vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Presidency of Abraham Lincoln
Emperor Napoleon III of France sought to re-establish a French empire in North America , with Mexico at the center of an empire that he hoped might also come to include a canal across Central America . In December 1861 , France invaded Mexico . While the official justification was the collection of debts , France eventually established a puppet state under the rule of Maximilian I of Mexico . In October 1862 , fearing that a re-unified United States would threaten his restored French empire , Napoleon III proposed an armistice and joint mediation of the American Civil War by France , Britain , and Russia . However , this proposal was declined by the other European powers , who feared alienating the North . Napoleon 's bellicose stands towards Russia in the 1863 January Uprising divided the powers and greatly diminished any chance of a joint European intervention . The United States refused to recognize Maximilian 's government and threatened to drive France out of the country by force , but did not become directly involved in the conflict even as Mexican resistance to Maximilian 's rule grew . With the end of the American Civil War in 1865 , the U.S. increased pressure on France to withdraw from Mexico , and the French presence in the Western hemisphere would be a major foreign policy issue for Lincoln 's successor .
United Nations
In the late 1990s and 2000s , international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms . The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991 -- 2002 was supplemented by British Royal Marines , and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO.In 2003 , the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization , prompting a new round of questioning of the organization 's effectiveness . Under the eighth Secretary - General , Ban Ki - moon , the UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War . In 2013 , an internal review of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered `` systemic failure '' . One hundred and one UN personnel died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake , the worst loss of life in the organization 's history .
Philippines
The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States as a result of the latter 's victory in the Spanish -- American War . A compensation of US $20 million was paid to Spain according to the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris . As it became increasingly clear the United States would not recognize the nascent First Philippine Republic , the Philippine -- American War broke out , the First Republic was defeated , and the archipelago was administered under an Insular Government . The war resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of combatants as well as a couple of hundred thousand civilians , mostly from a cholera epidemic .
American Civil War
The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence , championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party , insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance -- that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress , thus Congress could restrict human bondage , but never establish it . The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846 .
Apollo
Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in retribution for Agamemnon 's insult to Chryses , a priest of Apollo whose daughter Chryseis had been captured . He demanded her return , and the Achaeans complied , indirectly causing the anger of Achilles , which is the theme of the Iliad .
Gone with the Wind (film)
On the eve of the American Civil War in 1861 , Scarlett O'Hara lives at Tara , her family 's cotton plantation in Georgia , with her parents and two sisters . Scarlett learns that Ashley Wilkes -- whom she secretly loves -- is to be married to his cousin , Melanie Hamilton , and the engagement is to be announced the next day at a barbecue at Ashley 's home , the nearby plantation Twelve Oaks .
White House
By the time of the American Civil War , the White House had become overcrowded . The location of the White House was questioned , just north of a canal and swampy lands , which provided conditions ripe for malaria and other unhealthy conditions . Brigadier General Nathaniel Michler was tasked to propose solutions to address these concerns . He proposed abandoning the use of the White House as a residence and designed a new estate for the first family at Meridian Hill in Washington , D.C. , but Congress rejected the plan . Proposed
I Have a Dream
King had been preaching about dreams since 1960 , when he gave a speech to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) called `` The Negro and the American Dream '' . This speech discusses the gap between the American dream and reality , saying that overt white supremacists have violated the dream , and that `` our federal government has also scarred the dream through its apathy and hypocrisy , its betrayal of the cause of justice '' . King suggests that `` It may well be that the Negro is God 's instrument to save the soul of America . '' In 1961 , he spoke of the Civil Rights Movement and student activists ' `` dream '' of equality -- `` the American Dream ... a dream as yet unfulfilled '' -- in several national speeches and statements , and took `` the dream '' as the centerpiece for these speeches .
Financial costs of the American Revolutionary War
To solve this problem , the Continental Congress sent diplomats including Benjamin Franklin to Europe in search of foreign support for the American cause . For the first two years of war , the colonists received secretive private and public loans from the French , who held a lingering resentment for the British after the Seven Years ' War . After the British defeat at Saratoga , however , foreign support for the Continental Army increased , and in 1778 the colonies signed a treaty with France , officially bringing them into the war with England . By the end of the war , the colonies had received loans from several different European nations , including significant contribution from France , Spain and the Netherlands . In addition , the colonies received much private funding , most notably from the Marquis de Lafayette and the Baron of Kalb , both Frenchmen . This funding ultimately enabled them to fight the war of attrition that General Washington hoped for .
Three-Fifths Compromise
The Three - Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states until the American Civil War . In 1793 , for example , Southern slave states had 47 of the 105 members but would have had 33 , had seats been assigned based on free populations . In 1812 , slave states had 76 out of 143 instead of the 59 they would have had ; in 1833 , 98 out of 240 instead of 73 . As a result , Southern states had disproportionate influence on the presidency , the speakership of the House , and the Supreme Court in the period prior to the Civil War . Along with this must be considered the number of slave and free states , which remained mostly equal until 1850 , safeguarding the Southern bloc in the Senate as well as Electoral College votes .
English Civil War
The Civil War was a class war , in which the despotism of Charles I was defended by the reactionary forces of the established Church and conservative landlords , Parliament beat the King because it could appeal to the enthusiastic support of the trading and industrial classes in town and countryside , to the yeomen and progressive gentry , and to wider masses of the population whenever they were able by free discussion to understand what the struggle was really about .
Thirteen Colonies
The war also increased a sense of American unity in other ways . It caused men to travel across the continent who might otherwise have never left their own colony , fighting alongside men from decidedly different backgrounds who were nonetheless still American . Throughout the course of the war , British officers trained Americans for battle , most notably George Washington , which benefited the American cause during the Revolution . Also , colonial legislatures and officials had to cooperate intensively in pursuit of the continent - wide military effort . The relations were not always positive between the British military establishment and the colonists , setting the stage for later distrust and dislike of British troops . At the 1754 Albany Congress , Pennsylvania colonist Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan which would have created a unified government of the Thirteen Colonies for coordination of defense and other matters , but the plan was rejected by the leaders of most colonies . Territorial
Spanish–American War
At 9 : 40 on the evening of February 15 , 1898 , Maine sank in Havana Harbor after suffering a massive explosion . While McKinley urged patience and did not declare that Spain had caused the explosion , the deaths of 250 out of 355 sailors on board focused American attention . McKinley asked Congress to appropriate $50 million for defense , and Congress unanimously obliged . Most American leaders took the position that the cause of the explosion was unknown , but public attention was now riveted on the situation and Spain could not find a diplomatic solution to avoid war . Spain appealed to the European powers , most of whom advised it to accept US conditions for Cuba in order to avoid war . Germany urged a united European stand against the United States but took no action .
Spain and the American Revolutionary War
By June 1779 the Spanish had finalized their preparations for war . The British cause seemed to be at a particularly low ebb . The Spanish joined France in the war , implementing the Treaty of Aranjuez signed in April 1779 .
Join, or Die
The cartoon has been reprinted and redrawn widely throughout American history . Variants of the cartoon have different texts , e.g. `` Unite or Dead '' , and differently labeled segments , depending on the political bodies being appealed to . During the American Revolutionary War , the image became a potent symbol of Colonial unity and resistance to what was seen as British oppression . It returned to service , suitably redrawn , for both sides of the American Civil War .
Results of the War of 1812
Upper Canada emerged from the war with a sense of unity and pride as part of the British Empire . Anglophone Canadians claimed the war as a victory for their freedom from American control and credited their militia for the repulse of American invasions . Francophone Canadians largely ignore the war .
History of Puerto Rico
In 1898 , during the Spanish -- American War , Puerto Rico was invaded and subsequently became a possession of the United States . The first years of the 20th century were marked by the struggle to obtain greater democratic rights from the United States . The Foraker Act of 1900 , which established a civil government , and the Jones Act of 1917 , which made Puerto Ricans U.S. citizens , paved the way for the drafting of Puerto Rico 's Constitution and its approval by Congress and Puerto Rican voters in 1952 . However , the political status of Puerto Rico , a Commonwealth controlled by the United States , remains an anomaly .
The Red Badge of Courage
Although Crane once wrote in a letter , `` You can tell nothing ... unless you are in that condition yourself , '' he wrote The Red Badge of Courage without any experience of war . He would , however , later serve as a war correspondent during the Greco - Turkish and Spanish -- American Wars . Nevertheless , the realistic portrayal of the battlefield in The Red Badge of Courage has often misled readers into thinking that Crane ( despite being born six years after the end of the Civil War ) was himself a veteran . While trying to explain his ability to write about battle realistically , Crane stated : `` Of course , I have never been in a battle , but I believe that I got my sense of the rage of conflict on the football field , or else fighting is a hereditary instinct , and I wrote intuitively ; for the Cranes were a family of fighters in the old days '' .
Hundred Years' War
National feeling that emerged from the war unified both France and England further . Despite the devastation on its soil , the Hundred Years ' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralised state . In England the political and financial troubles which emerged from the defeat was one major cause of the War of the Roses ( 1455 -- 1487 ) . The
Conclusion of the American Civil War
The last land battle of the Civil War took place near Brownsville , Texas , and it was won by the Confederates . The Confederates held the city of Brownsville in the early part of 1865 . In January or February Major General Lew Wallace was sent by the Union government to Texas . On March 11 Wallace had a meeting with the two major Confederate commanders of the region , Brigadier General James Slaughter and Colonel John `` Rip '' Ford , under the premise that the official purpose was the `` rendition of criminals . '' The real reason was to agree that any fighting in the region would be pointless and negotiate an unofficial indefinite cease fire . Slaughter and Ford , at this point in time , occupied Fort Brown near Brownsville .
The Red Badge of Courage
Since the resurgence of Crane 's popularity in the 1920s , The Red Badge of Courage has been deemed a major American text , and Crane 's most important work . While modern critics have noted Crane 's `` anticipation of the modern spectacle of war '' , others , such as Crane scholar Stanley Wertheim , believe the work to be `` unquestionably the most realistic novel about the American Civil War '' . Donald Gibson called the novel `` ahead of its time '' because it did `` not conform to very many contemporary notions about what literature should be and do . '' The novel has been anthologized numerous times , including in Ernest Hemingway 's 1942 collection Men at War : The Best War Stories of All Time . In the introduction , Hemingway wrote that the novel `` is one of the finest books of our literature , and I include it entire because it is all as much of a piece as a great poem is . '' Robert W. Stallman 's introduction to the Modern Library 's 1951 edition of The Red Badge of Courage contained one of the first modern assessments of the novel . This novel is followed by other works by Crane , such as the short story , Maggie : A Girl of the Streets .
United States
The phrase `` United States '' was originally plural , a description of a collection of independent states -- e.g. , `` the United States are '' -- including in the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , ratified in 1865 . The singular form -- e.g. , `` the United States is '' -- became popular after the end of the American Civil War . The singular form is now standard ; the plural form is retained in the idiom `` these United States '' . The difference is more significant than usage ; it is a difference between a collection of states and a unit .
Territorial evolution of the United States
The first great expansion of the country came with the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 , which doubled the country 's territory , but brought it into minor conflict with the colonies of Spain which eventually resulted in the acquisition of Spanish Florida . The Oregon Country gave the United States access to the Pacific Ocean , though it was shared for a time with the United Kingdom . The annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845 led directly to the Mexican -- American War , after which the victorious United States obtained the northern half of Mexico 's territory , including what was quickly made the state of California . However , as the development of the country moved west , the question of slavery became too much to ignore , as there was a struggle to keep the number of northern abolitionist states equal to the number of southern slave states , with vigorous debate over whether the new territories would allow slavery and events such as the Missouri Compromise and Bleeding Kansas . This came to a head in 1860 and 1861 , when the governments of the southern states proclaimed their secession from the country and formed the Confederate States of America . The American Civil War led to the defeat of the Confederacy in 1865 and the eventual readmission of the states to the United States Congress .
Flag of Georgia (U.S. state)
The 1879 flag was introduced by Georgia state senator Herman H. Perry and was adopted to memorialize Confederate soldiers during the American Civil War . Perry was a former colonel in the Confederate army during the war , and based the design of the flag on the first national flag of the Confederacy , also known as the `` Stars and Bars '' . Over the following decades , the flag was changed by adding , and then changing the `` charge '' on the flag .
Acronym
Another driver for the adoption of acronyms was modern warfare with its many highly technical terms . While there is no recorded use of military acronyms in documents dating from the American Civil War ( acronyms such as ANV for `` Army of Northern Virginia '' post-date the war itself ) , they had become somewhat common in World War I and were very much a part even of the vernacular language of the soldiers during World War II , who themselves were referred to as G.I.s .
Castillo de San Marcos
Castillo de San Marcos map Entrance to fort , Civil War era Entrance to fort , Sally port , Civil War era Captain Pratt with Native American captives at Fort Marion Howling Wolf , of the southern Cheyenne , photographed while imprisoned at Fort Marion The north wall of the Castillo Castillo De San Marcos from the west , looking east . Fort Marion , St. Augustine and harbor , 1898 The side of Castillo de San Marcos in St. Augustine , FL . A picture of a cannon on Castillo de San Marcos
Southern United States
The popular definition of the `` South '' is more informal and generally associated with the 11 states that seceded before or during the Civil War to form the Confederate States of America . In order of their secession , these were : South Carolina , Mississippi , Florida , Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , Texas , Virginia , Arkansas , Tennessee , and North Carolina . These states share commonalities of history and culture that carry on to the present day . Oklahoma was not a state during the Civil War , but all its major Native American tribes signed formal treaties of alliance with the Confederacy .
Battle of Gettysburg
The south winning the Battle of Gettysburg is a popular premise for a point of divergence in American Civil War alternate histories . Here are some examples which either depict or make significant reference to an alternate Battle of Gettysburg ( sometimes simply inserting fantasy or sci - fi elements in an account of the battle ) :
Bobby Sands
The American media expressed a range of opinions on Sands 's death . The Boston Globe commented , a few days before Sands 's death , that `` ( t ) he slow suicide attempt of Bobby Sands has cast his land and his cause into another downward spiral of death and despair . There are no heroes in the saga of Bobby Sands '' . The Chicago Tribune wrote that `` Mahatma Gandhi used the hunger strike to move his countrymen to abstain from fratricide . Bobby Sands 's deliberate slow suicide is intended to precipitate civil war . The former deserved veneration and influence . The latter would be viewed , in a reasonable world , not as a charismatic martyr but as a fanatical suicide , whose regrettable death provides no sufficient occasion for killing others '' .
Peninsular War
War and revolution against Napoleon 's occupation led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , later a cornerstone of European liberalism . The burden of war destroyed the social and economic fabric of Portugal and Spain , and ushered in an era of social turbulence , political instability and economic stagnation . Devastating civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions , led by officers trained in the Peninsular War , persisted in Iberia until 1850 . The cumulative crises and disruptions of invasion , revolution and restoration led to the independence of most of Spain 's American colonies and the independence of Brazil from Portugal .
History of rail transport in the United States
Although the South started early to build railways , it concentrated on short lines linking cotton regions to oceanic or river ports , and the absence of an interconnected network was a major handicap during the Civil War . The North and Midwest constructed networks that linked every city by 1860 . In the heavily settled Midwestern Corn Belt , over 80 percent of farms were within 5 miles ( 8 km ) of a railway , facilitating the shipment of grain , hogs , and cattle to national and international markets . A large number of short lines were built , but thanks to a fast developing financial system based on Wall Street and oriented to railway bonds , the majority were consolidated into 20 trunk lines by 1890 . State and local governments often subsidized lines , but rarely owned them .
History of the United Kingdom
The first decades were marked by Jacobite risings which ended with defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746 . In 1763 , victory in the Seven Years ' War led to the growth of the First British Empire . With the defeat by the United States , France and Spain in the War of American Independence , Britain lost its 13 American colonies and rebuilt its second British Empire based in Asia and Africa . As a result , the culture of the United Kingdom , and its technological , political , constitutional , and linguistic influence , became worldwide .
Cold War
American domestic public concerns about intervening in foreign conflicts persisted from the end of the Vietnam War . The Reagan administration emphasized the use of quick , low - cost counter-insurgency tactics to intervene in foreign conflicts . In 1983 , the Reagan administration intervened in the multisided Lebanese Civil War , invaded Grenada , bombed Libya and backed the Central American Contras , anti-communist paramilitaries seeking to overthrow the Soviet - aligned Sandinista government in Nicaragua . While Reagan 's interventions against Grenada and Libya were popular in the United States , his backing of the Contra rebels was mired in controversy . The Reagan administration 's backing of the military government of Guatemala during the Guatemalan Civil War , in particular the regime of Efraín Ríos Montt , was also controversial .
Colonial history of the United States
The war also increased a sense of American unity in other ways . It caused men to travel across the continent who might otherwise have never left their own colony , fighting alongside men from decidedly different backgrounds who were nonetheless still `` American '' . Throughout the course of the war , British officers trained American ones for battle , most notably George Washington , which benefitted the American cause during the Revolution . Also , colonial legislatures and officials had to cooperate intensively , for the first time , in pursuit of the continent - wide military effort . The relations between the British military establishment and the colonists were not always positive , setting the stage for later distrust and dislike of British troops . Territorial
Italian nationalism
Civil flag of Italy , originally designed in 1797 . A symbol of the Italian nation since the early - 19th century and symbol of the Italian Republic since 1946 . Civil flag of the Kingdom of Italy from 1861 to 1946 . Presently used by Italian monarchists . War flag of the Italian Social Republic , the incarnation of Fascist Italy from 1943 to 1945 after the Fascist regime in the Kingdom of Italy was dismantled in 1943 . It is a prominent symbol used by Italian neo-fascists .