vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
John Steinbeck
Steinbeck 's last novel , The Winter of Our Discontent ( 1961 ) , examines moral decline in America . The protagonist Ethan grows discontented with his own moral decline and that of those around him . The book has a very different tone from Steinbeck 's amoral and ecological stance in earlier works like Tortilla Flat and Cannery Row . It was not a critical success . Many reviewers recognized the importance of the novel , but were disappointed that it was not another Grapes of Wrath . In the Nobel Prize presentation speech next year , however , the Swedish Academy cited it most favorably : `` Here he attained the same standard which he set in The Grapes of Wrath . Again he holds his position as an independent expounder of the truth with an unbiased instinct for what is genuinely American , be it good or bad . ''
Public opinion
These social changes , in which a closed and largely illiterate public became an open and politicized one , was to become of tremendous political importance in the 19th century as the mass media was circulated ever more widely and literacy was steadily improved . Governments increasingly recognized the importance of managing and directing public opinion . This trend is exemplified in the career of George Canning who restyled his political career from its aristocratic origins to one of popular consent when he contested and won the parliamentary seat in Liverpool ; a city with a growing and affluent middle class , which he attributed to the growing influence of `` public opinion . ''
History of Mexico
The Mexica people arrived in the Valley of Mexico in 1248 AD . They had migrated from the deserts north of the Rio Grande over a period traditionally said to have been 100 years . They may have thought of themselves as the heirs to the prestigious civilizations that had preceded them . What the Aztec initially lacked in political power , they made up for them with ambition and military skill . In 1325 , they established the biggest city in the world at that time , Tenochtitlan .
Whigs (British political party)
It was around this time that the great Whig historian Thomas Babington Macaulay began to promulgate what would later be coined the Whig view of history , in which all of English history was seen as leading up to the culminating moment of the passage of Lord Grey 's reform bill . This view led to serious distortions in later portrayals of 17th - century and 18th - century history , as Macaulay and his followers attempted to fit the complex and changing factional politics of the Restoration into the neat categories of 19th - century political divisions .
HMHS Britannic
In 2006 , an expedition , funded and filmed by the History Channel , brought together fourteen skilled divers to help determine what caused the quick sinking of Britannic . After preparation the crew dived on the wreck site on 17 September . Time was cut short when silt was kicked up , causing zero visibility conditions , and the two divers narrowly escaped with their lives . One last dive was to be attempted on Britannic 's boiler room , but it was discovered that photographing this far inside the wreck would lead to violating a permit issued by the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities , a department within the Greek Ministry of Culture . Partly because of a barrier in languages , a last minute plea was turned down by the department . The expedition was unable to determine the cause of the rapid sinking , but hours of footage were filmed and important data was documented . Underwater Antiquities later recognised the importance of this mission and subsequently extended an invitation to revisit the wreck under less stringent rules . On this expedition , divers found a bulb shape in her expansion joint . This proved that her design was changed following the loss of Titanic .
United States in World War I
The nation placed a great importance on the role of children , teaching them patriotism and national service and asking them to encourage war support and educate the public about the importance of the war . The Boy Scouts of America helped distribute war pamphlets , helped sell war bonds , and helped to drive nationalism and support for the war .
History of Native Americans in the United States
What a prodigious growth this English race , especially the American branch of it , is having ! How soon will it subdue and occupy all the wild parts of this continent and of the islands adjacent . No prophecy , however seemingly extravagant , as to future achievements in this way ( is ) likely to equal the reality . --
Education reform
In the modern world , economic growth and the spread of democracy have raised the value of education and increased the importance of ensuring that all children and adults have access to high - quality , effective education . Modern education reforms are increasingly driven by a growing understanding of what works in education and how to go about successfully improving teaching and learning in schools . However , in some cases , the reformers ' goals of `` high - quality education '' has meant `` high - intensity education '' , with a narrow emphasis on teaching individual , test - friendly subskills quickly , regardless of long - term outcomes , developmental appropriateness , or broader educational goals .
Seneca Falls Convention
'' Stanton worked to enshrine the Declaration of Sentiments as a foundational treatise in a number of ways , not the least of which was by imbuing the small , three - legged tea table upon which the first draft of it was composed an importance similar to that of Thomas Jefferson 's desk upon which he wrote the Declaration of Independence . The M'Clintocks gave Stanton the table , then Stanton gave it to Susan B. Anthony on the occasion of her 80th birthday , though Anthony had no part in the Seneca Falls meeting . In keeping with Stanton 's promotion of the table as an iconic relic , women 's rights activists put it in a place of honor at the head of the casket at the funeral of Susan B. Anthony on March 14 , 1906 . Subsequently , it was displayed prominently on the stage at each of the most important suffrage meetings until 1920 , even though the grievance and resolution about woman suffrage was not written on it . The table is kept at the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History in Washington , D.C.
History of Native Americans in the United States
Native American nations on the plains in the west continued armed conflicts with the United States throughout the 19th century , through what were called generally `` Indian Wars . '' The Battle of Little Bighorn ( 1876 ) was one of the greatest Native American victories . Defeats included the Sioux Uprising of 1862 , the Sand Creek Massacre ( 1864 ) and Wounded Knee in 1890 . Indian Wars continued into the early 20th century .
History of the Pittsburgh Pirates
After the 1899 season , the Pirates made what is arguably the best player transaction in franchise history when they picked up nearly all of the star players from the Louisville Colonels . Louisville owner Barney Dreyfuss had been told that the Colonels were slated for elimination when the N.L. contracted from 12 to 8 teams . He secretly purchased a half - interest in the Pirates , then after the season sent nearly all of the Colonels ' stars up the Ohio River to Pittsburgh . Since the transaction occurred before the Colonels officially folded , it was structured as a trade ; the Pirates sent four relatively unknown players to Louisville . Despite their nickname , the Pirates at least waited until after the season to pull off this blockbuster trade . This is unlike what happened in 1899 to the Cleveland Spiders and , to a lesser extent , the Baltimore Orioles , who were also part of two - team ownerships . Dreyfuss later bought full control of the team and kept it until his death in 1932 .
Celts
The Coligny calendar , which was found in 1897 in Coligny , Ain , was engraved on a bronze tablet , preserved in 73 fragments , that originally was 1.48 metres ( 4 feet 10 inches ) wide and 0.9 metres ( 2 feet 11 inches ) high ( Lambert p. 111 ) . Based on the style of lettering and the accompanying objects , it probably dates to the end of the 2nd century . It is written in Latin inscriptional capitals , and is in the Gallic language . The restored tablet contains 16 vertical columns , with 62 months distributed over 5 years .
History of evolutionary thought
The evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr was influenced by the work of the German biologist Bernhard Rensch showing the influence of local environmental factors on the geographic distribution of sub-species and closely related species . Mayr followed up on Dobzhansky 's work with the 1942 book Systematics and the Origin of Species , which emphasized the importance of allopatric speciation in the formation of new species . This form of speciation occurs when the geographical isolation of a sub-population is followed by the development of mechanisms for reproductive isolation . Mayr also formulated the biological species concept that defined a species as a group of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding populations that were reproductively isolated from all other populations .
Celts
A further example of this regeneration after beheading lies in the tales of Connemara 's St. Feichin , who after being beheaded by Viking pirates carried his head to the Holy Well on Omey Island and on dipping the head into the well placed it back upon his neck and was restored to full health .
Multilingual Education
Related to the emphasis on a child 's mother tongue is the implicit validation of her cultural or ethnic identity by taking languages which were previously considered `` non-standard '' and making active use of them in the classroom . Multilingual Education in that sense underscores the importance of the child 's worldview in shaping his or her learning .
Classical period (music)
The crucial differences with the previous wave can be seen in the downward shift in melodies , increasing durations of movements , the acceptance of Mozart and Haydn as paradigmatic , the greater use of keyboard resources , the shift from `` vocal '' writing to `` pianistic '' writing , the growing pull of the minor and of modal ambiguity , and the increasing importance of varying accompanying figures to bring `` texture '' forward as an element in music . In short , the late Classical was seeking a music that was internally more complex . The growth of concert societies and amateur orchestras , marking the importance of music as part of middle - class life , contributed to a booming market for pianos , piano music , and virtuosi to serve as examplars . Hummel , Beethoven , and Clementi were all renowned for their improvising .
United States Declaration of Independence
A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812 , thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution . In 1817 , Congress commissioned John Trumbull 's famous painting of the signers , which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol . The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time , offering many Americans their first view of the signed document . Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s , giving birth to what Garry Wills called the `` cult of the signers '' . In the years that followed , many stories about the writing and signing of the document were published for the first time .
Negative number
Negative numbers appear for the first time in history in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art ( Jiu zhang suan - shu ) , which in its present form dates from the period of the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC -- AD 220 ) , but may well contain much older material . The mathematician Liu Hui ( c. 3rd century ) established rules for the addition and subtraction of negative numbers . The historian Jean - Claude Martzloff theorized that the importance of duality in Chinese natural philosophy made it easier for the Chinese to accept the idea of negative numbers . The Chinese were able to solve simultaneous equations involving negative numbers . The Nine Chapters used red counting rods to denote positive coefficients and black rods for negative . This system is the exact opposite of contemporary printing of positive and negative numbers in the fields of banking , accounting , and commerce , wherein red numbers denote negative values and black numbers signify positive values . Liu Hui writes :
History of chemistry
In 1883 , Svante Arrhenius developed an ion theory to explain conductivity in electrolytes . In 1884 , Jacobus Henricus van ' t Hoff published Études de Dynamique chimique ( Studies in Dynamic Chemistry ) , a seminal study on chemical kinetics . In this work , van ' t Hoff entered for the first time the field of physical chemistry . Of great importance was his development of the general thermodynamic relationship between the heat of conversion and the displacement of the equilibrium as a result of temperature variation . At constant volume , the equilibrium in a system will tend to shift in such a direction as to oppose the temperature change which is imposed upon the system . Thus , lowering the temperature results in heat development while increasing the temperature results in heat absorption . This principle of mobile equilibrium was subsequently ( 1885 ) put in a general form by Henry Louis Le Chatelier , who extended the principle to include compensation , by change of volume , for imposed pressure changes . The van ' t Hoff - Le Chatelier principle , or simply Le Chatelier 's principle , explains the response of dynamic chemical equilibria to external stresses .
New trade theory
Marc Melitz and Pol Antràs started a new trend in the study of international trade . While new trade theory put emphasis on the growing trend of intermediate goods , this new trend emphasizes firm level differences in the same industry of the same country and this new trend is frequently called ' new ' new trade theory ( NNTT ) . NNTT stresses the importance of firms rather than sectors in understanding the challenges and the opportunities countries face in the age of globalization .
Romanticism
Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the starting point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist . The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that `` the artist 's feeling is his law '' . To William Wordsworth , poetry should begin as `` the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings '' , which the poet then `` recollect ( s ) in tranquility '' , evoking a new but corresponding emotion the poet can then mould into art . To express these feelings , it was considered that the content of the art had to come from the imagination of the artist , with as little interference as possible from `` artificial '' rules that dictated what a work should consist of . Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were natural laws that the imagination -- at least of a good creative artist -- would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone . As well as rules , the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creator 's own imagination , so that originality was essential . The concept of the genius , or artist who was able to produce his own original work through this process of creation from nothingness , is key to Romanticism , and to be derivative was the worst sin . This idea is often called `` romantic originality . '' William
Factor analysis
Eigenvalues : / Characteristic roots : The eigenvalue for a given factor measures the variance in all the variables which is accounted for by that factor . The ratio of eigenvalues is the ratio of explanatory importance of the factors with respect to the variables . If a factor has a low eigenvalue , then it is contributing little to the explanation of variances in the variables and may be ignored as redundant with more important factors . Eigenvalues measure the amount of variation in the total sample accounted for by each factor .
History of Mexico
The Olmec first appeared along the Atlantic coast ( in what is now the state of Tabasco ) in the period 1500 -- 900 BC . The Olmecs were the first Mesoamerican culture to produce an identifiable artistic and cultural style , and may also have been the society that invented writing in Mesoamerica . By the Middle Preclassic Period ( 900 -- 300 BC ) , Olmec artistic styles had been adopted as far away as the Valley of Mexico and Costa Rica .
Westminster system
The threat posed by non-confidence votes is often used to justify extremely well - disciplined legislative parties in Westminster systems . In order to ensure the government always has the confidence of the majority of the house , the political culture of Westminster nations often makes it highly unusual for a legislator to vote against their party . Critics argue this in turn undermines the freedom and importance of Members of Parliament ( MPs ) in day - to - day legislating , making the cabinet the only organ of government where individual legislators can aspire to influence the decisions of the government .
Femur
The third trochanter is a bony projection occasionally present on the proximal femur near the superior border of the gluteal tuberosity . When present , it is oblong , rounded , or conical in shape and sometimes continuous with the gluteal ridge . A structure of minor importance in humans , the incidence of the third trochanter varies from 17 -- 72 % between ethnic groups and it is frequently reported as more common in females than in males .
False Claims Act
Under the False Claims Act , the Department of Justice is authorized to pay rewards to those who report fraud against the federal government and are not convicted of a crime related to the fraud , in an amount of between 15 and 25 ( but up to 30 percent in some cases ) of what it recovers based upon the whistleblower 's report . The relator 's share is determined based on the FCA itself , legislative history , Department of Justice guidelines released in 1997 , and court decisions .
European exploration of Africa
Meanwhile , considerable changes had been made in other parts of the continent . The occupation of Algiers by France in 1830 put an end to the piracy of the Barbary states . Egyptian authority continued to expand southward , with the consequent additions to knowledge of the Nile . The city of Zanzibar , on the island of that name , rapidly attained importance . Accounts of a vast inland sea , and the discovery of the snow - clad mountains of Kilimanjaro in 1840 -- 1848 , stimulated the desire for further knowledge about Africa in Europe .
Red deer
Red deer are widely depicted in cave art found throughout European caves , with some of the artwork dating from as early as 40,000 years ago , during the Upper Paleolithic . Siberian cave art from the Neolithic of 7,000 years ago has abundant depictions of red deer , including what can be described as spiritual artwork , indicating the importance of this mammal to the peoples of that region ( Note : these animals were most likely wapiti ( C. canadensis ) in Siberia , not red deer ) . Red deer are also often depicted on Pictish stones ( circa 550 -- 850 AD ) , from the early medieval period in Scotland , usually as prey animals for human or animal predators . In medieval hunting , the red deer was the most prestigious quarry , especially the mature stag , which in England was called a hart .
Results of the War of 1812
In Britain , the importance of the conflict was totally overshadowed by European triumphs : Napoleon had returned from exile in March 1815 , and was finally defeated at Waterloo 100 days later .
Public opinion
Jeremy Bentham was an impassioned advocate of the importance of public opinion in the shaping of constitutional governance . He thought it important that all government acts and decisions should be subject to the inspection of public opinion , because `` to the pernicious exercise of the power of government it is the only check . '' He opined that public opinion had the power to ensure that rulers would rule for the greatest happiness of the greater number . He brought in Utilitarian philosophy in order to define theories of public opinion .
History of Colombia
In 1549 , the institution of the Spanish Royal Audiencia in Bogotá gave that city the status of capital of New Granada , which comprised in large part what is now territory of Colombia . In 1717 , the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created , and then it was temporarily removed , to finally be reestablished in 1739 . The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital . This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today 's Venezuela , Ecuador and Panama . So , Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World , along with Lima and Mexico City .
Godparent
The Church of England , the mother Church of the Anglican Communion , retained godparents in baptism , formally removing the marriage barriers in 1540 , but the issue of the role and status of godparents continued to be debated in the English Church . They were abolished in 1644 by the Directory of Public Worship promulgated by the English Civil War Parliamentary regime , but continued to be used in some parishes in the north of England . After the Restoration in 1660 , they were reintroduced to Anglicanism , with occasional objections , but dropped by almost every dissenting church . There is some evidence that the restored institution had lost some of its social importance as well as its universality .
Byzantine law
With the exception of a few cities , and especially Constantinople , where other types of urban economic activities were also developed , Byzantine society remained at its heart agricultural . An important source regarding law , which reflects in a particularly characteristic way the internal life of the Byzantine villages during the Middle Byzantine Era ( 7th -- end of 12th century ) is the Nomos Georgikos , also known as the Lex Rustica or Farmer 's Law . Due to its importance , the Farmer 's Law roused the interest of researchers from a very early stage . Ever since it has been one of the most discussed texts concerning the internal history of Byzantium . It has been suggested that , because of the major influences caused by the influx of Slavs into the Empire at the time the Farmer 's Law was established , Slavic traditions were in fact an important influence of the Farmer 's Law , both in terms of why it was developed and its content .
Themistocles
`` What precise heights of oratory he attained , what stirring and memorable phrases he pronounced , we have no way of knowing ... only by the effect it had on the assembly can we gauge what surely must have been its electric and vivifying quality -- for Themistocles ' audacious proposals , when put to the vote , were ratified . The Athenian people , facing the gravest moment of peril in their history , committed themselves once and for all to the alien element of the sea , and put their faith in a man whose ambitions many had long profoundly dreaded . ''
Conic section
Pappus of Alexandria ( died c. 350 CE ) is credited with expounding on the importance of the concept of a conic 's focus , and detailing the related concept of a directrix , including the case of the parabola ( which is lacking in Apollonius 's known works ) .