanded , possibly taking advantage of the defeat of the Parthian king Arsaces II by Antiochus .
I'm Not the Only One
The song received positive reviews from most music critics . Harley Brown of Billboard praised the track , calling it `` ( t ) he first turning point of the record ( ... ) where Smith goes home , dries off , and picks himself back up . '' Brown also added that `` ( t ) he violins surging behind the breakdown are so high - pitched they practically sting . '' Lily Moayeri of The A.V. Club calling it one of the album 's driving forces , noting that it `` illustrates this with sophisticated piano and escalating strings . '' Ryan Lathan of PopMatters observed that `` the charming ' I 'm Not the Only One ' confidently struts out from the rest of the set . An obvious candidate for future single , it 's the type of track that elicits head bobbing and finger snapping the second it begins . '' Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone called it `` gorgeously bruising '' , while Andy Kellman of AllMusic picked it as one of the album 's best tracks . Eric Davidson of CMJ thought that `` ( t ) he Al Green vibe of ' I 'm Not The Only One ' has a verging - on - stern sentiment couched in a deeper groove that seems like a good direction Smith could head in . ''
Mechanised agriculture
Advertising for motorised equipment in farm journals during this era did its best to compete against horse - drawn methods with economic arguments , extolling common themes such as that a tractor `` eats only when it works '' , that one tractor could replace many horses , and that mechanisation could allow one man to get more work done per day than he ever had before . The horse population in the US began to decline in the 1920s after the conversion of agriculture and transportation to internal combustion . Peak tractor sales in the US were around 1950 . In addition to saving labour , this freed up much land previously used for supporting draft animals . The greatest period of growth in agricultural productivity in the US was from the 1940s to the 1970s , during which time agriculture was benefiting from internal combustion powered tractors and combine harvesters , chemical fertilisers and the green revolution .
Carambola
Top producers of carambola in the world market include Australia , Guyana , India , Israel , Malaysia , the Philippines , Taiwan , and the United States . Malaysia is a global leader in starfruit production by volume and ships the product widely to Asia and Europe . Due to concerns over pests and pathogens , however , whole starfruits can not yet be imported to the US from Malaysia under current United States Department of Agriculture regulations . In the United States , carambolas are grown in tropical and semitropical areas , including Texas , South Carolina , Louisiana , California , Virginia , Florida and Hawaii .
Rhode Island
Rhode Island has the highest proportion of Roman Catholic residents of any state , mainly due to large Irish , Italian , and French - Canadian immigration in the past ; recently , significant Portuguese and various Hispanic communities have also been established in the state . Though it has the highest overall Catholic percentage of any state , none of Rhode Island 's individual counties ranks among the 10 most Catholic in the United States , as Catholics are very evenly spread throughout the state .
Chennai
Gradually , the city grew into a major naval base and became the central administrative centre for the British in South India . With the advent of railways in India in the 19th century , the thriving urban centre was connected to other important cities such as Bombay and Calcutta , promoting increased communication and trade with the hinterland . Sir Arthur Lawley was Governor of Madras from 1906 to 1911 and promoted modern agriculture , industry , railways , education , the arts and more democratic governance . The Governor lived in Government House , Fort St George , and had a country home at Guindy , with access to a golf course , hockey pitches , riding stables and the Guindy Horse Racing Track . In the First World War as Red Cross Commissioner in Mesopotamia , he looked after the welfare of Indian soldiers . Madras was the only Indian city to be attacked by the Central Powers during World War I , when an oil depot was shelled by the German light cruiser SMS Emden on 22 September 1914 , as it raided shipping lanes in the Indian Ocean , causing disruption to shipping .
Cremation
The act of sati refers to a funeral ritual in which a widowed woman committed suicide on the husband 's funeral pyre . While a mention of self - immolation by one of several wives of an Indian king is found in a Greek text on India , along with self - immolation by widows in Russia near Volga , tribes of Thracians in southeast Europe , and some tribes of Tonga and Fiji islands , vast majority of ancient texts do not mention this practice . Rare mentions of such cremations in aristocratic circles appear in texts dated to be before the 9th century AD , where the widow of a king had the choice to burn with him or abstain . Ancient texts of Hinduism make no mention of Sati ; its early medieval era texts forbid it , while post 10th century medieval era texts partly justify it and criticize the practice . The practice of sati , grew after 1000 CE , becoming a particularly significant practice by Hindus in India during the Islamic wars of conquest in South Asia .
Ashoka
Mahavamsa - The Mahavamsa ( `` Great Chronicle '' ) is a historical poem written in the Pali language of the kings of Sri Lanka . It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga ( ancient Odisha ) in 543 BCE to the reign of King Mahasena ( 334 -- 361 ) . As it often refers to the royal dynasties of India , the Mahavamsa is also valuable for historians who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent . It is very important in dating the consecration of Ashoka .
Pumped Up Kicks
In an article for The Huffington Post , DJ Louie XIV singled out `` Pumped Up Kicks '' as one of several popular songs that helped usher in the return of commercially successful indie music . In discussing the growing acceptance of fringe cultures , he wrote , `` It seems only fitting , then , that the soundtrack to this time period should be music that was itself once viewed as fringe culture . '' Reflecting on the song 's success , Gary Trust , the associate director of charts / radio for Billboard , said , `` They 're walking a tightrope very well in terms of eras , formats and styles . When you mix all that together , it becomes a very good recipe for a hit that works on so many levels . It 's the perfect song . '' Foster said of the song , `` There 's a spirit there and that 's what people resonate with . ' Pumped Up Kicks ' was n't an accident . ''
Elf (Middle-earth)
Writing in 1954 , part way through proofreading The Lord of the Rings , Tolkien claimed the Elvish language Sindarin has a character very like British - Welsh `` because it seems to fit the rather ' Celtic ' type of legends and stories told of its speakers '' . In the same letter , Tolkien goes on to say that the elves had very little in common with elves or fairies of Europe , and that they really represent men with greater artistic ability , beauty and a longer life span . Tolkien also notes an Elven bloodline was the only real claim to ' nobility ' that the Men of Middle - earth can have . Tolkien also wrote that the elves are primarily to blame for many of the ills of Middle - earth in The Lord of the Rings , having independently created the Three Rings in order to stop their domains in mortal - lands from ' fading ' and attempting to prevent inevitable change and new growth .
Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857
Many Indians felt that the Company was asking for heavy tax from the locals . This included an increase in the taxation on land . This seems to have been a very important reason for the spread of the rebellion , keeping in view the speed at which the conflagration ignited in many villages in northern India where farmers rushed to get back their unfairly grabbed title deeds . The resumption of tax free land and confiscation of jagirs ( the grant or right to locally control land revenue ) caused discontent among the jagirdars and zamindars . Dalhousie had also appointed Inam Commission with powers to confiscate land . Several years before the sepoys ' mutiny , Lord William Bentinck had attacked several jagirs in western Bengal . He also resumed the practice of tax free lands in some areas . These changes caused widespread resentment not only among the landed aristocracy but also caused great havoc to a larger section of the middle - class people . Lands were confiscated from the landlords and auctioned . Rich people like the merchants and moneylenders were therefore able to speculate in British land sales and drive out the most vulnerable peasant farmers .
Expenditures in the United States federal budget
Democratic Congressman Barney Frank called for a significant reduction in the defense budget during February 2009 : `` The math is compelling : if we do not make reductions approximating 25 percent of the military budget starting fairly soon , it will be impossible to continue to fund an adequate level of domestic activity even with a repeal of Bush 's tax cuts for the very wealthy . I am working with a variety of thoughtful analysts to show how we can make very substantial cuts in the military budget without in any way diminishing the security we need ... ( American ) well - being is far more endangered by a proposal for substantial reductions in Medicare , Social Security or other important domestic areas than it would be by canceling weapons systems that have no justification from any threat we are likely to face . ''
Economic history of World War I
In the Ottoman Empire Turkish nationalists took control before the war began . They drove out Greeks and Armenians who had been the backbone of the business community , replacing them with ethnic Turks who were given favorable contracts but who lacked the international connections , credit sources , and entrepreneurial skills needed for business . The Ottoman economy was based on subsistence agriculture ; there was very little industry . Turkish wheat was in high demand , but transportation was rudimentary and not much of it reached Germany . The war cut off imports except from Germany . Prices quadrupled . The Germans provided loans and supplied the army with hardware , especially captured Belgian and Russian equipment . Other supplies were in short supply ; the soldiers were often in rags . Medical services were very bad and illness and death rates were high . Most of the Ottoman soldiers deserted when they had the opportunity , so the force level shrank from a peak strength of 800,000 in 1916 to only 100,000 in 1918 .
Indian painting
The Bengal school 's influence on Indian art scene gradually started alleviating with the spread of modernist ideas post-independence. K.G. Subramanyan 's role in this movement is significant . Today The Rednova Art Academy of Bankura , India is also notable art academy established by Artist Abirlal .
Digboi
Crude oil was discovered here in late 19th century . Digboi is known as the Oil City of Assam where the first oil well in Asia was drilled . The first refinery was started here as early as 1901 . Digboi has the oldest oil well in operation . With a significant number of British professionals working for Assam Oil Company until the decade following independence of India , Digboi had a well - developed infrastructure and a number of bungalows unique to the town . It has eighteen holes golf course as part of the Digboi Club . It has guest houses and tourist residential apartments laid on Italian architectural plan to promote tourism in upper Assam .
Economic history of Argentina
In response to the Great Depression , successive governments pursued a strategy designed to transform Argentina into a country self - sufficient in industry as well as agriculture . The strategy of growth was based on import substitution in which tariffs and quotas for final goods were raised . The import - substitution process had progressively been adopted since the late 19th century , but the Great Depression intensified it . The government 's encouragement of industrial growth diverted investment from agriculture , and agricultural production fell dramatically .
Slash-and-burn
Telkkämäki Nature Reserve in Kaavi , Finland , is an open - air museum which still practices slash - and - burn agriculture . Farm visitors can see how people farmed when slash - and - burn agriculture became the norm in the Northern Savonian region of eastern Finland beginning in the 15th century . Areas of the reserve are burnt each year .
Spanish Inquisition
The censorship of books was actually very ineffective , and prohibited books circulated in Spain without significant problems . The Spanish Inquisition never persecuted scientists , and relatively few scientific books were placed on the Index . On the other hand , Spain was a state with more political freedom than in other absolute monarchies in the 16th to 18th centuries . The backwardness of Spain in economy and science may not be attributable to the Inquisition .
Quadratic equation
A second form of cancellation can occur between the terms b and 4ac of the discriminant , that is when the two roots are very close . This can lead to loss of up to half of correct significant figures in the roots .
Indentured servitude
A significant number of construction projects , principally British , in East Africa and South Africa , required vast quantities of labor , exceeding the availability or willingness of local tribesmen . Coolies from India were imported , frequently under indenture , for such projects as the Uganda Railway , as farm labor , and as miners . They and their descendants formed a significant portion of the population and economy of Kenya and Uganda , although not without engendering resentment from others . Idi Amin 's expulsion of the `` Asians '' from Uganda in 1972 was an expulsion of Indo - Africans .
Albatross (metaphor)
This sense is catalogued in the Oxford English Dictionary from 1936 and 1955 , but it seems only to have entered general usage in the 1960s , or possibly as early as 1959 .
Islamic Golden Age
`` Culturally , politically , and most remarkable of all even religiously , the Persian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance . The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor , including Arabic poetry , to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution . ''
Agriculture in Sudan
In 1991 Sudan had a large modern irrigated agriculture sector totaling more than 2 million hectares out of about 84 million hectares that are potentially arable . About 93 percent of the irrigated area was in government projects ; the remaining 7 percent belonged to private operations . The Nile and its tributaries were the source of water for 93 percent of irrigated agriculture , and of this the Blue Nile accounted for about 67 percent . Gravity flow was the main form of irrigation , but about one - third of the irrigated area was served by pumps .