vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
STEREO
Weeks of solar activity from late 2003 storms, LASCO C3 large (QT, 7.7M), small (QT, 3.8M)
    

A light-bulb shaped CME, LASCO C3. large (QT, 1.6M), small (QT, 640k)
    

Solar streaming and CMEs from the Solarmax IMAX film. large (QT, 4.7M), small (QT, 821k)

Cascades of loops following a flare from TRACE. large (QT, 3.6M), small (QT, 530k)
    

Cascades of loops following a flare from TRACE. large (QT, 2.6M), small (QT, 359k)
    

Auroral oval observed from space by IMAGE. large (QT, 2.0M), small (QT, 148k)

Auroral ovals over the North Pole region from Polar. large (QT, 4.1M), small (QT, 1.7M)
    

Aurora in UV over both polar regions from Polar. (QT, 2.4M)
    

NASA animation of Earth's magnetosphere shaped by solar wind (QT, 3.4M)

Clip of aurora from the Solarmax IMAX film. large (QT, 1.2M), small (QT, 448k)

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What Is the Sun's Corona? | NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids
The corona reaches extremely high temperatures. However, the corona is very dim. Why? The corona is about 10 million times less dense than the Sun’s surface. This low density makes the corona much less bright than the surface of the Sun.

Why is the corona so hot?

Image of corona from NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory showing features created by magnetic fields. Image credit: NASA
The corona’s high temperatures are a bit of a mystery. Imagine that you’re sitting next to a campfire. It’s nice and warm. But when you walk away from the fire, you feel cooler. This is the opposite of what seems to happen on the Sun.
Astronomers have been trying to solve this mystery for a long time. The corona is in the outer layer of the Sun’s atmosphere—far from its surface. Yet the corona is hundreds of times hotter than the Sun’s surface.
A NASA mission called IRIS may have provided one possible answer. The mission discovered packets of very hot material called "heat bombs" that travel from the Sun into the corona. In the corona, the heat bombs explode and release their energy as heat. But astronomers think that this is only one of many ways in which the corona is heated.

Coronal loops and streamers

Coronal loops. Image credit: NASA/TRACE
The surface of the Sun is covered in magnetic fields. This is the force that makes magnets stick to metal, like the door of your refrigerator.
The Sun's magnetic fields affect charged particles in the corona to form beautiful features. These include streamers, loops, and plumes. We can view these features in detail with special telescopes.

How does the corona cause solar winds?
The corona extends far out into space. From it comes the solar wind that travels through our solar system. The corona's temperature causes its particles to move at very high speeds. These speeds are so high that the particles can escape the Sun's gravity.

Conceptual animation (not to scale) showing the Sun's corona and solar wind.
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Stars in an Exoplanet World - NASA Science
Stars are responsible for the production and distribution of heavy elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.This artist's impression represents the early universe. The very first stars born after the big bang, which astronomers call "Population III" stars, are elusive, having yet to be definitively detected. Unlike the stars of today – like our Sun (which contains heavier elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and iron) – Population III stars would have been solely made of the few primordial elements forged in the big bang. Much more massive and brighter than our Sun, they would have blazed in the inky void of the newborn universe.ESA/Hubble, M. Kornmesser, and NASADifferent star types have different habitable zones. This is the area around a star where conditions are just right, neither too hot nor too cold for liquid water to exist on a planet’s surface. (For this reason, a star's habitable zone is often referred to informally as its "Goldilocks zone.")Statistically, there should be more than 100 billion planets in our Milky Way galaxy. They come in a wide range of sizes and characteristics. Complex organisms arose on Earth only 500 million years ago, and modern humans have been here for only 200,000 years – the blink of an eye on cosmological timescales. Earth will become uninhabitable for higher forms of life in a little over 1 billion years, as the Sun grows warmer and dries our planet. Therefore, stars slightly cooler than our Sun – called orange dwarfs – are considered better for advanced life. They can burn steadily for tens of billions of years. This opens up a vast timescape for biological evolution to pursue an infinity of experiments for yielding robust life forms. And, for every star like our Sun, there are three times as many orange dwarfs in the Milky Way.The even more abundant star type called red dwarfs (also known as M dwarf stars) have even longer lifetimes.
NASA's Sun-Earth Day
Dorian Janney, Journal, Rockville, Maryland, Barrow, Alaska, Polar, Gateways, Ploar Gateways, Aurora, Snow, Ice, Arctic, Magnetic Field, NASA, Sun-Earth Day, space, Earth, astronomy, science, math, Sun, atmosphere of the Sun, Milky Way, Northern Lights
no

Journal: Arctic Impressions #2, Barrow Alaska
Dorian Janney meets up with a family from Barrow, Alasaka and enjoys a traditional Eskimo treat called Muktuk. Arctic Impressions is the audio journal of Dorian Janney, a middle school teacher from Rockville, Maryland. Dorian joined our Sun-Earth Day team in Barrow, Alaska for the 4th polar conference called, "Polar Gateways Arctic Circle Sunrise 2008'.
http://sunearthday.gsfc.nasa.gov/2008/materials/ArcticImpressions2.mp3
 
http://sunearthday.gsfc.nasa.gov/2008/materials/ArcticImpressions2.mp3
Tue, 11 Mar 2008 14:10:00 EDT
NASAs Sun-Earth Connection Education Forum
Journal: Arctic Impressions #2, Barrow Alaska
14:02
Dorian Janney meets up with a family from Barrow, Alasaka and enjoys a traditional Eskimo treat called Muktuk. Arctic Impressions is the audio journal of Dorian Janney, a middle school teacher from Rockville, Maryland. Dorian joined our Sun-Earth Day team in Barrow, Alaska for the 4th polar conference called, "Polar Gateways Arctic Circle Sunrise 2008'.

Muktuk, Journal, Rockville, Maryland, Barrow, Alaska, Polar, Gateways, Ploar Gateways, Aurora, Snow, Ice, Arctic, Magnetic Field, NASA, Sun-Earth Day, space, Earth, astronomy, science, math, Sun, atmosphere of the Sun, Milky Way, Northern Lights
no

Journal: Arctic Impressions #3, Barrow Alaska
Dorian reads Day 3 from her journal that describes her visit with the Sun-Earth Day team to a high school in Barrow.
http://sunearthday.gsfc.nasa.gov/2008/materials/ArcticImpressions3.mp3
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VIIRS/NPP Leaf Area Index/FPAR 8-Day L4 Global 500 m SIN Grid

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VIIRS/NPP Land Surface Phenology (Land Cover Dynamics) Yearly L3 Global 0.05 Deg CMG

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VIIRS/NPP Land Surface Phenology (Land Cover Dynamics) Yearly L3 Global 500 m SIN Grid

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Universo - NASA Ciencia
amp; Dark EnergyThe Solar System The SunMercuryVenusEarthThe MoonMarsJupiterSaturnUranusNeptunePluto &amp; Dwarf PlanetsAsteroids, Comets &amp; MeteorsThe Kuiper BeltThe Oort CloudSkywatchingEspañol CienciaAeronáuticaCiencias TerrestresSistema SolarUniversoScience All NASA ScienceEarth SciencePlanetary ScienceAstrophysics & Space ScienceThe Sun & HeliophysicsBiological & Physical SciencesLunar ScienceCitizen ScienceAstromaterialsAeronautics ResearchHuman Space Travel ResearchExploreSearchSubmitNews & EventsMultimediaNASA+HomeUniversoInicioCiencias terrestresCambio climáticoSistema solarUniversoGente de la NASAAcerca de CienciaExplore This SectionInicioCiencias terrestresCambio climáticoSistema solarUniversoGente de la NASAAcerca de CienciaUniversoHubble ve los comienzos de una estrella similar al SolUna imagen reciente del telescopio Hubble de la NASA muestra un trío de deslumbrantes estrellas brillando desde una nebulosa de reflexión, similar a una resplandeciente geoda cósmica.Diez preguntas que podrías tener sobre los agujeros negros¿Cómo podemos aprender sobre los agujeros negros si en realidad no se pueden ver? ¿Es posible que se “coman” una galaxia?
Stars in an Exoplanet World - NASA Science
The bigger (or more massive) the star, the shorter its life, as more massive stars burn their nuclear fuel faster.This infographic compares the characteristics of three classes of stars in our galaxy: Sunlike stars are classified as G-type stars; stars less massive and cooler than our Sun are K dwarfs; and even fainter and cooler stars are the reddish M dwarfs. The habitable zones, potentially capable of hosting life-bearing planets, are wider for hotter stars. The longevity for red dwarf M stars can exceed 100 billion years. K dwarf ages can range from 15 to 45 billion years. Meanwhile, our Sun only lasts for 10 billion years. The relative amount of harmful radiation (to life as we know it) that stars emit can be 80 to 500 times more intense for M dwarfs relative to our Sun, but only 5 to 25 times more intense for the orange K dwarfs. Red dwarfs make up the bulk of the Milky Way's population, about 73%. Sunlike stars are merely 6% of the population, and K dwarfs are at 13%.NASA, ESA and Z. Levy (STScI)Download the infographicHow do planets form around stars?The gas and dust that swirl around a star during its formation are critical to forming planets around it. The dust contains heavy elements such as carbon and iron that form the cores of planets.Scientists think planets start off as grains of dust smaller than the width of a human hair. They emerge from the giant, donut-shaped disk of gas and dust that circles young stars. Gravity and other forces cause material within the disk to collide. If the collision is gentle enough, the material fuses, growing like rolling snowballs. Over time, dust particles combine to form pebbles, which evolve into mile-sized rocks. As these planetesimals, or planets in the making, orbit their star, they clear material from their path, leaving tracks of space empty but for fine dust. At the same time, the star gobbles up nearby gas while pushing more distant material farther away.
Cosmic Times
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Cosmic Times
1955
Age of the universe: 6 billion years
Size of the universe: 4 billion light years

Origin of Everything: Hot Bang or Ageless Universe?

Has the Universe always existed, or does it have a beginning,
	middle and an end? It's difficult to imagine a deeper mystery
	than this. However, this topic was recently discussed at the
	meeting of the National Academy of Sciences in Pasadena,
	California.
Read more →

Hoyle Scoffs at "Big Bang" Universe Theory

British cosmologist Fred Hoyle has thrown down the gauntlet
	with regards to where and when all the Universe's elements were
	created. In a recent radio broadcast he criticized a competing
	theory, presented by Ukrainian-born American physicist George
	Gamow. He labeled Gamow's theory as a ridiculous "big bang."
Read more →

It's a Star! It's a Nova! It's Super-Nova!

There's more than one sort of "new" star in the heavens, say
	astronomers. The evidence has been building for decades that
	novae – those stars which light up suddenly to great brightness,
	then fade away – actually come in at least two distinct classes.
	On one hand there are ordinary novae and on the other there are
	truly Super-Novae.
Read more →

"Yardsticks" in Neighbor Galaxy Double Universe's Size

Walter Baade, an astronomer at the California Institute of
	Technology, says the Universe is twice as large as we thought.
	He has used the giant 200-inch reflecting at Mount Palomar to
	measure the scale of the Universe.
Read more →
Oort Cloud Stories - NASA Science
the UniverseStarsGalaxiesBlack HolesThe Big BangDark Matter &amp; Dark EnergyThe Solar System The SunMercuryVenusEarthThe MoonMarsJupiterSaturnUranusNeptunePluto &amp; Dwarf PlanetsAsteroids, Comets &amp; MeteorsThe Kuiper BeltThe Oort CloudSkywatchingEspañol CienciaAeronáuticaCiencias TerrestresSistema SolarUniversoScience All NASA ScienceEarth SciencePlanetary ScienceAstrophysics & Space ScienceThe Sun & HeliophysicsBiological & Physical SciencesLunar ScienceCitizen ScienceAstromaterialsAeronautics ResearchHuman Space Travel ResearchExploreSearchSubmitNews & EventsMultimediaNASA+Oort Cloud OverviewFactsMultimediaOur Solar SystemExplore This SectionOort Cloud OverviewFactsMultimediaOur Solar SystemOort Cloud StoriesOur Milky Way Galaxy: How Big is Space?4 min readWhen we talk about the enormity of the cosmos, it’s easy to toss out big numbers – but far more difficult to wrap our minds around just how large, how far, and how numerous celestial bodies really are. To get…Article5 years agoPrevious1NextOur Milky Way Galaxy: How Big is Space?4 min readWhen we talk about the enormity of the cosmos, it’s easy to toss out big numbers – but far more difficult to wrap our minds around just how large, how far, and how numerous celestial bodies really are.
NASA
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The August 4, 1972 solar flare was so powerful that, by some estimates, a spacesuited astronaut would have received a lethal does of radiation.
        

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Sunspots and Solar Flares | NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids
Sunspots and Solar Flares | NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids

solar-activity

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Sunspots and Solar Flares

The Short Answer:
What are sunspots and solar flares?

Sunspots are areas that appear dark on the surface of the Sun. They appear dark because they are cooler than other parts of the Sun’s surface. Solar flares are a sudden explosion of energy caused by tangling, crossing or reorganizing of magnetic field lines near sunspots.
	

The surface of the Sun is a very busy place. It has electrically charged gases that generate areas of powerful magnetic forces. These areas are called magnetic fields. The Sun’s gases are constantly moving, which tangles, stretches and twists the magnetic fields. This motion creates a lot of activity on the Sun's surface, called solar activity.
Sometimes the Sun’s surface is very active. Other times, things are a bit quieter. The amount of solar activity changes with the stages in the solar cycle. Solar activity can have effects here on Earth, so scientists closely monitor solar activity every day.

An image of active regions on the Sun from NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory. The glowing hot gas traces out the twists and loops of the Sun’s magnetic field lines. Image credit: NASA/SDO/AIA
Sunspots
Sunspots are areas that appear dark on the surface of the Sun. They appear dark because they are cooler than other parts of the Sun’s surface. The temperature of a sunspot is still very hot though—around 6,500 degrees Fahrenheit!
Why are sunspots relatively cool? It’s because they form at areas where magnetic fields are particularly strong. These magnetic fields are so strong that they keep some of the heat within the Sun from reaching the surface.

In this image, you can see an active region on the sun with dark sunspots. Image credit: NASA/SDO/AIA/HMI/Goddard Space Flight Center
Solar Flares
Exoplanet Catalog - NASA Science
Click on a planet’s name to see 3D model of each world and system, along with vital statistics.FiltersSearch Search Gliese 12 bLight-Years From Earth: 12.21Planet Mass: 3.87 EarthsStellar Magnitude: 12.6Discovery Date: 2024SPECULOOS-3 bLight-Years From Earth: 6792.0363261718Planet Mass: 0.894 EarthsStellar Magnitude: 17.8Discovery Date: 2024TOI-4633 cLight-Years From Earth: 95.2016Planet Mass: 0.387 JupitersStellar Magnitude: 9.017Discovery Date: 20242MASS J0249-0557 cLight-Years From Earth: 66.0613Planet Mass: 11.6 JupitersStellar Magnitude: 18.3Discovery Date: 2018TOI-815 cLight-Years From Earth: 59.7117Planet Mass: 23.5 EarthsStellar Magnitude: 10.217Discovery Date: 2024TOI-815 bLight-Years From Earth: 59.7117Planet Mass: 7.6 EarthsStellar Magnitude: 10.217Discovery Date: 2024TOI-4559 bLight-Years From Earth: 31.6354Planet Mass: 2.59 EarthsStellar Magnitude: 13.115Discovery Date: 2024TOI-1739 bLight-Years From Earth: 70.9819Planet Mass: 3.52 EarthsStellar Magnitude: 10.692Discovery Date: 2024Kepler-1660 AB bLight-Years From Earth: 1188.54Planet Mass: 4.992 JupitersStellar Magnitude: 13.595Discovery
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What Is a Galaxy? | NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids
What Is a Galaxy? | NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids

galaxy

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What Is a Galaxy?

The Short Answer:

	A galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust, and billions of stars and their solar systems, all held together by gravity.
	

We live on a planet called Earth that is part of our solar system. But where is our solar system? It’s a small part of the Milky Way Galaxy.
A galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust, and billions of stars and their solar systems. A galaxy is held together by gravity. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, also has a supermassive black hole in the middle.

When you look up at stars in the night sky, you’re seeing other stars in the Milky Way. If it’s really dark, far away from lights from cities and houses, you can even see the dusty bands of the Milky Way stretch across the sky.

The Milky Way galaxy fills the night sky in this photo. Credit: NPS/Dan Duriscoe

There are many galaxies besides ours, though. There are so many, we can’t even count them all yet! The Hubble Space Telescope looked at a small patch of space for 12 days and found 10,000 galaxies, of all sizes, shapes, and colors. Some scientists think there could be as many as one hundred billion galaxies in the universe.

This is a picture taken by the NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope showing thousands of galaxies. This image covers a patch of sky approximately the size of a grain of sand held at arm’s length by someone on the ground. The universe is a very big place! Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, and STScI

Some galaxies are spiral-shaped like ours. They have curved arms that make it look like a pinwheel. Other galaxies are smooth and oval shaped. They’re called elliptical galaxies. And there are also galaxies that aren’t spirals or ovals. They have irregular shapes and look like blobs.