vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Criticism of democracy
Manin draws from James Harrington , Montesquieu , and Jean - Jacques Rousseau to suggest that the dominant form of government , representative as opposed to direct , is effectively aristocratic . He proposes that modern representative governments exercise political power through aristocratic elections which , in turn , brings into question democracy 's `` rule of the people '' principle . As far as Montesquieu is concerned , elections favor the `` best '' citizens who Manin notes tend to be wealthy and upper - class . As far as Rousseau is concerned , elections favor the incumbent government officials or the citizens with the strongest personalities , which results in hereditary aristocracy . Manin further evinces the aristocratic nature of representative governments by contrasting them with the ancient style of selection by lot . Manin notes that Montesquieu believed that lotteries prevent jealousy and distribute offices equally ( among citizens from different ranks ) , while Rousseau believed that lotteries choose indifferently , preventing self - interest and partiality from polluting the citizen 's choice ( and thus prevent hereditary aristocracy ) .
Constitutional Convention (United States)
The division of the legislature into an upper and lower house was n't questioned either , despite the obscure origins of the English House of Lords and its role as the representative of the hereditary nobility . Americans had seldom known any but bicameral legislatures , both in Britain and in most state governments . The main exceptions to this were the dysfunctional Confederation Congress and the unicameral Pennsylvania legislature , which was seen as quickly vacillating between partisan extremes after each election . Experience had convinced the delegates that an upper house was necessary to tame the passions of the lower classes against the interests of wealthy merchants and landowners . Since America had no native hereditary aristocracy , the character of this upper house was designed to protect the interests of this wealthy elite , the `` minority of the opulent , '' against the interests of the lower classes , who constituted the majority of the population .
Monarchies in Africa
Under the current constitution , passed in 1993 , the King is a constitutional monarch and the head of state , with power being exercised by the Parliament . While in practice hereditary , the King is officially appointed by the College of Chiefs using traditional practices . The College of Chiefs also appoints a regent if one is needed . The Prime Minister also has the power to declare the kingship vacant if the King either violates his oath of office or is deemed unfit to rule .
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
Until 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues , which included the profits of the Crown Estate ( the royal property portfolio ) . King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List , and this arrangement persisted until 2012 . An annual Property Services Grant - in - aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences , and an annual Royal Travel Grant - in - Aid paid for travel . The Civil List covered most expenses , including those for staffing , state visits , public engagements , and official entertainment . Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years ; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10 - year period . From 2012 until 2020 , the Civil List and Grants - in - Aid are to be replaced with a single Sovereign Grant , which will be set at 15 % of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate .
Ellis Island
In 1898 , a Chicago surgeon named Eugene S. Talbot ( Eugene Solomon ) wrote `` crime is hereditary , a tendency which is , in most cases , associated with bodily defects . '' Likewise , George Lydston , a medicine and criminal anthropology professor , argued further in 1906 that people with `` defective physique '' were not just criminally associated but that defectiveness was a primary factor `` in the causation of crime . '' > Between 1891 and 1930 , Ellis Island reviewed over 25 million attempted immigrations . Of this 25 million , 700,000 were given certificates of disability or disease and of these 79,000 were barred from entry . Approximately 4.4 % of immigrants between 1909 and 1930 were classified as disabled or diseased per with 11 % being deported when this number spiked to 8.0 % in the years of 1918 - 1919 . One percent of immigrants were deported yearly due to medical causes .
Restoration (England)
The one hereditary viscountcy Cromwell created for certain , ( making Charles Howard Viscount Howard of Morpeth and Baron Gilsland ) continues to this day . In April 1661 , Howard was created Earl of Carlisle , Viscount Howard of Morpeth , and Baron Dacre of Gillesland . The present Earl is a direct descendant of this Cromwellian creation and Restoration recreation .
Preamble to the Constitution of India
In a republic form of government , the head of the state is an elected person and not a heredity monarch . This word denotes a government where no one holds a public power as proprietary right . As opposed to a monarchy , in which the head of state is appointed on hereditary basis for a lifetime or until he abdicates from the throne , a democratic republic is an entity in which the head of state is elected , directly or indirectly , for a fixed tenure .
Colony of Virginia
The tobacco planters and farmers of Virginia adhered to the concept of a hierarchical society that they or their ancestors had brought with them from England . Most held to the general idea of a Great Chain of Being : at the top were God and his heavenly host ; next came kings ... who were divinely sanctioned to rule , then a hereditary aristocracy who were followed in descending order by wealthy landed gentry , small , independent farmers , tenant farmers , servants ... Aspirations to rise above one 's station in life were considered a sin .
House of Lords
The Parliament Act 1911 effectively abolished the power of the House of Lords to reject legislation , or to amend it in a way unacceptable to the House of Commons : most bills could be delayed for no more than three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years . It was not meant to be a permanent solution ; more comprehensive reforms were planned . Neither party , however , pursued the matter with much enthusiasm , and the House of Lords remained primarily hereditary . In 1949 , the Parliament Act reduced the delaying power of the House of Lords further to two sessions or one year .
House of Lords
Of the 92 , two remain in the House of Lords because they hold royal offices connected with Parliament : the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain . Of the remaining ninety peers sitting in the Lords by virtue of a hereditary peerage , 15 are elected by the whole House and 75 are chosen by fellow hereditary peers in the House of Lords , grouped by party . ( If a hereditary peerage holder is given a life peerage , he or she becomes a member of the House of Lords without a need for a by - election . ) The exclusion of other hereditary peers removed the Prince of Wales ( who is also Earl of Chester ) and all other Royal Peers , including the Duke of Edinburgh , Duke of York , Earl of Wessex , Duke of Gloucester and Duke of Kent .
Catalonia
These counties came under the rule of the counts of Barcelona , who were Frankish vassals nominated by the emperor of the Franks , to whom they were feudatories ( 801 -- 987 ) . The earliest known use of the name `` Catalonia '' for these counties dates to 1117 . During the 9th century , the Count Wifred the Hairy made its title hereditary and founded the dynasty of the House of Barcelona , which ruled Catalonia until 1410 .
French Revolution
Meanwhile , the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution . A new judicial organisation made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne . The legislators abolished hereditary offices , except for the monarchy itself . Jury trials started for criminal cases . The King would have the unique power to propose war , with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war . The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds , masterships , and workers ' organisations : any individual gained the right to practise a trade through the purchase of a license ; strikes became illegal . Royal
History of democracy
What little evidence there is regarding this system indicates chiefs of different tribes were permitted representation in the Iroquois League council , and this ability to represent the tribe was hereditary . The council itself did not practice representative government , and there were no elections ; deceased chiefs ' successors were selected by the most senior woman within the hereditary lineage in consultation with other women in the clan . Decision making occurred through lengthy discussion and decisions were unanimous , with topics discussed being introduced by a single tribe . Tooker concludes that `` ... there is virtually no evidence that the framers borrowed from the Iroquois '' and that the myth that this was the case is the result of exaggerations and misunderstandings of a claim made by Iroquois linguist and ethnographer J.N.B. Hewitt after his death in 1937 .
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
For most of the history of the Upper House , Lords Temporal were landowners who held their estates , titles and seats as an hereditary right passed down from one generation to the next -- in some cases for centuries . In 1910 , for example , there were nineteen whose title was created before 1500 .
Chola dynasty
The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education . The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans . Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important ; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children , although there is no evidence of systematic educational system for the masses . Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons . Tamil was the medium of education for the masses ; Religious monasteries ( matha or gatika ) were centres of learning and received government support .
House of Lords
There were no women sitting in the House of Lords until 1958 , when a small number came into the chamber as a result of the Life Peerages Act 1958 . One of these was Irene Curzon , 2nd Baroness Ravensdale , who had inherited her father 's peerage in 1925 and was made a life peer to enable her to sit . After a campaign stretching back in some cases to the 1920s , another twelve women who held hereditary peerages in their own right were finally admitted by the Peerage Act 1963 . 1997
Individualism
Modern liberalism has its roots in the Age of Enlightenment and rejects many foundational assumptions that dominated most earlier theories of government , such as the Divine Right of Kings , hereditary status , and established religion . John Locke is often credited with the philosophical foundations of classical liberalism . He wrote `` no one ought to harm another in his life , health , liberty , or possessions . ''
Neuroscience of multilingualism
These patterns arise due to the state of the cerebral substrate . Research has proposed that it is not due to the cerebral substrate being physically destroyed , but due to its weakened state that has led to the different forms of inhibition . This weakening of the system has been tied to the idea of increased inhibition , which is when the threshold in activation for that system rises unnaturally due to damage . This leads to languages being inhibited in various was , and thus , resulting in variations in the recovery , and sometimes non-recovery , of the languages .
Samurai
The feudal lord Asakura Yoshikage ( 1428 -- 1481 ) wrote : `` In the fief of the Asakura , one should not determine hereditary chief retainers . A man should be assigned according to his ability and loyalty . '' Asakura also observed that the successes of his father were obtained by the kind treatment of the warriors and common people living in domain . By his civility , `` all were willing to sacrifice their lives for him and become his allies . ''
Optic nerve
Injury to the optic nerve can be the result of congenital or inheritable problems like Leber 's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy , glaucoma , trauma , toxicity , inflammation , ischemia , infection ( very rarely ) , or compression from tumors or aneurysms . By far , the three most common injuries to the optic nerve are from glaucoma , optic neuritis ( especially in those younger than 50 years of age ) , and anterior ischemic optic neuropathy ( usually in those older than 50 ) .
Nosebleed
Anatomical deformities ( e.g. septal spurs or hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia ) Insufflated drugs ( particularly cocaine ) Intranasal tumors ( e.g. nasopharyngeal carcinoma or nasopharyngeal angiofibroma ) Low relative humidity of inhaled air ( particularly during cold winter seasons ) . Evidence to support this however is weak . Nasal cannula O ( tending to dry the nasal mucosa ) Nasal sprays ( particularly prolonged or improper use of nasal steroids ) Middle ear barotrauma ( such as from descent in aircraft or ascent in scuba diving ) Surgery ( e.g. septoplasty and functional endoscopic sinus surgery )
Magnetic field
where H is the applied magnetic field due only to the free currents and H is the demagnetizing field due only to the bound currents .
Oliver Twist
On the other hand , Oliver -- who has an air of refinement remarkable for a workhouse boy -- proves to be of gentle birth . Although he has been abused and neglected all his life , he recoils , aghast , at the idea of victimising anyone else . This apparently hereditary gentlemanliness makes Oliver Twist something of a changeling tale , not just an indictment of social injustice . Oliver , born for better things , struggles to survive in the savage world of the underclass before finally being rescued by his family and returned to his proper place -- a commodious country house .
Original sin
In Swedenborgianism , exegesis of the first 11 chapters of Genesis from The First Church , has a view that Adam is not an individual person . Rather , he is a symbolic representation of the `` Most Ancient Church '' , having a more direct contact with heaven than all other successive churches . Swedenborg 's view of original sin is referred to as hereditary evil , which passes from generation to generation . It can not be completely abolished by an individual man , but can be tempered when someone reforms their own life , and are thus held accountable only for their own sins .
Libya
On 24 December 1951 , Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya , a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris , Libya 's only monarch . The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled one of the world 's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state . Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government 's finances , resentment among some factions began to build over the increased concentration of the nation 's wealth in the hands of King Idris . Gaddafi
House of Lords
Holders of Scottish and Irish peerages were not always permitted to sit in the Lords . When Scotland united with England to form Great Britain in 1707 , it was provided that the Scottish hereditary peers would only be able to elect 16 representative peers to sit in the House of Lords ; the term of a representative was to extend until the next general election . A similar provision was enacted when Ireland merged with Great Britain in 1801 to form the United Kingdom ; the Irish peers were allowed to elect 28 representatives , who were to retain office for life . Elections for Irish representatives ended in 1922 , when most of Ireland became an independent state ; elections for Scottish representatives ended with the passage of the Peerage Act 1963 , under which all Scottish peers obtained seats in the Upper House .
House of Saud
The most influential member of the Royal family is the King of Saudi Arabia , currently King Salman . The succession to the Saudi Arabian throne was designed to pass from one son of the first king , Ibn Saud , to another . The next in line , Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman , is the son of King Salman , and thus from the ruling House of Saud . The king - appointed cabinet includes more members of the royal family . The monarchy was hereditary by agnatic seniority until 2006 , when a royal decree provided that future Saudi kings are to be elected by a committee of Saudi princes . Although current King Salman first choose his nephew and then his son as a crown prince without any consulation with Allegiance Council .
Monarchies in Africa
State Type Succession Dynasty Title Image Incumbent Age Reigns since First - in - line Kingdom of Morocco Constitutional Hereditary Alaouite King Mohammed VI 21 August 1963 54 y . 23 July 1999 Heir apparent ; Moulay Hassan , Crown Prince of Morocco ( eldest child ) Kingdom of Swaziland Absolute Hereditary and elective Dlamini King Mswati III 19 April 1968 49 y . 25 April 1986 None ; king can appoint his successor . Kingdom of Lesotho Constitutional Hereditary and elective Moshesh King Letsie III 17 July 1963 53 y . 7 February 1996 Heir apparent : Prince Lerotholi Seeiso ( eldest son ; second child )
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applies only against the states , but it is otherwise textually identical to the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment , which applies against the federal government ; both clauses have been interpreted to encompass identical doctrines of procedural due process and substantive due process . Procedural due process is the guarantee of a fair legal process when the government tries to interfere with a person 's protected interests in life , liberty , or property , and substantive due process is the guarantee that the fundamental rights of citizens will not be encroached on by government . The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment also incorporates most of the provisions in the Bill of Rights , which were originally applied against only the federal government , and applies them against the states . Substantive
Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
21 June 1818 -- 12 November 1826 : His Serene Highness The Hereditary Prince of Saxe - Coburg - Saalfeld 12 November 1826 -- 29 January 1844 : His Highness The Hereditary Prince of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha 29 January 1844 -- 22 August 1893 : His Highness The Duke of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha
Adam and Eve
Over the centuries , a system of unique Christian beliefs had developed from these doctrines . Baptism became understood as a washing away of the stain of hereditary sin in many churches , although its original symbolism was apparently rebirth . Additionally , the serpent that tempted Eve was interpreted to have been Satan , or that Satan was using a serpent as a mouthpiece , although there is no mention of this identification in the Torah and it is not held in Judaism .
Cherokee
Before the 19th century , polygamy was common among the Cherokee , especially by elite men . The matrilineal culture meant that women controlled property , such as their dwellings , and their children were considered born into their mother 's clan , where they gained hereditary status . Advancement to leadership positions was generally subject to approval by the women elders . In addition , the society was matrifocal ; customarily , a married couple lived with or near the woman 's family , so she could be aided by her female relatives . Her oldest brother was a more important mentor to her sons than was their father , who belonged to another clan . Traditionally , couples , particularly women , can divorce freely .
Conquistador
Some European countries , especially France , were also sending excursions to Brazil to extract brazilwood . Worried about the foreign incursions and hoping to find mineral riches , the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land and combat the French . In 1530 , an expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa arrived to patrol the entire coast , ban the French , and to create the first colonial villages , like São Vicente , at the coast . As time passed , the Portuguese created the Viceroyalty of Brazil . Colonization was effectively begun in 1534 , when Dom João III divided the territory into twelve hereditary captaincies , a model that had previously been used successfully in the colonization of the Madeira Island , but this arrangement proved problematic and in 1549 the king assigned a Governor - General to administer the entire colony , Tomé de Sousa .
Republic
Islamic political philosophy has a long history of opposition to absolute monarchy , notably in the work of Al - Farabi . Sharia law took precedence over the will of the ruler , and electing rulers by means of the Shura was an important doctrine . While the early caliphate maintained the principles of an elected ruler , later states became hereditary or military dictatorships though many maintained some pretense of a consultative shura .
Standard of care
1 . Diagnostic and treatment process that a clinician should follow for a certain type of patient , illness , or clinical circumstance . Adjuvant chemotherapy for lung cancer is `` a new standard of care , but not necessarily the only standard of care '' . ( New England Journal of Medicine , 2004 )
Reading and Leeds Festivals line-ups
2005 saw My Chemical Romance play both Reading and Leeds on the same day , in an alteration from the original schedule , due to the MTV Video Music Awards . The Transplants were originally booked to play the festivals but pulled out in mid-August due to illness . Jimmy Eat World also pulled out due to other commitments . Other drop outs include Willy Mason , Simple Plan and Fall Out Boy ( also due to the VMAs ) . A weekend ticket cost £ 125 , a day ticket £ 60 .
Sarah
Early next morning , Abimelech informed his servants of his dream and approached Abraham inquiring as to why he had brought such great guilt upon his kingdom . Abraham replied that he thought there was no fear of God in that place , and that they might kill him for his wife . Then Abraham defended what he had said as not being a lie at all : `` And yet indeed she is my sister ; she is the daughter of my father , but not the daughter of my mother ; and she became my wife . '' Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham , and gave him gifts of sheep , oxen , and servants ; and invited him to settle wherever he pleased in Abimelech 's lands . Further , Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to serve as Sarah 's vindication before all . Abraham then prayed for Abimelech and his household , since God had stricken the women with infertility because of the taking of Sarah .
Pro Football Hall of Fame Game
Jump up ^ The 1980 game ended with 5 : 29 remaining in the fourth quarter in a 0 - 0 tie due to severe lightning . Jump up ^ The 2003 game ended with 5 : 49 remaining in the third quarter due to severe lightning with the Chiefs leading 9 - 0 . Jump up ^ The 2011 game was scheduled to be St. Louis Rams vs. Chicago Bears , but was canceled due to the lockout . Jump up ^ The 2016 game was scheduled to be Green Bay Packers vs Indianapolis Colts , but was canceled due to poor field conditions .