vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Qing dynasty
A key distinguishing feature of the Qing economy was the emergence of guild halls around the nation . As inter-regional trade and travel became ever more common during the Qing , guild halls dedicated to facilitating commerce , huiguan , gained prominence around the urban landscape . The location where two merchants would meet to exchange commodities was usually mediated by a third - party broker who served a variety of roles for the market and local citizenry including bringing together buyers and sellers , guaranteeing the good faith of both parties , standardizing the weights , measurements , and procedures of the two parties , collecting tax for the government , and operating inns and warehouses . It was these broker 's and their places of commerce that were expanded during the Qing into full - fledged trade guilds , which , among other things , issued regulatory codes and price schedules , and provided a place for travelling merchants to stay and conduct their business . The first recorded trade guild set up to facilitate inter-regional commerce was in Hankou in 1656 . Along with the huiguan trade guilds , guild halls dedicated to more specific professions , gongsuo , began to appear and to control commercial craft or artisanal industries such as carpentry , weaving , banking , and medicine . By the nineteenth century guild halls had much more impact on the local communities than simply facilitating trade , they transformed urban areas into cosmopolitan , multi-cultural hubs , staged theatre performances open to general public , developed real estate by pooling funds together in the style of a trust , and some even facilitated the development of social services such as maintaining streets , water supply , and sewage facilities .
Lundy
Foundations for a lighthouse on Lundy were laid in 1787 , but the first lighthouse ( now known as the Old Light ) was not built until Trinity House obtained a 999 - year lease in 1819 . The 97 - foot ( 30 m ) granite tower , on the summit of Chapel Hill , was designed by Daniel Asher Alexander , and built by Joseph Nelson at a cost of £ 36,000 . Because the site , Beacon Hill , is 469 feet ( 143 m ) above sea level , the highest base for a lighthouse in Britain , the light was often obscured by fog . To counter this problem , the Fog Signal Battery was built about 1861 .
Mass production
The Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year . Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power - driven machinery and reorganising the dockyard system . Brunel , a pioneering engineer , and Maudslay , a pioneer of machine tool technology who had developed the first industrially practical screw - cutting lathe in 1800 which standardized screw thread sizes for the first time which in turn allowed the application of interchangeable parts , collaborated on plans to manufacture block - making machinery . By 1805 , the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary , purpose - built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components . A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks , which could be made into one of three possible sizes . The machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability . The machines would make markings and indentations on the blocks to ensure alignment throughout the process . One of the many advantages of this new method was the increase in labour productivity due to the less labour - intensive requirements of managing the machinery . Richard Beamish , assistant to Brunel 's son and engineer , Isambard Kingdom Brunel , wrote :
Step pyramid
One of the unique structures of Igboland was the Nsude Pyramids , at the Nigerian town of Nsude , northern Igboland . Ten pyramidal structures were built of clay / mud . The first base section was 60 ft. in circumference and 3 ft. in height . The next stack was 45 ft. in circumference . Circular stacks continued , till it reached the top . The structures were temples for the god Ala / Uto , who was believed to reside at the top . A stick was placed at the top to represent the god 's residence . The structures were laid in groups of five parallel to each other . Because it was built of clay / mud like the Deffufa of Nubia , time has taken its toll requiring periodic reconstruction .
Solomon's Temple
Chambers were built around the Temple on the southern , western and northern sides ( 1 Kings 6 : 5 -- 10 ) . These formed a part of the building and were used for storage . They were probably one story high at first ; two more may have been added later . Courts
Our Lady of the Angels School fire
The total of the devastation was confined to the second floor of the north wing . The north wing was part of a two - story structure built in 1910 , but remodeled several times over the years . That wing originally consisted of a first - floor church and a second - floor school . The entire building became a school when a new , much larger church was opened in 1939 . A south wing also dating from 1939 was built and was connected in 1951 by an annex to the north wing . The two original buildings and the annex formed a U-shape , with a narrow fenced courtyard between .
Colony of Virginia
The entrepreneurs of the Virginia Company experimented with a number of means of making the colony profitable . The orders sent with the first colonists instructed that they search for precious metals ( specifically gold ) . While no gold was found , various products were sent back , including pitch and clapboard . In 1608 , early attempts were made at breaking the Continental hold on glassmaking through the creation of a glassworks . In 1619 , the colonist built the first ironworks in North America .
Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series
In the early years , most Grand National races were held on dirt - surfaced short oval tracks that ranged in lap length from under a quarter - mile to over a half - mile , or on dirt fairgrounds ovals usually ranging from a half - mile to a mile in lap length . One hundred ninety - eight of the first 221 Grand National races were run on dirt tracks . Darlington Raceway , opened in 1950 , was the first completely paved track on the circuit over one mile ( 1.6 km ) long . In 1959 , when Daytona International Speedway was opened , the schedule still had more races on dirt racetracks than on paved ones . In the 1960s as superspeedways were built and old dirt tracks were paved , the number of races run on dirt tracks was reduced .
Presidency of Abraham Lincoln
British financiers built and operated most of the blockade runners , spending hundreds of millions of pounds on them ; but that was legal and not the cause of serious tension . They were staffed by sailors and officers on leave from the Royal Navy . When the U.S. Navy captured one of the fast blockade runners , it sold the ship and cargo as prize money for the American sailors , then released the crew . The British shipyard ( John Laird and Sons ) built two warships for the Confederacy , including the CSS Alabama , over vehement protests from the United States . The controversy would ultimately be resolved after the Civil War in the form of the Alabama Claims , in which the United States finally was given $15.5 million in arbitration by an international tribunal for damages caused by British - built warships .
Quito
As with other places colonized by the Spanish , the colonizers promptly established Roman Catholicism in Quito . The first church ( El Belén ) was in fact built even before the city had been officially founded . In January 1535 , the San Francisco Convent was constructed , the first of about 20 churches and convents built during the colonial period . The Spanish converted the indigenous population to Christianity and used them as labor for construction .
Winter Olympic Games
The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley , United States . It was an undeveloped resort in 1955 , so from 1956 to 1960 the infrastructure and all of the venues were built at a cost of US $80,000,000 . The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney . The Squaw Valley Olympics was the first winter Olympics to have a dedicated athletes ' village , the first to use a computer ( courtesy of IBM ) to tabulate results , and the first to feature female speed skating events . The bobsleigh events were absent for the only time due to the cost of building a bobsleigh run . 1964
Windsor Castle
Henry II came to the throne in 1154 and built extensively at Windsor between 1165 and 1179 . Henry replaced the wooden palisade surrounding the upper ward with a stone wall interspersed with square towers and built the first King 's Gate . The first stone keep was suffering from subsidence , and cracks were beginning to appear in the stonework of the south side . Henry replaced the keep with another stone shell keep and chemise wall , but moved the walls in from the edge of the motte to relieve the pressure on the mound , and added massive foundations along the south side to provide additional support . Inside the castle Henry remodelled the royal accommodation . Bagshot Heath stone was used for most of the work , and stone from Bedfordshire for the internal buildings .
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
$4.2 billion to repair and modernize Defense Department facilities . $890 million to improve housing for service members $750 million for federal buildings and U.S. Courthouses ( GSA ) $250 million to improve Job Corps training facilities $240 million for new child development centers $240 million for the maintenance of United States Coast Guard facilities $200 million for Department of Homeland Security headquarters $176 million for Agriculture Research Service repairs and improvements $150 million for the construction of state extended - care facilities $100 million to improve facilities of the National Guard Communications
Kenya
The building of the railway was resisted by some ethnic groups -- notably the Nandi led by Orkoiyot Koitalel Arap Samoei for ten years from 1890 to 1900 -- however the British eventually built the railway . The Nandi were the first ethnic group to be put in a native reserve to stop them from disrupting the building of the railway .
Solar cell
The photovoltaic effect was experimentally demonstrated first by French physicist Edmond Becquerel . In 1839 , at age 19 , he built the world 's first photovoltaic cell in his father 's laboratory . Willoughby Smith first described the `` Effect of Light on Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current '' in a 20 February 1873 issue of Nature . In 1883 Charles Fritts built the first solid state photovoltaic cell by coating the semiconductor selenium with a thin layer of gold to form the junctions ; the device was only around 1 % efficient .
History of the motorcycle
In 1894 Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle , and the first to be called a `` motorcycle '' ( German : Motorrad ) . However , only a few hundred examples of this motorcycle were ever built . The first instance of the term `` motor cycle '' also appears in English the same year in materials promoting machines developed by E.J. Pennington , although Pennington 's motorcycles never progressed past the prototype stage .
APA Ethics Code
A current controversy among mental health professionals is the use of specific psychological treatments which are not strongly supported by research . Proponents of the evidence - based practice ( EBP ) movement argue that it is unethical to administer a therapeutic intervention with questionable research support ( such as psychoanalysis ) when another treatment 's effectiveness has been demonstrated for the client 's condition , particularly when the intervention in question is potentially harmful ( such as conversion therapy ) . Proponents argue that administration of an empirically questionable treatment violates the general Principle A of the ethical principles of psychologist : Beneficence and nonmaleficence ( or `` do no harm '' ) .
One-drop rule
The first challenges to such state laws were overruled by Supreme Court decisions which upheld state constitutions that effectively disfranchised many . White Democratic - dominated legislatures proceeded with passing Jim Crow laws that instituted racial segregation in public places and accommodations , and passed other restrictive voting legislation . In Plessy v. Ferguson , the Supreme Court allowed racial segregation of public facilities , under the `` separate but equal '' doctrine .
Yosemite National Park
Access to the park by tourists improved in the early years of the park , and conditions in the Valley were made more hospitable . Tourism significantly increased after the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869 , but the long horseback ride to reach the area was a deterrent . Three stagecoach roads were built in the mid-1870s to provide better access for the growing number of visitors to Yosemite Valley .
History of rail transport in the United States
In general , U.S. railroad companies imported technology from Britain in the 1830s , particularly strap iron rails , as there were no rail manufacturing facilities in the United States at that time . Heavy iron `` T '' rails were first manufactured in the U.S. in the mid-1840s at Mount Savage , Maryland and Danville , Pennsylvania . This improved rail design permitted higher train speeds and more reliable operation . Discovery of high - quality iron ores in the mid-19th century , particularly in the Great Lakes region , led to fabrication of better - quality rails .
First Transcontinental Railroad
In order to keep the CPRR 's Sierra grade open during the winter months , beginning in 1867 , 37 miles of massive wooden snow sheds and galleries were built between Blue Cañon and Truckee , covering cuts and other points where there was danger of avalanches . 2,500 men and six material trains were employed in this work , which was completed in 1869 . The sheds were built with two sides and a steep peaked roof , mostly of locally cut hewn timber and round logs. Snow galleries had one side and a roof that sloped upward until it met the mountain side , thus permitting avalanches to slide over the galleries , some of which extended up the mountainside as much as two hundred feet ( 60 m ) . Masonry walls such as the `` Chinese Walls '' at Donner Summit were built across canyons to prevent avalanches from striking the side of the vulnerable wooden construction . A few concrete sheds ( mostly at crossovers ) are still in use today .
Early skyscrapers
In Chicago , the final pre-war skyscraper was built in 1934 . The Field Building was commissioned during the final boom years of the inter-war economy , and the Home Insurance Building -- the first skyscraper , built in 1884 -- was demolished to make way for the `` wing and tower '' - style development .
Bullpen
Temporary holding facilities for rebellious workers trying to organize into unions were referred to as bullpens . These military prisons were sometimes literally pens normally used for cattle which were pressed into service by stringing barbed wire , establishing a guarded perimeter , and keeping large numbers of men confined in the enclosed space . These `` bullpens '' have been considered early versions of concentration camps , and were used by the national guard during the Colorado Labor Wars of 1903 - 04 , and in Idaho in 1892 and 1899 during union miners ' uprisings near Coeur d'Alene . Author Emma Langdon described these as the first use of the bullpen in the West .
Australian Army during World War II
The Army also raised many anti-aircraft and coastal defence units during the war . The pre-war coastal defences were greatly expanded from 1939 , and many new batteries were built near major ports in Australia and New Guinea in response to the threat of Japanese attack . Australia had a limited capacity to produce anti-aircraft guns , and the bulk of equipment had to come from Britain . As such the development of such defences was initially hampered by a lack of available equipment . The coastal defence system reached its peak size during 1944 . The Army had few anti-aircraft guns at the outbreak of war , and a high priority was given to expanding the air defences around major cities and important industrial and military facilities . By 1942 anti-aircraft batteries were in place around all the major cities as well as the key towns in northern Australia . The expansion of the artillery in general , and coastal defence and anti-aircraft units in particular , meant that by June 1942 some 80,000 of the 406,000 members of the Army were artillerymen . VDC units gradually took over responsibility for manning the fixed coastal and anti-aircraft defences as the threat of attack against the Australian mainland receded .
Michigan
The state has numerous large islands , the principal ones being the North Manitou and South Manitou , Beaver , and Fox groups in Lake Michigan ; Isle Royale and Grande Isle in Lake Superior ; Marquette , Bois Blanc , and Mackinac islands in Lake Huron ; and Neebish , Sugar , and Drummond islands in St. Mary 's River . Michigan has about 150 lighthouses , the most of any U.S. state . The first lighthouses in Michigan were built between 1818 and 1822 . They were built to project light at night and to serve as a landmark during the day to safely guide the passenger ships and freighters traveling the Great Lakes . See Lighthouses in the United States .
Great Salt Lake
Three resorts , each called Saltair , have been operated on the southern shore of the lake since 1893 , each one built as a successor to the previous one . Rising and lowering water levels have affected each iteration , and the first two were destroyed by fire .
Iran hostage crisis
The hostages were initially held at the embassy , but after the failed rescue mission , they were scattered around Iran to make a single rescue impossible . Three high - level officials -- Bruce Laingen , Victor L. Tomseth , and Mike Howland -- were at the Foreign Ministry at the time of the takeover . They stayed there for some months , sleeping in the ministry 's formal dining room and washing their socks and underwear in the bathroom . At first , they were treated as diplomats , but after the provisional government fell , their treatment deteriorated . By March , the doors to their living space were kept `` chained and padlocked . ''
Confederate States of America
During the Civil War fleets of armored warships were deployed for the first time in sustained blockades at sea . After some success against the Union blockade , in March the ironclad CSS Virginia was forced into port and burned by Confederates at their retreat . Despite several attempts mounted from their port cities , CSA naval forces were unable to break the Union blockade . Attempts were made by Commodore Josiah Tattnall 's ironclads from Savannah in 1862 with the CSS Atlanta . Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory placed his hopes in a European - built ironclad fleet , but they were never realized . On the other hand , four new English - built commerce raiders served the Confederacy , and several fast blockade runners were sold in Confederate ports . They were converted into commerce - raiding cruisers , and manned by their British crews .
First Transcontinental Railroad
In 1852 , Judah was chief engineer for the newly formed Sacramento Valley Railroad , the first railroad built west of the Mississippi River . Although the railroad later went bankrupt once the easy placer gold deposits around Placerville , California were depleted , Judah was convinced that a properly financed railroad could pass from Sacramento through the Sierra Nevada mountains to reach the Great Basin and hook up with rail lines coming from the East .
List of United States Air Force installations
Department of Defense Joint Bases were established in accordance with congressional legislation implementing the recommendations of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission . The legislation ordered the consolidation of separate military installations into a single joint base as a result of the law . Jurisdiction was designated by the DoD . Most of the facilities were geographically adjoining ; others were within the same area .
First Transcontinental Railroad
In addition to the track - laying crews , other crews were busy setting up stations with provisions for loading fuel , water and often also mail , passengers and freight . Personnel had to be hired to run these stations . Maintenance depots had to be built to keep all of the equipment repaired and operational . Telegraph operators had to be hired to man each station to keep track of where the trains were so that trains could run in each direction on the available single track without interference or accidents . Sidings had to be built to allow trains to pass . Provision had to be made to store and continually pay for coal or wood needed to run the steam locomotives . Water towers had to be built for refilling the water tanks on the engines , and provision made to keep them full .
United States Postal Service
The changes are a result of the declining volumes of single - piece First - Class Mail , population shifts , the increase in drop shipments by advertising mailers at destinating postal facilities , advancements in equipment and technology , redundancies in the existing network , and the need for operational flexibility . Airline
Chipotle Mexican Grill
Architecturally , all Chipotle restaurants are built using most of the same materials ( plywood , corrugated metal , stainless steel , exposed ductwork ) , although each store is unique . The interiors have been described as having an `` industrial , sheet metal look '' . Chipotle has built restaurants using white ceramic tile instead of stainless steel . It costs the company approximately $850,000 to open a new restaurant . When the first Chipotle opened , Steve Ells asked his friend , sculptor Bruce Gueswel , to design the chairs and a styled Mayan king whose face was loosely based on that of civil rights leader Martin Luther King , Jr. , a personal inspiration of Gueswel , for the restaurant . Both items were made from wood and metal . Gueswel has continued to design and build the art and chairs for all subsequent Chipotle restaurants .
Telephone exchange
One of the first to propose a telephone exchange was Hungarian Tivadar Puskás in 1877 while he was working for Thomas Edison . The first experimental telephone exchange was based on the ideas of Puskás , and it was built by the Bell Telephone Company in Boston in 1877 . The world 's first commercial telephone exchange opened on November 12 , 1877 in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin . George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial US telephone exchange which opened in New Haven , Connecticut in January , 1878 . The switchboard was built from `` carriage bolts , handles from teapot lids and bustle wire '' and could handle two simultaneous conversations . Charles Glidden is also credited with establishing an exchange in Lowell , MA . with 50 subscribers in 1878 .
Human rights in the Philippines
After the declaration of Martial Law , Marcos issued six ( 6 ) general orders and an instruction to close privately owned media facilities . The Press Secretary , Francisco Tatad , and Secretary for National Defense , Juan Ponce Enrile , were ordered by Marcos `` to take over and control or cause the taking over and control of all such newspapers , magazines , radio and television facilities and all other media communications ... '' The information released to the public was highly censored and prevented journalists from releasing any suspicious information about the administration . Failure to abide would lead to arrest .