vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Local government in the United States
Municipal governments are organized local governments authorized in state constitutions and statutes , established to provide general government for a defined area , generally corresponding to a population center rather than one of a set of areas into which a county is divided . The category includes those governments designated as cities , boroughs ( except in Alaska ) , towns ( except in Minnesota and Wisconsin ) , and villages . This concept corresponds roughly to the `` incorporated places '' that are recognized in Census Bureau reporting of population and housing statistics , although the Census Bureau excludes New England towns from their statistics for this category , and the count of municipal governments excludes places that are governmentally inactive .
Capital punishment in the United States
Clemency , through which the Governor or President of the jurisdiction can unilaterally reduce or abrogate a death sentence , is an executive rather than judicial process .
Victoria Cross
The ribbon is crimson , 1 1 / 2 `` ( 38 mm ) wide . The original ( 1856 ) specification for the award stated that the ribbon should be red for army recipients and dark blue for naval recipients . However the dark blue ribbon was abolished soon after the formation of the Royal Air Force on 1 April 1918 . On 22 May 1920 King George V signed a warrant that stated all recipients would now receive a red ribbon and the living recipients of the naval version were required to exchange their ribbons for the new colour . Although the army warrants state the colour as being red , it is defined by most commentators as being crimson or `` wine - red '' .
Nike, Inc.
Nike has been criticized for contracting with factories ( known as Nike sweatshops ) in countries such as China , Vietnam , Indonesia and Mexico . Vietnam Labor Watch , an activist group , has documented that factories contracted by Nike have violated minimum wage and overtime laws in Vietnam as late as 1996 , although Nike claims that this practice has been stopped . The company has been subject to much critical coverage of the often poor working conditions and exploitation of cheap overseas labor employed in the free trade zones where their goods are typically manufactured . Sources for this criticism include Naomi Klein 's book No Logo and Michael Moore documentaries .
Cell wall
The group Oomycetes , also known as water molds , are saprotrophic plant pathogens like fungi . Until recently they were widely believed to be fungi , but structural and molecular evidence has led to their reclassification as heterokonts , related to autotrophic brown algae and diatoms . Unlike fungi , oomycetes typically possess cell walls of cellulose and glucans rather than chitin , although some genera ( such as Achlya and Saprolegnia ) do have chitin in their walls . The fraction of cellulose in the walls is no more than 4 to 20 % , far less than the fraction of glucans . Oomycete cell walls also contain the amino acid hydroxyproline , which is not found in fungal cell walls .
Labor history of the United States
Since its peak in the mid-20th century , the American labor movement has been in steady decline , with losses in the private sector larger than gains in the public sector . In the early 1950s , as the AFL and CIO merged , around a third of the American labor force was unionized ; by 2012 , the proportion was 11 % , constituting roughly 5 % in the private sector and 40 % in the public sector . Organized labor 's influence steadily waned and workers ' collective voice in the political process has weakened . Partly as a result , wages have stagnated and income inequality has increased . `` Although the National Labor Relations Act was initially a boon for unions , it also sowed the seeds of the labor movement 's decline . The act enshrined the right to unionize , but the system of workplace elections it created meant that unions had to organize each new factory or firm individually rather than organize by industry . In many European countries , collective - bargaining agreements extended automatically to other firms in the same industry , but in the United States , they usually reached no further than a plant 's gates . As a result , in the first decades of the postwar period , the organizing effort could not keep pace with the frenetic rate of job growth in the economy as a whole '' . On the political front , the shrinking unions lost influence in the Democratic Party , and pro-union liberal Republicans faded away . Intellectuals lost interest in unions , focusing their attention more on Vietnam , minorities , women and environmental issues .
Internal Revenue Service
In September 2006 , the IRS started to outsource the collection of taxpayers debts to private debt collection agencies . Opponents to this change note that the IRS will be handing over personal information to these debt collection agencies , who are being paid between 29 % and 39 % of the amount collected . Opponents are also worried about the agencies ' being paid on percent collected , because it will encourage the collectors to use pressure tactics to collect the maximum amount . IRS spokesman Terry Lemons responds to these critics saying the new system `` is a sound , balanced program that respects taxpayers ' rights and taxpayer privacy . '' Other state and local agencies also use private collection agencies .
Geography of Asia
M49 is a device for collecting useful statistics for the UNSD and is a suggested reference guide offered as a global standard for all agencies and institutions within the various UN departments that might be interested . The United Nations Statistics Division does not present it as an authoritative standard or as one that is more valid or more worthy of adoption than some other . It is not a requirement for other agencies within the United Nations , which use their own standards as are convenient for their operations .
Stamp Act 1765
The theoretical issue that soon held center stage was the matter of taxation without representation . Benjamin Franklin had raised this as far back as 1754 at the Albany Congress when he wrote , `` That it is suppos 'd an undoubted Right of Englishmen not to be taxed but by their own Consent given thro ' their Representatives . That the Colonies have no Representatives in Parliament . '' The counter to this argument was the theory of virtual representation . Thomas Whately enunciated this theory in a pamphlet that readily acknowledged that there could be no taxation without consent , but the facts were that at least 75 % of British adult males were not represented in Parliament because of property qualifications or other factors . Members of Parliament were bound to represent the interests of all British citizens and subjects , so colonists were the recipients of virtual representation in Parliament , like those disenfranchised subjects in the British Isles . This theory , however , ignored a crucial difference between the unrepresented in Britain and the colonists . The colonists enjoyed actual representation in their own legislative assemblies , and the issue was whether these legislatures , rather than Parliament , were in fact the sole recipients of the colonists ' consent with regard to taxation .
Computer mouse
Another type of mechanical mouse , the `` analog mouse '' ( now generally regarded as obsolete ) , uses potentiometers rather than encoder wheels , and is typically designed to be plug compatible with an analog joystick . The `` Color Mouse '' , originally marketed by RadioShack for their Color Computer ( but also usable on MS - DOS machines equipped with analog joystick ports , provided the software accepted joystick input ) was the best - known example .
Vermont
The dairy barn remains an iconic image of Vermont , but the 87 % decrease in active dairy farms between 1947 and 2003 means that preservation of the dairy barns has increasingly become dependent upon a commitment to maintaining a legacy rather than basic need in the agricultural economy . The Vermont Barn Census , organized by a collaboration of educational and nonprofit state and local historic preservation programs , has developed educational and administrative systems for recording the number , condition , and features of barns throughout Vermont .
Expenditures in the United States federal budget
Social Security is funded by a dedicated payroll tax of 12.4 % . This means that Social Security will be paid at least to the extent of payroll tax collections . Program payroll tax collections were roughly equal to payouts in 2010 and are estimated to fall to about 75 % of payouts by the mid-2030s and continue around that level through the early 2080s . Claims that the program is `` bankrupt '' or `` going bankrupt '' can be evaluated in this context . Since the Greenspan Commission in the early 1980s , Social Security has cumulatively collected far more in payroll taxes dedicated to the program than it has paid out to recipients -- nearly $2.4 trillion by 2008 . This surplus amount is commonly referred to as the `` Social Security Trust Fund . '' This surplus amount has not added to the public debt ; rather it is the spending of surplus funds dedicated to the program for other purposes that has added to the debt . The Trust Fund represents a legal claim by Social Security recipients , enabling them to compel the government to borrow or otherwise fund 100 % of program obligations as long as Trust Fund amounts remain . As sources of funds ( other than the dedicated payroll taxes ) are diverted to the program , the Trust Fund balance is reduced . Once the Trust Fund is liquidated in the mid-2030s under various estimates , program payouts will fall to about 75 % of currently scheduled benefits . Social Security then becomes a true `` pay as you go '' program , without Trust Fund amounts to cover shortfalls . Redemption of Trust Fund claims means that the government will have to borrow an additional $2.4 trillion in total ( based on the 2008 Trust Fund balance ) over approximately 20 years , from the time the program payouts begin to exceed tax collections around 2015 to the time the Trust Fund is exhausted in the mid-2030s . This is a funding challenge for the government overall , not just Social Security .
Air pollution in the United States
The Energy Independence order was issued by the Trump Administration in order to designed to promote energy resources and economic growth by cutting regulation burdens on energy production such as coal , natural gas , nuclear material , flowing water , and other domestic sources , including renewable sources . To ensure that the Nation 's electricity is affordable , reliable , safe , secure , and clean , all agencies are to respect their the proper roles of the Congress and the States concerning these matters in our constitutional republic . Environmental regulations must comply with the law , are of greater benefit than cost for the American people , and are developed through the best available peer - reviewed science and economics . Revival
1935 Labor Day hurricane
The United States Coast Guard and other federal and state agencies organized evacuation and relief efforts . Boats and airplanes carried injured survivors to Miami . The railroad was never rebuilt , but temporary bridges and ferry landings were under construction as soon as materials arrived . On March 29 , 1938 , the last gap in the Overseas Highway linking Key West to the mainland was completed . The new highway incorporated the roadbed and surviving bridges of the railway .
Congressional oversight
Congressional oversight is oversight by the United States Congress over the Executive Branch , including the numerous U.S. federal agencies . Congressional oversight includes the review , monitoring , and supervision of federal agencies , programs , activities , and policy implementation . Congress exercises this power largely through its congressional committee system . However , oversight , which dates to the earliest days of the Republic , also occurs in a wide variety of congressional activities and contexts . These include authorization , appropriations , investigative , and legislative hearings by standing committees ; specialized investigations by select committees ; and reviews and studies by congressional support agencies and staff .
United Nations
ECOSOC 's subsidiary bodies include the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , which advises UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous peoples ; the United Nations Forum on Forests , which co-ordinates and promotes sustainable forest management ; the United Nations Statistical Commission , which co-ordinates information - gathering efforts between agencies ; and the Commission on Sustainable Development , which co-ordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs working towards sustainable development . ECOSOC may also grant consultative status to non-governmental organizations ; by 2004 , more than 2,200 organizations had received this status .
Christmas tree cultivation
The status of Christmas tree farms as actual , by definition , farms , and their products thus agricultural in nature , has evolved in the various government agencies responsible for such categorization . In both Canada , and the United States the governments take a regular Census of Agriculture , reporting in these censuses relies on the classifications . Beginning in 1996 , the Canadian government included Christmas tree farms in its Census of Agriculture concerning the issue of net farm income and farm cash receipts . The changes also included the addition of egg hatcheries to the census . The results were marginal with net cash farm income rising just 0.1 percent .
Kitchen cabinet
Before buying cabinets , precise measurements are essential otherwise there may be un-utilized space , cabinets may not fit , or there may be interference between various elements of the kitchen , such as doors and drawers . Note that European cabinets typically have different sizes than ones in North America , and are typically built in multiples of 100mm , with 600mm wide being a common size .
Wolf spider
Wolf spiders resemble nursery web spiders ( family Pisauridae ) , but wolf spiders carry their egg sacs by attaching them to their spinnerets . ( Pisauridae carry their egg sacs with their chelicerae and pedipalps ) . Two of the wolf spider 's eight eyes are large and prominent , which distinguishes them from the nursery web spiders whose eyes are all of approximately equal size . This can also help distinguish them from grass spiders .
Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968
The LEAA , which was superseded by the Office of Justice Programs , provided federal grant funding for criminology and criminal justice research , much of which focused on social aspects of crime . Research grants were also provided to develop alternative sanctions for punishment of young offenders . Block grants were provided to the states , with $100 million in funding . Within that amount , $50 million was earmarked for assistance to local law enforcement agencies , which included funds to deal with riot control and organized crime .
Neon lighting
The term can also refer to the miniature neon glow lamp , developed in 1917 , about seven years after neon tube lighting . While neon tube lights are typically meters long , the neon lamps can be less than one centimeter in length and glow much more dimly than the tube lights . They are still in use as small indicator lights . Through the 1970s , neon glow lamps were widely used for numerical displays in electronics , for small decorative lamps , and as signal processing devices in circuity . While these lamps are now antiques , the technology of the neon glow lamp developed into contemporary plasma displays and televisions .
Congressional oversight
Besides these general powers , numerous statutes direct the executive to furnish information to or consult with Congress . For example , the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 ( P.L. 103 - 62 ) requires agencies to consult with Congress on their strategic plans and report annually on performance plans , goals , and results . In fact , more than 2,000 reports are submitted each year to Congress by federal departments , agencies , commissions , bureaus , and offices . Inspectors General ( IGs ) , for instance , report their findings about waste , fraud , and abuse , and their recommendations for corrective action , periodically to the agency head and Congress . The IGs are also instructed to issue special reports concerning particularly serious problems immediately to the agency head , who transmits them unaltered to Congress within seven days . The Reports Consolidation Act of 2000 ( P.L. 106 - 531 ) , moreover , instructs the IGs to identify and describe their agencies ' most serious management and performance challenges and briefly assess progress in addressing them . This new requirement is to be part of a larger effort by individual agencies to consolidate their numerous reports on financial and performance management matters into a single annual report . The aim is to enhance coordination and efficiency within the agencies ; improve the quality of relevant information ; and provide it in a more meaningful and useful format for Congress , the President , and the public .
Copyright
The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author himself if the work is a `` work for hire '' . For example , in English law the Copyright , Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment , the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a `` Work for Hire '' . Typically , the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author . But when more than one person creates the work , then a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met .
Base pair
Hydrogen bonding is the chemical interaction that underlies the base - pairing rules described above . Appropriate geometrical correspondence of hydrogen bond donors and acceptors allows only the `` right '' pairs to form stably . DNA with high GC - content is more stable than DNA with low GC - content , but , contrary to popular belief , the hydrogen bonds do not stabilize the DNA significantly , and stabilization is mainly due to stacking interactions .
Bird nest
Flamingos make a different type of mound nest . Using their beaks to pull material towards them , they fashion a cone - shaped pile of mud between 15 -- 46 cm ( 6 -- 18 in ) tall , with a small depression in the top to house their single egg . The height of the nest varies with the substrate upon which it is built ; those on clay sites are taller on average than those on dry or sandy sites . The height of the nest and the circular , often water - filled trench which surrounds it ( the result of the removal of material for the nest ) help to protect the egg from fluctuating water levels and excessive heat at ground level . In East Africa , for example , temperatures at the top of the nest mound average some 20 ° C ( 40 ° F ) cooler than those of the surrounding ground .
Shotgun
A backpacker shotgun has a short barrel and either a full - size stock or pistol grip , depending on legislation in intended markets . The overall length of these weapons is frequently less than 90 cm ( 35 in ) , with some measuring up at less than 63 cm ( 25 in ) . These weapons are typically break - action . 410 `` gauge '' ( caliber ) , single - barrel designs with no magazine and no automatic ejection capability . They typically employ a cylinder bore and sometimes are available in modified choke as well .
Germination
In epigeal germination ( or epigeous germination ) , the hypocotyl elongates and forms a hook , pulling rather than pushing the cotyledons and apical meristem through the soil . Once it reaches the surface , it straightens and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the growing seedlings into the air . Beans , tamarind and papaya are examples of plants that germinate this way . Hypogeal
Funko
Dorbz typically have a round smiling head and cylinder-esque body . Dorbz are smaller than the normal Funko Pop ! figure .
Diamond
Few diamonds are formed from highly compressed coal . More than 99 % of diamonds ever mined have formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about 90 miles ( 140 km ) below the Earth 's surface . Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface and is unlikely to migrate below 2 miles ( 3.2 km ) through common geological processes . Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants and are therefore older than coal . It is possible that diamonds can form from coal in subduction zones and in meteoroid impacts , but diamonds formed in this way are rare , and the carbon source is more likely carbonate rocks and organic carbon in sediments , rather than coal .
Big Five personality traits
Openness to experience ( inventive / curious vs. consistent / cautious ) . Appreciation for art , emotion , adventure , unusual ideas , curiosity , and variety of experience . Openness reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity , creativity and a preference for novelty and variety a person has . It is also described as the extent to which a person is imaginative or independent and depicts a personal preference for a variety of activities over a strict routine . High openness can be perceived as unpredictability or lack of focus , and more likely to engage in risky behaviour or drug taking . Also , individuals that have high openness tend to lean , in occupation and hobby , towards the arts , being , typically , creative and appreciative of the significance of intellectual and artistic pursuits . Moreover , individuals with high openness are said to pursue self - actualization specifically by seeking out intense , euphoric experiences . Conversely , those with low openness seek to gain fulfillment through perseverance and are characterized as pragmatic and data - driven -- sometimes even perceived to be dogmatic and closed - minded . Some disagreement remains about how to interpret and contextualize the openness factor . Conscientiousness ( efficient / organized vs. easy - going / careless ) . Tendency to be organized and dependable , show self - discipline , act dutifully , aim for achievement , and prefer planned rather than spontaneous behavior . High conscientiousness is often perceived as stubbornness and obsession . Low conscientiousness is associated with flexibility and spontaneity , but can also appear as sloppiness and lack of reliability . Extraversion ( outgoing / energetic vs. solitary / reserved ) . Energy , positive emotions , surgency , assertiveness , sociability and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others , and talkativeness . High extraversion is often perceived as attention - seeking and domineering . Low extraversion causes a reserved , reflective personality , which can be perceived as aloof or self - absorbed . Extroverted people tend to be more dominant in social settings , as opposed to introverted people who may act more shy and reserved in this setting . Agreeableness ( friendly / compassionate vs. challenging / detached ) .
History of education in the United States
All of the schools were small , with a limited undergraduate curriculum oriented on the classical liberal arts . Students were drilled in Greek , Latin , geometry , ancient history , logic , ethics and rhetoric , with few discussions , little homework and no lab sessions . The college president typically tried to enforce strict discipline . The upperclassmen enjoyed hazing the freshmen . Many students were younger than 17 , and most of the colleges also operated a preparatory school . There were no organized sports , or Greek - letter fraternities , but many of the schools had active literary societies . Tuition was very low and scholarships were few .