vania-janet/multiturn-rag-retrieval-data huggingface dataset:
Sunspots and Solar Flares | NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids
The temperature of a sunspot is still very hot though—around 6,500 degrees Fahrenheit!
Why are sunspots relatively cool? It’s because they form at areas where magnetic fields are particularly strong. These magnetic fields are so strong that they keep some of the heat within the Sun from reaching the surface.

In this image, you can see an active region on the sun with dark sunspots. Image credit: NASA/SDO/AIA/HMI/Goddard Space Flight Center
Solar Flares
The magnetic field lines near sunspots often tangle, cross, and reorganize. This can cause a sudden explosion of energy called a solar flare. Solar flares release a lot of radiation into space. If a solar flare is very intense, the radiation it releases can interfere with our radio communications here on Earth.

NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory captured this imagery of a solar flare, as seen in the bright flash. A loop of solar material, a coronal mass ejection (CME), can also be seen rising up off the right limb of the Sun. Image credit: NASA/SDO/Goddard
Solar flares are sometimes accompanied by a coronal mass ejection (CME for short). CMEs are huge bubbles of radiation and particles from the Sun. They explode into space at very high speed when the Sun’s magnetic field lines suddenly reorganize.

Effects of Solar Activity on Earth
When charged particles from a CME reach areas near Earth, they can trigger intense lights in the sky, called auroras. When particularly strong, a CME can also interfere in power utility grids, which at their worst can cause electricity shortages and power outages. Solar flares and CMEs are the most powerful explosions in our solar system. 

This animation shows how coronal mass ejections can blow out from the Sun, interfere with Earth’s magnetic fields (the curved purple lines), and cause auroras (the blue rings of light circling the North and South poles). Credit: NASA/Walt Feimer

 	article last updated July 22, 2021
 

More about the Sun!

What is the solar cycle?
NASA
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Solar and Batteries Go Big in the Desert
Energy-Storage.news (2024, January 24) 
California solar-plus-storage project with world’s largest BESS fully online. Accessed February 1, 2024.
Mortenson Edwards & Sanborn Solar and Energy Storage. Accessed February 1, 2024.
NASA The POWER Project. Accessed February 1, 2024.
NASA Earth Observatory (2019, September 17) Cameron Ridge. Accessed February 1, 2024.
NASA Earth Observatory (2019, April 23) Pushing Limits at Armstrong Flight Research Center. Accessed February 1, 2024.

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Glossary | NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids
Nuestro sol emite radiación ultravioleta y puede provocarte una quemadura si te expones a ella sin protector solar durante mucho tiempo.

Universo: Todo el espacio y tiempo, y todo lo que hay en él. ¡Es todo lo que se te pueda ocurrir!
Vacío: Un espacio que no contiene ningún tipo de materia.

Volcán: Una montaña o colina que tiene una abertura de la que erupcionan la lava, los fragmentos rocosos o los gases desde adentro de un planeta o una luna.

Luz visible: La parte del espectro electromagnético que podemos ver con nuestros ojos. Son todos los colores del arco iris.
Onda: Una manera en la que la energía se traslada de un lado hacia otro. En ocasiones, las ondas trasladan materiales de la misma manera en la que las ondas en un estanque mueven el agua. Otras veces, las ondas no mueven nada de lugar cuando transfieren energía. Por ejemplo, los rayos X y otras ondas del espectro electromagnético no generan ondulaciones cuando trasladan energía de un lugar a otro. Clasificamos las ondas según lo que midan sus longitudes de onda. Una longitud de onda es la distancia desde una cresta hasta otra (o desde un valle hasta otro) de una onda.

Rayos X: Radiación que contiene muchísima energía, compuesta de gases muy calientes, estrellas, estrellas de neutrones, y gases alrededor de los agujeros negros. Los rayos X tienen tanta energía que pueden atravesar materiales sólidos.
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Imagine the Universe!
Originally designed for a 3 year mission, IUE exceeded all expectations and functioned for over 18 years, finally ceasing operation in September 1996.

 Tell me more about IUE.

J
jets
Beams of particles, usually coming from an active galactic nucleus or a pulsar. Unlike a jet airplane, when the stream of gas is in one direction, astrophysical jets come in pairs with each jet aiming in opposite directions.
K
kelvin (after Lord Kelvin, 1824 - 1907)
The fundamental SI unit of thermodynamic temperature defined as 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. More practically speaking, the Kelvin temperature scale measures an object's temperature above absolute zero, the theoretical coldest possible temperature. On the Kelvin scale the freezing point of water is 273 ( = 0o C = 32o F) [ K = 273 + C = 273 + 5/9 * (F-32)]. The Kelvin temperature scale is often used in sciences such as astronomy.
Kepler, Johannes (1571 - 1630)
German astronomer and mathematician. Considered a founder of modern astronomy, he formulated the famous three laws of planetary motion. They comprise a quantitative formulation of Copernicus's theory that the planets revolve around the Sun.

Kepler's laws (J. Kepler)

Kepler's first law
	A planet orbits the Sun in an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.
Kepler's second law
	A line directed from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet orbits the Sun.
Kepler's third law
	The square of the period of a planet's orbit is proportional to the cube of that planet's semimajor axis; the constant of proportionality is the same for all planets.

kilogram (kg)
The fundamental SI unit of mass. The kilogram is the only SI unit still maintained by a physical artifact (a platinum-iridium bar) kept in the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, France. One kilogram is equivalent to 1,000 grams or about 2.2 pounds; the mass of a liter of water.
kinematics
Stars in an Exoplanet World - NASA Science
Therefore, stars slightly cooler than our Sun – called orange dwarfs – are considered better for advanced life. They can burn steadily for tens of billions of years. This opens up a vast timescape for biological evolution to pursue an infinity of experiments for yielding robust life forms. And, for every star like our Sun, there are three times as many orange dwarfs in the Milky Way.The even more abundant star type called red dwarfs (also known as M dwarf stars) have even longer lifetimes. Planets in a red dwarf's comparatively narrow habitable zone, which is very close to the star, are exposed to extreme levels of X-ray and ultraviolet radiation, which can be hundreds of thousands of times more intense than what Earth receives from the Sun. Planets in the habitable zones of red dwarfs can be baked bone dry and have their atmospheres stripped away quite early in their lives. Red dwarfs typically calm down after a few billion years, but their early outbursts could prohibit their planets from evolving to be more hospitable.This infographic compares the characteristics of three classes of stars in our galaxy: Sunlike stars are classified as G-type stars; stars less massive and cooler than our Sun are K dwarfs; and even fainter and cooler stars are the reddish M dwarfs. The habitable zones, potentially capable of hosting life-bearing planets, are wider for hotter stars. The longevity for red dwarf M stars can exceed 100 billion years. K dwarf ages can range from 15 to 45 billion years. Meanwhile, our Sun only lasts for 10 billion years. The relative amount of harmful radiation (to life as we know it) that stars emit can be 80 to 500 times more intense for M dwarfs relative to our Sun, but only 5 to 25 times more intense for the orange K dwarfs. Red dwarfs make up the bulk of the Milky Way's population, about 73%. Sunlike stars are merely 6% of the population, and K dwarfs are at 13%.NASA, ESA and Z. Levy (STScI)How are stars born?Stars are born from vast clouds of gas and dust, known as nebulae, that are scattered throughout most galaxies. Over thousands to millions of years, gravity can cause denser pockets within a nebula to collapse under their own weight.
Exoplanet Catalog - NASA Science
Date: 2023ITG 15 bLight-Years From Earth: 136.37Planet Mass: 21 JupitersStellar Magnitude: UnknownDiscovery Date: 2024TIC 139270665 cLight-Years From Earth: 189.875Planet Mass: 4.89 JupitersStellar Magnitude: 10.385Discovery Date: 2024TIC 139270665 bLight-Years From Earth: 189.875Planet Mass: 0.463 JupitersStellar Magnitude: 10.385Discovery Date: 2024HIP 77900 bLight-Years From Earth: 150.862Planet Mass: 21 JupitersStellar Magnitude: 6.15Discovery Date: 20242MASS J11011926-7732383 bLight-Years From Earth: UnknownPlanet Mass: 28 JupitersStellar Magnitude: UnknownDiscovery Date: 2024G 196-3 bLight-Years From Earth: 21.7912Planet Mass: 26 JupitersStellar Magnitude: 11.672Discovery Date: 2024Previous12345…376NextReturn to topThe National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNASA explores the unknown in air and space, innovates for the benefit of humanity, and inspires the world through discovery.About NASA's MissionJoin UsHomeNews & EventsMultimediaNASA+MissionsHumans in SpaceEarth & ClimateThe Solar SystemThe UniverseScienceAeronauticsTechnologyLearning ResourcesAbout NASANASA en EspañolFollow NASAMore NASA Social AccountsNASA NewslettersSitemapFor MediaPrivacy PolicyFOIANo FEAR ActOffice of the IGBudget & Annual ReportsAgency Financial ReportsContact NASAAccessibilityPage Last Updated:last monthPage Editor:SMD Content EditorsResponsible NASA Official for Science:Dana Bolles
Pluto & Dwarf Planets - NASA Science
According to the IAU, a planet must do three things:Orbit its host star (In our solar system that’s the Sun).Be mostly round.Be big enough that its gravity cleared away any other objects of similar size near its orbit around the Sun.Dwarf planets like Pluto were defined as objects that orbit the Sun, and are nearly round, but have not been able to clear their orbit of debris. So far, the IAU has only recognized five dwarf planets. In order of distance from the Sun they are: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris. But the IAU says there may be many more dwarf planets – perhaps more than a hundred – waiting to be discovered.DWARF PLANETSCeresCeres is the only dwarf planet located in the inner solar system.PlutoPluto was long considered our solar system's ninth planet. HaumeaHaumea is one of the fastest rotating large objects in our solar system.MakemakeMakemake is the second-brightest object in the Kuiper Belt.ErisEris is one of the largest known dwarf planets in our solar system.Pluto: The Star of Dwarf PlanetsPluto is by far the most famous dwarf planet. Discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930, Pluto was long considered our solar system's ninth planet. But after other astronomers found similar intriguing worlds deeper in the distant Kuiper Belt – the IAU reclassified Pluto as a dwarf planet in 2006. An image showing signs supporting dwarf planets.There was widespread outrage on behalf of the demoted planet. Textbooks were updated, and the internet spawned memes with Pluto going through a range of emotions, from anger to loneliness.On July 14, 2015, NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft made its historic flight through the Pluto system – providing the first close-up images of Pluto and its moons and collecting other data that has transformed our understanding of these mysterious worlds on the solar system’s outer frontier.Dwarf planet Ceres is closer to home. Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, and it's the only dwarf planet located in the inner solar system. Like Pluto, Ceres also was once classified as a planet. Ceres was the first dwarf planet to be visited by a spacecraft – NASA’s Dawn mission.
Imagine the Universe!
A word used for any kind of stuff which contains mass.
mega-ton
A unit of energy used to describe nuclear warheads. The same amount energy as 1 million tons of TNT.
1 mega-ton = 4 x 1022 ergs = 4 x 1015 joules.
Messier, Charles (1730 - 1817)
The 18th century French astronomer who compiled a list of approximately 100 fuzzy, diffuse looking objects which appeared at fixed positions in the sky. Being a comet-hunter, Messier compiled this list of objects which he knew were not comets. His list is now well known to professional and amateur astronomers as containing the brightest and most striking nebulae, star clusters, and galaxies in the sky.
meter; m
The fundamental SI unit of length, defined as the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a period of 1/299 792 458 s. A unit of length equal to about 39 inches. A kilometer is equal to 1000 meters.
metric system
See SI.
microquasar
Microquasars are stellar mass black holes, that display characteristics of the supermassive black holes found at the centers of some galaxies. For instance, they have radio jets - something not every black hole has.
microwave
Electromagnetic radiation which has a longer wavelength (between 1 mm and 30 cm) than visible light. Microwaves can be used to study the Universe, communicate with satellites in Earth orbit, and cook popcorn.
N
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, founded in 1958 as the successor to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.
nebula (pl. nebulae)
A diffuse mass of interstellar dust and gas. A reflection nebula shines by light reflected from nearby stars. An emission nebula shines by emitting light as electrons recombine with protons to form hydrogen. The electrons were made free by the ultraviolet light of a nearby star shining on a cloud of hydrogen gas. A planetary nebula results from the explosion of a solar-like type star. 
neutrino
A fundamental particle produced in massive numbers by the nuclear reactions in stars; they are very hard to detect because the vast majority of them pass completely through the Earth without interacting.
neutron
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, https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/jsc2022e046413_orig.jpg?resize=400,225 400w, https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/jsc2022e046413_orig.jpg?resize=600,338 600w, https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/jsc2022e046413_orig.jpg?resize=900,506 900w, https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/jsc2022e046413_orig.jpg?resize=1200,675 1200w, https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/jsc2022e046413_orig.jpg?resize=2000,1125 2000w" sizes="(max-width: 1536px) 100vw, 1536px" /></figure>	</div>
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Mercury - NASA Science
All about mercuryRead MoreSmall WorldIt is a little bigger than Earth's Moon.Inside TrackMercury orbits closest to the Sun.Fast TimesA year on Mercury is 88 Earth days.Rough SurfaceMercury is cratered like the Moon.Bring a SpacesuitMercury has a thin exosphere.MoonlessMercury has no moons.RinglessMercury has no rings.No LifeMercury can't support life as we know it.Wear Eye ProtectionSunlight is 11 times brighter on Mercury.Greatest HitThe Caloris Basin is a Texas-sized impact site.Planet Mercury OverviewMercury—the smallest planet in our solar system and nearest to the Sun—is only slightly larger than Earth's Moon. Its surface is covered in tens of thousands of impact craters.From the surface of Mercury, the Sun would appear more than three times as large as it does when viewed from Earth, and the sunlight would be as much as 11 times brighter.Despite its proximity to the Sun, Mercury is not the hottest planet in our solar system— that title belongs to nearby Venus, thanks to its dense atmosphere. But Mercury is the fastest planet, zipping around the Sun every 88 Earth days. Mercury is appropriately named for the swiftest of the ancient Roman gods.Unable to render the provided sourceEyes on the Solar System lets you explore the planets, their moons, asteroids, comets and the spacecraft exploring them from 1950 to 2050. Mercury StoriesExplore All Mercury StoriesArticle4 min readNASA’s Psyche Fires Up Its Sci-Fi-Worthy ThrustersArticle5 min readHow NASA Tracked the Most Intense Solar Storm in Decades5 min readNASA’s Juno Provides High-Definition Views of Europa’s Icy ShellArticle1 week ago19 min readThe Next Full Moon is the Flower, Corn, or Corn Planting MoonArticle1 week ago1 min readGood Night, MoonImage ArticleMercury13 ImagesGo To GalleryGo To GalleryPop CultureThe smallest planet in our solar system has a big presence in our collective imagination. Scores of science fiction writers have been inspired by Mercury, including Isaac Asimov, C. S. Lewis, Ray Bradbury, Arthur C. Clarke, and H. P. Lovecraft. Television and film writers, too, have found the planet an ideal location for storytelling.
Imagine the Universe!
If the velocity of the object is small compared to the speed of light, then
z = (delta-lambda)/lambda = v/c
Objects at the furthest reaches of the known universe have values of z = 5 or slightly greater.

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Page Last Updated: Fri, Sep 25, 2020
Stars in an Exoplanet World - NASA Science
The gas ejected in the star's is clearly visible in this picture as a faint bubble of gas surrounding the red giant star. ESA/NASAAfter about a billion years as a red giant, the Sun will have ejected its outer layers until, eventually, its stellar core is exposed. This dead (in terms of nuclear fusion) but still ferociously hot stellar cinder is called a white dwarf. White dwarfs are roughly the size of Earth, despite containing the mass of a star. Pressure from fast moving electrons keeps these stars from further collapse. The more massive the core, the denser the white dwarf that is formed. Thus, the smaller a white dwarf is in diameter, the larger it is in mass! White dwarfs fade into oblivion over many billions of years as they gradually cool down.This fate awaits only those stars with a mass up to about 1.4 times the mass of our Sun. Above that mass, electron pressure cannot support the core against further collapse. Such stars suffer a different fate.White dwarfs may become novaeIf a white dwarf forms in a binary or multiple star system, it may experience a more eventful demise as a nova. Nova is Latin for "new" – novae were once thought to be new stars in the act of being born. Today, we understand that they are very old stars – white dwarfs. If a white dwarf is close enough to a companion star, its gravity may drag matter (mostly hydrogen) from the outer layers of that star onto itself, building up on its surface. When enough hydrogen has accumulated on the surface, a burst of nuclear fusion erupts, causing the white dwarf to brighten substantially and eject its remaining material. Within a few days, the glow subsides and the cycle starts again. Sometimes, particularly massive white dwarfs (those near the 1.4 solar mass limit) may accrete so much mass in this manner that they collapse and explode completely, becoming what is known as a supernova.Going supernovaStars more than eight times the mass of our Sun are destined to die in a titanic explosion called a supernova. A supernova is not merely a bigger nova. In a nova, only the star's surface explodes.