vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
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Eclipses - NASA Science
You can only take your glasses off during the short time when the Moon completely obscures the Sun – known as the period of totality. If you don’t have eclipse glasses, you can use an indirect viewing method, such as a pinhole projector, which projects an image of the Sun onto a nearby surface.It is safe to look at the Moon with unprotected eyes or through a telescope during all types and during all stages of a lunar eclipse.Learn MoreA family wearing eclipse glasses watches the total solar eclipse on Aug. 21, 2017. NASA/Shannon ReedCitizen Science ProjectsObserving a solar eclipse is one of many ways to get in on the fun of doing science.You can get involved with NASA science by participating in a number of NASA-funded citizen science projects. Citizen science projects are collaborations between scientists and interested members of the public. Through these collaborations, volunteers (known as citizen scientists) have helped make thousands of important scientific discoveries.Read MoreA closeup of a solar jet on the Sun captured by NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory on Jan. 20, 2011. Participants in NASA’s Citizen Science program Solar Jet Hunter help identify solar jets in spacecraft images for further study. NASA/SDO/Solar Jet HunterKnow your eclipses!There are four types of solar eclipses: Total, partial, hybrid, and annular. The type of eclipse that people get to see depends on how the Moon aligns with Earth and the Sun, and how far away the Moon is from Earth. There are three types of lunar eclipses: total, partial, and penumbral. At least two partial lunar eclipses happen every year, but total lunar eclipses are rare. Unlike a solar eclipse, it is always safe to look at a lunar eclipse with the naked eye.Learn MoreFrom left to right, this image shows a total solar eclipse, annular solar eclipse, and partial solar eclipse. A hybrid eclipse can appear as either a total or annular eclipse (the left and middle images) depending on the viewer's location.Science of EclipsesEclipses aren’t just beautiful – they’re great for science.In addition to inspiring artists and musicians, eclipses have driven numerous scientific discoveries.
Eyes - NASA Science
Cloudy areas are shown in blue, and the diagonal line breaks in the image are from different passes of the satellite.Visualize this event in EyesFeatured Earth eventVisualize the latest Earth events in EyesVisualize Past Earth eventsSevere Flooding in BrazilMay 9th, 2024. Multiple days of heavy rains beginning on April 27, 2024, triggered widespread flooding in southern Brazil. NASA/JPLNASA/JPLNASA/JPLVolcanic Aerosols Circulate After EruptionApril 26th, 2024. The eruption of Indonesia’s Mount Ruang volcano on April 17, 2024, sent a plume of ash and gases up t 12 miles (20 kilometers) above Earth’s surface.NASA/JPLNASA/JPLExplosive Volcanic Eruption in IndonesiaApril 17th, 2024. The Japanese Himawari-8 satellite captured this infrared image of an explosive eruption.NASA/JPLSahara Dust Blows to EuropeApril 4th, 2024. NASA’s Aqua satellite captured this image of hazy skies over northern Africa, the Mediterranean Sea, and Italy.NASA/JPLSnowpack Nears its Seasonal PeakMarch 20th, 2024. NASA’s Terra satellite captured this image of clear skies and snow-covered mountain ranges across the Western U.S.NASA/JPLResourcesNASA 3D ModelsThe Eyes team transforms complex mission CAD models into lightweight models optimized for the web.Find more 3D modelsFront closeup of Curiosity rover from 3d modelNASA/JPL-CaltechDownload 3D ModelsEuropa Clipper 3D Model(gltf-binary) (34.05 MB)Juno 3D Model(gltf-binary) (8.76 MB)InSight 3D Model(gltf-binary) (21.32 MB)Curiosity 3D Model(gltf-binary) (11.31 MB)List of interactive visualizationsExperience Earth, our solar system, nearby asteroids, the universe, and the spacecraft exploring them with immersive real-time 3D apps for Mac, PC, and mobile devices. Eyes on the Solar SystemThis simulated view of the solar system allows you to explore the planets, their moons, asteroids, comets and the spacecraft exploring them.
Athens at Night
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Prague at Night
Infrastructure new and old glows across the Czech Republic’s capital city.

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Nighttime in Antalya, Türkiye
Urban infrastructure and natural areas stand in sharp contrast at night on the Mediterranean coast.

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Seoul, South Korea
The city of Seoul (originally known as Hanyang) has been the capital of Korea for more than 600 years. This astronaut photograph illustrates the Seoul urban area at night. Major roadways and river courses (such as the Han River) are clearly outlined by street lights, while the brightest lights indicate the downtown urban core (center of image) and large industrial complexes. One such complex is located at the far left of the image and occupies an island in the Yellow Sea. Very dark regions in the image are mountains or large bodies of water. Nighttime images have been used extensively in urban climate and urban growth research to map the extent of urban (bright) versus rural (dark) regions.

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From Automobiles to Armstrong
Cleveland’s urban layout has evolved as time and technology have advanced.

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Athens at Night
Likewise, the lack of light between the city and Athens International Airport is due to the rugged terrain of the Hymettus mountains. The range is blanketed with forests that host archaeological sites and recreational areas.
Ancient and modern elements in Athens are also contrasted at night. Yellow and orange-hued lights indicate older, high-pressure sodium lighting. Bright white-toned lighting indicates areas illuminated with more recent LED (light-emitting diode) technology. Small dark splotches in the central city area surround some of the major ancient landmarks from the fifth century BCE, including the Acropolis, the Parthenon, and the Temple of Olympian Zeus.
Astronaut photograph ISS067-E-372936 was acquired on September 17, 2022, with a Nikon D5 digital camera using a focal length of 180 millimeters. The image was provided by the ISS Crew Earth Observations Facility and the Earth Science and Remote Sensing Unit at Johnson Space Center. The image was taken by a member of the Expedition 67 crew. It has been cropped and enhanced to improve contrast, and lens artifacts have been removed. The International Space Station Program supports the laboratory as part of the ISS National Lab to help astronauts take pictures of Earth that will be of the greatest value to scientists and the public and to make those images freely available on the Internet. Additional images taken by astronauts and cosmonauts can be viewed at the NASA/JSC Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth. Caption by Sara Schmidt, GeoControl Systems, JETS II Contract at NASA-JSC.

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Stark contrasts between light and dark indicate the interface between urban and natural areas in the Greek capital.
Image of the Day for December 10, 2023

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ISS — Digital Camera

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Infrastructure new and old glows across the Czech Republic’s capital city.

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Black Holes - NASA Science
The event horizon isn’t a surface like Earth’s or even the Sun’s. It’s a boundary that contains all the matter that makes up the black hole.There is much we don’t know about black holes, like what matter looks like inside their event horizons. However, there is a lot that scientists do know about black holes.Unable to render the provided sourceFinding Black HolesBlack holes don’t emit or reflect light, making them effectively invisible to telescopes. Scientists primarily detect and study them based on how they affect their surroundings:Black holes can be surrounded by rings of gas and dust, called accretion disks, that emit light across many wavelengths, including X-rays.A supermassive black hole’s intense gravity can cause stars to orbit around it in a particular way. Astronomers tracked the orbits of several stars near the center of the Milky Way to prove it houses a supermassive black hole, a discovery that won the 2020 Nobel Prize.When very massive objects accelerate through space, they create ripples in the fabric of space-time called gravitational waves. Scientists can detect some of these by the ripples’ effect on detectors.Massive objects like black holes can bend and distort light from more distant objects. This effect, called gravitational lensing, can be used to find isolated black holes that are otherwise invisible.Black Holes Are Not ...Wormholes. They don’t provide shortcuts between different points in space, or portals to other dimensions or universes.Cosmic vacuum cleaners. Black holes don’t suck in other matter. From far enough away, their gravitational effects are just like those of other objects of the same mass.Black holes - what are they really?
Watch the Skies -
The shallow dense atmosphere of the white dwarf eventually heats enough to cause a runaway thermonuclear reaction – which produces the nova we see from Earth.
Follow @NASAUniverse for updates about the outburst.
By Lauren Perkins
NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center
 

Author Beth RidgewayPosted on February 27, 2024Categories UncategorizedLeave a comment on View Nova Explosion, ‘New’ Star in Northern Crown 

Mars, Venus Appear Very Close to Each Other this Month 

February is a great month for the early rising skygazers. Venus has been bright in the morning sky all year, rising just before the Moon.
In the minutes before dawn this week, Venus will rise to the upper left of the waning crescent Moon and will be joined by Mars.
This graphic shows Venus, Earth and its Moon, and Mars. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ESA
Over the coming weeks, Venus will shift towards Mars until they appear to merge into one another, just a half a degree apart, on Feb. 22.
To view this planetary illusion, you’ll need to find a place with a clear view of the western horizon – few to no tall trees or buildings.
For more skygazing opportunities, including observing spiral galaxy M81, check out the video below from Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s monthly “What’s Up” video series:

By Lauren Perkins
NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center
 

Author Beth RidgewayPosted on February 5, 2024Categories UncategorizedTags Mars and VenusLeave a comment on Mars, Venus Appear Very Close to Each Other this Month 

2024 Highlights: When & Where to Watch the Skies 

If your New Year’s resolution included more skygazing, you’ll have many fantastic opportunities to view some showstopping astronomical events.
Kick off the year by watching the skies on Jan. 17 as the Moon pairs up with Jupiter, appearing high in the southwest, for two evenings. After a near year-long fade from the naked eye, Mars is also becoming brighter in our sky as the month progresses and will be visible low on the eastern horizon before sunrise.
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Montgomery Reef Revealed
Large tidal swings expose a plateau-shaped reef around Australia’s Yawajaba island at low tide.
 
Published May 18, 2024

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Blue Marble Next Generation
12 months of high-resolution global true color satellite imagery.
Published Oct 13, 2005

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Shasta Lake Fills Up Again
For the second year in a row, California’s largest reservoir filled to nearly 100 percent capacity.
Published May 17, 2024

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Jul 2002 — Apr 2024

Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is used by algae and other phytoplankton--the grass of the sea--to convert sunlight and carbon dioxide into sugars. These maps show chlorophyll concentrations in the ocean, revealing where phytoplankton are thriving.

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Earth at Night
Satellite images of Earth at night have been a curiosity for the public and a tool of fundamental research for at least 25 years. They have provided a broad, beautiful picture, showing how humans have shaped the planet and lit up the darkness.
Published Apr 12, 2017

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Citizen Scientists Capture Brilliant Photos of the Aurora
Participants in NASA's Aurorasaurus project captured these images during the May 2024 geomagnetic storm. 
Published May 15, 2024

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Feb 2000 — Apr 2024

Land Surface Temperature
Land surface temperatures rise and fall with the heat of the Sun, and they represent how hot or cold the surface would feel to touch. These maps show daytime land temperatures as measured from space.

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Mission: Biomes
Have you ever wondered what it would be like to live in a different part of the world? What would the weather be like? What kinds of animals would you see? Which plants live there? By investigating these questions, you are learning about biomes.
Published Aug 28, 2020

Land
Dusty Spring in the Tarim Basin
With very little rainfall and high rates of evaporation, the basin’s Taklimakan Desert has become one of the driest, most barren expanses on Earth. This desert accounts for more than a quarter of China’s desert area and is the largest single source of dust aerosols from East Asia.
Dust storms in the basin are most common in the spring and summer. In spring, strong cyclonic winds from the northeast easily pick up particles from the dry, loose surface. Warming of the ground in springtime drives turbulence in the atmosphere that can loft particles to higher altitudes than at other times of the year. Dust generally stays within the basin unless it reaches altitudes high enough to be blown over the surrounding mountains.
Dust from the Taklimakan Desert can affect the air quality in urban areas that lie downwind. Researchers showed that in 2015, dust reached numerous cities in Northwest China and was correlated with increased concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5).
Other research found that between 1989 and 2021, the Tarim Basin saw an average of 60 dust days per year. Some areas, including southern parts of the basin around Hotan, were dustier than others, especially in spring. However, the frequency of dust weather during that period was declining across the basin.
NASA Earth Observatory image by Michala Garrison, using MODIS data from NASA EOSDIS LANCE and GIBS/Worldview. Story by Kathryn Hansen.

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Strong winds kicked up sand and dust from China’s vast Taklimakan Desert.
Image of the Day for May 21, 2024

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Terra — MODIS

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Dust and Haze

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Northern Hemisphere Dust Storms

Strong winds routinely loft sand and dust into the atmosphere in the Northern Hemisphere.

References & Resources

MODIS Image of the Day (2024, May 17) Heavy Dust across China. Accessed May 20, 2024.
NASA Earth Observatory (2016, May 3) The Taklimakan Desert: A Factory for Dust Storms. Accessed May 20, 2024.
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Photo from the 2009 Leonids meteor shower.

What's Up? Leonids!
By Lou Mayo
This year, on the night of November 17th, observers in Asia and North America could be treated to an unusually strong meteor shower. The Leonids meteor shower is produced every November when the Earth passes through the debris left by comet 55P Temple-Tuttle. Most meteor showers are caused by swarms of dust particles - most the size of a grain of sand, that are liberated off the surfaces of comets. How does this happen? Comets travel in highly eccentric orbits around the sun. When they are far from the sun, volatiles such as water, CO, CO2, methane, and ethane are frozen solid, probably lying just below the comet nucleus' dry, rocky surface. But when they come into the inner solar system, these frozen gasses begin to sublime back into their gas phase, shooting out of the surface and releasing other materials like silicates. The liberated dust grains continue to orbit the sun in approximately the same path as the comet nucleus. Each year, the Earth passes through this debris for certain comets and we have a meteor shower. Sometimes the Earth passes through a relatively thin or rarified part of the stream and we see only a few meteors. This year, it is predicted that the Earth will pass through a relatively dense part of 55P Temple-Tuttle's debris field and observers in dark locations could see ZHRs (Zenith Hourly Rates) of 500 meteors per hour or more, peaking sometime around 22:00 UT though peak activity could occur as much as an hour later than this.
How to observe
To view a meteor shower, you won't need a telescope or binoculars. Although I sometimes bring binoculars just to have something else to do since watching meteors can take several hours.
Cloud Fraction
Carbon Monoxide
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Cloud Fraction
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Land Surface Temperature Anomaly
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Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly
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Cloudy With a Chance of Eclipse
“That it was just cirrus clouds was good news for people in northern New England because cirrus clouds are made up of ice particles rather than water droplets and are thus quite transparent to shortwave radiation, allowing a high amount of visible light to pass through,” explained Erdman.
As shown in this photograph (above), taken in Newport, Vermont, northern New England had spectacular viewing conditions, even in areas with some cirrus clouds. Viewing in most of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas also fared generally well. Skies were mostly either clearing, or contained cirrus or scattered cumulus clouds that didn’t completely block the view of totality. In contrast, many parts of Texas, such as Kerrville (below), faced decks of mid-level or low-level clouds.

April 8, 2024JPEG

Eclipse watchers in some parts of New York were not fortunate, either. With layers of low stratocumulus clouds rolling through the state during much of the eclipse, a blanket of gray blocked the view in many areas. Occasional breaks in the thickest cloud cover, such as the view from Syracuse (below), provided some interest, but the view of the corona was often fuzzy and opaque, if visible at all.
The GLOBE team is just starting to assess and analyze the thousands of observations from April 8, 2024, and their full analysis is still several months away. However, their analysis of data collected during the total solar eclipse in 2017 revealed a relatively small drop in air temperatures in cloudy areas compared to clear areas. The average temperature drop from all temperature observations during the 2017 eclipse was about 7 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius), and areas with more cloud cover saw less of a temperature drop.
Other teams of researchers have reported that solar eclipses can change temperatures enough to cause certain types of convective clouds to begin to dissipate in the early stages of total solar eclipses. “We don’t have definitive evidence for that so far in our data,” Colón Robles said, “but it’s something we’ll certainly look for as we analyze the data.”

April 8, 2024JPEG
Sun-Earth Days 2013: Articles
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The Sun: 101
By Lou Mayo
Cycles, our world is full of predictable, regularly repeating events - day/night, seasons, water cycles, carbon cycles, economic cycles, life cycles, climate cycles, Milankovitch cycles (changes in the Earth's precession, obliquity, and orbital eccentricity over thousands to 10's of thousands of years). Our lives are impacted every day by cycles. The sun goes through cycles too that impact the Earth, the solar system, and our daily lives in some surprising ways. Most importantly, the frequency and intensity of solar storms, the biggest explosions of energy in the solar system, ebb and flow with these solar cycles. The periodic variability in the sun's activity includes changes in solar radiation and particle emission that effect Earth's geomagnetic environment, climate, weather, and even the influx of galactic cosmic rays. The sun's electromagnetic and particle radiation also impact other solar system bodies; planetary atmospheres, magnetospheres, satellite surfaces, and comets. To understand what's going on, we need to understand how the sun works.
The Sun:101!

Figure 1: Cosmic Abundancies of the elements

The sun is a moderate sized (1,400,000 km in diameter), G spectral type, variable star in a vast collection of an estimated 200-400 billion stars in a barred spiral galaxy called the Milky Way. Though it is a smallish star, most stars in our galaxy are smaller, and less massive. Our sun is, like most stars in our galaxy and probably most stars, a main sequence star which means it generates its energy by thermonuclear fusion resulting in the release of gamma ray photons during a process in the core where hydrogen nuclei (protons) are fused together to form helium nuclei.